MODULE 2: BEAMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
o To be able to analyze a beam.
o To understand AISC Equations for Beams
o To be able to design a beam.

INTRODUCTIONS
Beams are structural members that support transverse loads and are therefore subjected
primarily to flexure, or bending. Commonly used cross-sectional shapes include the W, S, and M
shapes. Channel shapes are sometimes used, as are beams built up from plates, in the form of I
or box shapes. Coverage of beams in the AISC Specification is spread over two chapters:
Chapter F, “Design of Members for Flexure,” and Chapter G, “Design of Members for Shear.”
Figure 5.1 shows two types of beam cross sections; a hot-rolled doubly-symmetric I shape and a
welded doubly-symmetric built-up I shape. The hot-rolled I shape is the one most commonly
used for beams. Welded shapes usually fall into the category classified as plate girders. For
flexure (shear will be covered later), the required and available strengths are moments. For
load and resistance factor design (LRFD), Equation 2.6 can be written as M u=∅b M n where, Mu

FIGURE 5.1

= required moment strength = maximum moment caused by the controlling load combination
from ASCE 7 ∅ b = resistance factor for bending (flexure) = 0.90

Mn = nominal moment strength

The right-hand side of Equation 5.1 is the design strength, sometimes called the
design moment.
For allowable strength design (ASD), Equation 2.7 can be written as
Mn
Mu≤
Ωb

Where,
Ma = required moment strength = maximum moment corresponding to the
controlling load combination from ASCE 7
Ωb = safety factor for bending = 1.67
Mn
Equation 5.2 can also be written M a ≤ =o .6 M n
1.67
 Dividing both sides by the elastic section modulus S (which will be reviewed in
the next section), we get an equation for allowable stress design:
M a 0.6 M n
< ∨f b ≤ F b where,
S S
fb = maximum computed bending stress
Fb = allowable bending stress
BENDING STRESS AND THE PLASTIC MOMENT
Consider the beam shown in Figure 5.2a, which is oriented so that bending is about the major
principal axis (for an I shape, it will be the x–x axis). For a linear elastic material and small
deformations, the distribution of bending stress will be as shown in Figure 5.2b, with the stress
assumed to be uniform across the width of the beam. (Shear is considered separately in Section
5.8.) From elementary mechanics of materials, the stress at any point can be found from the
My
flexure formula: f y = where M is the bending moment at the cross section under
Ix
consideration, y is the perpendicular distance from the neutral plane to the point of interest,
and Ix is the moment of inertia of the area of the cross section with respect to the neutral axis.
The maximum stress will occur at the extreme fiber, where y is maximum. Thus, there are two
maxima: maximum compressive stress in the top fiber and maximum tensile stress in the
bottom fiber. If the neutral axis is an axis of symmetry, these two stresses will be equal in
f Mc M M
magnitude. For maximum stress, max=¿ I = I = S ¿ where c is the perpendicular distance from the
x x x
c

FIGURE 5.2 FIGURE 5.3

neutral axis to the extreme fiber, and Sx is the elastic section modulus of the cross
section. For structural steel, this means that the stress fmax must not exceed Fy and that the
bending moment must not exceed My=FySx where My is the bending moment that brings the
beam to the point of yielding

In Figure 5.3, a simply supported beam with a concentrated load at midspan is shown at
successive stages of loading. Once yielding begins, the distribution of stress on the cross section
will no longer be linear, and yielding will progress from the extreme fiber toward the neutral
axis. These yielded regions are indicated by the dark areas in Figure 5.3c and d. In Figure 5.3b,
yielding has just begun. In Figure 5.3c, the yielding has progressed into the web, and in Figure
5.3d the entire cross section has yielded. The additional moment required to bring the beam
from stage b to stage d is 10 to 20% of the yield moment, My, for W shapes. . A plastic hinge is
said to have formed at the center of the beam, and this hinge along with the actual hinges at
the ends of the beam constitute an unstable mechanism. During plastic collapse, the
mechanism motion will be as shown in Figure 5.4. Structural analysis based on a consideration
of collapse mechanisms is called plastic analysis. The plastic moment capacity, which is the
moment required to form the plastic hinge, can easily be computed from a consideration of the
corresponding stress distribution. In Figure 5.5, the compressive and tensile stress resultants
are shown, where Ac is the cross-sectional area subjected to compression, and At is the area in
tension. These are the areas above and below the plastic neutral axis, which is not necessarily
the same as the elastic neutral axis. From equilibrium of forces,

C=T AcFy= AtFy Ac=At

For shapes that are symmetrical about the axis of bending, the elastic and plastic neutral axes
are the same. The plastic moment, Mp, is the resisting couple formed by the two equal and
A
opposite forces, or Mp=Fy ( Ac ) a=Fy ( At ) a=Fy( )
2
a=FyZ

FIGURE 5.4
FIGURE 5.5

Where, A = total cross-sectional area

a= distance between the centroids of the two half-areas
Z= (A/2)a = plastic section modulus
STABILITY
If a beam can be counted on to remain stable up to the fully plastic condition, the nominal
moment strength can be taken as the plastic moment capacity; that is, Mn = Mp. Otherwise,
Mn will be less than Mp. Overall buckling is illustrated in Figure 5.9a. When a beam bends, the
com- pression region (above the neutral axis) is analogous to a column, and in a manner similar
to a column, it will buckle if the member is slender enough. Unlike a column, however, the
compression portion of the cross section is restrained by the tension portion, and the outward

FIGURE 5.9
deflection (flexural buckling) is accompanied by twisting (torsion). This form of instability is
called lateral-torsional buckling (LTB). Lateral-torsional buckling can be prevented by bracing

the beam against twisting at sufficiently close intervals. This can be accomplished with either of
two types of stability bracing: lateral bracing, illustrated schematically in Figure 5.9b, and
torsional bracing, represented in Figure 5.9c.
Figure 5.10 further illustrates the effects of local and lateral-torsional buckling. Five separate
beams are represented on this graph of load versus central deflection. Curve 1 is the load-
deflection curve of a beam that becomes unstable (in any way) and loses its load-carrying
capacity before first yield (see Figure 5.3b) is attained. Curves 2 and 3 correspond to beams that
can be loaded past first yield but not far enough for the formation of a plastic hinge and the
resulting plastic collapse. If plastic collapse can be reached, the load-deflection curve will have

FIGURE 5.10

the appearance of either curve 4 or curve 5. Curve 4 is for the case of uniform moment over the
full length of the beam, and curve 5 is for a beam with a variable bending moment (moment
gradient). Safe designs can be achieved with beams corresponding to any of these curves, but
curves 1 and 2 represent inefficient use of material.

CLASSICFICATION OF SHAPES
AISC classifies cross-sectional shapes as compact, noncompact, or slender, depending on the
values of the width-to-thickness ratios. For I shapes, the ratio for the projecting flange (an
unstiffened element) is bf/2tf, and the ratio for the web (a stiffened element) is h/tw. The
classification of shapes is found in Section B4 of the Specification, “Member Properties,” in
Table B4.1b. It can be summarized as follows. Let

  width-to-thickness ratio
p  upper limit for compact category
r  upper limit for noncompact category
Then,

if   p and the flange is continuously connected to the web, the shape is

compact; if p    r, the shape is noncompact; and
if   r, the shape is slender.
The category is based on the worst width-to-thickness ratio of the cross section. For example, if
the web is compact and the flange is noncompact, the shape is classified as noncompact. Table
5.3 has been extracted from AISC Table B4.1b and is specialized for hot-rolled I-shaped cross
sections.

Table 5.3 also applies to channels, except that  for the flange is bf/tf.

Element  p r
Flange bf E E

Web
2t f
h
0.38
Fy
E
√ 1
√ Fy
E
tw 3.76
Fy√ 5.70
√ Fy

BENDING STRENGTH OF COMPACT SHAPES

A beam can fail by reaching Mp and becoming fully plastic, or it can fail by
1. lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), either elastically or inelastically;
2. flange local buckling (FLB), elastically or inelastically; or
3. web local buckling (WLB), elastically or inelastically.
If the maximum bending stress is less than the proportional limit when buckling occurs, the
failure is said to be elastic. Otherwise, it is inelastic.
compact shapes, defined as those whose webs are continuously connected to the flanges and
that satisfy the following width-to-thickness ratio requirements for the flange and the web:
 E
bf
2t f
≤0.38
√ Fy
tw
∧h
√
≤ 3.76
E
Fy

The first category, laterally supported compact beams, is quite common and is the simplest
case. For a doubly-symmetric, compact I- or C-shaped section bent about its major axis, AISC
F2.1 gives the nominal strength as, Mn=Mp (AISC Equation F2-1); where, Mp=FxZx
The allowable stress solution can be simplified if a slight approximation is made. The allowable
0.6 M n 0.60 F y Z x
stress can be written as F b= =
Sx Sx
If an average value of Zx/Sx  1.1 is used (this is conservative),
Fb=0.6 Fy (1.1 )=0.66 FyWe can formulate an allowable stress approach that requires no
approximation if we use the plastic section modulus instead of the elastic section modulus.
From
Mn Mn FyZy
≥ Ma¿ = =0.6 FyZx
Ωb Ω b 1.67

The required plastic section modulus is

Ma
Zx=
0.6 Fy
Thus, if the bending stress is based on the plastic section modulus Zx,
Ma
F b= ∧Fb=0.6 Fy
Zx

This approach is useful when designing compact, laterally-supported beams.

The moment strength of compact shapes is a function of the unbraced length, Lb, defined as
the distance between points of lateral support, or bracing. In this book, we indicate points of
lateral support with an “×,” as shown in Figure 5.12. The relationship between the nominal
strength, Mn, and the unbraced length is shown in Figure 5.13. If the unbraced length is no
greater than Lp, to be defined presently, the beam is considered to have full lateral support,
and Mn = Mp. If Lb is greater than Lp but less than or equal to the parameter Lr, the strength is
based on inelastic LTB. If Lb is greater than Lr, the strength is based on elastic LTB.
The equation for the theoretical elastic lateral-torsional buckling strength can be found in
Theory of Elastic Stability (Timoshenko and Gere, 1961). With some notational changes, the
nominal moment strength is Mn=FcrSx

FIGURE 5.12

FIGURE 5.13

where Fcr is the elastic buckling stress and is given by

π πE 2
Fcr=
LbSx √
EIyGJ +( ) IyCw , ksi where
Lb
Lb = unbraced length (in.)
Iy = moment of inertia about the weak axis of the cross section (in.4)
G = shear modulus of structural steel = 11,200 ksi
J = torsional constant (in.4)
Cw = warping constant (in.6)

The AISC Specification gives a different, but equivalent, form for the elastic buckling stress Fcr.
AISC gives the nominal moment strength as
Mn = FcrSx ≤ M (AISC Equation F2-3)
Where
Cb π 2 E Jc 2
Fcr=
√
(Lb /r ts )2
1+0.078 ( L /r
Sx ho b ts
) (AISC Equation F2-4)

And
Cb = factor to account for nonuniform bending within the unbraced length
Lb.
This factor will be covered following Example 5.4.
IyCw
r 2ts √ ( AISC Equation F 2−7) c=1.0 for doubly-symmetric I shapes (AISC
Sx
Equation F2-8a)
h Iy
¿ o
2 Cw √ for channel (AICS Equation F 2−8 b)h o=distance between flange centroids=d−t f If the
moment when lateral-torsional buckling occurs is greater than the moment corresponding to
first yield, the strength is based on inelastic behavior. The moment corresponding to first yield
is
Mr = 0.7FySx
where the yield stress has been reduced by 30% to account for the effect of residual stress. As
shown in Figure 5.13, the boundary between elastic and inelastic behavior will be for an
unbraced length of Lr, which is the value of Lb obtained from AISC Equation F2-4 when Fcr is set
equal to 0.7Fy with Cb = 1.0. The following equation results:

E Jc
Lr =1.95r ts
√ + ¿¿¿
0.7 F y S x ho ¿ √ (AISC Equation F2-6)

As with columns, inelastic buckling of beams is more complicated than elastic buckling, and
empirical formulas are often used. The following equation is used by AISC:
Lb−L p
M n=C b [ M p−( M p−0.7 F y S x ) (
Lr −L p
]≤ M p ) (AISC Equation F2-2)

where the 0.7FySx term is the yield moment adjusted for residual stress, and
E
L p=1.76 r y
√ Fy
( AISC Equation F 2−5)

SUMMARY OF NOMIMAL FLEXURAL STRENGTH

The nominal bending strength for compact I and C-shaped sections can be summarized as
follows:
For Lb ≤ L p '

M n=M p ( AISC Equation F 2−1 ) For L p < Lb ≤ Lr '

Lb−L p
[
M n=C b M p−( M p−0.7 F y S x )
( Lr −L p)]
≤ M p ( AISC Equation F 2−2 ) Lb > Lr '
M n=F cr S x ≤ M p ( AISC Equation F 2−3 )

Cb π 2 E 2
Jc Lb
Where , Fcr=

( Lb
r ts
√)
2
1+ 0.078 ( )
Sx ho r ts
( AISC Equation F 2−4 )

If the moment within the unbraced length Lb is uniform (constant), there is no moment
gradient and Cb = 1.0. If there is a moment gradient, the value of Cb is given by
12.5 M max
Cb ( AISC Equation F 1−1)
2.5 M max +3 M A +4 M B +3 M c

Where, M max = absolute value of the maximum moment within the unbraced length
3 M A = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of the unbraced length
3 M B = absolute value of the moment at the midpoint of the unbraced length
3 M C = absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter point of the unbraced
length
AISC Equation F1-1 is valid for doubly-symmetric members and for singly-symmetric members
in single curvature.
When the bending moment is uniform, the value of Cb is

12.5 M
C b= =1.0
2.5 M +3 M +4 M +3 M
Figure 5.15 shows the value of Cb for several common cases of loading and lateral support.
Values of Cb for other cases can be found in Part 3 of the Manual, “Design of Flexural
Members.” For unbraced cantilever beams, AISC specifies a value of Cb of 1.0. A value of 1.0 is
always conservative, regardless of beam configuration or loading, but in some cases, it may be
excessively conservative. The effect of Cb on the nominal strength is illustrated in Figure 5.16.
Although the strength is directly proportional to Cb, this graph clearly shows the importance of
observing the upper limit of Mp, regardless of which equation is used for Mn.
 FIGURE 5.15

FIGURE 5.16

BENDING STRENGTH OF NONCOMPACT SHAPES

a noncompact beam may fail by lateral-torsional buckling, flange local buckling, or web local
buckling. Any of these types of failure can be in either the elastic range or the inelastic range.
The strength corresponding to each of these three limit states must be computed, and the
smallest value will control.
From AISC F3, for flange local buckling, if λp < λ ≤ λr, the flange is noncompact, buckling will be
inelastic, and

λ−λ p b
[
M n= M p −( M p−0.7 F y S x )
( )]
λr −λ p
( AISC Equation F 3−1 ) Where , λ= f λ p=0.38 E
2 tf √ Fy
E
λ r=1.0
√ Fy
Noncompact shapes are also treated differently in the Zx table in the following way. The
tabulated value of Lp is the value of unbraced length at which the nominal strength based on
inelastic lateral-torsional buckling equals the nominal strength based on flange local buckling,
that is, the maximum unbraced length for which the nominal strength can be taken as the
strength based on flange local buckling.

Lb−L p
[
M n= M p −( M p−0.7 F y S x )
( Lr −L p )]
SUMMARY OF MOMENT STRENGTH

The procedure for computation of nominal moment strength for I and C-shaped sections bent
about the x axis will now be summarized. All terms in the following equations have been
previously defined, and AISC equation numbers will not be shown. This summary is for compact
and noncompact shapes (noncompact flanges) only (no slender shapes).
1. Determine whether the shape is compact.
2. If the shape is compact, check for lateral-torsional buckling as follows. If
Lb  Lp, there is no LTB, and Mn  Mp
If Lp  Lb  Lr, there is inelastic LTB, and

Lb−L p
[
M n=C b M p−( M p−0.7 F y S x )
( Lr −L p)]
≤ M pIf Lb  Lr, there is elastic LTB,

and
Mn  FcrSx  Mp
Where

Cb π 2 E 2
Jc Lb

)√
Fcr=
Lb 2
1+ 0.078
Sx ho r ts ( )
( r ts

3. If the shape is noncompact because of the flange, the nominal strength will
be the smaller of the strengths corresponding to flange local buckling and
lateral torsional buckling.

a. Flange local buckling:

If   p, there is no FLB
If p    r, the flange is noncompact, and
λ−λ p
[
M n= M p −( M p−0.7 F y S x )
λr −λ p ( )]
a. Lateral-torsional buckling:
If Lb  Lp, there is no LTB
 If Lp  Lb  Lr, there is inelastic LTB, and
Lb−L p
[
M n=C b M p−( M p−0.7 F y S x )
( Lr −L p)]
≤ M pIf Lb  Lr, there is elastic

LTB, and
Mn  FcrSx  Mp
2 2
Cb π E Jc Lb

)√
Fcr=
Lb 2
1+ 0.078 ( )
Sx ho r ts
( r ts

SHEAR STRENGTH
Consider the simple beam of Figure 5.17. At a distance x from the left end and at the neutral
axis of the cross section, the state of stress is as shown in Figure 5.17d. Because this element is
located at the neutral axis, it is not subjected to flexural stress. From elementary mechanics of
VQ
materials, the shearing stress is f v = where,
Ib
fv  vertical and horizontal shearing stress at the point of interest
V  vertical shear force at the section under consideration
Q  first moment, about the neutral axis, of the area of the cross section
between the point of interest and the top or bottom of the cross
section
I  moment of inertia about the neutral axis
b  width of the cross section at the point of interest

VQ
f v= is based on the assumption that the stress is constant across the width b, and it is
Ib
therefore accurate only for small values of b. For a rectangular cross section of depth d and
width b, the error for d/b  2 is approximately 3%. For d/b  1, the error is 12% and for d/b  1⁄4,
it is 100%
Figure 5.18 shows the shearing stress distribution for a W shape. Superimposed on the actual
distribution is the average stress in the web, V/Aw, which does not dif- fer much from the
maximum web stress. Clearly, the web will completely yield long before the flanges begin to
yield. Because of this, yielding of the web represents one of the shear limit states. Taking the
shear yield stress as 60% of the tensile yield stress, we can write the equation for the stress in

Vn
the web at failure as f v = =0.6 Fy and will be the nominal strength in shear provided that
Aw
there is no shear buckling of the web. Whether that occurs will depend on h/tw, the width-to-
thickness ratio of the web. If this ratio is too large—that is, if the web is too slender—the web
can buckle in shear, either inelastically or elastically.

AISC SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR SHEAR

For LRFD, the relationship between required and available strength is
Vu  vVn
where
Vu  maximum shear based on the controlling combination of factored loads
v  resistance factor for shear

For ASD, the relationship is

Vn
Va≤
Ωv
where
Va  maximum shear based on the controlling combination of service loads
v  safety factor for shear
As we will see, the values of the resistance factor and safety factor will depend on
the web width-to-thickness ratio.
Section G2.1 of the AISC Specification covers both beams with stiffened webs
and beams with unstiffened webs. In most cases, hot-rolled beams will not have
stiffeners, and we will defer treatment of stiffened webs until Chapter 10. The basic
strength equation is
Vn  0.6FyAwCv (AISC Equation G2-1)
 where
Aw  area of the web  dtw
d  overall depth of the beam
Cv  ratio of critical web stress to shear yield stress
The value of Cv depends on whether the limit state is web yielding, web inelastic
buckling, or web elastic buckling.

Case 1: For hot-rolled I shapes with

E
h
 2.24 F
tw y

The limit state is shear yielding, and

Cv  1.0 (AISC Equation G2-2)
v  1.00
v  1.50
Most W shapes with Fy  50 ksi fall into this category
Case 2: For all other doubly and singly symmetric shapes,
v  0.90
v  1.67
and Cv is determined as follows

h k
For ≤ w ,there isno webinstability ,∧¿
t w Fy

Cv  1.0 (AISC Equation G2-3)

kv h k E
For 1.10
√ F y tw √
< ≤ 1.37 v ,inellastic buckling can occur ,∧¿
Fy

kv

C v=
1.10
√
h
Fy
( AISC Equation G2−4)
tw
 h k E

1.51k v E
For
tw √
>1.37 v , thelimit state is elastic web buckling ,∧¿
Fy

C v= ( AISC EquationG 2−5)

h 2
( )
tw
Fy

where kv = 5

This value of kv is for unstiffened webs with htw < 260. Although section G2.1 of
the Specification does not give htw = 260 as an upper limit, no value of kv is given when
htw ≥ 260. In addition, AISC F13.2, “Proportioning Limits for I-Shaped Members,” states
that htw in unstiffened girders shall not exceed 260. AISC Equation G2-5 is based on
elastic stability theory, and AISC Equation G2-4 is an empirical equation for the inelastic
region, providing a transition between the limit states of web yielding and elastic web
buckling. The relationship between shear strength and the web width-to-thickness ratio
is analogous to that between flexural strength and the width-to-thickness ratio (for FLB)
and between flexural strength and the unbraced length (for LTB). This relationship is
illustrated in Figure 5.19

ALLOWABLE STRESS FORMULATION

The allowable strength relation
Vn
Va≤
Ωv

can also be written in terms of stress as

fv  Fv
where
Va
f v= =applied shear stress
Aw
 Vn
Ω 0.6 F y A w C v /Ω v
F v= v = =allowable shear stress
Aw Aw

For the most common case of hot-rolled I shapes with h/tw  2.24√ E/ Fy '

0.6 F y A w ( 1.0 ) /1.5

F v= =0.4 Fy
Aw

BLOCK SHEAR
To facilitate the connection of beams to other beams so that the top flanges are at the same
elevation, a short length of the top flange of one of the beams may be cut away, or coped. If a
coped beam is connected with bolts as in Figure 5.20, segment ABC will tend to tear out.

FIGURE 5.20

The applied load in this case will be the vertical beam reaction, so shear will occur along line AB
and there will be tension along BC. Thus, the block shear strength will be a limiting value of the
reaction
Failure is assumed to occur by rupture (fracture) on the shear area (sub- ject to an upper
limit) and rupture on the tension area. AISC J4.3, “Block Shear Strength,” gives the following
equation for block shear strength:
Rn  0.6FuAnv  UbsFuAnt  0.6FyAgv  UbsFuAnt (AISC Equation J4-5)
where
Agv  gross area in shear (in Figure 5.20, length AB times the web thickness)
Anv  net area along the shear surface or surfaces
Ant  net area along the tension surface (in Figure 5.20, along BC) Ubs 
1.0 when the tensile stress is uniform (for most coped beams)
 0.5 when the tension stress is not uniform (coped beams with two lines of
bolts or with nonstandard distance from bolts to end of beam) (Ricles and
Yura, 1983)
 For LRFD,   0.75. For ASD,   2.00.

DEFLECTION
In addition to being safe, a structure must be serviceable. A serviceable structure is one that
performs satisfactorily, not causing any discomfort or perceptions of unsafety for the occupants
or users of the structure. For a beam, being serviceable usually means that the deformations,
primarily the vertical sag, or deflection, must be limited. Excessive deflection is usually an
indication of a very flexible beam, which can lead to problems with vibrations. The deflection
itself can cause problems if elements attached to the beam can be damaged by small
distortions. In addition, users of the structure may view large deflections negatively and
wrongly assume that the structure is unsafe.
For the common case of a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam such as that in Figure 5.22,
the maximum vertical deflection is

5 wL 4
∆=
384 EI

The appropriate limit for the maximum deflection depends on the function of the beam and the
likelihood of damage resulting from the deflection. The AISC Specification furnishes little guidance
other than a statement in Chapter L, “Design for Serviceability,” that deflections should not be
excessive.

DESIGN

Beam design entails the selection of a cross-sectional shape that will have enough strength and
that will meet serviceability requirements. As far as strength is concerned, flexure is almost
always more critical than shear, so the usual practice is to design for flexure and then check
shear. The design process can be outlined as follows.
1.Compute the required moment strength (i.e., the factored load moment Mu for LRFD or the
unfactored moment Ma for ASD). The weight of the beam is part of the dead load but is
unknown at this point. A value may be assumed and verified after a shape is selected, or the
weight may be ignored initially and checked after a shape has been selected. Because the beam
weight is usually a small part of the total load, if it is ignored at the beginning of a design
problem, the selected shape will usually be satisfactory when the moment is recomputed.
2.Select a shape that satisfies this strength requirement. This can be done in one of two ways.
a. Assume a shape, compute the available strength, and compare it with the required strength.
Revise if necessary. The trial shape can be easily selected in only a limited number of situations
(as in Example 5.10).
b. Use the beam design charts in Part 3 of the Manual. This method is preferred, and we explain
it following Example 5.10.
3.Check the shear strength.
4.Check the deflection.

EXAMPLE 1
For the built-up shape shown in Figure 5.6, determine (a) the elastic section modu- lus S and
the yield moment My and (b) the plastic section modulus Z and the plastic moment Mp.
Bending is about the x-axis, and the steel is A572 Grade 50.

a. Because of symmetry, the elastic neutral axis (the x-axis) is located at mid- depth of the
cross section (the location of the centroid). The moment of in- ertia of the cross section
can be found by using the parallel axis theorem, and the results of the calculations are

summarized in Table 5.1

The elastic section modulus is
 I 749.4 749.4
S= = = =107 ¿ .3
c 1+(12/2) 4
and the yield moment is

My = FyS = 50(107) = 5350 in.-kips = 446 ft-kips

S = 107 in.3 and My = 446 ft-kips

b. Because this shape is symmetrical about the x-axis, this axis divides the cross section into equal
areas and is therefore the plastic neutral axis. The centroid of the top half-area can be found by
the principle of moments. Taking moments about the x-axis (the neutral axis of the entire cross
section) and tabulating the computations in Table 5.2, we get
∑ Ay 61
y= = =5.545∈.
∑ A 11

Figure 5.7 shows that the moment arm of the internal resisting couple is
a  2¯y  2(5.545)  11.09 in.
and that the plastic section modulus is
(A/2)a 11(11.09)  122 in.3
The plastic moment is
 Mp  FyZ  50(122)  6100 in.-kips  508 ft-kips

Z  122 in.3 and Mp  508 ft-kips.

EXAMPLE 2
Compute the plastic moment, Mp, for a W10  60 of A992 steel.
From the dimensions and properties tables in Part 1 of the Manual
A  17.7 in.2
A 17.7
= =8.85 ¿ .2
2 2
The centroid of the half-area can be found in the tables for WT shapes, which are cut
from W shapes. The relevant shape here is the WT5  30, and the distance from the
outside face of the flange to the centroid is 0.884 inch, as shown in Figure 5.8.

a=d−2(0.884)=10.2−2(0.884)=8.432∈.
A
Z=( )a=8.85(8.432)=74.62 ¿ .3
2

This result, when rounded to three significant figures, is the same as

the value given in the dimensions and properties tables.
Mp = FyZ = 50(74.62) = 3731 in.-kips = 311 ft-kips.
EXAMPLE 3
The beam shown in Figure 5.11 is a W16 × 31 of A992 steel. It supports a reinforced concrete
floor slab that provides continuous lateral support of the compression flange. The service dead
load is 450 lbft. This load is superimposed on the beam; it does not include the weight of the
beam itself. The service live load is 550 lbft. Does this beam have adequate moment strength?
First, determine the nominal flexural strength. Check for compactness.
bf
=6.28
2t f

E 29000
0.38
√ Fy
=0.38
√ 50
=9.15> 6.28 .:The flange is compact

h E
tw
≤ 3.76
Fy √
. :The web is compact .

This shape can also be identified as compact because there is no footnote

in the dimensions and properties tables to indicate otherwise. Because the
beam is com- pact and laterally supported, the nominal flexural strength is
Mn  Mp  FyZx  50(54.0)  2700 in.-kips  225.0 ft kips.
Compute the maximum bending moment. The total service dead load,
including the weight of the beam, is
wD  450  31  481 lb/ft
For a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam, the maximum bending moment
oc- curs at midspan and is equal to
1
M max = w L2
8
where w is the load in units of force per unit length, and L is the span length.
Then
1
M D = w L2=1/8(0.481)(30)2=54.11 ft −kips
8
1
M L = w L2=1/8(0.550)(30)2=61.88 ft−kips
8
The dead load is less than 8 times the live load, so load combination 2 controls:
Mu  1.2MD  1.6ML  1.2(54.11)  1.6(61.88)  164 ft-kips.
Alternatively, the loads can be factored at the outset:
wu  1.2wD  1.6wL  1.2(0.481)  1.6(0.550)  1.457 kips/ft
1
M u= w L2=1/8(1.457)(30)2=164 ft−kips
8

The design strength is

bMn  0.90(225.0)  203 ft-kips  164 ft-kips (OK)
The design moment is greater than the factored-load moment, so the W16  31 is
 satisfactory.
EXAMPLE 4
A simply supported beam with a span length of 45 feet is laterally supported at its ends and
is subjected to the following service loads:
Dead load  400 lb/ft (including the weight of the beam) Live load 
1000 lb/ft
If Fy  50 ksi, is a W14  90 adequate?

Determine whether the shape is compact, noncompact, or slender:

bf E 29000 E 29000
=24.1Since p 
λ=
2t f
=10.2λ p=0.38
√Fy
=0.38
50 √
=9.15λ r=1.0
Fy
=1.0
√50 √
  r, this shape is noncompact. Check the capacity based on the limit state of flange local
buckling:
Mp  Fy Zx  50(157)  7850 in.-kips

λ−λ p
[
M n= M p −( M p−0.7 F y S x )
( λr −λ p )]
¿ 7850− (7850−0.7∗50∗143 ) ( 10.2−9.15
24.1−9.15 )
¿ 7650∈.−kips=637.5 ft −kips

Check the capacity based on the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling.

From the
Zx table,
Lp  15.1 ft and Lr  42.5 ft
Lb  45 ft  Lr  Failure is by elastic LTB.
From Part 1 of the Manual,
Iy  362 in.4 rts 
4.11 in. ho  13.3 in.
J  4.06 in.4
Cw  16,000 in.6
For a uniformly loaded, simply supported beam with lateral support at the
ends,
Cb  1.14 (Fig. 5.15a)
For a doubly-symmetric I shape, c  1.0. AISC Equation F2-4 gives
 Cb π 2 E 2
Jc Lb
Fcr=

( Lb
r ts
√)
2
1+ 0.078 ( )
Sx ho r ts

1.14 π 2( 29000) 2
4.06(1.0) 45∗12
¿
( 45∗12
4.11
2
1+0.078
) √
143(13.3) 4.11 ( )
From AISC Equation F2-3,
Mn  FcrSx  37.20(143)  5320 in.-kips  Mp  7850 in.-kips
This is smaller than the nominal strength based on flange local buckling, so lateral-
torsional buckling controls
The design strength is
 bMn  0.90(5320)  4788 in.-kips  399 ft-kips

The factored load and moment are

wu  1.2wD  1.6wL  1.2(0.400)  1.6(1.000)  2.080 kips/ft
Mu=1/8(WuL 2)=1 /8 (2.080)(45)2=527 ft −kips(NG )
Since Mu  bMn, the beam does not have adequate moment strength.

EXAMPLE 5
Determine the maximum reaction, based on block shear, that can be resisted by the beam shown
in Figure 5.21.

The effective hole diameter is ¾+1/8+7/8 in. The shear areas are:
Agv  tw (2  3  3  3)  0.300(11)  3.300 in.2

Anv=0.300 [ 11−3.5 ( 7 / 8 ) ] =2.381 in 2 The net tension is

Ant=0.300 [ 1.25−1/2 ( 7 / 8 ) ] =0.2438i n2

Since the block shear will occur in a coped beam with a single line of bolts, Ubs  1.0.
From AISC Equation J4-5,
Rn  0.6FuAnv  UbsFuAnt  0.6(65)(2.381)  1.0(65)(0.2438)  108.7 kips
 with an upper limit of
0.6FyAgv  UbsFuAnt  0.6(65)(3.300)  1.0(65)(0.2438)  144.5 kips
The nominal block shear strength is therefore 108.7 kips.
The maximum factored load reaction is the design strength: Rn  0.75(108.7)  81.5 kips

EXAMPLE 6
Compute the dead load and live load deflections for the beam shown in Figure 5.23. If the
maximum permissible live load deflection is L /360, is the beam satisfactory

It is more convenient to express the deflection in inches than in feet, so units of

inches are used in the deflection formula. The dead load deflection is
4
5 wL 4 5 (0.500/12)(30∗12)
∆= = =0.616∈.The live load deflection is
384 EI 384 29000(510)
4
5 wL 4 5 (0.550/12)(30∗12)
∆= = =0.678∈.
384 EI 384 29000( 510)
The maximum permissible live load deflection is

L 30 (12)
= =1.0∈.>0.678∈.(OK )
360 360
The beam satisfies the deflection criterion.
EXAMPLE 7
Select a standard hot-rolled shape of A992 steel for the beam shown in Figure 5.24. The beam
has continuous lateral support and must support a uniform service live load of 4.5 kips/ft. The

maximum permissible live load deflection is L /240.

Ignore the beam weight initially then check for its effect after a selection is made.
wu  1.2wD  1.6wL  1.2(0)  1.6(4.5)  7.2 kips/ft
1 2 1 2
Required moment strength M u= wu L = ( 7.2 ) (30 ) =810.0 ft −kips
8 8
  required bMn
Assume that the shape will be compact. For a compact shape with full lateral support,
Mn  Mp  FyZx
From b Mn  Mu ,

bFyZx  Mu
M u 810.0(12)
Z x= = =216 i n2
∅ b F y 0.90(50)
Try a W24  84. This shape is compact, as assumed (noncompact shapes are marked as
such in the table); therefore Mn  Mp, as assumed.
Account for the beam weight.

wu  1.2wD  1.6wL  1.2(0.084)  1.6(4.5)  7.301 kips/ft

1 2 1 2
Required moment strength M u= wu L = ( 7.301 )( 30 ) =821.4 ft−kips
8 8
The required section modulus is
M u 821.4(12) 3 3
Z x= = =219 in <224 i n (OK )
∅ b F y 0.90(50)
Next, check the shear:
wu L 7.301(30)
Vu = =110 kips
2 2

From the Zx table,

vVn  340 kips  110 kips (OK)

Finally, check the deflection. The maximum permissible live load deflection is

L /240  (30  12)/240  1.5 inch

4
5 wL 4 5 (4.5 /12)(30∗12)
∆= = =1.19∈.<1.5∈.(OK )
384 EI 384 29000 (2370)

Use a W24 × 84

PROBLEM EXERCISES
1. A flexural member is fabricated from two flange plates 1⁄2  16 and a web plate 1⁄4
 20.
The yield stress of the steel is 50 ksi.
a. Compute the plastic section modulus Z and the plastic moment Mp with
respect to the major principal axis.
b. Compute the elastic section modulus S and the yield moment My with
respect to the major principal axis.
2. A built-up tee-shape (Figure P5.2-3) consists of a 7⁄8-in.  10-in. flange and a 1-
in.  12-in. web. The yield stress Fy is 50 ksi. Determine the plastic moment Mp
about the horizontal plastic neutral axis.

3. The beam shown in Figure P5.5-1 is a W14  61 of A992 steel and has continuous
lat- eral support. The load P is a service live load. What is the maximum
permissible value of P?
a. Use LRFD.

b. Use ASD.
4. A W21  48 is used as a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam with a span
length of 50 feet and continuous lateral support. The yield stress, Fy, is 60 ksi. If
the ratio of live load to dead load is 3, compute the available strength and
determine the maxi- mum total service load, in kips/ft, that can be supported.
a. Use LRFD.
b. Use ASD.
5. The beam shown in Figure P5.8-3 is a W16  31 of A992 steel and has
continuous lat- eral support. The two concentrated loads are service live loads.
Neglect the weight of the beam and determine whether the beam is adequate.
a. Use LRFD.
b. Use ASD.
6. Use A992 steel and select a W shape for the following beam:
• Simply supported with a span length of 25 feet
• Continuous lateral support
• Service dead load  1.0 kips/ft
• The service live load consists of a 35-kip concentrated load at the center of the span
There is no limit on the deflection.
a. Use LRFD.
b. Use ASD.
7. Use A992 steel and select the most economical W shape for the beam in Figure P5.10-3. The beam
weight is not included in the service loads shown. Do not check deflection. Assume continuous
lateral support.
a. Use LRFD.
b. Use ASD.