BALBAN’S THEORY OF KINGSHIP

Balban had to face many hardships after his accession to the throne in 1266. The affairs of the state had fallen into
confusion on account of the incompetence of the successors of Iltutmish. The royal treasury was empty. The prestige of
the stage had sunk low. The arrogance of the Turkish nobles had increased. To quote Burani, “The fear of the governing
power, which is the basis for all good government and the source of glory and splendor to the state, had departed from
the hearts of all men and the country had fallen into a wretched condition. The Delhi Sultanate was also exposed to
Mongol invasions”.

 To overcome internal and external problems and to restore the glory of the kingship, Balban decided to act upon a
comprehensive and long-term policy. Balban was right to find that the prestige of the king was the most important
prerequisite for the success of monarchy. He introduced a concept of kingship generally known as “Kingship Theory
of Balban”, a blend of Sassanid concept of kingship and the Abbasids concept of Caliphate in Baghdad. He was
determined to raise the status of kingship to extent that people even could not think of rebellion against the king.
 Balban thought that kingship was the vice regency of God on earth in its dignity and it was next to Prophet hood. In
the discharge of his kingship, he was at all times inspired and guided by God. The source of the power of the king lay
not with the nobles or people but with God alone. His actions could not be the subject of public scrutiny. He further
writes that Balban wanted to impress his nobles that he got the throne because of Divine will and not by poisoned
cup or the assassin’s Dagger.
 Kingship Theory of Balban was similar to that of theory of Divine right of kings. He took up the title of Zilli Illahi, or
shadow of God. In order to give his kingship a religious touch, he continued to inscribe the name of the deceased
Khalifa on coins. He was of the view that he would be respected and feared more if the royal title was in line with
the religious beliefs of the Muslims. Balban explained his views on monarchy to his son Bughra Khan in these words,
“The heart of the king is special repository of the God’s favour and in this he was no equal among mankind”.
 Balban believed in despotism. His conviction was that only a despot could extract obedience from his subject and
ensure the security of the state. He claimed descent from the Turkish hero Afrasiab of Turan and always kept himself
aloof from the people.
 He introduced Sajda and Paibos or kissing of the feat of the monarch in the court as the normal form of salvation for
the king. He also introduced the system of Nauroz to add to the dignity of his court.
 He appointed tall and fearsome guards who were to stand around the king with naked swords. Except nobles, he
ordered remain standing in the court. The court dress was prescribed for the nobles. Wine was prohibited for them.
Nobody could smile or laugh in the court. A complete legal dress was prescribed for the courtesans. He never
laughed and gave smile
 He never expressed unusual joy or sorrow to the public. He was so strict in adherence of court etiquettes that when
the news of the death of his beloved son was conveyed to him, he remained unmoved and carried on routine
administration. Through in his private apartment, he wept bitterly.

DESTRUCTION OF THE FORTY

Balban had been remained the member of the group of the forty. Turkish slave nobles had participated in the struggle to
empower Sultan. According to L. P. Sharma, the power of Sultan and dignity of his family was possible only by breaking
the power of the forty.

As he assumed the throne, most of these nobles had either died or been deprived of their power and the rest were
killed. He assigned junior officers to high ranks so that they could be loyal to him. He punished severely the members of
the forty for minor offences with a view to destroy their mage. Malik Barbaq, Haibat khan, Amin Khan, and Sher Khan
(cousins of Balban) were example who met exemplary punishment. Balban brought about the destruction of the forty
who have grasped the power of the state from the weak hands of the successors of Iltutmish.
SYSTEM OF ESPOINAGE
Balban owed his success largely due to an organized organization of his spy-system. He appointed spies (Barids) for
inspecting the activities of his governors, military and civil officers and even that of his own son. Balban himself
appointed them and they were well paid. They were expected to provide very important information to the Sultan and
those who failed, were severely punished. Every spy had direct access to the Sultan though none met him in the court.
Balban’s spy-system proved quite effective and was responsible for his success in administration and breaking the power
of the forty.

STRONG ARMY
A strong army was a necessity for a powerful monarch. Balban realized this necessity to make his despotism effective to
safeguard his empire from the invasions of the Mangols and to suppress the rebellion. He increased the number of
officers and soldiers of his army. He paid them good salaries and took personal interest in their training. Balban
succeeded in increasing the strength and efficiency of the army.
With the help of his strong and efficient army, he ruthlessly suppressed the Hindus uprisings at Doab, Badyun, Ketehar,
Amroha, etc by crushing anti-social and anti-government elements. Balban brought about security and peace to his
subjects.

PERSONAL CHARATER
To enhance the prestige of the king, Balban himself maintained a high character. He believed that personal character of
the king should be beyond suspicion. As soon as he came to the throne, he gave up wine and jovial company. He upheld
the high power of justice and gave exemplary punishment to his nobles on their misdeeds.
Balban made serious distinction between high born and lowborn. He never assigned any office of the state to a lowborn
person. He even refused to meet the lowborn persons.
Balban was very meticulous about royal dignity in his court and private life. He was especially careful in his private life.
He imposed a vigorous discipline on himself. He was never seen without wearing a cap or socks or shoes. According to
Balban, a ruler who did not safeguard his status would fail to perform his functions properly.

AN ASSESSMENT
Discussing the short-term aftermath, it is stated that Balban’s Theory of Kingship and measures taken under this proved
fruitful in the short run and fatal to the long run. Balban’s Theory of Kingship and measures under this theory restored
the prestige of Sultan. With this policy, he ensured internal peace and external security to his state. Although, his
ruthlessness is subject to criticism but it was the need of time.
The strict policies of Balban were necessary to check the internal and external threats. The threatening elements could
be subdued only by oppressive measures. Historians have also pointed out some important faults in Balban’s system.
Prof. Habibullah although appreciated Balban’s Theory but he also pointed out that, “He considered himself more the
custodian of the Turkish sovereign than a king of Muslamans”. It is fact that the Indian Muslims were newly converted to
Islam and might be unreliable but this complete exclusion from government was not in interest of the Muslim empire.
An important point arose that Balban didn’t introduce any important reform in administration. Dr. K.A.Nizami, “Though
performing a policeman’s duty of maintaining law and order, there is no legislation by which Balban be remembered”.
The suppression of Turkish nobility also proved fatal for Turkish rule in India. But in spite of all this, Balban is appreciated
by historians for his effective steps to restore law and order and prestige of the Sultan. He also could withstand the
menace of the Mongols. Prof. Habibullah calls him as the forerunner of the state system of the Khiljis.
But the enemy raised their heads after his demise in the absence of a strong successor who could stand for his theory
which was mainly based on force. He failed to realize the repeatedly proven universal fact of history that the doctrine of
force is bound to collapse sooner or later. According to Dr. A. L. Srivastava, “His place among the so called slave kings is
next only to that of Iltutmish”.
MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ
WHETHER HE WAS A MIXTURE OF OPPOSITES (1325-1351)
No ruler in Medieval India has earned so much controversy regarding his character and policies as Muhammad Tughlaq.
One controversy regarding Muhammad is that “Whether he was a mixture of opposite”? Dr. V. A. Smith maintains, “He
was a mixture of opposite as Jahangir was in his later life.” Dr. Ishwari Persad, however, contradicted this view. He
writes, “Only when viewed superficially Muhammad appears to be an amazing comprised of contradictions but he was
not really so”.
In the history of India, if there was any strange ruler, it was Tughlaq. It was difficult to form a correct estimate of his
character and personality not only today but also he remained a problem for his contemporaries too.
Dr. V. A. Smith maintains, “His character has exercised the scholar ever since and to determine his place in history is a
difficult task, was he genius or lunatic? An idealistic or visionary? A blood thirsty tyrant or benevolent being? A heretic or
devoted Muslim? Muhammad Tughlaq was mixture of two opposites like Jahangir.”
Dr. K. A. Nizami does not accept him as a mixture of opposite. According to him the inconsistency of Barani’s statement
has created wrong impression about the Sultan among modern historians.
1. He was extremely humble but at the same time extremely arrogant.
2. At one time, Sultan appeared before the court of the Qazi and asked to treat him as an ordinary person and
accepted his judgment but at the other time, he inflicted death penalty for ordinary offences.
3. Similarly at times, he was extremely generous and at other times, an extremely narrow minded. According to Sir
Wolsley Haig, “Some of his administrative and most of his military measures give evidence of the highest order,
other are the acts of madness”.
To establish further opinion whether he was a mixture of opposites or not, both the bright and the dark sides of his
personality will further enable to have a particular opinion about Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

BRIGHT SIDE OF HIS CHARACTER

He possessed some rare qualities as were not to be found in any other ruler of that period.

LEARNED SCHOLAR & VERSATILE GENIUS

He had mastery over different sciences like politics, astronomy, mathematics, logic, medicine etc. He was also able in
logic that people called him “Aristotle of that age”. Thomas called him the prince of Moneyers.

REFORMS OF MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ

GENEROUS
He always helped the poor with money; opened free and charitable hospitals and treated the foreigners kindly.
RELIGIOUS & PIOUS MAN
He used to say his five prayers regularly and punctually and punished those who did not do so. Ibn-e-Batuta says, “He
follows the principles of religion with devoutness and performs the prayers himself and punishes those who neglect
them”. But he did not act upon the advice of Muslims like his cousin. That is why, certain historians called him witched.
TOLERANT TOWARDS THE HINDUS
He treated them kindly and gave them high posts and tried to stop sati system.
JUST MONARCH
He dealt equally with the Muslims and the Hindus: Shia and Sunni. Once he appeared in the court of Qazi and received
21 strokes of taking cane willingly.
GREAT GENERAL
He established peace and order in his country. In short, there were many admirable qualities possessed by him.
In words of Lane Pool, “In short he was complete in all that high culture could give in that age and he added to the finish
of the training a natural genius for original conception a marvelous memory and an indomitable will”.
Lane pool, “Among the salve kings it was Balban the man of action, among the Khiliji’s it was Ala-ud-Din the crude and
daring political economist, among the Karamtes it was Muhammad Tughlaq the man of ideas”. 
Muhammad Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1325. He is an attractive figure in medieval history. He inherited it to the
extent that no other Sultan of Delhi ruled so vast empire. He believed in absolute power of Sultan. Neither Ulma nor
ministers were allowed to advise him.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF ADMINISTATIVE STRUCTURE

The distinctive feature of his administrative structure is that he distributed state officers on merit and gave these to the
Muslims and the Hindus alike.
EXTERNAL RELATIONS
He was liberal in religious affairs and developed diplomatic relations with the countries like China, Iran and Egypt.
REFORMS
He introduced certain reforms; displeased his subjects; faced many revolts and ultimately failed. Following were the
reforms introduced by Muhammad Tughlaq. According to Barani, taxation was raised by ten to twenty times. Frishta
states that it was increased three fold or four fold.
TAXATION IN DOAB
The cumulative effects of migration to Doulatabat from Delhi, heavy expenditure of Khurasan, Qarahal expedition and
failure of token currency seriously affected the finances of the state. In order to replenish his treasury and also to
chastise the rebellions population in Doab, the sultan increased taxation in Doab from the very days of his reign.
It is fact that revenue increased due to these taxes but when there was drought and scarcity of goods, people of Doab
became highwaymen. In spite of this, tax collectors continued to collect tax. They opted oppressive measure to collect
the taxes. Due to this, there were widespread revolt but all these were curbed with an iron hand.
Tax was normal and Barani’s version that tax was increased ten to forty times is exaggeration. Other side of the picture
is that Sultan gave seeds and bullocks etc. to the cultivators and arranged for the digging of wells for irrigation but it was
too late. The tax imposed by Sultan was not heavy and the people suffered more because of drought and famine rather
than from heavy taxation. This policy of Sultan met with complete failure and there were revolts in the country. The
issue became prominent for two reasons. First, Barani as a direct effectee, exaggerated the sufferings and misery of the
people. Secondly, Revolt of Doab was a turning point of Tughlaq dynasty and proved beginning of downfall of his rule.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Tughlaq established a separate department of agriculture and appointed a minister to look after it. The main object of
this department was to increase land under cultivation. According to Dr. A.H.Srivistana, “A large trake of land, sixty
square miles in area was chosen for state farming”. The government spent nearly seventy lakh Tankas in three years. But
the experiment failed and the scheme was abandoned after three years. Corruption of officers, poor quality of land
chosen for farming and indifference of the cultivators were responsible for the failure of the scheme. Besides it, the
scheme was abandoned in haste. Three years duration was quite inadequate to get any fruitful result.
TRANSFER OF CAPITAL (1323-27)
Another important measure by the Sultan was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri which he named Dulatabad.
Following were the reasons in the transfer of capital:
1. Deccan was a new conquered territory and the Muslims were in small number.
2. Empire of the Sultan was extended and Daulatabad was in the center and strategically important as compared to
Delhi.
3. The desire to keep capital safe from Mongol invasions.
THE TOKEN CURRENCY (1230 A.D.)
Tughlaq introduced various kinds of coins during his reign and fixed their relative value. The notable feature of this
coinage system is the introduction of token currency and issuance of copper and brass coins. According to Baranis,
Sultan introduced token currency because treasury was empty which he wanted to fill with his schemes. It may be said
that due to Sultan’s generosity, treasury was badly affected. Another cause of issuing token currency might be examples
of Iran and China. Although this experiment failed in Iran, yet later Qublai Khan attempted the same measure
successfully.
Modern historians have given another reason that there was worldwide shortage of silver at that time and India too
faced shortage. Muhammad Tughlaq himself introduced the coins of gold and increased the weight of gold and silver.
Sultan issued the coins of gold and silver and later copper and brass and made these token coins legal and kept their
value at par with gold and silver.
According to Barani, “The house of every Hindu became a mint; market was flooded with fake coins; farmers paid their
revenues in token currency; the people paid their taxes in it and traders also desired to give token currency and each of
them tried to hoard in their houses silver and gold coins”.
Sultan released failure of his scheme and ordered to withdraw all token currency. Following were reasons of its failure:
1. The citizen failed to discriminate between genuine and fake coins.
2. There was no special machinery to mark difference between royal mint & handiwork of moderately skilled artisans.
3. The people misused the opportunity and themselves minted token coins.
4. The love of people for gold and silver was great. They thought, Sultan wanted to deprive them of it.
5. Unstable political government and uncertain economic policies also deterred masses to have faith in this scheme.

PLAN TO CONQUER KHURASAN & IRAQ

The unstable political condition of Central Asia and instigation of these nobles, who had fled from Persia and Iraq, made
Sultan’s mind conquer Khurasan. The Sultan raised a huge army of 370,000 soldiers and paid it one year salary in
advance. But very soon conditions in Central Asia and Iran improved, Sultan gave up the scheme and army was
dispersed. According to Ishwari Persad, “It was an act of wisdom on the part of the Muhammad Tughlaq to abandon the
scheme and to concentrate his attention upon India.”

EXPEDITIONS OF QARAJAL
According to Frishta, Sultan’s primary motive was conquest of China. But according to Barani, the design of Sultan was to
conquer the mountains of Qarajal which was situated between the territories of India and China. Ibn-e-Batuta has also
supported the view point of Barani but modern historians maintain that Sultan wanted to bring under his suzerainty
those hills chiefs who used to provide shelter to rebels against Sultan.
Besides this, the conquest protected his northern frontiers. A large army was sent under Khosru Malik. The first attack of
the army was a success but when, according to K.A. Nizami, “Khosru Malik proceeded towards Tibet against the wishes
of the Sultan; he met the fat of Bakhtiyar Khiliji”. All army was killed and, as according to Ibn-e-Batuta, only three officers
could come back alive. But Sultan gained the object of the expedition. The chief prince made peace with the Sultan and
agreed to pay tribute. The establishment of Sultan’s authority over the mountains region of Qarajal between China and
subcontinent led to a friendly overture of the past of the Chinese Mongol.
All his reforms remained unsuccessful without result. They brought havoc to the mighty empire of Tughlaq dynasty. V. A.
Smith summarizes his opinion about Muhammad Tughlaq, “Notwithstanding that Muhammad bin Tughlaq was guilty of
acts which the pen shrinks from recording and that he brought untold miseries during his reign, he was not wholly evil,
he was mixture of opposite”.
Actually, Sultan was not a mad man. All his plans and castles were built in the air and were not based on any bad
intention. The reality was that all of them were much in advance that people were not able to understand them.
ALA UD DIN KHILJI
REFORMS IN TAXATION AND REVENUE SYSTEM
CONFISCATION OF STATE LANDS
He ordered to confiscate all lands given to the people by previous rulers as milk (state grant), imam (state gift), waqf
(charitable endowment) and pension in return services to the state. Thus the measures of Ala-ud-din increased the
Khalisa land (state land), left the possession of land only in the old nobility.

END OF THE HEREDITARY OFFICES

This was to check the privileged position of hereditary revenue officers like Huts, Chaudhry and Muqqadam who were all
the Hindus. They collected maximum taxes and evaded payment of taxes and become the rich. Ala-ud-din abolished
their privileges and snatched away the power to collect revenue. By these measures, Sultan also broke the powers of the
Hindus not to revolt against the king.

MEASURES TO SAVE REVENUE

He took steps to ensure that the peasants were justly treated and whatever they paid should come to the coffers of the
state rather than go into the pockets of middlemen.

INCREASE IN REVENUE
He introduced two taxes. One was grazing tax and the other was house tax. But this system was not so good to be
implemented uniformly within the entire empires of territory.

METHOD OF MEASUREMENT
Ala-ud-Din introduced the method of measurement on the basis of standard yields. He was the first Muslim ruler who
introduced this system which was certainly an improvement upon the prevalent sharing system. The Sultan preferred to
collect revenue in kind instead of cash.

CHECKING CORRUPTION
Ala-ud-din introduced a new department known as Diwan-i-Mustakhraj to look after his revenue administration. He also
employed a large number of juniors and senior officers so that they do not indulge in malpractices. But when they
yielded no result, he punished them severely. As according to Barani, “It was impossible for anyone to obtain even a
tank dishonestly or take away anything in bribe from the Hindu or the Muslim”.

MILITARY REFORMS
The revolts, the fear of Mongols, and the desire to establish a high centralized and despotic government and ambition to
create an extensive empire in India needed a strong army at center. Ala-ud-Din realized that the previous measures
were not enough and that the army and the defense had to be further strengthened. Ala-ud-Din kept a permanent
standing army at the center. Before this, army was managed by the provincial government but Sultan developed a
strong centralized army. Soldiers were supplied with arms and horses by state and were paid by the state. A soldier with
one horse was paid 234 Tankas for a year; 78 Tankas were added on with additional horses.
MARKET SYSTEM OF ALA-UD-DIN
Causes to introduce market system are given as under:
 To finance military expenses.
 To fill the treasury of the state.
 Humanitarian considerations in this respect are of great value. He developed this system for the betterment and
welfare of common man.
 To check the rising prices of different articles.

FIXED RATES OF ARTICALS

Ala-ud-Din fixed the prices of nearly all articles. Prices were fixed for all types of daily life commodities and others
including grain, pulses, cloth, salves, cattle, horses, meat, dry fruits, sugarcane, vegetable, needles etc.

REGULATION & MECHANISM OF MARKET SYSTEM

There were separate markets for different articles. The markets for cloth, cattle, horses, slaves and for the daily
necessaries were set up separately. It was not possible for the traders to purchase something from market on fixed
prices and then to sell it at high prices in the city. No one could dare to sell any commodity under-weight as the same
amount of flesh was to be cut off from the body to make up the deficiency in weight.
Ala-ud-Din took personal interest to check the smooth functioning of market system. He used to send slave children and
his spies to buy things from the market and then compare the prices with the official price list. Hoarding of commodities
were prohibited.
Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shana-i-Mandi assisted by a judge and the subordinate officers were responsible for the smooth
functioning of market system.
 Money was advanced to approve dealers to enable them to purchase goods in large quantities.
 Government assistance was given to merchants to import articles, in case of non-manufacturing of goods in the
empire.
 Revenue was collected in kind both from the state lands and the lands of feudatory chiefs.
 Only those traders who were registered by the state were allowed to purchase grain from the peasants.
 Ala-ud-Din also established god owns where grain was stored in reserve to be released in times of scarcity, “There
were hardly any mahallah, Writes Barani, “Where two or three royal stores filled with food did not exit”.
 In the times of scarcity, everything was rationed. Everybody was allowed to purchase only which was sufficient for
his need.
 Loans were advanced to the Muslim traders to purchase cloth from outside and sell in Delhi at fixed rates.
 If anyone amongst the nobles desired to purchase any costly articles he/ she had to seek permission from Diwan-i-
Riyasat.
 The practice of black marketing was punished severely.
ARCHITECTURE OF SULTANATE PERIOD
Architecture of Sultanate Period was the fusion of the two styles of the Hindus and the Muslims.
BUILDINGS OF SLAVE DYNASTY
 Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi
 Delhi ka Johupran
 The adornment of Muslim capital was essentially the work of Iltutmish.
 Doubled the size of the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque
 Qutb Minar
 Nasiriya Madrassa
 Hauz-i-Shams.
BUILDINGS OF KHILJI RULE
 Beautiful additions in Qwat-ul-Islam Mosque
 A tower known as “Hauz-i-Ala”
 Madrasa Ala
 Ala Darwaza
 Jamat Khana Mosque was constructed by him at the Dargah of Nizam-ul-Din Auliya.
 Fort of Siri
 Fort of Hazor-Piller
 Hauz Khas
BUILDINGS OF TUGHLAQ RULE
 A town namely Tughlaqabad near Dehli.
 City of Jahanpanah
 Fort of Adilabad.
 Firoz Tughlaq founded Firozabad,
 Hisar Firoza, Fatehabad and Jaurpur.
BUILDINGS OF SAYED AND LODHIS
 The tombs of Mubarak Shah and Muhammad Shah were built during the reign of Sayed’s dynasty
 Tomb of Sikander Lodi in Lodi period.
 The tomb of Bare Khan, Chhote Khan, Bare Gunbad, etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SULTANATE ARCHITECTURE
 The buildings at Delhi, where foreign Muslim builders were available in the largest numbers, display the traditional
characteristics of the Muslims at its highest. Here Hindu craft ship had only a limited play.
 At Juanpur and Deccan, the local style enjoyed greater ascendancy.
 At Bengal, the conquerors not only adopted the established fashion of buildings but also adorned their structures
imitated by the Hindu prototypes.
 Before the arrival of the Muslims, concrete had been in little use in India and was scarcely used. But the
Mohammedans employed the same as freely as the Romans.
 Even in Delhi, the style varied with different periods when Muslim architects and supervisors were not available. The
true Islamic architecture can be seen in Iltutmish period with Ala-ud-Din when the Muslim tradition became firmly
established and ornamentation became an integral part.
 The Tughlaq introduced a new and austere phase, “a severe and puritanical simplicity”. In the Tughlaq architecture,
the Hindu influence not only reduced to minimum but suffered from serious faults.
 Under the Lodhies, there reemerged a vigorous and catholic spirit of design, replete with creative energy and
imagination and almost reminiscent of the Khilji period.
REFORMS OF FIROZ TUGHLAQ
Firoz Tughlaq, cousin of Mohammad Tughlaq, was candidate of throne of Delhi in 1315. It is generally accepted that
Firoz was not aspirant for the throne and accepted it because of persuasion of the nobles. Some historians maintain that
Firoz manipulated circumstances in his favour and became Sultan as according to his aspirations.
The other question regarding the accession of Firoz is that whether he was an usurper. Sir Wellesley Haig described that
the son of Muhammad Tughlaq was declared as Sultan by Khawaja Jahan. But Firoz declared himself as the king and was
an usurper. However, a majority of modern historians did not accept this contention.

REFORMS
Firoz paid attention primarily towards consolidation and reforms instead of conquests. During the last year of
Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign, the administration was disrupted; subjects were mostly dissatisfied within the religious
policy and worst of all was the weak domain of economy. Firoz concentrated his attention to improve these matters.

FINANCE
Firoz imposed only four taxes including Kharaj (land tax), Khumus (1/5 of booty) Jizya (tax on Hindus for providing them
safety in a Muslim state) and Zakat (2, 1/2% of the income of the Muslim).
Firoz imposed jizya even on the Brahamans who were exempted from this tax by Sultan earlier to him. He imposed
irrigation tax on the peasants who used the water of the canals constructed by the state as 1/10 of their products
(usher). Firoz abolished nearly 24 taxes. Officers were ordered to collect only those taxes which were due to the state.
Firoz also reduced revenue from 1/2 to 9 1/5 to 1/3. Revenue was fixed according to rough estimate of production. It
was only a guess work which was supported by the previous revenue orders and records. This system had an advantage
that the income of the state was fixed and was known before the expenses of the state could be adjusted according to
the income. But its disadvantage was that state could not draw any benefit even if there was an increase in production.
OTHER MEASURES
He increased salaries of his officers. He also banned the offering of presents to Sultan by officers or nobles of the state.
He abolished a number of internal trade taxes which resulted in reduction of prices of goods and increase in trade.
All the measures of Firoz were successful. These resulted in increase of prosperity of both the subjects and the state. All
contemporary historians praised the prosperity in his reign. Sharms Siraj Afif is of the view that the necessaries of life
were abundant and grain continued to be cheap throughout the reign of the Firoz.”
JAGIR SYSTEM
Ala-ud-Din abolished Jagirdari system and took back all jagirs from nobles due to the shortcoming of the system. Ghayas-
ud-Din Tughlaq and Muhammad Tughlaq followed him, but Firoz again distributed a large part of his empire among
nobles and civil and military officers. This step was to win over the confidence of the nobles. Although, the system ran
successfully during Firoz’s reign yet in the long run, it contributed to the disintegration of the empire.
IRRIGATION
Firoz constructed five canals for the irrigation purpose. He also got 150 wells dug for the same purpose. According to
Frishta, Firoz also constructed 50 dams and 30 lakes to store water. All these resulted in the extension of area under
cultivation. There was increase in tradition and income of the state in the form of irrigation tax.
PUBLIC WORKS
It is said that Firoz established 300 cities. Important among these were Firozabad. Frishta credited him for the
construction of 50 dams, 40 mosques, 30 colleges, 20 palaces, 100 caravan saries, 20 reservouirs, 100 hospitals, 5
mausoleums, 100 public baths, 10 monumental pillars, 10 public wells and 150 bridges numerous gardens and pleasure
houses he used. He also repaired many historical buildings.
HUMANITARIAN MEASURES
Firoz distributed a large amount of wealth and land among saints and other religious people. He established
employment and marriage bureaus and a separate department called Siwan-e-Khairat which cared for orphans and
bride and arranged for marriage of poor Muslims girls. He established a charitable hospital called Sar-ul-Shafa near
Delhi.

JUSTICE
His administration was based on Islamic laws. He restored the privileges of Qazis. He held his own court for
administering justice and was in the favour of mild punishments. He abolished the practice of torturing the guilty to
extract truth from him.

EDUCATION
Firoz was himself a scholar. His writings were Fitwa-e-Jagandare and Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi respectively. He wrote his
autobiography, Fatuhat-e-Firoz Shahi. There were five libraries with one hundred volumes of Sanskrit texts. He
established on the translated works which dealt with philosophy and astronomy titled as Dalait-e-Firoz Shahi. Sultan
encouraged the study of Islamic laws and established thirty Madras including three colleges.
Teachers were liberally paid and students were awarded stipends. Acceding to a renowned historian, Sultan spent 36
lakh tankas allowances to learned men and the Quran reciters. Literature of that time was highly influenced by Islam.

SLAVES
Firoz was fond of keeping slaves and their number reached 180,000 during his reign. He established a separate
department for their welfare and betterment. This in actual scene was a burden on economy and later these slaves
interfered in the affairs of the state.

ARMY ORGANIZATION
Organization of his army remained weak. Army suffered from two major defects. First, it was difficult especially of
clergies to maintain army. The army was managed by provincial chiefs and governments. Secondly, the military services
were mostly hereditary. It meant if a soldier retired his son and even son-in-law could claim his post. Probably, Sultan
kept thousands of horsemen at the canter and the rest he depended upon his nobles and governors.

RELIGIOUS POLICY
Firoz’s religious policy has become subject to severe criticism mainly by Indian historians. It is said that Sultan not only
supported Islamic law but also accepted laws of Islam as basic principles in administration. His religious policy is also
compared with that of Aurangzeb with only one difference that later by him was a master of Islamic law and former
depended completely on Ulma. In fact, Sultan was not a bigot but his policy was mainly to win the support of the
majority of the Muslims.
He was criticized by Hindu historians because he imposed Jizya on the Brahmans and also claimed in his autobiography
to embrace the religion of the Prophet (PUBH) and proclaimed that everyone who adopted religion, should be exempted
from Jizya.
Matter of fact is that if he imposed Jizya on the Hindus, it is not strange but was simply an Islamic principle but it is on
the record that in personal life Firoz was not a model of correct Islamic living. He continued to drink wine and was also
fond of music. So S.M Ikram has rightly said that his claims cannot be taken as their face value, but Firoz had seen the
fate of Muhammad Tughlaq and was anxious to win the favour of powerful religions leaders and orthodox Muslim
nobility.
ESTIMATE
Historians of his time and modern ones generally hailed policies of Firoz Tughlaq. As a ruler, he was successful. He
brought about prosperity in the empire. Due to these achievements, Henry Eliot and Elphinstone described him as the
Akber of the Sultanate period. Sir Wolsey Haig is also of the opinion that the reign of Firoz touches most important
epoch of the Muslims rule in India before Akber. Inspite of his defects of character, Firoz succeeded in inspiring the
administration and elevating a lot and wining the affection of his subject”
But historians like V.A Smith and Ishwari Persad are not ready to accept him the Akber of sultanate period. Thus Firoz
was not as great as Akber, he was the last important ruler of the Sultanate of Delhi.
One can question of his greatness on the ground that some measure like jagirdari system and hereditary system in army
contributed to the down fall of his empire and he failed to check the process of disintegration of the empire. But one has
to praise the role in establishing peace and order and mild ways of governance. His measures increased prosperity and
confidence of his subjects. His greatness lies in the fact that he cured those wounds which were inflicted by Mohammad
Tughlaq on his subjects. He strengthened the empire that was at the verge of collapse at the time of his succession.
Whatever was the impact of his policies in the long run, he was successful in making his rule a success so far as his role in
the down fall of empire is concerned that was due to his incompetent successor than his policies and reforms.

DARK SIDE OF HIS CHARACTER

 HAUGHTY
 PROUD AND OBSINATE
 MAN OF IDEAS
 HIS FOUNDNESS OF TORTURE AND EXECUTION
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE DELHI SULTANATE
Adab-ul-Mulk wa Kifayat al Mamulak, rules for kings and the welfare of the subjects and Adab al Harb wa al-Shujaah,
rules for welfare and bravery, the two important sources of information about political thought of the Muslims of Delhi.
In the first book, the writer has drawn the administrative pattern set up at Ghazni, following the models of Baghdad and
Bukhara. This book was presented to Iltutmish and his administrative set up was much influenced by this book. Fatwa-e-
Jahandari (ruling on government) is another important work of Zia ud Din Barani. 
This book maintains general policies of the structure of the state. Barani is bitter not only against the Hindus but also
against the Muslims of lower classes. He is of the opinion that low born Muslim should not be taught because this
causes a plenty of disorders. But Barani’s book presents an individual view and made no impression on the course of
trade, Muslim history or political thought. The spirit and sentiments in Barani’s book is incomplete contrast with Fakhri-i-
Muddabir’s book which is inspired by practical idealism. Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi of Afif has dealt in at length with political
philosophies of early Muslim rulers, statesmen and religious leaders.

DELHI SULTANATE NOT A THEOCRACY

 Delhi sultanate was not a theocracy in practice.
 It was not possible due to area directly under control of Khalifa but other historical factors and a large number of
non-Muslims.
 The link with Khalifa was nominal because when Muslim rule was established at Delhi, the temporal authority of
Khalifa was dwindled into mere shadow.
 It was particularly under the Tughlaq that the Muslim jurists first received recognition but the pattern of Muslim rule
in India had become firmly established.
 The rigidity shown by Ulma may be judged by the fact that they accepted the throne of Razia Sultana (1236-40).

THE SULTAN
The title of the sultan signifies a sovereign ruler and makes the transition from the quasi theocratic Khalifa to a secular
institution. The sultan of Delhi had powers and Persian ideas regarding the divine right of Kings. The Hindus were already
used to regard the king a representative of the divine power. There was no permanent law of succession in India during
the Sultanate period. When there was no competent heir to throne, nobility got the right to choose Sultan as in case of
Iltutmish and after him upto Tughlaq. The swords also decided the issue of succession. Ala-ud-Din Khilji, Khizar Khan and
Bahlul had got the throne by sheer force.
Sultan was all powerful despot and enjoyed the supreme military, judicial and administrative power. His order was law in
the state. The other was the consent of nobility but influence of nobility was different in different periods.
Majlis-i-Am or Majlis-i-Khalwat were the forums where Sultan discussed important matters with his advisors. He was not
bound to follow their advice. The concept of election although had been changed with nomination, yet still present to
some extent. According to Tripathi, “In spite of the fact, the theory of election was abandoned. The gulf between the
two principles was bridged by the leading officials and many consulted to this election.” The acceptance of the
governors, the principle nobles of the capital and the chief of the theologians was taken as the indirect consent of the
mass of the people.

DEPARTMENTS OF THE STATE

The naib, the post was created during the region of Sultan Bahram Shah. It was influential during the reigns of weak
rulers. If the king was weak, then the naib enjoyed the powers, otherwise the post was quite ceremonial.
THE VAZIR
The Prime Minister was called the vazir. He was primarily the head of finance department called the Diwan-e-Wazarat.
He was empowered to supervise income and expenditure including all other departments. He was assisted by many
subordinates; most important among them were Naib-Vazir, Mumalik (Accountant General) and Mustaufi- Mumalik.

ARIZ-l-MUMALIK
He had the department of Diwan-i-Arz and was the controller governor of the military department. His function includes
the recruitment of soldiers, fixation of their salaries, inspection and maintenance of discipline.

DIWAN-l-RISALAT
He was the minister of the foreign affairs and maintained diplomatic relations with other countries and welfare of
diplomats.

DIWAN-l-KHAS
He was head of Diwan-e-Insha. All kinds of correspondence between Sultan and others were carried on by his
department. He was assisted by a large number of dabirs (writers).

SADAR-US-SADUR
He was minister of the religious affairs. The main duty was to propagate Islam and protection of the privileges of the
Muslims. He also controlled the funds of Zakat. He looked after the distribution of charity by the state. The Muslim
scholars were also financed by him.

QAZI-UL-QAZAT
He was highest officer of the state after Sultan. Mostly the officers of Sadar us Sadur and Qazi ul Qazat were held by one
person.

BARID-l-MUMALIK
He was the head of the intelligence and posted department.

AMIR-I-HAJIB
He was the master and organizer of royal ceremonies. All petitions were presented of Sultan by Amir-l-Hijab.

WAKIL-I-DAD
He was to converse with Wakil-i-Sulatanate of Sayyed’s dynasty and Wakil-i-Mutliq of the Mughals, he was the controller
of the royal household.

AMIR-I-SIKHAR
He arranged the hunting parties for the king.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
The provincial administrative structure did not crystallize till the days of Sher Shah and Akber. During sultanate period,
Sultanate was divide into lqtas (regions). The head of iqtas has various names including Muqti or Wali or Nazim. The
main duty of the Muqtis was to maintain the peace, establishment and extension of authority of government and
recovery of the state dues. The governors were in charge of big or more important provinces exercised wider power.

PROVINCIAL AUTONOMY
The government enjoyed greater autonomy in administrative affairs. It had no authority to interfere in judicial affairs.
Department of intelligence was also under center. Provincial head was primarily concerned with military and revenue
departments. The province was sub-divided into ‘Shiqs’ which was equal to modern commissioner’s division. The Shiqs
were under Shiqdars. Head of the each ‘Parghnah’ was Chaudhry while Muqaddim was the head of village.
The most important feature of Muslim administration in India was the local autonomy enjoyed by the rural areas. This
was introduced by Mohammad bin Qasim and was maintained by Sultans of Delhi. The Hindu chiefs enjoyed such an
important position in rural life that too many felt as they were personally governing, where the Sultan was almost a
mythical figure.

FINANCE
There were various sources of income of the Delhi Sultans. They are given as under:

KHARAJ (LAND TAX)

This was the mainstay of the finance of the government. It was charged from Muslims and non-Muslims ranging from
1/5 to 1/2 under various reigns. Balban paid much attention towards sound and peaceful peasanty.

KHAMUS (1/5 OF THE WAR SPOILS)

It also includes the products of mines. According to Islamic law, 1/5 of the booty goes to state and rest 4/5 to soldiers.
But all Sultans, except Firoz, collected 4/5 to state.

JIZYA
his was the religious tax on non-Muslims which they had to pay for their protection. It is exempted if a non-Muslim
undertook military duties in an Islamic state. It was common in middle ages for military needs. According to Tripathi,
Jizya served the purpose of what called ‘common penny’ in Germany and ‘virtual money’ in England.
The Jizya was recovered in the following three categories:
 Richest paid four diners per head per annum.
 Middle paid two diners per head per annum.
 Lowest paid one diner per head per annum.
 Many people were exempted of this.

ZAKAT
This was a religious tax which was imposed only on the Muslims and consisted of 2-1/2 of the Money,7-1/2 tola of gold
or 52 1/2 tola of silver kept for a year. Separate treasury was maintained for Zakat.
IRRIGATION
It was imposed by Firoz Tughlaq as 1/10 of the product on the peasants who used the water of the canals developed by
the state. Ala ud Din also imposed two new taxes i.e. house tax and grazing tax.
ARMY
 The soldiers recruited by the center.
 Ala ud Din kept 4,75,000 standing army.
 This army was maintained by Ariz-i-Mumalik.
 There was no regular course of training.
Balban took measures to train his army for hard life by taking them to hunting parties. Soldiers were recruited by
provincial nobles and governors. Nobles were assigned jagirs to finance their troops. Some soldiers were recruited only
in times of war. There were three parts of army:
CAVALRY
This formed the backbone of the army. The cavalry men were of two kinds: the Sawar (having one horse) and do-aspe
(having two horses). The horses were imported from Arabia. Ala-ud-Din started the practice of brading horses and that
of keeping Hulya and Dagh; this was to check the replacement of both.
WAR ELEPHANTS
Only Sultan had the privilege to keep elephants. There was separate department for the training and maintenance of
elephants. Elephants were armored during the course of battle.
INFANTARY: The foot soldiers were called “Payaks”. They were aimed with swords, spears and bows and arrows.

ARTILLERY
There was nothing like modern artillery. However, there was a sort of mechanical artillery through which fire-balls, fire-
arrows, snakes, stones etc., were hurled on the enemy with the help of the gun-powder.
In the provincial kingdoms of Gujarat and Deccan, cannon were properly developed. Army of the Sultan consisted of
different modalities and diverse faiths, the Persians, the Afghans, the Mongols, the Indian Muslims and the Hindus etc.
Most of the soldiers were Muslims and were united on the basis of Islam.

DIVISION OF ARMY
Military grades were organized on decimal basis. A Sarkhail had ten horse men; a Sipah Salar directed ten Sarkhails; an
Amir had ten Sipah Salars; a Malik has authority over ten Amirs and a Khan’s forces contained nearest those of ten
Maliks.

NAVY
Sultan maintained a large number of boats primarily for transport purpose and fighting as well.

DIVISION OF THE ARMY IN THE BATTLE FIELD

Army was divided into four parts during the war: the center, the left, the right and the reserved. Elephants were kept in
the center and space was left for the foot soldiers. Way was also kept open for the attack of the cavalry.
 The forts were built and maintained.
 The Sultan was the supreme commander.
 In Jagirdari system, army was more loyal to noble than to king.
 It lacked effective use of gunpowder.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM
 Diwan-e-Mazalim presided by the ruler to his representative.
 Qadis Courts.
 The Courts of Muhtasibs The third type of courts gained power under Tughlaq and Aurangzeb in India.
 Police courts (Shurta).

AMIR-I-DAD
Amir-l-Dad functioned as supreme judge throughout the Muslim rule in the absence of the Sultan. He president over the
court of complaint and justice.He also controlled he police and the Muhtasib. His main duty was to deal with civil
disputes among the Muslims, but later his jurisdiction widened and embraced the supervision of Awqaf. They were
appointed by the central government. The Qazis were completely independent of governors. The chief Qazi was also the
Sultan’s legal adviser in matters relating to Shariah. Most of the Sultans took steps to uphold the prestige of Qazi. Even
the powerful Sultan like Ale-ud-Din Khilji in spite of condemnation by Mughis ud Din rewarded Qazi with a Khilafat. The
main reason of independent judiciary was the pressure of public opinion.
MONGOL POLICY OF SULTANATE OF DELHI
The Mongols were cruel tribes of Central Asia. They were the natives of Mongolia. They were a very brave, fearless and
uncivilized people who took pleasures in plundering, burning and killing of the people. They were called by the name of
Satan or Datiya. They invaded India during the reign of deferent Sultans of Delhi. When the Mongols invaded India and
different rulers of India treated them, an elaborate picture in this respect is given as under:

ILTUTMISH AND CHANGIZ KHAN

In 1221, they arrived at the borders of India for the first time under the famous leader Changiz khan. He defeated the
king of Khuarzim near the Indus River. The king requested Iltutmish to provide him refuge for sometime in India but the
latter acted wisely and cleverly. He put him off on the pretext that the climate of Delhi would not suit him. In this way,
he saved his country from Mongols’ invasion. On the other hand, Changiz Khan and his soldiers could not bear the heat
of Indian’s summer and returned towards the western parts of the river.

MONGOLS INVASION IN THE REIGN OF BEHRAM SHAH AND MASUD

A number of Mongol families settled in the region across the Indus River which was a permanent source of Trouble for
India. They invaded India whenever Delhi was weak or confusion and disorder prevailed in Delhi kingdom. In 1241 A.D.,
after twenty years of Changiz Khan’s invasion, the Mongol swooped upon the Punjab and destroyed the beautiful city of
Lahore. In 1245 AD, the Mongols under Mangu, the grandson of Changiz Khan, during the reign of Masud once agian
marched against India. They invaded Sindh and beseeched the fort of ”Uch” The Sultan Ala-ud-Din Masud Shah sent
troops under the command of Balban to resist them. The Mongols suffered a disastrous defeat and they felt from the
battlefield with heavy losses.

NASIR-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD & THE MONGOLS

In 1257 AD, they again fell upon India under their leader Nuyin Sari in the reign of Nasir-ud-Din. The Sultan sent Balban
who was now the Prime Minister to check their advance. The Mongols fled back to their invasions and put the old ones
in proper state of repairing. He checked the Mongols invasions by filling these forts with armed soldiers.
Halaku, the other grandson of Changiz Khan, sent his representatives to the court of Nasir-ud-Din in 1259 A.D. Who
accorded him a cordial welcome. This gesture of friendship proved to be very useful because no more Mongols invasion
occurred in his reign.

BALBAN AND MONGOLS

When Balban himself became the Sultan, the Mongols once again invaded India in 1279 and 1285 A.D. In order to check
their invasion, Balban made an extensive plan and systemized his frontier policy.
 Balban organized a strong and mighty army.
 Old and weak ones replaced by young and strong soldiers.
 Sultan vowed that he would not move out of Delhi for further conquest.
 Multan, Diapur, Samana etc., provinces were declared as frontier provinces.
 Special arrangements were made for the manufacture of war arms and weapons.
 A line of strong and durable forts was built between the capital and the Northwest frontier.
 Balban appointed very brave and trusty men to work in the frontier provinces. At that time, provinces were put
under the charge of Sher Khan Sunkar, a younger brother of Sultan and so many.
Due to this systematic policy, the country enjoyed peace and order for a considerably long time. In 1279, when
Mongols attacked, Mubarak came from Delhi to help the prince Muhammad. The Mongols had to return to their
country with heavy losses. These Mongol invasions had very deep effect on Balban’s policy. He could not leave Delhi
for the conquest of far-flung regions of India.
JALAL-UD-DIN KHILJI & MONGOLS
In reign of Jalal ud Din Khilji, the Mongols invaded India repeatedly. They were in great number under Abdullah in 1292
A.D. The Mongol penetrated far into the interior of the country. But they were defeated and captured in thousands.
They were allowed to go back safely to their country and for those who wished to settle in India, the Sultan set up a
settlement near Delhi.

ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI & MONGOLS

In the reign of Ala-ud-Din Khilji, the Mongol attacked five times on Delhi. The most significant attack was made in 1299
A.D., when twenty thousand troops in numbers marched against India to conquer her. The leader was Qutlagh
Khuawaja. Many ministers and nobles advised the Sultan to make peace with them but he replied, “If I were to follow
your advice, how could I show my face, how go into my Harem. Now come what may, tomorrow I must march into the
battle field,” and severely defeated the Mongols. Alaud-Din adopted the Balban’s Mongol policy and took all those
measure as taken by Balban and devoted his personal attention to this side.

MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ & MONGOLS

When Muhammad Tughlaq changed his capital from Delhi to Devigri in 1326 A.D, Mongol found suitable opportunity for
invading India. They began to lead forceful invasions against the Punjab. In 1328-29 A.D, they under their leader-
Tarnashirin Khan over running Multan and Lahore, arrived in the vicinity of Delhi. Muhammad Tughlaq realized his
mistake of changing the capital. Frishta writes that Sultan had to send away the Mongols with large amount of money
and costly presents. Than after 1330 A.D., the Mongol invasion almost stopped and the people heaved a sigh of relief.
Again after two thousand year in 1524 A.D., theses invasion under Babar were renewed in the reign of Ibrahim Lodhi
when as a result, the foundation of Mongol rule was laid in India. The continuous Mongols invasions in India created
troubles not only for the Sultan but also for the people of India who suffered on account of these in invasions. What
were the causes of so many invasions on India; the historians could not satisfactory answer the question. The immediate
cause of these attacks might be that the Mongol werse warriors and war-some was in their instinct. Economic motives
can also be ruled out in this respect because India was a wealthy country.
MAHMUD GHAZNAVI:
MAHMUD’S CHARACTER:
 Medium height but strong built.
 He did not look like a king. He was a very ambitious person. He was great general and great soldier.
 He was extremely intelligent and shrewd. He possessed cool courage, prudence and resourcefulness.
 He was an expert in statecraft.

AS A SOLDIER AND GENERAL:

 Mahmud was endowed with genius of war. He was scientific general, skillful in planning and thorough in execution.
 He made fullest preparations and plans before undertaking any invasion.
 His army consisted of heterogeneous elements such as Arabs, Afghanis, Turks and Hindus but he showed wonderful
ability in welding together these elements into a powerful and invincible unit.
 As a conqueror, his purpose was to achieve fame and glory and he had achieved it.
 Mahmud was a seasoned soldier. Fear did not find any place in his heart.
 His army won against the rulers of India ‘like comb through a poll of hair.”
 It was no small achievement to “develop a small mountain principality of Ghazni into a large and prosperous empire
by sheer force of arms.” He never shrank from war; rather he took delight in it.
 His military exploits in the east effaced the glories of Alexander’s conquest from the minds of many.

AS AN EMPIRE BUILDER:
Mahmud was not only a soldier and general, but also a great empire-builder. It has been alleged that he paid no
attention to the building of his empire. This view of the critics is not correct. His aim was to conquer the entire territory
of his enemies and destroy their power and he was certainly successful in achieving this object. The hostile neighboring
chiefs were duly punished and replaced by others who were friendly and loyal to him.
“His rule was so firmly established in the Punjab” that his family was able to take shelter at Lahore after their departure
from Ghazni. He found Ghazni a petty kingdom but it turned it into a vast empire. Before him no Arab and Turkish rulers
of Central Asia could conquer further than Herat, Kabul and Ghazni. He was the first of the Muslim rulers to invade India
from North-West Frontier which opened the gates of India to his co-religionists.

AS A RULER:
As a ruler, Mahmud was just, firm and generous. He had a well organized and well-conducted government. He divided
his empire into provinces, each under a governor. He exercised strict supervision over the administration of provinces so
that the governors did not oppress the people. He was particularly famous for his administration of justice. He meted
out justice to all irrespective of caste and creed, rank and station. Even his own sons and relatives were not spared from
the law of the Shariah, if they committed offence.
Utbi, his court historian hails him, “as the glorious lord of the people who displayed equality between the widow and the
wealthy, so that the boasting and oppression was closed”.
Mahmud was very strict in the administration of justice. Once upon a time a person came to the Sultan with a complaint
against his nephew, when Mahmud found his nephew guilty; he cut off his head with his own hands. It is said that a
merchant brought a suit against Prince Masud, the son of Sultan Mahmud. The only way for the prince to escape from
appearing before the Qazi was that he paid the merchant his money.
CRITICISM OF MAHMUD AS A RULER:
According to some historians Sultan Mahmud was not a constructive genius nor a far-sighted statesman. Lanepoole says,
“We hear of no laws or institutions or methods of government that sprang from his initiative. Outward order and
security was all he attempted to attain in his unwieldy empire, to organize and consolidate was not in his scheme”.
Dr. Ishwari Prasad corroborates this view when he says that the empire of Mahmud “was a huge agglomerator of people
who could no be held in check only by Argus-eyed Sultan”. That was why his empire crumbled into pieces after his
death. This view of the historian is not correct according to C. V. Vaidya. There are no records to disapprove the
statement “that it was a well-organized and well-conducted government.” The reason why the empire fell was not the
incapability of Mahmud to organize and consolidate. It was rather due to the weakness and incapability of Mahmud’s
successors who lacked the qualities of generalship and statesmanship.
Patron of Arts and Letter:
Mahmud was great pattern of art and letters. Great architects, poets and artists flocked to his court. According to
Lanepoole, “From the cities of the Oxus and the shores of Caspian from Persia, and Khorasan, he pressed into his service
the lights of oriental letters, and compelled them, not unwillingly, to revolve around his sun like planets in his firmament
of glory”.
Utbi was a great literary figure of the time of Mahmud. He was his court historian. His kitab-ul-Yamni or Tarikh-e-Yamni
is one of the most important authorities on the life and work of Mahmud.
Firdausi was the most famous poet at the court of Mahmud. He was the author of Shahnama which is one of the best
pieces of literature. Firdausi has been described as “the immortal Homer of the East”. According to Ishwari Prasad, “The
Shahnama has placed Mahmud among the immortals of the history”.
Alberuni also belonged to the court of Mahmud. He was a great mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and Sanskrit
scholar. He has given a full account of the social and political conditions of India.
Mahmud patronized artists and architects. A large number of Madrassas, Khankahs and mosques were built in Ghazni.
The Celestial Bride which is described as “a wonder of the East”, was one of the most important buildings of Mahmud. It
was a big mosque which was surrounded be 3,000 quarters for the residence of the researchers and students of the
university.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE CAMPAIGNS OF SULTAN MAHMUD:

Mahmud was a man of ambition and enterprise. On receiving the recognition of his sovereignty from al-Qadir Billah, the
Khalifah of Baghdad, “he made it obligatory on himself to undertake every year an expedition to Hind.” From 1000 to
1026 Mahmud led a good many expeditions to Hind. According to Sir Henry Elliot, Mahmud led as many as seventeen
expeditions; it is accepted by the most of the historians.
PROMINENT INVASION OF MAHMUD:
1. CAPTURE OF FRONTIER FORTS:
The first expedition of Mahmud which was undertaken in 1000 A.D. against the frontier towns of the Khyber Pass was an
important one. During this expedition he captured a few forts and towns of the Khyber Pass.
2. DEFEAT OF JAYPAL OF HINDUSHAHI KINGDOM:
Second expedition of the Mahmud was against his father’s enemy, Jaypal, the king of Hindushahi kingdom. A fierce
battle was fought at Peshawar in November, 1001 in which the Muslims came out victorious. Jaypal could not tolerate
this insult. He after appointing his son Anandpal as the next king, burnt himself to death.
3. CONQUEST OF MULTAN:
The fourth expedition of Mahmud was led against the Muslim ruler of Multan. Abul Fateh Daud the ruler of Multan had
friendly relation with Anandpal. In 1006, Mahmud marched across the Punjab, Anandpal was defeated and driven to
Kashmir hills. Mahmud than invaded Multan. Daud fled, and Multan was captured. Sukhpal or Nawasa Shah, a grandson
of Jaypal was left in charge of Multan.
4. BATTLE OF WAIHIND:
The sixth expedition of Mahmud was led against Anandpal 1008. He organized a confederacy against the Muslims in
which the great Hindu Rajas of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Qanauj, Delhi and Ajmer had joined. Mahmud had never met
such a vast army organized by the Hindu confederates. The Khokars, a tribe of Punjab also joined the Rajputs in their
struggle against the Muslims. It was a challenge to Mahmud. He met the huge Hindu army near Waihind. The bear-
footed and bear-headed Khokars fought very bravely against the Muslims. It was a critical moment for the Muslims. but
fortunately the elephant of Anandpal got frightened and fled away from the battle-field. This caused a great confusion
and panic among the Hindu soldiers who also ran away from the battle-field. Mahmud won victory.
5. CONQUEST OF PUNJAB:
Trilochanpal son of Anandpal, after exile again came to Punjab and established himself in the Sivalik hills. He entered
into an alliance with Vidyadhar, the chandela ruler of Bundelkhan. In order to break this alliance, Mahmud again came to
Indo-Pakistan, and finally defeated Trilochanpal. The result of this expedition ‘was more enduring than those of others’.
He annexed the Punjab to his dominions and entrusted a regular Amir with the government of the province.
6. EXPEDITION AGAINST QANAUJ:
The next important expedition of Mahmud was directed against Qanaj, the imperial capital of Hindustan. In 1018.
Mahmud at the head of a large army, set out from Ghazni. He captured all the forts on the way. The Raja of Baran or
Bulandshahar, offered his submission and embraced Islam along with ten thousand men. Mahmud appeared before the
gate of Qanauj in 1019, January, Rajaypal, the Pratihara ruler of Qanauj submitted to Mahmud without any fighting.
7. CAUSES OF ATTACK ON SOMNATH:
After the fall of Punjab, the Hindu think tank assembled at Somnath - which was more of a political center than a temple
- to plan a big war against Mahmud. He took all the Rajas and Maharajas by surprise when he attacked Somnath and
crushed the Hindu headquarter of political intrigue. With the destruction of Somnath he broke the backbone of the
Hindus in the region and thus had no need to attack India again.
The most momentous expedition of Sultan Mahmud was indeed the capture of Somnath in Kathiwar. Regarding the
cause of this expedition, the famous historian, Ibn-ul-Athis says that, “when Mahmud of Ghazni was gaining victory after
victory in India, the Hindu began to say that the success of Mahmud was due to displeasure of the Somnath god with the
inhabitants of the defeated territories”. At this, Mahmud decided to conquer Somnath in order to prove the futility of
their belief. This view is corroborated by Ibn Khaldun, Farishta and Wolseley Haig.
Towards the close of 1025, Mahmud set from Ghazni and passing through Multan and the desert of Rajputana, he stood
before the gates of Somnath on the 9th of January 1026. The Hindus offered a stubborn resistance, but were defeated.
“The expedition to Somnath” says Dr. M. Nazim, “is one of greatest feats of Military adventure in the history of Islam”.
8. LAST EXPEDITION:
The last expedition was undertaken against the Jats of Salt Range in 1027 who had molested the Muslim army on its
return journey from Somnath. The Jats were defeated and many of them were put to death.
ESTIMATE OF SULTAN MAHMUD:
He came to South Asia seventeen times and went back to Ghazni every time with a great victory. He fought against the
strong forces of Jaipal, Annadpal, Tarnochalpal, Kramta and the joint forces of Hindu Rajas and Maharajas but all of them
were forced to flee away from the battlefield due to Mahmud's war strategy as a general.
According to S. M. Jaffar, “Mahmud was endowed with a genius of war. He was a scientific general, skillful in planning
and thorough in execution”. His army consisted of heterogeneous elements such as Arabs, Afghanis, Turks and Hindus
but he showed wonderful ability in welding together these elements into a powerful and invincible unit.
NATURE OF THE MAHMUD’S INVASIONS:
Sultan Mahmud made seventeen expeditions into Indo-Pakistan and conquered a number of places in the sub-continent.
But he didn’t establish his rule over them or annex any part of the conquered territories except the Punjab. Various
opinions have been expressed by the historians about the motives of Sultan Mahmud’s invasions.
MAHMUD ONE OF THE GREATEST CONQUEROR:
One of the most controversial personalities in the history of South Asia, Mahmud Ghaznavi is known as one of the
greatest conquerors the world has ever seen. He was one of the very few leaders who were never defeated in a
battlefield. Unlike other great conquerors like Alexander and Chengez Khan, Mahmud did not leave the areas conquered
to the mercy of his soldiers. After becoming the first Muslim ruler to conquer Northern Punjab, he consolidated his rule
in the area and established his provincial headquarters at Lahore. He established law and order in the areas that he
ruled, giving special attention to the people he ruled. Professor Sharma is of the view that, “Mahmud was a seasoned
soldier. Fear did not find any place in his heart. His army won against the rulers of India ‘like comb through a poll of
hair.” It was no small achievement to “develop a small mountain principality of Ghazni into a large and prosperous
empire by sheer force of arms.” He never shrank from war; rather he took delight in it. His military exploits in the east
effaced the glories of Alexander’s conquest from the minds of many.

MAHMUD FORERUNNER OF GHOURI:

The establishment of Muslim rule in Punjab is a significant event in the history of Islam in Sub-continent. Muslims gained
their first foothold in Northern Indian. The conquest of Punjab also paved the way for other conquerors like Muhammad
Ghuri. After the death of Mahmud, the Ghaznavid dynasty lost much of its vigor; yet during the days of his son Masud
and grandson Mahmud, Lahore remained an important province of the Ghaznavid Empire. Later, the Ghaznavid rulers
moved their headquarter from Ghazni to Punjab and ruled Peshawar, Lahore and Multan till the last half of 12th century
when Muhammad Ghouri defeated them.

AN OVERVIEW OF MUHAMMAD GHOURI:

Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam, better known in history as Muhammad Ghouri, became the ruler of Ghazni in 1173. He
was an ambitious king and fired with the love of conquest and power. The Ghourid wanted to establish an empire but
their successive defeats at the hands of Shah of Khwarzim forced them to give up the idea of founding an empire in
Central Asia and they now turned their attention towards India. Having established himself at Ghazni, he turned his
attention to the fertile plains of the sub-continent. The Ghaznavid who were defeated and ousted from Ghazni took
shelter in the Punjab. They became so strong in the country that their very presence was regarded as source of future
troubles to the Ghourids. Hence the destruction of the Ghaznavid power in the Punjab demanded the immediate
attention of the Ghouri king. India was divided into many warring States and there was no political unity in the country.
Muhammad Ghouri found in the disunited condition of India a brilliant prospect of his success.

CAMPAIGNS OF MUHAMMAD GHOURI:

1. CONQUEST OF MULTAN AND UCH: (1175-76)
First invasion of Muhammad Ghouri was directed against Multan which was at the time ruled bby Karamathians. He
captured the city and appointed his own governor there. From Multan he proceeded to Uch and Sind which was
captured after sometimes.
2. UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPT ON GUJRAT:
Fin 1178, Muhammad Ghouri led an expedition against Anhilwara, capital of Gujrat but he was defeated by Bhim II, the
Vaghela king of Anhilwara.
3. CONQUEST OF THE PUNJAB:
Finding it impossible to conquer India through Sind and Multan, Muhammad Ghouri thought of conquering the Punjab
which was the key of Hindustan. After a few years of war, Khusrau Malik, the last ruler of Ghaznavid dynasty, was
captured and imprisoned in Ghur. The Punjab was then annexed to his empire and the Ghaznavid rule in West Pakistan
came to an end.
4. FIRST BATTLE OF TARAIN: (1191)
After the fall of Ghaznavids, Muhammad Ghouri had to face the opposition of the Rajputs. The rapid success of
Muhammad Ghouri alarmed Pirthviraj, the Chauhan ruler of Delhi and Ajmer. He gathered a big force and marched
against the Ghouri chief. In 1191 both the armies met in the field of Tarain, near Thaneswar and a battle was fought in
which the Muslims were defeated and routed. But Muhammad Ghouri did not lose heart at this failure.
5. SECOND BATTLE OF TARAIN: (1192)
Having organized a strong army, Muhammad Ghouri invaded in 1192. He along with his force reached a place near
Tarain and encamped there. Prithviraj appealed to the Rajput princes to join him against the Muslim invader. It is said
that as many as 150 Rajput princes with the exception of Raja of Qanauj lent him their help.
Muhammad Ghouri adopted a new tactics of attacks. He divided his army into four divisions and ordered one division to
engage the Rajputs at one time while the others were resting. The division was further ordered to pretend or feign flight
after sometime fighting. The Rajputs fought bravely but the new tactics of Muhammad Ghouri proved to be too strong
for them. Prithviraj tried to run away from the battle field but he was captured and put to death.
6. EXPEDITION AGAINST JAI CHAND OF QANAUJ:
In 1194, Muhammad Ghouri again came to India in order to subdue Jai Chand of Qanauj, the mortal enemy of Pirthviraj.
Qutb-ud-Din joined his master with his force. Jai Chand met the combined forces of his enemy and was defeated in a
battle near at Chandwar. The victorious army then proceeded to Benares and captured it.
According to Professor S. R. Sharma, “The fall of Jai Chand at Chandwar made Muhammad the master of the political as
well as the religious capitals of Hindustan, Qanauj and Benares.
7. CONQUEST OF BIHAR AND BENGAL BY BAKHTIAR KHILJI:
Ikhtiyar-ud-Din Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khilji, a lieutenant of Qutb-ud-Din, was extending the Turkish supremacy over
Eastern India. Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khilji was an outstanding figure in the history of Bengal. He marched towards
Nadia, the capital of Bengal, with such rapidity that only 18 horsemen could pace with him. He was so bold that he did
not hesitate to launch an attack with this small force. On hearing the news of his attack, Lakshman Sen who was taking
his meal, fled away by a back door and took shelter at Vikrampur near Sonargaon. Bengal was captured and the seat of
government was transferred to Lakhnauti or Gaur. The brave soldier died on his return journey from Tibet to Devkot in
1206.

ESTIMATE OF SULTAN MUHAMMAD GHOURI:

Muhammad Ghouri was a great politician and a far-sighted statesman. He fully realized the rotten political condition of
India and therefore decided to establish a permanent kingdom here.

NATURE OF GHOURI’S CONQUEST:

His first and foremost aim was to found a permanent Muslim empire in Indian and he furnished during his life time all
the resources required for the maintenance of his empire. He trained under his guidance a number of able
administrators who amply justified his confidence and trust.

THE FOUNDER OF MUSLIM EMPIRE IN INDIA:

Though the life of Muhammad Ghouri came to a tragic end, the traditions established by him were continued under his
able successors, the Turkish slaves who ruled after him. He lives in history not a mere conqueror, but as an empire
builder, Muhammad Ghouri is, therefore, justly called the founder of the Muslim Empire in Indo-Pakistan.
MUGHALS
 ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
Subah was the term for a province in the Mughal Empire. The word is derived from Arabic. The governor of a Subah was
known as a subahdar, which later became subahdar to refer to an officer in the Indian Army. The Subahs were
established by Badshah (emperor) Akbar during his administrative reforms of 1572–1580; initially they numbered 12,
but his conquests expanded the number of Subahs to 15 by the end of his reign. Subahs were divided into Sarkars, or
districts. Sarkars were further divided into Mahals. His successors, most notably Aurangzeb, expanded the number of
Subahs further through their conquests. As the empire began to dissolve in the early 18th century, many Subahs became
effectively independent, or were conquered by the Marathas or the British.
The original twelve Subahs created as a result of ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM BY AKBAR:
1. Agra Subah 5. Bihar Subah 9. Illahabad Subah
2. Ajmer Subah 6. Delhi Subah 10. Lahore Subah
3. Awadh Subah 7. Gujarat Subah 11. Malwa Subah
4. Bengal Subah 8. Kabul Subah 12. Multan Subah
 ECONOMY
o Coinage
The Mughals adopted and standardized the rupee (silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sher
Shah Suri during his brief rule. The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of
Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s. The dam's value was later worth 30 to
a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s.
o Labour
The Mughal Empire's workforce in the early 17th century consisted of about 64% in the primary sector
(including agriculture) and 36% in the secondary and tertiary sectors, including over 11% in the secondary
sector (manufacturing) and about 25% in the tertiary sector (service). Real wages and living standards in
18th-century Mughal Bengal and South India were higher than in Britain, which in turn had the highest living
standards in Europe.
o Agriculture
Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including
food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By
the mid-17th century Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize
and tobacco. The Mughal administration emphasized agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal
emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The Mughal
government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop
yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.
o Industrial manufacturing
 Textile industry
The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton
textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins. The cotton
textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.
 Shipbuilding industry
Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centered in the Bengal province.
In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, the annual output of Bengal alone
totaled around 2,232,500 tons, larger than the combined output of the Dutch (450,000–550,000 tons),
the British (340,000 tons), and North America (23,061 tons).
 DEMOGRAPHICS
o Population
India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and
demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60% to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.
The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history
prior to the Mughal era. The increased population growth rate was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms
that intensified agricultural production. By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698
villages in the Mughal Empire.
o Urbanization
Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for
its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centers. This was higher than the percentage of the urban
population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century; the
level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.
Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the
empire's total population. This was larger the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a
century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total
population, while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800
and 9.3% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era. By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of
23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.

 CULTURE
 Centralized, imperialistic government that brought together many smaller kingdoms.
 Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and culture.
 Revival of old trade routes to Arab and Turkic land.
 The development of Mughlai cuisine. The development of Urdu, and by extension Hindustani.
 Landscape and Mughal gardening
 The Mughals built Maktab schools in every province under their authority, where youth were taught ISLAM.
 Mughal Architecture evolved with the influence of Indian architecture.
o Art and architecture
 Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan  The Red Fort
 Humayun's Tomb  The Agra Fort
 Fatehpur Sikri  The Lahore Fort.
o Language
 Persian (Official language)  Arabic
 Urdu.  Turkic
 Nastaliq  Modern Hindi
 MILITARY
o Gunpowder warfare
Mughal India was one of the three Islamic Gunpowder Empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid
Persia. By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against
Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for
deploying them.
Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to
the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated.
Shirazi, a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer worked for Akbar developed an early multi gun shot. As
opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively,
Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be
considered a version of a volley gun.
By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular,
became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad. Gujarat supplied Europe saltpeter for use in
gunpowder warfare during the 17th century, and Mughal Bengal and Malwa also participated in saltpeter
production. The Dutch, French, Portuguese and English used Chāpra as a center of saltpeter refining
o Rocketry and explosives
In the 16th century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly
against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal. In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege
of Bidar. Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was
mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard
fighting Bidar was captured by the victorious Mughals.
Later, the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during the Siege of Jinji by the
progeny of the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali's father Fatah Muhammad the constable at Budikote, commanded
a corps consisting of 50 rocket men for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realized the importance of rockets and
introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets. These rockets turned fortunes in favour of the
Sultanate of Mysore during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, particularly during the Battle of Pollilur. In turn,
the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic
Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States

 SCIENCE
o Astronomy
 Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi.
 Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories, but were unable to do so.
 The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were
mainly derived from Islamic astronomy.
 In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where
Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.
 Several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs.
o Chemistry
 Alkali and soaps to produce shampoo.
o Metallurgy
 The seamless celestial globe. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern
metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams.