Northern Technical University

Engineering Technical College

Building and Construction Department

Engineering mathematics
Subject Lecture : ‫حارث علي‬
Stage : Second – A
Subject : Complex Numbers
‫منهل عمار محمد‬
Basic Deflnitions 2

1 Basic Deflnitions
⁄ Deflnition 1 (Complex Number). A complex number is a number given by the expression

z = a + i b; (1)

where a; b 2 R, the set of real numbers, and i is the so{called imaginary unit, which is deflned as

p 2
i= ¡1 or i = ¡1: (2)
The set of all complex numbers is denoted as C. Further, a is called the real part, and b, the
imaginary part of the complex number z. They are denoted, respectively, as follows:

a = Re (z); b = Im (z):

If Re (z) = 0, the complex number z is said to be purely imaginary, while if Im (z) = 0, z is

purely real. Thus, all real numbers are also complex, i.e.

R‰C:

Two complex numbers z = a + i b and z = a ¡ i b that difier solely in the sign of the imaginary
part are called conjugate complex numbers.
We agree upon the two following basic deflnitions:

1. Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + i b1 and z2 = a2 + i b2 are equal, z1 = z2, if and only if

a1 = a2; and b1 = b2;

that is, if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal.

2. A complex number z is equal to zero,

z=a+ib=0

if and only if a = 0, b = 0.

1.1 Representation of complex numbers

1. Geometric representation of complex numbers. Any complex number z = a + i b may be
represented in the xy plane as a point P (a; b) with coordinates a and b. Conversely, every
point M(x; y) of the plane is associated with a unique complex number z = x + i y. Thus, there
is a one{to{one correspondence between the set of complex numbers, C, and the xy plane.
This is symbolically shown in Figure 1. The plane on which the complex numbers are
represented is called the plane of the complex variable, z, or the complex plane, or the
Argand plane (Figure 1 the encircled z symbol indicates that this plane is the complex plane).
Points of the complex plane lying on the x{axis correspond to real numbers (Im (z) = 0).
Points on the y{axis represent purely imaginary numbers, since Re (z) = 0. Therefore, in the
complex plane, the y axis is called the imaginary axis, and the x axis is the real axis. ¡!
Joining the point P (a; b) to the origin O, we get a vector OA. In certain instances, it is ¡!
convenient to treat the vector OA itself as the geometric representation of the complex
number z = a + i b.

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Basic Deflnitions 3

y
y z
z
P (a; b)

z=a+ib P (a; b)
C b
O x
’

O a
Set of complex numbers x

Figure 1: The correspondence between the set of complex numbers and Figure 2: The polar and the vec-
xy plane tor representation of the complex
number z = a + i b.

2. Trigonometric form of a complex number. Denote by ’ and r (where r ‚ 0) the polar

coordinates of the point P (a; b) and consider the origin as the pole and the positive direction
of the x axis, the polar axis. Then (Figure 2) we have the familiar relationships

a = r cos ’; b = r sin ’

and, hence, the complex number may be written in the form

z = a + i b = r cos ’ + i r sin ’ or z = r(cos ’ + i sin ’): (3)

The expression on the right is called the trigonometric form (or polar form) of the complex
number z = a + i b. r is termed the modulus of the complex number z, while ’ is the argument
(or phase) of the complex number z. They are designated as

r = jzj; ’ = arg(z):
The quantities r and ’ are expressed in terms of a and b as follows:
b
p ¡1
r = a2 + b2; ’ = tan a:
To summarize, then,
p 2 + b2
b
arg(z) = arg(a + i b) = tan
¡
jz j = ja + i bj = a 1
a
9
=
(4)
;
The argument of a complex number is considered positive if it measured from the positive x
axis in the counterclockwise, and negative, in the opposite sense. The argument ’ is obviously
not determined uniquely but up to term 2k… where k is an integer.
| Remark 1. The value of ’ satisfying the inequalities ¡… < ’ • … is termed as the principal
argument.
| Remark 2. The conjugate complex numbers z = a + i b and z = a ¡ i b have equal moduli jzj =
jzj and their arguments are equal in magnitude but difier in sign: arg(z) = ¡ arg(z).
| Remark 3. Any real number A can also be written in the polar form, namely:
A = ‰ jjAjj (cos … + i sin …) for A < 0 (5)
A (cos 0 + i sin 0) for A > 0

The modulus of the complex number 0 is zero: j0j = 0. Any angle ’ may be taken for the
argument of 0. Indeed for any angle ’, we have

0 = 0 (cos ’ + i sin ’):

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Operations on complex numbers 4

2 Operations on complex numbers

2.1 Basic operations
1. Sum of complex numbers. The sum of two complex numbers z1 = a1+i b1 and z2 = a2+i b2
is a complex number deflned by the equation

z1 + z2 = (a1 + i b1) + (a2 + i b2) = (a1 + a2) + i (b1 + b2): (6)

From (6), it follows that the addition of complex numbers depicted as vectors is performed by
the rule of addition vectors (see Figure 3(a)).

Im Im

z1
z1 z
2
+
1
z
z1 ¡ z2 z2
z2
Re Re
O O
(a) (b)

Figure 3: The addition and subtraction of complex numbers follow the same rules as those of vectors.

2. Subtraction of complex numbers. The difierence of two complex numbers z1 = a1 + i b1 and

z2 = a2 + i b2 is a complex number such that when it is added to z2, it yields z1.
It is easy to see that

z1 ¡ z2 = (a1 + i b1) ¡ (a2 + i b2) = (a1 ¡ a2) + i (b1 ¡ b2): (7)

It will be noted that the difierence of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is represented by the
displacement vector from the point on the complex plane represented by z2 to that represented by
z1 (see Figure 3(b)). Thus, the modulus of z1 ¡ z2 is the distance between the two points:
p
2 2
jz1 ¡ z2j = (a1 ¡ a2) + (b1 ¡ b2) :
3. Multiplication of complex numbers. The product of two complex numbers z1 = a1 + i b1 and
z2 = a2 + i b2 is a complex number obtained when these two numbers are multiplied as
binomials by the rules of algebra, provided that

2 3 4 22 2 5
i = ¡1; i = ¡i; i = (i ) = (¡1) = 1; i = i ; etc.
and, generally, for any integral k,

4k 4k+1 4k+2 4k+3

i = 1; i =i; i = ¡1; i = ¡i
From this rule we get
2
z1z2 = (a1 + i b1)(a2 + i b2) = a1a2 + i b1a2 + i a1b2 + i b1b2
) z1z2 = (a1a2 ¡ b1b2) + i (b1a2 + a1b2) (8)
Let the complex numbers be written in trigonometric form

z1 = r1(cos ’1 + i sin ’1); z2 = r2(cos ’2 + i sin ’2):

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Operations on complex numbers 5

Im Im
P P2(z2)
r2
1 2
r r

P2 (z2) ’ r1 P1(z1)
2
’1 r2 ’1
P1 (z1) Re
O ’ E
r1
’2 2
Re
O E
’1
P
(a) (b)

Figure 4: Finding out the product and quotient of complex numbers using similar triangles.

Then using the expression (8), we obtain

z1z2 = r1r2[(cos ’1 cos ’2 ¡ sin ’1 sin ’2) + i (sin ’1 cos ’2 + cos ’1 sin ’2)]
= r1r2 [cos(’1 + ’2) + i sin(’1 + ’2)] (9)
that is, the product of two complex numbers is a complex number, the modulus of which is
equal to the product of the moduli of the factors, and the argument is equal to the sum of the
arguments of the factors.
Let us derive a geometrical interpretation of the product of two complex numbers. Let P1
be the point representing the complex number z1 while P2 correspond to z2 (Figure 4(a)). Let
E be a point on the real axis such that OE = 1 unit. Complete the triangle OP1E. Now taking
OP2 as the base, construct a triangle OP P2 similar to 4 OP1E so that OP : OP1 = OP2 : OE.
But, since OE = 1, so we get
OP = OP1 ¢ OP2:
Also, \P2OP = \EOP1 = ’1. Thus,

\EOP = ’1 + ’2:

Hence, P represents the complex number for which the modulus is r1r2, and the argument is ’1
+ ’2. Thus, it represents the complex number z1z2.
| Remark 4. The product of two conjugate complex numbers z = a + i b and z = a ¡ i b is, by
virtue of (8), expressed as follows:

2 2 2 2
zz = a + b ) z z = jzj = j z j : (10)
4. Division of complex numbers. The division of complex numbers is deflned as the inverse
operation of multiplication.
Suppose, we have z1 = a1 + i b1, z2 = a2 + i b2, z2 = 2
a + b2 = 0. Then,
z1 = z is a

complex number such that z1 = z2z. If j j p 2 6 z2

a1 + i b1 = x + i y;
a2 + i b2
then
a1 + i b1 = (a2 + i b2)(x + i y) ) a1 + i b1 = (a2x ¡ b2y) + i (a2y + b2x):
x and y are found from the system of equations

a1 = a2x ¡ b2y; b1 = b2x + a2y:

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Operations on complex numbers 6

Solving this system of equations, we obtain

x= a1a2 + b1b2 ; y= a2b1 ¡ a1b2 ;

2 2 2
a +b a2 +b
2 2 2 2
and flnally, we have the quotient

z = a1a22 + b21b2 + i a2b12 ¡ a21b2 (11)

a +b a +b
2 2 2 2

Actually, complex numbers are divided as follows: to divide z1 = a1 + i b1 by z2 = a2 + i b2,

multiply the dividend and divisor by the conjugate of the divisor (that is, by a2 ¡ i b2). Then the
divisor will be a real number; dividing the real and imaginary parts of dividend by it, we get the
quotient

a1 + i b1 (a1 + i b1)(a2 ¡ i b2) (a a + b1b2) + i (a2b1 ¡ a1b2)

= = 1 2 2 2
a2 + i b2 (a2 + i b2)(a2 ¡ i b2) a2 + b2
= a1a2 + b1b2 + i a2b1 ¡ a1b2
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b
2 2 2 2
If the complex numbers are in trigonometric form

z1 = r1(cos ’1 + i sin ’1); z2 = r2(cos ’2 + i sin ’2)

then, using (11), we can obtain

z1 r1 (cos ’1 + i sin ’1) r1

z2 = r2 (cos ’2 + i sin ’2) = r2 [cos(’1 ¡ ’2) + i sin(’1 ¡ ’2)] (12)
Thus, the modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is equal to the quotient of the
moduli of the dividend and the divisor; the argument of the quotient is the difierence between
the arguments of the divisor and divisor.
We shall use this result to obtain a geometric interpretation of the division of two complex
numbers. As shown in Figure 4(b), let P1 and P2 be the a–xes of z1 and z2 respectively. On OP1
construct the triangle OP P1 similar to 4OEP2, where E lies on the real axis and OE = 1. Now
r1
) OP = r2

OP : OE = r1 : r2

Also, \XOP = ’1 ¡ ’2. The point P thus represents the quotient z1=z2, since its modulus is r1=r2
and its argument is ’1 ¡ ’2.
| Remark 5. From the rules of operations involving complex numbers it follows that the oper-
ations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers yield a complex
number. Also it is easy to show that if each complex number in these expressions is replaced
by its conjugate, then the results of the aforementioned operations will yield conjugate
numbers, whence, as a particular case, we have the following theorem.
fl Theorem 1. If in a polynomial with real coe–cients
n n¡1
f(x) = anx + an¡1x + ¢ ¢ ¢ + a0

we put, in place of x, the number z = a + i b and then its conjugate z = a ¡ i b, the results of the
two operations will be mutually conjugate, that is

f(z) = f(z)
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Operations on complex numbers 7

2.2 Powers and roots of complex numbers

2.2.1 Powers
2
If in the expression (9), we substitute z1 = z2 = z = r(cos ’ + i sin ’), we obtain z
2
= r (cos 2’ + i sin 2’)
3 2 3
Further, z = z z = r (cos 3’ + i sin 3’). It can be proved by the principle of mathematical
induction that for a positive integer n,
n n
[r(cos ’ + i sin ’)] = r (cos n’ + i sin n’)
(13)
This is called De Moivre’s formula. It shows that when a complex number is raised to a
positive integral power, the modulus is raised to this power, and the argument is multiplied by
the exponent.
The above formula holds true for negative integers as well. For if n < 0, let n = ¡m for a
positive integer m. Then, for the complex number z = r(cos ’ + i sin ’), we proceed as follows:

n ¡m 1
z =z = z
m

1
m
= [r(cos ’ + i sin ’)]
1
m
= r (cos m’ + i sin m’) (using De Moivre’s formula for positive integer)
¡m
=r 1 cos m’ ¡ i sin m’
cos m’ + i sin m’ ¢ cos m’ i sin m’
¡
= r¡m cos m’ ¡ i sin m’
2 2
cos m’ + sin m’ m’)]
= r¡m[cos( m’) + i sin(

¡ ¡
n
= r (cos n’ + i sin n’) (since ¡m = n)
The validity of De Moivre’s formula in case of rational n will be taken up once we have
discussed the roots of a complex number. For the moment, consider another application of De
Moivre’s formula. Setting r = 1, in the formula (13), we get
n
(cos ’ + i sin ’) = cos n’ + i sin n’
Expanding the left hand side by the binomial theorem and equating the real and imaginary
parts, we can express sin n’ and cos n’ in terms of powers of sin ’ and cos ’:
µn µ ¶
n n¶
n¡4 4
cos n’ = 0 ¶ cos ’ ¡ 2 cosn¡2 ’ sin2 ’ +
n
µ4 cos ’ sin ’ ¡ : : : (14)
n n n
n¡1 µ ¶ µ
n¡3 3 µ ¶ n¡5 5
sin n’ = 1 ¶ cos ’ sin ’ ¡ 3 cos ’ sin ’ + 5 cos ’ sin ’ ¡ : : : (15)
n
µ ¶
Here, k represents the binomial coe–cients. For instance, if n = 3, we have
3 2 2 3
cos ’ + i 3 cos ’ sin ’ ¡ 3 cos ’ sin ’ ¡ i sin ’ = cos 3’ + i sin 3’
Making use of the condition for equality of two complex numbers, we get
3 2
cos 3’ = cos ’ ¡ 3 cos ’ sin ’
3 2
sin 3’ = ¡ sin ’ + 3 cos ’ sin ’

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Operations on complex numbers 8

2.2.2 Roots
The nth root of a complex number is another complex number whose nth power is equal to
the radicand, or
p
n r(cos ’ + i sin ’) = ‰(cos ˆ + i sin ˆ)
n
if ‰ (cos nˆ + i sin nˆ) = r(cos ’ + i sin ’)
Since the moduli of equal complex numbers must be equal, while their arguments may difier
by an integral multiple of 2…, we have
n
‰ = r; and nˆ = ’ + 2k… where k = 0; §1; §2; : : :
Whence we flnd
’ + 2k…
p
n

‰ = r; and ˆ= n k = 0; §1; §2; : : :

Therefore, we obtain
p
n µ ’ + 2k… ’ + 2k…
r(cos ’ + i sin ’) =
n

pr cos n + i sin n ¶ (16)

p
Here n r is the principal (positive real) root of the positive number r. Giving k the values 0, 1,
2, . . . , n ¡ 1, we get n difierent values of the root. For other values of k, the arguments will
difier from those already obtained by a multiple of 2…, and, for this reason, root values will be
obtained that coincide with those already obtained.
Thus, the nth root of a complex number has n distinct values.
The nth root of a real nonzero number real number A also has n values, since a real number
is a special case of a complex number and may be trigonometric form:

if A > 0, then A = jAj (cos 0 + i sin 0)

if A < 0, then A = jAj (cos … + i sin …)
Example 1. Find all the values of the cube root of unity.
Solution: We represent unity in trigonometric form:
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
Thus, using (16) we have
p p 0+
3
1 = = cos 0 + 2k… + i sin 2k… ;
3
cos 0 + i sin 0 k = 0; 1; 2
3 3
Setting the value of k equal to 0, 1, 2, we flnd three values of the root:
Im
!
x0 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1;
2… 2… 1 p 3 120–
x1 = cos 3 + i sin 3 = ¡2 + i 2 ; O 1 Re
4… 4… 1 p 3
x2 = cos 3 + i sin 3 = ¡2 ¡ i 2 !2

1 p3
Usually, the number ¡ 2 +i 2 is denoted as !. It is then simple enough to show that
1 p 3
2
! =¡ 2 ¡i 2
2
Thus the three cube roots of unity are 1, !, ! . Note that
2 3
and ! =1 1+!+! =0;
These three roots are geometrically represented as in the adjoining flgure.

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Operations on complex numbers 9

Getting back to De Moivre’s theorem, we can now see what will happen if n is a rational
number. Let n = p where p and q > 0 are integers having no common factors. Then,
q
n p=q
(cos ’ + i sin ’) = (cos ’ + i sin ’)
1=q
= (cos p’ + i sin p’) (De Moivre’s formula for a positive integer)
p’ +
p’ + 2k… 2k…
= cos q + i sin q k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; q ¡ 1
Thus, when n is rational of the form p=q, there are q distinct values for (cos ’ + i sin ’)n, one of
which is cos n’ + i sin n’.

2.2.3 Solution of a binomial equation

An equation of the form
n n
z = x0 or z ¡ x0 = 0;
where x0 is a constant, is called a binomial equation. Let us flnd its roots.
If x0 is a real positive number, then the roots are given by
p µ
zk = x0 cos n + i sin n ¶; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n ¡ 1
2k 2k
n … …

The expression in the brackets gives all the values of the nth roots of unity.
If x0 is real negative number, then the roots are given by
p …+
2k… … + 2k…
n
µ
zk = jx0j cos n + i sin n ¶; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n ¡ 1
The expression in the brackets gives all the values of the nth roots of ¡1.
If x0 is a complex number, then the values of zk are found from (16). Once we obtain the
n
values of zk, we can express the binomial f(z) = z ¡ x0 as the product of n linear factors:
n
z ¡ x0 · (z ¡ z0)(z ¡ z1)(z ¡ z2) ¢ ¢ ¢ (z ¡ zn¡1) (17)
The nth roots of unity. As an illustration of the solution of a binomial equation, let’s solve the
equation
n n
z =1 or z ¡1=0
The roots are given by µcos
z = 2n + i sin
k n ¶;
2k
k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n ¡ 1
k… …
µ
= cos 2n + i sin n ¶ ;
k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n ¡ 1
… 2… k

2… 2… 2 n¡1
Setting cos + i sin = fi, the nth roots of unity are 1, fi, fi , . . . , fi .
n n

n
2 n¡1 1 ¡ fi n
1 + fi + fi + : : : + fi = 1 fi
=0 (since fi is a root of z ¡ 1 = 0)
¡
while the product of the roots is
1 ¢ fi ¢ fi2 ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ fin¡1 = fi1+2+3+:::+(n¡1) "µ ¶
‡
= fi(n¡1)n=2 = fin=2 · ¡ = cos 2n + i sin n n #n¡1
(n 1) … 2… 2

n¡1
= (cos … + i sin …) applying De Moivre’s formula
n¡1
= (¡1)
Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Geometry of complex numbers 10

Thus,
n 2 n¡1
z ¡ 1 = (z ¡ 1)(z ¡ fi)(z ¡ fi ) ¢ ¢ ¢ (z ¡ fi ):

3 Geometry of complex numbers

3.1 Euler’s formula. Rotation as complex multiplication
Euler’s formula expresses an exponential function with an imaginary exponent in terms of
trigono-metric functions:
i’
e = cos ’ + i sin ’ (18)

Replacing ’ by ¡’ in (18), we obtain

¡i ’
e = cos ’ i sin ’ (19)
¡
From (18) and (19), we flnd cos ’ and sin ’:
i’
e +e i’
¡

cos ’ = e i’ 2 i’ 9> (20)

e¡
sin ’ = ¡ =
2i > of cos ’ and sin ’ and their products in

These formulae are used in particular to express powers ;

terms of the sine and cosine of multiple arcs.
Example 2.
µei y + e¡i y ¶2 1 ¡ ¢
cos2 y = = ei 2y + 2 + e¡i 2y
2 4
1

= 4 [(cos 2y + i sin 2y) + 2 + (cos 2y ¡ i sin 2y)]

1 1

= 4 (2 cos 2y + 2) = 2 (1 + cos 2y)

Example 3.
µ 2 ¶ µ 2i ¶
2 2 ei ’ + e¡i ’ 2 ei ’ ¡ e¡i ’ 2
cos ’ sin ’ = ¡
= ¡ 4 4i 2
¢ = ¡8 cos 4’ + 8
ei 2’ e¡i 2’ 2 1 1
¢
The exponential form of a complex number. Let us represent a complex number in the
trigonometric form
z = r(cos ’ + i sin ’)
where r is the modulus of the complex number and ’ is the argument. By Euler’s formula, cos ’
i ’
+ i sin ’ = e . Thus, the complex number can be represented in the so{called exponential
form:
i’
z = re (21)
By the properties of exponentials, it is easy to operate on complex number in exponential
form. For example, for two given z1 = r1ei ’1 and z2 = r2ei ’2 , we have
z1 r1ei ’1 r1
i’ i’ i (’ +’ )
z1z2 = r1e 1 ¢ r2e 2 = r1r2e 1 2 ; and z2 =r2ei ’2 =r2 ei (’1¡’2)
i’
Interpretation of e as rotation. Consider a real number a. It can be treated as a complex ¡!
number and hence represented as a vector OA as shown in Figure. Now keeping the tail flxed at

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Geometry of complex numbers 11

the origin, let us rotate it in the anticlockwise direction by an angle ’. The tip of the vector moves in
a circular path of radius a and ultimately comes to rest at the position P of the complex plane.
Since P lies on the complex plane, it must represented a complex number z whose modulus is the
i
length of OP = a and whose argument is the angle ’, i.e. it represents the complex number z = ae
’
. But then z can be interpreted as the product of the real number a and the unit{ modular complex
i ’ i ’
number number e . Thus, multiplication of a real number by the number e amounts to the
rotation of the vector representing the real number in the complex plane in the anticlockwise
direction by an angle ’. Further, taking the multiplication of two complex number

y z y z zz1
i’
P (a ¢ e ) j
1
z
j

r
a
’ z1
’
x x
O a (a 0) O

(a) (b)
Figure 5:

(a) Multiplying a real number with ei ’ has the efiect of rotating the vector representing the real
number in the anticlockwise sense by an angle ’. (b) z1 is multiplied by z = rei ’ resulting in rotation as well as
scaling.

into account, we can generalize to the following statement:

i ’
Multiplying a complex number z1 by another complex number z = re has the efiect of
scaling the length of the vector representing z1 by a factor r and simultaneously rotating it
in the anticlockwise direction by an angle ’.
i …=2
Since, i = e , therefore, multiplying any number by i has the efiect of rotating its vector
– 2
representation in the anticlockwise sense by 90 , while multiplying it by ¡1 = i = i ¢ i rotates in
–
the anticlockwise sense by 180 .
3.2 Conjugate
For the complex number z, we know that z difiers z by only the sign of the argument. That
i’ ¡i ’
means that the conjugate of re is just re . But that also means that z is just the re°ection of
z on the real line. It is easy to verify that

z + z = 2Re (z) and z ¡ z = 2i Im (z) (22)

z + w =z + w and zw =zw (23)
From the above relations, we see that if z = z, then Im (z) = 0, i.e. z is purely real (only a real
number equals its conjugate). Similarly, if z + z = 0, then z must be purely imaginary.

3.3 Modulus | the distance function

We have already noted that for a complex number z, the modulus is given by the relation
2
jzj = zz;
and jz1 ¡ z2j represents the distance between the points in the complex plane representing the
numbers z1 and z2. Looked in this manner, jzj = jz ¡ 0j represents the distance of the point z

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Geometry of complex numbers 12

from the origin. The following are some basic properties of the modulus, which can be easily
verifled

jzj = j z j = j ¡ zj = j ¡ zj (24)
jzwj = jzjjwj (25)
fl z fl
fl
w
z
fl
= j
w; z 2 C
j wjj
(26)

fl fl
A fundamental property of any distance function is that it satisfles the triangle’s inequality: for
any two complex numbers z and w, we have

jz + wj • jzj + jwj (27)

This is called the triangle inequality because, if we represent z and w by, respectively, the points
P and Q in the complex plane, (27) says that the sum of length of one side of the triangle OP
Q (where O is the origin) is less than the sum of the lengths of the other two sides. Or, the
shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
In order to prove (27), flrst observe that, for any z 2 C,

¡jzj • Re (z) • jzj; and ¡ jzj • Im (z) • jzj (28)

Hence, Re (zw) • jzwj = jzjjwj. Thus,

2
jz + wj = (z + w)(z + w) = zz + zw + wz + ww
2 2 2 2
= jzj + zw + zw + jwj = jzj + 2Re (zw) + jwj
2 2
• jzj + 2jzjjwj + jwj
2
= (jzj + jwj)
) jz + wj • jzj + jwj

On encountering an inequality one should ask for necessary and su–cient conditions that the
equality holds. From looking at a triangle and considering the geometrical signiflcance of (27),
we are led to consider the condition for equality that the two complex numbers must be
collinear with the origin, that for some t 2 R; t ‚ 0, we must have z = tw (or w = tz, if w = 0). In
fact, if we look at the proof of this inequality, we see that a necessary and su–cient condition
for jz + wj = jzj + jwj is that jzwj = Re (zw). This means, that zw must be a non{negative real
number:
zw ‚ 0
z
2
Multiplying this by w=w, we get jwj w ‚ 0 if w 6= 0. If
µ ¶
t = jwj2 jwj2 w
1 z

then t ‚ 0 and z = tw.

By induction, we also get

jz1 + z2 + : : : + znj • jz1j + jz2j + : : : + jznj (29)

Also useful is the inequality,
fl fl
fl
jzj ¡ jwjfl • jz ¡ wj (30)

fl fl

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Geometry of complex numbers 13

µ z1 ¡ z0
3.4 Interpretation of arg z2 ¡ z 0 ¶

µ z1 ¶
By the rule on quotient of two complex numbers z1 and z2, we know that arg z2 gives the
angle between the lines joining the origin O and the representation of z1 and z2. This angle is
measured as one \walks from the denominator to the numerator."
Actually, we can interpret the ratio z1=z2 as (z1 ¡ 0)=(z2 ¡ 0). In this form, it is clear that
z1 ¡ 0 is the directed line from the origin to the point z1 and similarly for z2. Thus, we can
generalize the above interpretation that arg z1 ¡ z0 represents the angle between the join of
µz2 ¡ z0 ¶
z0 to z1 and the join of z0 to z2, as one walks from the denominator to the numerator.
To prove this, let z0, z1, and z2 be represented, respectively, as points A, B, and C in the complex
plane (Figure 6(a)). Further, let P and Q represent the complex numbers z1 ¡ z0 and z2 ¡ z0,
z1 ¡ z0
respectively. It is obvious that 4ABC is congruent to 4OP Q. In triangle, we interpret z2 ¡ z0
Im Im
z C(z2) z

B(z1) z1
µ
µ
A(z0) z4

Q(z2 ¡ z0) z1 z2
‡ ¡
µ P (z1 ¡ z0) z3 µ = arg z2¡ z4 ·
z2
Re Re
O O

(a) (b)

Figure 6: (a) Interpretation of the argument of (z1 ¡ z0)=(z2 ¡ z0). (b) that of (z1 ¡ z2)=(z3 ¡ z4)
OP
as the complex number whose modulus is OQ while the argument is µ. Thus

z 1 ¡ z0 OP AB jz1 ¡ z0j
= (cos µ + i sin µ) = (cos µ + i sin µ) = (cos µ + i sin µ)
z 2 ¡ z0 OQ AC jz2 ¡ z0j
z1 ¡ z2
By a similar token, the argument of the complex number is the angle between the join z3 ¡ z4
of z2 to z1 and z4 to z3 as one walks from the denominator to the numerator (see Figure 6(b)).
| Remark 6. Three points z1, z2, and z3 are collinear if and only if,
arg z1 ¡ z3 = 0 or … z1 ¡ z3 is purely real.
µz2 ¡ z3 ¶ , z 2 ¡ z3
| Remark 7. The line joining z1 and z2 is perpendicular to the line joining z3 and z4 if and only
if
arg z1 ¡ z2 = … z1 ¡ z3 is purely imaginary.

µz3 ¡ z4 ¶ §2 , z2 ¡ z3
3.5 Lines in the complex plane

Let L denote a line in C. We know that a straight line in a plane is uniquely determined two specifled pieces of
information. Let us say that we have been specifled two complex numbers z1
and z2 on L. Now, if z be an arbitrary point on L, then
µ )
z1 ¡ z2 ¶ z1 ¡ z2 ¡1• •1
arg z ¡ z2 = 0 or … z ¡ z2 = purely real = t (say), where t

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Geometry of complex numbers 14

Solving the last equation for z, we obtain the equation for a straight line in the parametric form:

Parametric form of straight line: z = tz1 + (1 ¡ t)z2; ¡1 • t • 1 (31)

Here t is called the parameter. Again, since z ¡ z2 is purely real, we have
z1 ¡ z2
z (
z ¡ z2 = ¡z 2 z( z z ) zz z ) + zz z z =0
z1 ¡ z2 z 1 ¡ z 2 ) 1¡ 2 ¡ 1¡ 2 1 2¡ 1 2
Thus we obtain the equation in two point form:

Two point form of a straight line: z(z1 ¡ z2) ¡ z(z1 ¡ z2) + z1z2 ¡ z1z2 = 0 (32) Finally,
transform left side the above equality as

z(z1 ¡ z2) ¡ z(z1 ¡ z2) + z1z2 ¡ z1z2 = z(z1 ¡ z2) ¡ z(z1 ¡ z2) + z1z2 ¡ z1z2
= z(z1 ¡ z2) ¡ z(z1 ¡ z2) + 2i Im (z1z2)
1
= z(z1 ¡ z2) + zi (z1 ¡ z2) + 2 Im (z1z2) (dividing by i )
£ ⁄ £ ⁄
= z ¡ i (z1 ¡ z2) + z i (z1 ¡ z2) + 2 Im (z1z2)
i
Setting a = i (z1 ¡ z2) and b = 2 Im (z1z2), we obtain the general equation:
General form of straight line: az + az + b = 0; a 2 C; b 2 R (33)

The complex slope of the line joining z1 and z2 in the complex plane is deflned as

„ = z1 ¡ z 2 (34)
z1 ¡ z2
Thus, for the line represented by (33), the complex slope becomes
a (35)
„=¡ a

Further, two lines in the complex plane having complex slopes „1 and „2 are

(i) parallel, if „1 = „2,

(ii) perpendicular, if „1 + „2 = 0.

3.6 Circles in the complex plane

Given the center of the circle, z0, and its radius, r, we note that if z be any arbitrary point on
the circle, its distance from the center must be the same as the radius:

Circle: jz ¡ z0j = r (36)

Transform as follows:
2 2
r = jz ¡ z0j = (z ¡ z0)( z ¡ z 0)
= z z ¡ z0 z ¡ z 0z + z0 z 0

2
Setting a = ¡z0, and b = z0 z 0 ¡ r , we obtain the general equation of the circle as

z z + a z + a z + b = 0;a 2 C; b 2 R (37)
Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531
Geometry of complex numbers 15
p
having center at the point represented by ¡a and radius as aa ¡ b. Finally, if the end points of
a diameter be given as A(z1) and B(z2), then the equation of the circle is

(z ¡ z1)( z ¡ z 2)+(z ¡ z 1)(z ¡ z2) = 0 (38)

The above equation follows if we take into account the fact that if P (z) be an arbitrary point on
the required circle, then µz ¡ z2 ¶ § 2
z ¡ z1
arg = … ;
–
since \AP B = 90 , being an angle in a semi{circle. Therefore, the complex number z ¡ z1 is
purely imaginary, and so its real part is zero: z ¡ z2

z ¡ z1 + z ¡ z 1 = 0
z ¡ z2 z ¡z 2
Rearranging the above expression, (38) follows.
Example 4 (Section formula). The points A and B on the complex plane have a–xes z1 and z2. Find the
a–x of the point P that divides the join of A and B in the ratio m : n, i.e. AP=P B = m=n. Solution: Let z
be the required a–x. Then the argument of (z ¡ z1)=(z2 ¡ z) is zero. Thus
z ¡ z1 = jz ¡ z1j (cos 0 + i sin 0) = jz ¡ z1j =P A =m
z2 ¡ z jz2 ¡ zj jz2 ¡ zj BP n
Solving for z, we obtain
z = mz2 + nz1 (39)
m+n

Anant Kumar † study circle for iitjee & aieee † Mob. No. 9932347531