Complex numbers

Introduction and definitions

Using the number system at our disposal right now (the set of real num-
bers), we are unable to solve the equation
x2 + 1 = 0.
We solve this problem by extending our number system from R to C, the
complex numbers.

A complex number z is a number of the form z = a + bi, where a and

b are real numbers and i has the property that i2 = −1.

The real number a is called the real part of z and b is called the imagi-
nary part of z.

Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are equal if a = c and b = d.

We can represent a complex number a + bi as an ordered pair (a, b), or

as a point in a plane, called the Argand plane as in the figure. Thus, the
complex number i = 0+1·i is identified with the pair (0, 1). In the Argand
plane the horizontal axis is called the real axis and the vertical axis is called
the imaginary axis.

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Complex numbers can also be combined to form new complex numbers.
The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding
and subtracting their real parts and their imaginary parts:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i
For example,
(1 − i) + (4 + 7i) =
The product of two complex numbers is defined so that the usual commu-
tative and distributive laws hold:
(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= ac + (ad + bc)i − bd
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
Example 1. Simplify (−1 + 3i)(2 − 5i).

Solution.

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Division of complex numbers is much like rationalizing the denominator
of a rational expression. For the complex number z = a + bi, we define
its complex conjugate to be z = a − bi. To find the quotient of two
complex numbers we multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
complex conjugate of the denominator.
−1 + 3i
Example 2. Express the number in the form a + bi.
2 + 5i
Solution.

The geometric interpretation of the complex conjugate z is the reflection

of z in the real axis.

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Properties of conjugates
1. z + w = z + w
2. z × w = z × w
3. z n = z n.
Exercise 1. Proof the above properties.

Solution.

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The modulus, or absolute value, |z| of a complex number z = a + bi
is its distance from the origin. It is clear from the Pythagorean Theorem
that √
|z| = a2 + b2.
Notice that
zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + abi − b2i2 = a2 + b2,
and so
zz = |z|2.
This explains how the division procedure in Example 2 works in general:
z zw zw
= = .
w ww |w|2
Since i2 = −1, we can think of i as the square root of −1. But we also
have (−i)2 = i2 = −1, so −i is also a square root of
√ −1. We say that i is
the principal square root of −1 and write i = −1. In general, if c is
any positive number, we write
√ √
−c = ci.
Example 3. Find the roots of the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0.

Solution.

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Observe that the solutions of the equation in Example 3 are complex con-
jugates of each other. In general, the solutions of any quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 with real coefficients a, b and c are always conjugates. If
the solutions are real, then each solution is its own conjugate.

If we allow complex numbers as solutions, then every quadratic equation

has a solution. More generally, every polynomial equation
anxn + an−1xn−1 + · · · + a2x2 + a1x + a0 = 0
of degree at least one has a solution among the complex numbers. This
fact is known as the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and was proved by
Gauss.

Polar form

Consider a complex number a + bi. Let r be the distance from the origin to
the point a + bi in the Argand plane and θ the angle between the positive
real axis and the line connecting the origin and the point a + bi.
Im
(a, b)
r
b
θ
a Re

Then:
a = r cos θ b = r sin θ.
Therefore, we have z = a + bi = r cos θ + (r sin θ)i. Hence, we can write
any complex number z in the form
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
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 √ b
where r = |z| = a2 + b2 and tan θ = . The angle θ is called the argu-
a
ment of of z and we write θ =arg(z). Note that arg(z) is not unique; any
two arguments of z differ by an integer multiple of 2π.

Example 4. Write the following complex numbers in polar form:

(a) z = 1 + i.
Solution.

√
(b) w = 3 − i.
Solution.

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The polar form of complex numbers gives insight into multiplication and
division. Let
z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2)
be two complex numbers written in polar form. Then
z1z2 = r1r2(cos θ1 + i sin θ1)(cos θ2 + i sin θ2)
= r1r2[cos θ1 cos θ2 + i cos θ1 sin θ2 + i sin θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2]
= r1r2[(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2) + i(cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2)].
Therefore, using the addition formulas for sine and cosine, we have
z1z2 = r1r2[cos(θ1 + θ2) + i sin(θ1 + θ2)]. (1)
Exercise 2. Show that
z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2) + i sin(θ1 − θ2)] (z2 ̸= 0).
z2 r2
Solution.

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The above formula can be used to derive a formula for z1 . Let z1 = 1 and
z2 = z. Then
z1 1 1
= = [cos θ − i sin θ].
z2 z r
√
Example 5. Find the product of the complex numbers 1 + i and 3−i
in polar form.

Solution.

De Moivre’s Theorem

If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

z 2 = r2(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ)
and
z 3 = z 2z = r3(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ).
In general, we obtain the following:

De Moivre’s Theorem. If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and n is a positive

integer, then
z n = [r(cos θ + i sin θ)]n = rn(cos nθ + i sin nθ).

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  10
1 1
Example 6. Find + i .
2 2
Solution.

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De Moivre’s Theorem can also be used to find the nth roots of complex
numbers. An nth root of a complex number z is a complex number w such
that
wn = z.
Writing these two numbers in polar form as
w = s(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) and z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
and using De Moivre’s Theorem, we get
sn(cos nϕ + i sin nϕ) = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
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The equality of these two complex numbers shows that sn = r or s = r n
and
cos nϕ = cos θ and sin nϕ = sin θ.
From the fact that sine and cosine have period 2π it follows that
θ + 2πk
nϕ = θ + 2πk or ϕ = .
n
Thus, "    #
1 θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
w = r n cos + i sin .
n n
Since this expression gives a different value for w when k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1,
we have the following:

Roots of a complex number. Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and let n be

a positive integer. Then z has n distinct nth roots
"    #
1 θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
wk = r n cos + i sin
n n

where k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.

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 1
Notice that each of the nth roots has modulus equal to |wk | = r n . This
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means that all the roots must lie on a circle of radius r n . Also, all the roots
have arguments that differ by a multiple of 2π, so they must be equally
spaced on the circle.

Example 7. Find the six sixth roots of z = −8 and graph the roots in
the complex plane.

Solution.

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