Image Production and Evaluation - My Notes During Review
Image Production and Evaluation - My Notes During Review
Image Production and Evaluation - My Notes During Review
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
Purpose:
o Prevent damage to sensitive 3.) ADHESIVE/SUBSTRATUM LAYER
emulsion layer A thin coating located between the emulsion
o Protects the emulsion from scratches, & base
pressure & contamination Adheres one layer of the film
o Allows rough manipulation of x-ray Purpose: allows emulsion & base to
film before exposure maintain proper contact & integrity
2.) EMULSION 4.) BASE
The heart of the radiographic film Foundation or framework of the film
Active layer Purpose: to provide a rigid structure onto
Radiation and light sensitive which the emulsion can be coated
Size: 3-5 or 10-20 micrometer Composition: polyester/plastic
Composition: silver halide crystal & gelatin Size: 175 or 200 or 150-300 micrometer
Silver Halide Crystal: recording medium
o The active ingredient of the emulsion CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD FILM BASE
o Characteristic: high atomic number 1.) SUPERIOR PHYSICAL/DIMENSIONAL
(Z) STABILITY
Composition: Maintain its size and shape without
o Silver bromide: 98% or 90-99%
contributing to image distortion
o Silver iodide: 2% or 1-10%
2.) TINTED WITH BLUE DYE (1933)
Shapes: tabular (mostly used), cubic,
octahedral, polyhedral & irregular To reduce parallax effect/crossover
Gelatin: mechanical binder To reduce eyestrain and fatigue
o It holds the silver halide crystal Increase contrast
uniformly dispersed in place 3.) FLEXIBLE & FRACTURE RESISTANT
o Characteristics: clear & sufficiently It can be snap in the viewbox/negatoscope
porous 4.) UNIFORM LUCENCY/OPTICAL
o Principal Function: to provide
CLARITY
mechanical support for silver halide
crystals In order to be seen
Transparency should be uniform
INCREASED ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) No unwanted pattern or shading is found on
Increased the possibility of forming the the image
latent image 5.) SEMIRIGID
Bromide: 35 Z 6.) INERT TO PROCESSING CHEMICAL
Silver: 47 Z Does not change in form
Iodide: 53 Z 7.) CHEMICAL MEMORY
Gelatin: 7 Z Remain flat
Polyester: 7 Z 8.) NON-FLAMMABLE
9.) WATERPROOF
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
Inversely proportional to film contrast Tinting the film with blue dye
High contrast emulsion – narrow latitude Use monochromatic film
o Few factors can be applied Adding anti-crossover layer
o Near to OD required ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM
Low contrast emulsion – wide latitude There is always a parallax effect
o Many factors can be applied RATIONALE: green is not transparent to
dye
PARTS OF THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
Base plus fog IMPORTANCE OF ADDING CROSSOVER
Toe CONTROL LAYER
Shoulder Separate layer from emulsion
Straight line portion Absorb most of the crossover
Easily dissolved in the solution
HUMAN EYE
It has a logarithm of response to OD 7.) RECIPROCITY LAW
OD = Log10 (Io/It) OD on a radiograph is proportional only to
the total energy imparted to the radiographic
DENSITOMETER film
It measures density Applicable only in direct exposure, but not
in screen-film
4.) SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
It refers color of light to which particular FILM SENSITOMETRY
film is most sensitive Quantitative measurement of the response of
film to x-ray and exposure or development
SPECTRAL EMISSION and processing
Color of light produced by a particular Frequency:
intensifying screen o Early morning when the processor
reached its maximum capacity or has
5.) SPECTRAL MATCHING been warmed up
Correctly matching the sensitivity of the
film to the color of emission of intensifying SENSITOMETER
screen Optical step-wedge
6.) CROSSOVER A device that produces a constant simulated,
Disadvantage of screen-film/duplitized film predetermined x-ray exposure
Light that has been produced by IS X-ray machine is not utilized
Crossover to the base and exposing the
emulsion of the opposite side PENETROMETER
Blurred image Aluminum step-wedge
X-ray machine is utilized
WAYS TO REDUCE PARALLAX EFFECT CONTROL FILM/CONTROL BOX
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
A. REDUCING AGENTS
Elon/Metol/Phenidone/Hydroquinone D. PRESERVATIVE/CYCON
Reduced exposed AgBr crystals to black Same with fixer
metallic Ag Prevent rapid oxidation of the reducing
Metol (Manual) & Phenidone (Automatic) agent
o Build up detail quickly in 1st half of Reacts with QUINONE (by produce of
the development process Hydroquinone which is a dye), capable of
o Speed indicator staining the film and form colorless
o Rapid reducing compound called HYDROQUINONE
o 1.2 OD MONOSULFATE
Hydroquinone STABILIZER: to promote equilibrium of
o Builds up contrast slowly during chemicals
development period ANTI-OXIDANT: prevents internal
o Principal component oxidation
o Contrast indicator pH = 3-4 (Preservative, Restrainer &
o Sensitive to light and temperature Hardener)
o PQ: for automatic processing
o MQ: for manual processing E. SOLVENT
Drinking water
B. ACTIVATOR/ALKALINIZER/BUFFERING Not tap water
AGENT/ACCELERATOR/WETTING AGENT o It creates artifacts
Sodium hydroxide/bicarbonate & Potassium
hydroxide/bicarbonate OTHER COMPONENTS
Maintain alkalinity 1.) HARDENER/TANNING AGENTS
Provides necessary alkaline medium Dialdehyde/Glutaraldehyde
Swells gelatin emulsion so that reducing For automatic processing only
agents can attack AgBr crystals Added for developer solution to prevent
pH = 9-6-10-6 or 10-11.5 or 10-12 swelling of emulsion
Reduces film transportation problems &
C. RESTRAINER preventing damage to the emulsion
Developer: weak/temporary hardener
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
CHARACTERISTIC OF RADIOGRAPH
Exposure factor is adequate
Adequate penetration
Sufficient density and contrast RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
Field size selection is appropriate
No motion A. PHOTOGRAPHIC ASPECT/VISIBILITY
o Voluntary: good communication Density: overall blackening of the film
o Involuntary: decrease exposure Contrast: variation in the density level that
time makes detail visible
B. GEOMETRIC ASPECT/SHARPNESS
KILOVOLTAGE PEAK (kVp) Definition: clarity and sharpness of
Controls energy of the beam structural lines
Penetrating ability Distortion: undesired change in the size and
Accelerates the electron shape of the anatomic part
Wavelength of photon
Affects blackening of film by 15% rule RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY
Determines the amount of density on
Affects the production of scattered radiation
finished radiograph
Controls radiographic contrast
Acceptable Range: 0.25-2.0 OD
Affects exposure to patient
Directly related to mAs
MILLIAMPERAGE (mA)
FACTORS AFFECTING DENSITY
Number of electrons
Controlling factor: mAs
Number of x-ray photons
kVp, Distance, Grids, Film Screen Speed,
Blackening
Collimation, Anatomic Part, Anode Heel
Influences focal spot blooming
Effect, Reciprocity Law, Generator Output,
o Increase actual focal spot size when
Filtration & Film Processing
the tube current is increased
TAKE NOTE:
CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION Approximately 1% of x-rays incident on the
patient reach the image receptor
PRODUCTION OF SCATTER RADIATION
FIELD SIZE
Increase Field Size: increases scatter
TWO TYPES OF X-RAYS RESPONSIBLE
radiation
FOR THE OPTICAL DENSITY & CONTRAST
ON A RADIOGRAPH Reduce Scatter Radiation: lowers
1.) X-rays that pass through the patient without radiographic optical density
interacting o Effect: increased radiographic
2.) X-rays that are scattered within the patient technique to increase OD
through Compton interaction
PATIENT THICKNESS
REMNANT X-RAYS Increased Thickness: increases scattered
X-rays that exit from the patient radiation
o Rationale: more x-rays undergo
multiple scattering
IMAGE-FORMING X-RAYS
X-rays that exit & interact with the image Compression Paddle:
receptor o Used to reduce scatter radiation to
the image receptor
PROPER COLLIMATION Compression of anatomy:
o Improves spatial resolution &
Effects:
o Less scatter radiation contrast resolution
o Reduces patient dose o Lowers patient dose
o Improves contrast resolution o Important to mammography
o Appearance: dull gray image Device used to reduce the intensity of scatter
Moderate Contrast: use of both transmitted radiation in the remnant x-ray beam
& scattered x-rays Principal Function: to improve image
contrast
DEVICES THAT REDUCED SCATTERED Secondary function: to absorb scattered
RADIATION radiation
1.) Beam Restrictors
Used when:
2.) Grids
o Anatomical part >10 cm
BEAM RESTRICTION o >60 kVp is used
Purpose: Advantage: improved image contrast
o Limiting patient exposure Disadvantages:
o Reducing scattered radiation o Higher technical factors used
o High patient dose
BEAM RESTRICTORS
Position: between the patient & IR
1.) APERTURE DIAPHRAGM
Simplest type
A flat piece of lead that has hole in it
2.) CONE/CYLINDER GRID CONSTRUCTION
Modification of aperture diaphragm 1.) GRID STRIPS/LINES
Radiopaque material
Has an extended flange attached to it
Purpose: it absorbs scattered radiation
3.) COLLIMATOR Composition: lead (Pb)
Best type o Advantages:
Useful and accepted type of beam-restricting Easy to shape
device Inexpensive
4.) AUTOMATIC COLLIMATOR High atomic number
High mass density
Positive beam limiting devices (PBL)
Characteristics: thin & high absorption
Automatically limits the size and shape of properties
primary beam to the size and shape of the IR Size: 50 μm wide
2.) INTERSPACE MATERIAL
RESTRICTING THE PRIMARY BEAM Radiolucent material
Increased Result Purpose: to maintain a precise separation
Decreased patient dose between the delicate lead strip of the grid
Decreased scattered radiation Compositions:
COLLIMATION o Aluminum (Al)
Increased radiographic contrast
Decreased radiation density Advantages Over Fiber:
Increased patient dose High atomic number
Increased scattered radiation Produces less visible
FIELD SIZE
Decreased radiographic contrast grid lines
Increased radiation density Nonhygroscopic:
does not absorb
RADIOGRAPHIC GRID moisture
Easier to manufacture
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IMAGE PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION