Concepts of Time and

UNIT 5 CONCEPTS OF TIME AND NAUTICAL Nautical Almanac

ALMANAC
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives

5.2 Definitions
5.2.1 GMT, LMT, LIT
5.2.2 Standard Time and Zone Time

5.3 Adjusting of Ship’s Clocks and International Date Line

5.4 Chronometer Error and Time Signals
5.5 Calculations
5.5.1 Calculate Correct Chronometer Time
5.5.2 GMT from Chronometer Time

5.6 Nautical Almanac (NA)

5.6.1 General Information Contained in NA
5.6.2 Information Contained in the Daily Pages
5.6.3 Uses the Tables of Corrections and Incremental Corrections in the Nautical Almanac

5.7 Using Nautical Almanac to find LHA of Celestial Bodies

5.7.1 First Point of Aries
5.7.2 Sidereal Angle of a Star
5.7.3 Local Hour Angle of First Point of Aries γ and LHA*
5.7.4 Find Local Hour Angle of First Point of Aries γ and LHA*

5.8 Geographical Position of Celestial Bodies

5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Words
5.11 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The word navigation comes from latin word ‘navis’ meaning ship and the word ‘agere’
meaning to move or direct. There are four basic methods of navigation at sea :
• Piloting (Reaching from one place to other using landmarks lighthouses,
buoys, beacons etc.)
• Dead reckoning (Method of calculating position from a known position
using courses steered, distances steamed etc. and sailing accordingly)
• Electronic navigation (Navigation by using LORAN, Decca, GPS,
GLONASS, RADAR etc.)
• Celestial Navigation (finding ship’s position using the Sun, the Moon,
planets and stars).
In practice, combination of all these methods is used to sail from one port to the other.
Time is integral to all the methods of navigation either for distance steamed, or for
calculating positions or for estimating time of arrival etc.
As we know position of all heavenly bodies with respect to the observer on the earth’s
surface change with time. Position of different heavenly bodies on the celestial sphere is
tabulated with reference to Greenwich Mean Time. Knowing the position of the celestial
body and by finding the true zenith distance of the body one gets circles of equal altitude 5
Celestial Navigation or position circles. The intersection of two or more position circles is the position of the
observer.
In this unit we shall learn how to find the Greenwich Mean Time and then using the
Nautical Almanac find the position of the body on the celestial sphere.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• define GMT, LMT and longitude, relation ship between longitude and time,
• define zone times and standard times,
• explain how to alter the Ship’s time during a passage with increasing or
decreasing longitude,
• define the International date line and states its use,
• demonstrate the use of time signals,
• calculate the error of a chronometer or watch,
• calculate the GMT from chronometer time,
• describe the information contained in general in the Nautical Almanac (NA)
and in detail in the daily pages and using it find the GHA , Declination of
the body,
• explain the importance of the First Point of Aries,
• explain what is meant by the sidereal hour angle of a star,
• find the LHA of Aries, given the date, GMT and longitude of the observer,
• find the LHA of a body, given the date, GMT and longitude of the observer,
• derive the LHA of a star from the LHA of Aries and the SHA of the
star, and
• determine the geographical position of a body for any given GMT.

5.2 DEFINITIONS
Time is measured with respect to rotation of the earth. Day in general can be defined as
time taken by the Earth to complete one rotation on its axis with respect to a celestial
body. As the life on the Earth is governed by the Sun therefore time is kept with respect
to the Sun. We know the earth rotates from west to east due which the Sun rises in the
east, transits (passes) observer’s meridian, sets in the west and transits observer’s inferior
meridian.
Apparent Solar day, the interval in time between two successive transits of the True Sun
(the sun which we observe), over the same meridian. True Sun can not be used to
measure time as its apparent movement is non uniform, therefore duration of such a day
will vary.
Mean Sun is an imaginary body assumed to move along the plane of the equinoctial at
the average velocity of the true Sun taken over a year.
Mean Solar day, the interval in time between two successive transits of the Mean Sun
over the same meridian. A civil day commences when the Mean Sun transits observer’s
inferior meridian and it ends when the Mean Sun is again on the observer’s inferior
meridian and is of constant duration of 24 hours.
The Mean Sun travels the arc of 360 degrees in 24 hours, we can also write :
Time Arc
6
 Concepts of Time and
24 Hrs. 360º Nautical Almanac

1 Hr. 15º
4 minutes 1º
2.5 seconds 1′

Greenwich

Greenwich

Greenwich
GMT 00h 00m 00s GMT 06h 00m 00s GMT 09h 00m 00s

Figure 5.1

5.2.1 GMT, LMT, LIT

GMT : Greenwich Mean Time (Figures 5.1 and 5.2)
It is the angle between the inferior Greenwich meridian and the meridian passing
through the Mean Sun measured clockwise from the inferior Greenwich meridian.
(angle G′OS).
LMT : Local Mean Time (Figure 5.2)
It is the angle between the inferior Observer’s meridian and the meridian passing
through the Mean Sun measured clockwise from the inferior Observer’s meridian.
(angle L′OS).
LIT : Longitude In Time (Figure 5.2)
It is the longitude of the observer converted in time by dividing the longitude by
15º or found from Arc to time conversion table of the Nautical Almanac.
(angle L′OG′).
G′

L′ G′

L′

GMT ∠ G’PS
P
LMT ∠ L’PS
P
LIT ∠ L’PG’
S
L Long (E) ∠ GPL
G
L
G

Figure 5.2

Relationship between GMT and LMT

From the figure above we can see that the difference between the GMT and the
LMT is the LIT that is angle between the Observer’s inferior meridian and the
inferior meridian of the Greenwich.
In figure on the left 7
Celestial Navigation LMT = ∠ L′PS = ∠ G′PS + ∠ L′PG′
LMT = GMT + LIT (E) . . . . . . . Longitude East GMT Least
In figure on the right
LMT = ∠ L′PS = ∠ G′PS – ∠ L′PG′
LMT = GMT – LIT (W) . . . . . . Longitude West GMT Best
5.2.2 Standard Time and Zone Time
We saw above the LMT (Local Mean Time) is for a particular longitude, which means it
will be different for different longitude, hence every city, town will have different time.
Therefore, it is not practical for this time to be kept for civil purposes.
Standard Time
To obviate this difficulty, a system of standard times has been adopted by all
countries of the world. The continents of the Earth are divided into several areas
and each area keeps time, based on a meridian which is some what central in that
area. Each of these areas is referred to as a ‘Time Zone’.
The meridians on which the standard times of the various time zones are based are
chosen so that the times based on them would differ from GMT by a convenient
number of hours. For instance, Indian standard time used throughout India is
based on 82½.oEast meridian, which differs from Greenwich time by 5½ hours of
time. Generally an entire country has one standard time. Certain countries with a
large east-west extent, like Russia, USA, and Australia use different standard times
over different areas. The standard time kept by the various countries are listed in
the nautical almanac and in the Admiralty list of Radio signals Volume II.
If the standard time of a country is 4 hours behind GMT, it is listed as + 4 hours,
indicating that 4 hours are to be added to the standard time of that country to
obtain GMT. Indian Standard Time is listed as – 5 hours 30 minutes.
Standard Time ± Time difference = GMT
Zone Time
As the ship sails across oceans therefore a standard time can’t be kept on ship. The
time kept on ships is based on zone time.
The world has been divided into 24 zones (actually 25 zones in number as the +12
and – 12 zones are of 7.5º) each being 15º of longitude. Each zone uses the LMT
of its central meridian. The Greenwich (0º) longitude is the Central Meridian (CM)
for its zone. Each zone is 15º of arc (longitude) or one hour wide. The time in each
zone differs from GMT by an integral number of hours. The zones are designated
by numbers from 0 hours to + 12 hours and –12 hours. Each indicating the number
of hours which must be added or subtracted to zone time to obtain GMT. Thus,
since the time is earlier in the zones west of Greenwich, the numbers of these
zones are plus (+), in those zones east of Greenwich, the numbers are minus (–).
GMT = Zone time ± Zone Description (Zone number)
Zone zero extends from 7½°E to 7½°W longitude. The central meridian of this
zone being the Greenwich meridian, ships within this zone keep GMT. Zone-1
covers the area from 7½°E to 22½°E. The time kept within this zone is based on
the central meridian of this zone i.e. 15°E. Ships within this zone would have their
clocks one hour ahead of GMT.
Ships within zone (–) 2 covering the area from 22½°E to 37½°E keep time based
on the central meridian 30°E, i.e. 2 hours behind GMT. Similarly, ships between
37½°W and 52½°W would be in + 3 zone keeping time, based on the 45° West
meridian, i.e. 3 hours ahead of GMT.
8
 Thus in addition to the zero zone, we have 12 zones with negative prefix and Concepts of Time and
Nautical Almanac
12 zones with positive prefix. Zone 12 extending from 172½°E to 172½°W with
the 180th meridian as its central meridian would obviously have both + ve and
– ve prefixes. Zone +12 extends from 172½°W to 180°, and zone –12 from
172½°E to 180°.

5.3 ADJUSTING SHIP’S CLOCKS AND INTERNATIONAL

DATE LINE
From above we see that the zone time at any position will always differ from GMT by a
full number of hours, because the central meridians used for measurement of zone time in
the different zones, which always differs from Greenwich meridian by multiples
of 15°.

142½º E 157½º E 172½º E 180º 172½º W 157½ºW 142½º W

On crossing Intnl. Date line from

East to west Retard one day

− 10 − 11 − 12 + 12 +11 +12

On crossing Intnl. Date line from

West to East Advance one day

Easterly course Westerly course

Advance Clocks by 1hr Retard Clocks by 1 hr
On crossing Zone On crossing Zone

To find the zone description of the ship the longitude shall be divided by 15 and rounded
of to the nearest Integer and sign will be positive for west longitude and – ve for east
longitude. To find GMT form Zone time the Zone description shall be subtracted to zone
time if longitude is East and added if longitude is west. To get Zone time from GMT the
zone description should be added to or subtracted from the GMT depending on the
longitude being East or West respectively, to obtain the zone time at that longitude.
A ship crossing the limiting longitude of a zone on easterly course would therefore
advance her clocks whereas on westerly course would retard her clocks by one hour, at
that instant. For example,
Ship crossing from zone –10 to –11 zone will have to advance her clocks.
Ship’s Time in Zone –10 = GMT + 10
Ship’s Time in Zone –11 = GMT + 11
Difference in Clocks = (Ship’s Time in Zone –11) – (Ship’s Time in Zone –10)
= (GMT + 11) – (GMT + 10) = + 1 therefore advance clock by 1 hr.
similarly we can show,
Ship crossing from zone –11 to –10 zone will have to retard her clocks.
International Date Line
From above we can see that as a ship proceeds eastwards, she would have to
advance her clocks at the rate of one hour for every 15° of d’long, and a ship
proceeding westwards would have to retard her clocks at the rate of one hour for
every 15° of d′long, if their clocks are to indicate the correct LMT.
9
Celestial Navigation If two ship’s A and B left Greenwich Meridian A sailing Eastward and B sailing
Westwards. The ship steaming east will keep on advancing clocks by 1 hour every
15º d′long and the ship steaming west will keep on retarding clocks by 1 hour. On
reaching international date Line,
Time on Ship A = GMT + 12h
Time on Ship B = GMT – 12h
If the ships continued without adjusting the date then on reaching back to the
Greenwich Meridian A will be one day ahead on GMT and B will be one day
behind. To remove such a situation, Date line has been introduced by International
agreement. The Date line roughly corresponds to the 180th meridian. It deviates
slightly from this meridian so that islands in the same group and continuous land
areas fall on the same side of the Date line. Ships crossing the Date line, on an
easterly course retard their date by one day, while ships crossing the Date line on a
westerly course advance the date by one day.
Ship A and Ship B on reaching the International Date Line to adjust to each other’s
time. Since Ship A is on GMT + 12 hours and ship B is on GMT –
12 hours, Ship A on crossing the Date Line has to retard the clocks by 24 hours
and Ship B on crossing the Date Line advance the clocks by 24 hours.
Example 5.1
Find the ship’s time of Moonrise on 15th June for an observer in DR 25o 30′ N 95o
15′ E, given LMT Moonrise 15 d 16 h 58 m 55 s.
LMT Moonrise 15 16 58 55
LIT (E) − 06 21 00
GMT 15 10 37 55
Moonrise
ZD + 06
Ship’s Time 15 16 37 55
Moonrise
Solution
Ship’s time of Moonrise 15th June 1992 16 h 37 m 55 s
SAQ 1
(a) With the help of sketch show GMT = LMT – LIT (E).
(b) Convert 129°35' to time, without the use of the tables and verify the result
using the conversion tables in your nautical almanac.
(c) Convert 11h 52 m 23 s to arc, without use of tables and verify the result
using the conversion tables.
(d) Find the GMT, when LMT in long.122°10′E was 21d 04 h 17 m 23 s.
(e) Find the LMT at a place in longitude 124° 30′E, at 0500 Zone time.
(f) Find the LMT at a place in longitude 53°E, the Time Zone of which is –
03 h 00 m, at 11 h 10 m standard time.
(g) A vessel sailed from longitude 163°E, at 10 h 11 m LMT on 23rd Oct. She
arrived in longitude 156° West at 04 h 37 m LMT on the 24th Oct. Find her
steaming time.
(h) On 10th October 1992, find the ship’s time of Sunrise for an observer in DR
28o 30′ N 145o 12′ E, LMT sunrise was 10 d 05 h 55 m.

10
 Concepts of Time and
5.4 CHRONOMETER ERROR AND TIME SIGNALS Nautical Almanac

GMT accurate to seconds is required to accurately find the position of a celestial body on
the celestial sphere. The position of heavenly body apparently changes on the celestial
sphere primarily due to rotation of the earth which is 1 minute of arc every
2.5′ per second, therefore great amount of accuracy is required in keeping time.
All ships carry Chronometer which is set to keep GMT.
The chronometer is considered one of the most accurate timepieces. No timepiece can
keep perfect time for indefinite period, but the distinguishing feature of the chronometer
is that its rate of gain or loss of time is constant over long periods of time.
Chronometer Error
The difference between chronometer time and GMT is called the chronometer
error. The chronometer error is named fast or slow on GMT i.e. if the time shown
by the chronometer is more than GMT then the chronometer error (C.E.) is Fast
(– ve). To get correct chronometer time and GMT the error must be subtracted
from the chronometer time. And if the time shown by the chronometer is less than
GMT then the chronometer error (C.E.) is slow (+ ve). To get correct chronometer
time and GMT the error must be added to the chronometer time.
Chronometer Error Slow ADD
Chronometer Error Fast SUBTRACT
Chronometer Rate
The number of seconds a chronometer gains or looses in a day is
called its daily rate. The chronometers are never reset on board ships,
instead the error is correctly determined and applied. Most important
feature of the chronometer is that its rate of gain or loss of time is
constant over long periods of time. This attribute allows the navigator
to determine chronometer error with precision and calculate correct
time when needed.
Time Signals
The best method of determining chronometer error is by comparing the
chronometer with radio time signals broadcasted by radio stations listed in
Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume-II Radio Aids To Navigation, Satellite
Navigation Systems, Legal Time, Radio Time Signals and Electronic Position
Fixing Systems, British Broadcasting Corporation or All India Radio. The
upcoming time is broadcasted on the frequency followed by time ticks till a long
dash or on beginning of audio signal. Steps to take time signals :
(i) Tune to the Radio station (ALRS Vol. II, NP 282).
(ii) Note the upcoming time.
(iii) Listen to the ticks and note the chronometer time at the end of the minute.
(iv) Compare the chronometer time and Time signal and enter in Chronometer
Log.
Chronometer Log
To determine chronometer error accurately a chronometer log is kept in which the
following columns are filled and preferably must be done at fixed intervals.
Generally on ship’s the chronometer error is observed at fixed GMT so that the
daily rate can be easily established. The daily rate is actually established by
averaging the rate over a month e.g. if the chronometer error was +2 m 10 s on
1st Oct and on 31st Oct it was + 4 m 42 s the accumulated error is
+ 2 m 32 s = 152 s. Average daily rate = 152/30 = 5.06 s abt 5 s.
Ships are required to keep chronometer log. 11
Celestial Navigation Date GMT Chronometer Chronometer Rate Station Signature
Oct. Time Error +/– +/–
1 3 h 00 m 00 s 3 h 02 m 10 s + 2 m 10 s
2 3 h 00 m 00 s 3 h 02 m 15 s + 2 m 15 s +5
3 3 h 00 m 00 s 3 h 02 m 20 s + 2 m 20 s +5
4 3 h 00 m 00 s 3 h 02 m 25 s + 2 m 25 s +5

31 3 h 00 m 00 s
Note : + indicates Fast and – indicates slow or + gaining and – losing.

Example 5.2 : Chronometer Error

From the following information find the chronometer error and rate of
chronometer.
Time Signal 2nd Oct. 3 h 00 m 00 s 3rd Oct. 3 h 00 m 00 s
Chron. Time 2nd Oct. 3 h 02 m 15 s 3rd Oct. 3 h 02 m 20 s
Solution
Chronometer error + 2 m 15 s + 2 m 20 s
Rate of chronometer +5 s
Example 5.3 : Chronometer Error
Using the above chronometer log determine the chronometer error 14th Oct. @
01h 20m GMT.
Error Known 4th Oct. 03 h 00 m (GMT) + 2 m 25 s
+ 50 s Accumulated error
Error to be Found 14th Oct. 01 h 20 m (GMT) + 3 m 15 s
Time Elasped 9 d 22 h 20 m (9.93 days)
Rate 5 s gaining
Accumulated error 5 * 9.93 = 49.65 s = 50 s fast

Solution
Chron. Error On 14th Oct. @ 01 h 20 m GMT = + 3 m 15 s (Fast)
The chronometer makes two rounds in a day, so when we note down the chronometer
time we don’t know whether the chronometer is in its first round or second i.e. say when
chronometer reads 04 h 21 m 23 s, the ambiguity is that the GMT is either 04 h 21 m
23 s or 16 h 21 m 23 s. This ambiguity is resolved by knowing the Local Mean Time or
Standard time or ship’s time. Also the GMT date is not necessarily same as the local date
so this also needs to be checked.
Stopwatches are used to time navigational sights that is to time from sight to noting down
the chronometer time as the chronometer is inside the bridge housing whereas sight being
taken in the bridge wing. Therefore, the time (measured by stopwatch) needs to be
subtracted from the read time.

5.5 CALCULATIONS
5.5.1 Calculate Correct Chronometer Time
Example 5.4
A sight of the Sun was taken when chronometer showed 02 h 59 m 22 s. Calculate
the correct chronometer time if the chronometer error is 1 m 38 s slow.
Solution
12
 Concepts of Time and
Chronometer Time 02 h 59 m 22 s Nautical Almanac

Chronometer Error 1 m 38 s (Slow so ADD)

Correct Chronometer Time 03 h 01 m 00 s

Answer 03 h 01 m 00 s

Example 5.5
A sight of the Moon was taken when chronometer showed 11h 01m 17s. Calculate
the correct chronometer time if the chronometer error is 2m 49s fast.
Solution

Chronometer Time 11 h 01 m 17 s

Chronometer Error 2 m 49 s (Fast so SUBTRACT)

Correct Chronometer Time 10 h 58 m 28 s

Answer 10 h 58 m 28 s

5.5.2 Calculate Correct Greenwich Mean Time

To calculate correct GMT we have to first get correct chronometer time and then
resolve the 12 hr. ambiguity as we do not know whether it is AM or PM at
Greenwich meridian but we know for sure whether it is AM or PM at observer’s
meridian. So we have to first calculate LMT and then we get corresponding GMT,
with this the GMT date ambiguity also gets resolved. As the observer knows his
local date GMT date is not known to him directly but he must deduce it from
LMT.
Example 5.6
On 19th May 2004, about 0300 ship’s time for a ship in DR 21º 12′N 57º 29′E
the Azimuth of star Sirius was observed when chronometer (chronometer error
3 m 22 s slow) showed 10 h 57 m 49 s. Find the correct GMT.
Solution
First Step : Finding Correct Chronometer Time

Date Hours Minutes Seconds

d h m s

Chronometer Time − 10 57 49

Chronometer Error (Slow) + 3 22

Correct Chronometer Time 11 01 11

Second Step : Resolving 12 hr Ambiguity

GMT Ambiguity = Correct Chronometer Time ± 12 Hr.
Zone Description (ZD) → Long./15 → round of to nearest Integer → E Long −,
W long +
ZD → 57º 29′/15 = 3.83 → round of to nearest Integer = 4 → E + = + 4
ZD sign is for obtaining GMT from Zone time.
To add or subtract use : Longitude East GMT least Longitude West GMT best
Ship’s time = GMT + ZD (long E) = GMT – ZD (long W)

Χ √ 13
Celestial Navigation
d h m s OR d h m s
GMT ?? 11 01 11 ?? 23 01 11
ZD +4 00 00 +4 00 00
th th
Ship’s 19 15 01 11 19 03 01 11
Time May May
As the ship’s time is about 0300hrs therefore GMT = 23h 01m 11s
Third Step : Finding Correct GMT Date
Ship’s date is known we have to find the GMT date.
If while adding or subtracting ZD to GMT there is no carryover or borrowing of
day then the GMT date is same as ship’s date.
If while adding ZD (Longitude E) to GMT there is carryover of a day then the
GMT date is a day behind ship’s date.
If while subtracting ZD (Longitude W) to GMT there is borrowing of a day then
the GMT date is a day ahead of ship’s date.
Please note that the date given in examination questions or the date known on ship
is always LOCAL DATE, the GMT DATE need to be obtained using above
method.
So in this example we can see in wrong GMT calculation there is no carryover
therefore the date remains same as ship’s date where as there is carryover of a day
in correct GMT therefore the GMT date is a day behind ship’s date and is
18th May.

Χ √
d h m s OR d h m s
GMT 19th May 11 01 11 18th May 23 01 11
ZD +4 00 00 +4 00 00
Ship’s 19th May 15 01 11 19th May 03 01 11
Time
Solution
Correct GMT = 18th May 23 h 01 m 11 s.
Example 5.7
On 28th February 2004, PM at ship in DR 41º 23′N 164º 57′W the Azimuth of a
star was observed when chronometer (chronometer error 6 m 49 s fast) showed
9 h 06 m 27 s. Find the correct GMT.
Solution
First Step : Finding Correct Chronometer Time

Date Hours Minute Second

s s
d h
m s

Chronometer Time 9 06 27

Chronometer Error (fast) − 6 49

Correct Chronometer Time 8 59 38

Second Step : Resolving 12 hr Ambiguity
14
 GMT Ambiguity = Correct Chronometer Time ± 12 Hr. Concepts of Time and
Nautical Almanac
For resolving the above ambiguity we need to find LMT as AM and PM given in
the question or known on ship are with respect to the observer’s meridian.
AM stands for Ante Meridian which means that the observation has been taken
before the Sun is on the meridian also we can say that the Sun is East of the
observer’s meridian. The Sun is on the observer’s meridian at about 1200 hrs.
therefore AM is before 1200 hrs.
PM stands for Post Meridian which means that the observation has been taken after
the Sun was on the meridian, also we can say that the Sun is West of the observer’s
meridian. The Sun is on the observer’s meridian at about 1200 hrs. therefore PM is
after 1200 hrs.
LMT = GMT + LIT (Long E) = GMT − LIT (Long W)
LIT = Long/15 = 164º 57′/15 = 10 h 59 m 48 s
√ Χ
d h m s OR d h m s
GMT ?? 8 59 38 ?? 20 59 38
LIT − 10 59 48 − 10 59 48
th th
LMT 28 21 59 50 28 09 59 50
Feb Feb
As it is PM at the ship therefore LMT is after 1200 = 21 h 59 m 50 s hence
GMT = 8 h 59 m 38 s.
Third Step : Finding Correct GMT Date
While subtracting LIT (Longitude W) from GMT there is need to borrow a day
therefore the GMT date is a day ahead of ship’s date.
So in this example we can see in wrong GMT calculation there is no need to
borrow a day therefore the date remains same as ship’s date where as there is need
to borrow a day in correct GMT therefore the GMT date is a day ahead of ship’s
date and is 29th February.
√ Χ
d h m s OR d h m s
th th
GMT 29 Feb 8 59 38 28 Feb 20 59 38
LIT − 10 59 48 − 10 59 48
th th
LMT 28 Feb 21 59 50 28 Feb 09 59 50

Correct GMT = 29th Feb. 08 h 59 m 38 s.

5.6 NAUTICAL ALMANAC

All ships carry Nautical Almanac (NA) for the current year and is integral for celestial
navigation as it provides the GHA, Declination of all celestial bodies used for navigation
purposes and various information required for astronomical calculations on ships.
5.6.1 General Information Contained in NA
The contents of the almanac are listed below, in the order in which they appear, together
with brief notes on their layout and use. When studying the layout and contents of the
almanac, it is essential to keep an almanac handy and to refer to it regarding each item
mentioned below :

15
Celestial Navigation (i) The inside of the front cover page contains tables for correction of altitudes
of the Sun, stars and planets. The facing page provides similar tables for low
altitudes observations.
(ii) The next page contains additional ‘refraction corrections’ for non-standard
temperatures and pressures.
(iii) This is followed by the list of contents of the nautical almanac, a calendar of
the phases of the Moon, the calendar for the year, and notes and maps giving
information on eclipses occurring in that year.
(iv) Provided thereafter, are the planet notes, and the planet diagram for the year
showing the LMT of meridian passage of the Sun, and the five planets,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. This diagram indicates the period
when each planet is too close to the Sun for observation and when the
planets are visible. It also indicates whether they are available for morning
or evening sights. It further gives an indication of the position of the planets
at twilight.
(v) After the ephemeris, explanations are provided giving the principle and
arrangement of the nautical almanac together with examples to show the
correct use of the information provided in it. The explanation also gives the
procedure for using the current nautical almanac in the following year.
(vi) The tables of standard time gives the time difference between GMT and the
standard time of the different areas of the world.
(vii) Star charts are provided separately showing the northern stars, southern stars
and equatorial stars. These charts help in the identification of the important
stars.
(viii) The table of 173 stars gives their magnitude, their constellation names (on
the left hand page), proper names (on the right hand page), and their SHA’s
and declinations, for each month. The stars are listed in ascending order of
SHA. Though the 57 selected stars are also included in this table, their
SHA’s, and declinations, are obtained more accurately from the daily pages.
(ix) The ‘Polaris’ tables provide the corrections ‘a0’, ‘a1’ and ‘a2’ to be applied
to the true altitude of Polaris, to obtain the latitude. It also gives a table for
obtaining the azimuth of Polaris. Explanations regarding the use of these
tables are also provided, together with an example.
(x) The table for conversion of arc to time is useful for converting arc to its
equivalent in time and vice versa.
(xi) Using the increment and correction tables, we can obtain the GHAs of the
Sun, planets, Aries and Moon as well as the declinations of Sun, planets and
the Moon accurately, for any second of time during the entire year.
(xii) The table for interpolation is divided into two. Table I is used for
interpolating, LMT of sunrise, sunset, twilight, moonrise, moonset and
Moon’s meridian passage for the required latitude. Table II is for
interpolating the times of the above phenomena for longitude.
(xiii) The index to selected stars gives the number, magnitude, SHA and
declination (to the nearest degree) of the 57 selected stars, both in
alphabetical and numerical order. The same information is also provided on
the book-mark.
(xiv) Altitude correction tables for the Moon contain the corrections to be applied
to observed altitudes of Moon’s lower or upper limbs. The use of this table
has already been explained in the chapter on ‘Altitudes’.

16
 Concepts of Time and
5.6.2 Information Contained in the Daily Pages Nautical Almanac
The above information is followed by the ‘ephemeris’ for the entire year, tabulated
against Greenwich mean times and dates. Each pair of facing pages provides information
for three days regarding the following :
Aries : GHA of Aries is given for each hour, and the
GMT of its Greenwich meridian passage time for
the middle day. The GMT of Greenwich meridian
passage for the preceding and succeeding dates
can be obtained by adding or subtracting
respectively, 23 h 56 m 04 s.
Planets : The GHA and declination of the planets Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are given for each hour.
Also listed are their magnitudes as well as their
‘v’and ‘d’ applicable on all the three days. Their
SHA’s at 0000 hrs. GMT on the middle date, and
the GMT of their Greenwich meridian passage on
that date are also given immediately below the star
tables.
Stars : The SHA’s and declinations of 57 selected stars
are provided. They are valid for all the three days.
Sun : The GHA and declination are provided for each
hour. The SD for the middle day and ‘d’
applicable on all the three days are also listed. To
the right of the page, at the bottom, the “equation
of time” is tabulated for 00 h and 12 h GMT on
each of the three days. Next to it, is the GMT of
Greenwich meridian passage of the Sun on each of
the three days. This time may also be taken as
LMT meridian passage of the Sun over any
longitude as the rate of increase of the Sun’s GHA
is almost exactly 15° per hour.
Moon : GHA, declination, ‘v’, ‘d’ and ‘horizontal
parallax’ values are provided for each hour. The
Moon’s SD is given for each of the three days.
Also listed at the bottom right of the page are the
GMT of upper and lower meridian passages of the
Moon over Greenwich meridian on each of the
three days; the age of Moon and its phase.
Returning to the ephemeris tables of the almanac, on the right side of the page, are listed
the sunrise and sunset times, the times of beginning of nautical and civil twilights in the
morning and those of the end of civil and nautical twilights in the evening, for the middle
date of the page.
Moon-rise and moon set times are given for four days. Each of the above is given for a
range of latitudes from 72°N to 60°S. All times given are the GMT of the phenomenon
over Greenwich meridian.
The Greenwich mean times of the solar phenomena may be used as the LMT of the
phenomena in any longitude without appreciable error. Interpolation is however
necessary for latitude and for the required date.
To obtain LMT of moonrise or moonset, interpolation is required for latitude and for
longitude, between the dates concerned.
In these tables, there are three symbols used. The white box indicates that the Sun or
Moon remains continuously above the horizon, the black box indicates that they do not
rise, and the strokes indicate that twilight lasts all night.
17
Celestial Navigation 5.6.3 Uses the Tables of Corrections and Incremental Corrections in the
Nautical Almanac
In the daily pages of the almanac the GHA, ‘V ’, ‘d’ is tabulated for each hour to find the
correct GHA and Declination of the body for any instant one needs to interpolate.
Increment Tables are provided at end of the Almanac, which give change in GHA, ‘d ’
correction, ‘V ’ correction, for minutes and second.
The increment tables are based on the assumption that the hourly increase in the GHA of
Sun and planets is 15°00', that of Aries is 15°02.46' and that of the Moon 14°19'. The
values of ‘v’ tabulated in the daily pages of the almanac are variations from the actual
hourly increase in the GHA of these bodies in excess of the assumed values stated above.
‘v’ is generally positive, except sometimes in the case of Venus, when its hourly increase
in GHA is less than 15°. At such times, ‘v’ for Venus is tabulated with a negative prefix.
This happens in the case of Venus alone, due to its proximity to the Earth causing the
apparent direct motion of Venus to be more rapid than those of the other planets. Though
the Moon is closer than Venus, its ‘v’ is never negative, because the assumed value of
14°19', is lesser than the least actual hourly increase in the Moon’s GHA.
‘v’ is not tabulated for Aries, as its actual hourly increase in GHA never differs from the
value of 15°02.46' used for its increment tables. ‘v’ is not tabulated for the Sun either
because its rate of increase of GHA per hour is always very nearly equal to the assumed
value of 15°. Any small difference is made up in the next tabulated hourly value of the
Sun’s GHA. ‘v’ is tabulated once on each page for each of the four planets. It is
applicable for all the three dates on the page. For the Moon, it is tabulated hourly, as its
rate of change of GHA varies from hour to hour. ‘d’ is the hourly change in the
declination of the various bodies. Whether it is an increase or a decrease can be found by
inspection of the almanac around that time. ‘d’ is not tabulated for Aries as it is always
on the Equinoctial, with a constant nil declination. For the Sun and planets, the ‘d’ listed
is the mean value of their hourly change of declination for the three days on the page.
For the Moon it is tabulated hourly due to the rapid change in its rate of change of
declination.
The actual ‘v’ or ‘d’ correction for any duration of minutes and seconds of time is
obtained from the increment and correction tables, towards the end of the almanac.

5.7 USING OF NAUTICAL ALMANAC TO FIND LHA OF

CELESTIAL BODIES
The GHA of the Sun, the Moon and planets is tabulated and can be directly obtained
whereas for stars GHA aries and SHA is tabulated.
5.7.1 First Point of Aries
The orbiting plane of the Earth is inclined to the plane of equator or equinoctial by
23º 26.7′. The great circle on the celestial sphere in the plane of the orbiting plane of the
earth is called the Ecliptic, this is also the annual apparent path of the true Sun. The great
circle on the celestial sphere in the plane of the Equator is called the Equinoctial. The
ecliptic cuts the equinoctial at two points called the equinoctial points.

Ecliptic

Equinoctial
γ

18
On 21st March, at Vernal Equinox, the true Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from Concepts of Time and
Nautical Almanac
South to North. This point is known as the First point of Aries. It is denoted by the
symbol γ. This point is reference for measuring SHA of all Celestial bodies. SHA of stars
is tabulated in ascending order in the Nautical almanac.
On 23rd September, at Autumnal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from
North to South. This point is known as the First point of Libra, denoted by the
symbol K.

Figure 5.3

The First point of Aries and the First point of Libra were named after the constellations
in which they once lay. These points are however moving westward slowly, along the
Ecliptic. Due to this, the 1st point of Aries is no longer in the constellation of Aries. It is
now in the constellation of Pisces.
5.7.2 Sidereal Angle of a Star
SHA * ∠ γPX
It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through first point of aries and the celestial meridian passing
through the star measured westwards. SHA of stars is tabulated on daily pages of
the Almanac and also in order of ascending SHA’s with there apparent magnitude
and declination before Polaris tables. SHA of the Sun, Moon and planets can be
found by subtracting GHAγ from GHA Sun, Moon or Planets respectively. SHA of
all bodies is expressed as arc in degrees.
Right Ascension RA * ∠ γPX
It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through first point of aries and the celestial meridian passing
through the star measured eastwards. RA of all bodies is generally expressed as an
hour angle in hours, minutes and seconds.
Greenwich Hour Angle GHAγ (∠ GPγ)
It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through Greenwich and the celestial meridian passing through
the first point of aries measured westwards.

19
Celestial Navigation
GHA * (∠ GPX)
It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through Greenwich and the celestial meridian passing through
the star measured westwards.

X X
γ γ

P P

G G

Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5

In Figure 5.4 In Figure 5.5

SHA* = ∠ γ PX RA* = ∠ γ GPX

GHAγ = ∠ GPγ SHA* = ∠ γPX

GHA* = ∠ GPX RA* + SHA* = 360o

GHA* = ∠ GPγ + ∠ γPX

= ∠ GHAγ + SHA*

SGHA* = GHA* − GHAγ

As the SHA of stars changes very slowly due to westward motion of first point of
aries and GHAγ + SHA* = GHA*, hence GHAγ is tabulated against GMT on daily
pages and GHA of stars can be easily found by adding SHA of stars to GHAγ.

5.7.3 Local Hour Angle of First Point of Aries γ and LHA ‫٭‬
Local Hour Angle LHAγ (∠ LPγ)
It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through observer and the celestial meridian passing through the
first point of aries measured westwards.

LHA * (∠ LPX)

It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through the observer and the celestial meridian passing through
the star measured westwards.

EHA * (∠ LPX)

It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained between celestial
meridian passing through the observer and the celestial meridian passing through
the star measured eastwards.

20
 Concepts of Time and
Nautical Almanac
γ X X
γ
P
P

E W

G G

Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7

To show To show
LHAγ = GHAγ + Long E LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* + Long E
LHAγ = GHAγ − Long W LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* − Long W

In Figure 5.6 and 5.7 In Figure 5.6 and 5.7

GHAγ = ∠ GPγ For Longitude East
LHAγ = ∠ EPγ or ∠ WPγ LHA* = ∠ EPX
Long E = ∠ GPE LHA* = ∠ GPγ + ∠ γPX + ∠ GPE
Long W = ∠ GPW LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* + Long E

For Longitude East LHA* = ∠ GPγ + ∠ GPE + ∠ γPX

LHAγ = ∠ EPγ LHA* = LHAγ + SHA*
LHAγ = ∠ GPγ + ∠ GPE = GHAγ +
Long E For Longitude West
LHA* = ∠ WPX
For Longitude West LHA* = ∠ GPγ + ∠ γPX − ∠ GPW
LHAγ = ∠ WPγ LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* − Long W
LHAγ = ∠ GPγ − ∠ GPW
= GHAγ − Long W
LHA* = ∠ GPγ − ∠ GPW + ∠ γPX
LHA* = LHAγ + SHA*
5.7.4 Find Local Hour Angle of First Point of Aries γ and LHA ‫٭‬
Example 5.8
Calculate the LHA of a star whose SHA is 258° 44.1′, for an observer in longitude
127°E, when GHAγ is 129°.
Solution
GHAγ = 129°
SHA* = 258° 44.1′
Long = 127°E
LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* + Long E
= 129° + 258° 44.1′ + 127°E = 154° 44.1′ (if more than 360º subtract 360º)
Answer : LHA* = 154° 44.1′
Example 5.9
21
Celestial Navigation On a certain day in longitude 165° 23′W, star Capella (RA 79º 6.4′) was on
observer’s meridian. Find GHAγ.s
Solution
When star is on the observer’s meridian LHA* = 0º
RA* = 79° 6.4′
SHA* =(360 - RA*) = 280° 53.6′
Long = 165° 23′W
GHAγ = ??
LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* − Long W
0º = GHAγ + 280° 53.6′ − 165° 23′
GHAγ =0º − 280° 53.6′ + 165° 23′ = − 115° 30.6′ (If – ve add 360°) = 244º 29.4′
Answer : GHAγ = 244º 29.4′
Example 5.10
On 2nd March 1992, PM at ship in DR 15° 42′S 162º 23′W, Find LHAγ and LHA
of the star Gacrux at 08 h 41 m 27 s chronometer time. The chronometer error was
03 m 40 s fast at 0600 GMT on 24th February 1992 and its daily rate was 4 s
losing.
Solution
First find approximate GMT to find time elapsed for calculating chronometer
error.
√ Χ
d h m s OR d h m s
Approx.GMT 3rd March 08 41 27 2nd March 20 41 27
LIT − 10 49 32 − 10 49 32
Approx LMT 2nd March 21 51 55 2nd March 09 51 55

As PM given in question therefore Approx LMT 2nd March 21 h 51 m 55 s hence

Approx GMT 3rd March 08 h 41 m 27 s.
Now we find the chronometer error
Day of the year h m s
(Page 5 Nautical Almanac)
Approx GMT 3RD March 63 08 41 27

GMT when error 24th February 55 06 00 00

known
Time Elapsed 08 2 41 27

Accumulated Error = Days * Daily rate = 8.11 * 4 = 32 s slow

Error on 24th Feb 3 m 40 s (fast)

Accumulated Error 32 s (slow)
Error at the time of observation 3 m 08 s (fast)
d h m s

22
 Concepts of Time and
Approx GMT 3rd March 08 41 27 Nautical Almanac

Chronometer Error (fast) − 3 08

Correct GMT 3rd March 08 38 19

Now find LHAγ and LHA star Gacrux

LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* − Long W

GHAγ 8 h GMT 281º 21′.0 Page for GMT date 3rd March From
Almanac
Increment 38 m 19 s + 9º 36′.3 From increment Table

Correct GHAγ 290º 57′.3

Long (W) − 162º 23′.0 Given

LHAγ 128º 34′.3

SHA‫٭‬ + 172º 18′.3 From daily pages

LHA‫٭‬ 300º 52′.6

Answer : LHAγ = 128º 34′.3
LHA ‫ = ٭‬300º 52′.6
Example 5.11
On 4th May 1992, AM @ ship in DR 41º 13’ S 102º 40’E, LHA of star Archernar
by calculation was 285º 12′.4 @ GMT 22 h 59 m 57 s. Find the Longitude of the
observer.
Solution
First checking GMT date.

d h m s
rd
GMT ?? 3 May 22 59 57
LIT + 06 50 40
th
LMT 4 May 05 50 37

As date is getting carried over therefore GMT date is 3rd May.

GMT 3rd May 22 h 59 m 57 s
GHA* = GHAγ + SHA*
LHA* = GHA* + Long E or GHA* − Long W
Long = LHA* ~ GHA*
Always subtract from higher the lower value and name E if LHA* > GHA* and
Name W if GHA*> LHA*. If the difference is more than 180º subtract it from
360 and change the name.

GHAγ 22 h GMT 192º 02′.9 3rd May

Increment 59 m 57 s + 15º 01′.7 From increment Table
Correct GHAγ 207º 04′.6
SHA‫٭‬ + 335º 38′.9 From daily pages
GHA‫٭‬ 182º 43′.5 23
Celestial Navigation
LHA ‫٭‬ 285º 12′.4 285º 12′.4 - 182º 43′.5= 102º 28′.9 E
Long. 102º 28′.9 E
Answer : Longitude = 102º 28′.9 E

5.8 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF CELESTIAL BODIES

Geographical position of a celestial body is the point on the surface of the Earth
representing the body that is vertically beneath that body or its the point at which a
straight line from the centre of the Earth to the celestial body meets the Earth’s surface.

Geographical
Position of ‫٭‬

Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9

The GP being on the Earth’s surface, is always expressed in terms of latitude and
longitude. Since the centre of the celestial sphere is the Earth’s centre and as the Equator
and the Equinoctial are in the same plane, the latitude of a celestial body’s geographical
position is equal to the body’s declination. The longitude of its GP corresponds to its
GHA.
GHA is measured from 0° to 360°, westwards from Greenwich, while longitude is
measured from 0° to 180°E and 0° to 180°W from Greenwich. The GHA of the body, if
less than 180° will therefore be equal to the West longitude of its GP. If the GHA is more
than 180° the long of its GP will be (360° − GHA) East.
Latitude of GP = Declination of the body
Longitude of GP = GHA* and named West if GHA*<180º
Longitude of GP = (360 − GHA*) and named East if GHA*>180º
GP of a body corresponds to point on the surface of the Earth whose position is
accurately known at any Instant. The d′long between the longitude of the GP of a body
and that of the observer will be the body’s hour angle from the observer. The great circle
bearing of the GP of a celestial body from the observer’s position corresponds to the
azimuth of the body on the celestial sphere.
SAQ 2
(a) To an observer the Star’s LHA was 291°, when its GHA was 102°. Find the
observer’s longitude.
(b) On 30th April 92, PM at ship in DR 32° 10′S 40° 20′ W, find the LHA of
star Sirius at chronometer time 08 h 54 m 05 s. The chronometer error was
03m 44s fast @ 0600 GMT on 15th April and its daily rate was 4 s losing.

24
 (c) On 24th August 92, @ about 1800 hrs at ship in DR 32° 10′S 003° 30′ W, Concepts of Time and
Nautical Almanac
find the LHAγ and LHA of star Spica at chronometer time 06 h 15 m 20 s.
The chronometer error was 01 m 59 s slow.
(d) What is the GP of the First point of Aries, when LHA γ was 53° for an
observer in longitude 120°E.
(e) On 2nd March 1992, find the GP of star Capella at GMT 02 d 12 h 32 m
18 s.

5.9 SUMMARY
Determining accurate GMT of celestial observation is very important because against this
we find the GHA and declination of the body from nautical alamanc. The GHA and
declination of the celestial body is used to determine the GP of the body, which is the
centre of the astronomical position circle. If the time is in error the center of the circle
will be in error and so will be our position. GP of the body is very similar to a lighthouse
when its radar range is measured and it gives a position circle. If the lighthouse position
is in error so will be our position.
Zone time, advancing, retarding clocks are routine matters on ship so these concepts time
need to be well grasped prior moving on.
Understanding layout, information and use of Nautical Almanac is very important as it
gives us GP of the body as well as other information critical to celestial navigation. Have
a nautical almanac by your side when reading the topic on nautical Almanac.

5.10 KEY WORDS

GMT : It is the angle between the inferior Greenwich
meridian and the meridian passing through the
Mean Sun measured clockwise from the inferior
Greenwich meridian.
LMT : It is the angle between the inferior Observer’s
meridian and the meridian passing through the
Mean Sun measured clockwise from the inferior
Observer’s meridian.
LIT : It is the longitude of the observer converted in
time by dividing the longitude by 15º.
ZT : Zone time uses the standard (central) meridians
of the various time zones as reference
meridians.
ZD : The zone description of a time zone is the
adjustment to be applied to that time zone to
determine GMT.
IDL : International Date line is modified 180º meridian.
Equinoctial : The great circle on the celestial sphere in the same
plane as the equator.
25
Celestial Navigation Ecliptic : The great circle on the celestial sphere in the same
plane as the orbiting plane of the Earth.
Obliquity of Ecliptic : The angle that the Ecliptic makes with the plane of
equinoctial, it is about 23º 26’. 7.
First Point of Aries : A point where the Sun apparently crosses the
equinoctial from South to North.
First Point of Libra : A point where the Sun apparently crosses the
equinoctial from North to South.
SHA * : Sidereal Hour angle of a star is the angle at the
celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained
between celestial meridian passing through first
point of aries and the celestial meridian passing
through the star measured Westwards.
RA * : It is the angle at the celestial pole or arc of
equinoctial contained between celestial meridian
passing through first point of aries and the celestial
meridian passing through the star measured
Eastwards.
LHAγ : Local Hour angle of first point of Aries is the
angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial
contained between celestial meridian passing
through the observer and the celestial meridian
passing through first point of aries measured
Westwards.
LHA * : Local Hour angle of a star is the angle at the
celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained
between celestial meridian passing through the
observer and the celestial meridian passing
through the star measured Westwards.
GHAγ : Greenwich Hour angle of first point of Aries is the
angle at the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial
contained between celestial meridian passing
through the Greenwich and the celestial meridian
passing through first point of aries measured
Westwards.
GP : Geographical Position of a body is a point on
surface of the earth vertically below the body.

5.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(b) 8 h 38 m 20 s
(c) 178º 5.75′
(d) 20 d 20 h 08 m 43 s
(e) 05 h 18 m 00 s
(f) 11 h 42 m
(g) 1 d 15 h 42 m
(h) 10 d 06 h 14 m 12 s
26
 Concepts of Time and
SAQ 2 Nautical Almanac
(a) 171º W
(b) LHA ‫ ٭‬Sirius 030º 21′.3
(c) LHAγ = 244º 06. ′3 And LHA ‫ ٭‬Spica = 042º 54′.1
(d) Latitude of GP of γ = 0º, Longitude = 67º E
(e) Lat = 45º 59′.6 N Long = 90º 24′.6 E.

27