C #1: I B C: Hapter Ntroduction and Asic Oncepts

CHAPTER#1: INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Handouts for Thermodynamics
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
http://www.naveedurrehman.com/
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel and

Michael A. Boles
2. “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics” by Michael J. Moran,
Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
This handout is NOT a substitute for any book. Therefore, students are
strongly advised to read text and reference books and other relevant
literature available in library.
_____________________ _____________________
(Suggest title) (Suggest title)
Chapter#1: Introduction and basic concepts
THERMODYNAMICS (OLD DEFINITION)

1. In Greek, Therm means heat and Dynamics mean power.
2. In older days, thermodynamics was defined as the science to convert heat into power.
3. Examples:
a. In automobiles:
Heat from combusting fuel is ultimately converted into rotation of wheel.
b. In steam power plants:
Heat from burning coal is ultimately converted into generation of steam which drives turbine
and generate electricity.
c. In solar thermal collectors:
Heat from sun is ultimately converted into hot water.
THERMODYNAMICS (NEW DEFINITION)

1. In modern era, thermodynamics can be defined as science of energy.
2. Examples:
a. Study of wind mills:
Energy in blowing wind is ultimately converted into running mill.
b. Study of solar PV panels:
Energy in sunlight is converted into direct electricity.
SELECTED APPLICATION AREAS

1. Automobile engines 10. Heat pumps
2. Turbines 11. Cooling of electronic equipment
3. Compressors, pumps 12. Alternative energy systems
4. Fossil- and nuclear-fueled power stations 13. Fuel cells
5. Propulsion systems for aircraft and rockets 14. Thermoelectric and thermionic devices
6. Combustion systems 15. Solar-activated heating, cooling, and power
7. Cryogenic systems, gas separation, and generation
liquefaction 16. Geothermal systems
8. Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning 17. Ocean thermal, wave, and tidal power
systems generation
9. Vapor compression and absorption 18. Wind power
refrigeration 19. Biomedical applications
ENERGY
1. Energy can be defined as an ability to cause change.
2. No energy, no change!
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY PRINCIPLE

1. During an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
Handouts for Thermodynamics 2

2. Example: A rock falling off a cliff.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. It is an expression of conversation of energy principle
2. It asserts that, energy is a thermodynamic property.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. It asserts that, energy has quality as well as quantity.
2. Actual process occurs in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
3. Examples:
a. Heating a fan may melt it. It needs electricity, not heat!
b. Hot cup of coffee placed in a room having ordinary ambient
temperature will always cool down.
SUBSTANCE
1. A substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules.
2. The properties of substance naturally depend on the behavior of these molecules.
3. Example: Pressure of gas in a container is the result of momentum transfer between the molecules
and walls of container.
ANALYSIS APPROACH
Classical Thermodynamics
1. It utilizes macroscopic approach in which the overall behavior of a substance is considered.
2. Example: Temperature of coffee in a cup is 35°C.
Statistical Thermodynamics
1. It utilizes microscopic approach in which behavior of individual particles of a substance in
considered.
2. Example: Temperature of a particular particle of coffee is 20°C.
3. Note: We will not study this approach as it is beyond the scope of this course.
THE SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS AND THEIR SI UNIT

Dimension MKS FPS
1. Length Meter (m) Foot (ft)
2. Mass Kilogram (kg) Pound mass (lbm)
3. Time Seconds (s) Seconds (s)
4. Temperature Kelvin (K) Rankine (R)
5. Electric Current Ampere (A) Ampere (A)
6. Amount of light Candela (cd) Foot candle (ft-candle)
7. Amount of matter Mole (mol) Pound mole (lb-mol)

STANDARD PREFIXES IN SI UNITS
10^ 12 9 6 3 2 1 -1 -2 -3 -6 -9 -12
Name Tera Giga Mega Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Micro Nano Pico
Prefix T G M K H da d c m μ N P
SYSTEMS, SURROUNDINGS AND BOUNDARIES

System
1. A system is the mass or a region in space under consideration.
2. A system having no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion and surface tension effects is
called simple system.
3. A system can be open or closed type.
Open System Closed System Isolated System

Alternate name Control Volume (CV) Control Mass (CM) -
Mass transfer Yes No No
Energy transfer Yes Yes No
Example

Surroundings
The mass or region outside the system is called surrounding.
Boundary
1. A real or imaginary surface which separate system from its surrounding is
called boundary.
2. A boundary can be fixed or movable.
3. Boundary of control volume is called control surface.
4. It has zero thickness.
PROBLEM
Which one is more important, system or surroundings?
PROPERTIES OF SYSTEM
1. Any characteristic of a system is called a properly.
2. Example:
 P = Pressure
 T= Temperature
 V = Volume
 m = Mass
 ρ = m / V =Density [kg/m³]
 SG or ρg= ρ / ρH20 = Specific Gravity or Relative Density
Note: @40ºC, ρ H20 = 1000 kg/m³
 v = V / m = 1 / ρ = Specific Volume [m³/kg]
 E = Energy
Types of Properties
Intensive Properties Extensive Properties
1. Those properties which are independent to 1. Those properties which are dependent on
the size of system. the size of system.
2. Examples: P, T, ρ, v, e 2. Examples: m, V, E
Specific properties
1. Property of a system per unit mass is called specific property.
2. These properties are usually denoted by small letters.
3. Examples:
 v = V / m = Specific volume [m³/kg]
 e = E / m = Specific energy [J/kg]
PROBLEM
Prove mathematically, density is an intensive property.

Independent properties
1. Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant.
2. For example, temperature and pressure of liquid water are independent.
STATE OF SYSTEM
When a system is not undergoing any change, the set of properties that completely describes the
system are constant. This condition of system is called state.
EQUILIBRIUM
The word equilibrium means state of balance. In the state of equilibrium, there are no unbalanced
potentials or driving forces within the system.
Types of Equilibrium
1. Mechanical equilibrium: When the pressure is same throughout system.
2. Thermal equilibrium: When the temperature is same throughout system.
3. Phase equilibrium: If system involves two phases and the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
4. Chemical equilibrium: When no chemical reaction occur and the composition does
not change with respect to time.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
1. A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies mechanical, thermal, phase and
chemical equilibriums.
2. Note: According to scope of this course, we will assume thermodynamic equilibrium in all problems.
THE STATE POSTULATE

1. The state of simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties.
2. For example, state of nitrogen gas is defined by temperature and specific volume.
PROCESS
1. Any change that a system undergoes
from one from equilibrium state to
another is called process.
2. Describing a process require
information about:
a. Initial state
b. Final state
c. Path followed

d. Interaction with surroundings
Quasi Equilibrium Process

1. When the process such that the system remains infinitesimally
(very) close to equilibrium state all the time, it is called Quasi-
static or Quasi-equilibrium process.
2. Such process proceeds at extremely slow rates.
3. All the parts of system undergo change at the same rate.
4. It is an idealized process.
Types of Process
1. Isothermal: Temperature remains constant.
2. Isobaric: Pressure remains constant.
3. Isochoric/Isometric: Specific volume remains constant.
4. Adiabatic: No heat and mass transfer.
5. Steady: Properties do not change with respect to time.(Otherwise,
unsteady)
6. Uniform: Properties do not change with respect to location (Otherwise, non-
uniform)
CYCLE
1. A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at
the end of the process.
2. In other words, initial and final states of a cycle an identical.

FORMS OF ENERGIES OF A SYSTEM

Total Energy of a System
It is the sum of all energies of a system including thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical and nuclear etc.
Symbol: E [kJ]
Specific: e = E/m (kJ/kg)
Macroscopic Forms of Energies of a System

1. Energies with respect to some outside reference are called macroscopic forms of energies.
2. For example:
a. Kinetic Energy: Energy due to motion
Symbol: KE = mV2/2 [kJ]
Specific: ke = V2/2 [kJ/kg]
b. Potential Energy (PE): Energy due to
elevation in gravitational field Symbol:
2
PE = mgz [kJ] ; where g=9.81 m/s or 32.2
ft/s2
Specific: pe = gz [kJ/kg]
Microscopic Forms of Energies of a System

1. Energies due to internal molecular activity and molecular structure are called microscopic
forms of energies.
2. For example:
a. Sensible Energy: It is associated with the kinetic energy of molecules.
e.g. temperature of liquid water rise and can be seen on thermometer when heated.
b. Latent Energy: It is associated with the charges of phase of a system.
e.g. temperature of water remains constant when it is boiling (changing phase)
3. Internal Energy: Sum of all microscopic energies is called internal energy.
i.e. Internal Energy = Sensible Energy + Latent Energy
Symbol: U [kJ]
Specific: u = U/m [kJ/kg]
Note:
a. E = Macroscopic + Microscopic
b. E = (KE + PE) + (Sensible + Latent)
c. E = KE + PE + U

TEMPERATURE
The measure of the degrees of hotness and coldness of body is called temperature.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

1. If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
2. If TA = TC and TB = TC then TA = TB
3. It serves as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement.
Temperature Scales
Scale Unit System Ice point Steam point Notes
Celsius ºC SI 0 100 Depends on the properties
Fahrenheit ºF English 32 212 of some substances
Kelvin K SI Thermodynamic
Rankine R English temperature scale
Relations
ºF = 1.8 ºC + 32 K = ºC+ 273.15 R = ºF + 459.6 R = 1.8 K
∆ºF = 1.8 ∆ºC ∆K = ∆ºC ∆R = ∆ºF ∆R = 1.8 ∆K
PROBLEMS
1. If change in temperature is 10°C, what is the change in °F?
2. If change in temperature is 349°C, what is the change in Kelvin?
PROBLEM
A new temperature scale ºW is proposed such that the ice point of water is 150 ºW and steam
point is 300 ºW.
a. Graphically show the calibration of ºC versus ºW.

b. Determine ºC at 100 ºW & 400 ºW.
c. What is the ratio of the change in ºW to the change in K?
Solution:
a.
Ice point Steam point

ºC (x-axis) 0 100
ºW (y-axis) 150 300

b.
Derive equation of straight line using two-point formula:
y = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1).x + y1; Where, x1=0, x2=100, y1=150, y2=300, x=°C, y=°W
°W = 1.5°C + 150 ; Hence, at °W=100, °C=-33.33 and °W=400, °C=166.66
c. ∆°W:∆K = 3:2
PRESSURE
It is the force per unit area exerted by fluid.
Symbol: P
Units: N/m², Pa, bar, atm, psi
Relations
1 Pa = 1 N/m² ; 1 bar = 10² Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100kPa ; 1 atm = 14.696 psi = 101.328 kPa
Atmospheric Pressure
1. Atmospheric pressure at a location is simply the weight of air above that location
per unit surface area.
2. It decreases with elevation and also changes with weather conditions.
3. At high altitudes, a car engine generates less power and a person gets less oxygen
because of the lower density of air.
Absolute (Pabs), Gage (Pg) and Vacuum (Pvac) Pressure

1. The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure.
2. Pressures above atmospheric pressure are called gage pressures.
3. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures.
Pvac = Patm – Pabs Pg = Pabs - Patm

PROBLEM
A vacuum gauge is connected to a chamber reads 5.8psi at a location where atmosphere pressure is
14.5psi. Calculate absolute pressure. (ans: 8.7psi)
FLOW OF HEAT & MASS

1. Heat is transferred from high temperature to low temperature
2. Mass is transferred from high pressure to low pressure
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
1. Problem Statement
2. Schematic
3. Assumptions and Approximations
4. Physical Laws
5. Properties
6. Calculations
7. Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

THERMODYNAMICS
Homework Assignment for Chapter-1
1. Why does a bicyclist pick up speed on a downhill road even when he is not pedaling? Does
this violate the conservation of energy principle?
2. An office worker claims that a cup of cold coffee on his table warmed up to 80°C by picking
up energy from the surrounding air, which is at 25°C. Is there any truth to his claim? Does
this process violate any thermodynamic law?
3. What is the difference between pound-mass and pound-force?
4. What is the difference between kg-mass and kg-force?
5. A 3-kg plastic tank that has a volume of 0.2 m3 is filled with liquid water. Assuming the
density of water is 1000 kg/m3, determine the weight of the combined system.
6. Determine the mass and the weight of the air contained in a room whose dimension are 6m
x 6m x 8m. Assume the density of the air is 1.16 kg/m3.
7. Most of the energy generated in the engine of a car is rejected to the air by the radiator
through the circulating water. Should the radiator be analyzed as a closed system or as an
open system? Explain.
8. A can of soft drink at room temperature is put into the refrigerator so that it will cool.
Would you model the can of soft drink as a closed system or as an open system? Explain.
9. What is smog? What does it consist? How does ground- level ozone from? What are the
adverse effects of ozone on human health?
10. What is acid rain? How do the acid from in the atmosphere? What are the adverse effects
of acid rain on the environment?
11. What is the greenhouse effect? How does the excess CO2 gas in the atmosphere cause the
greenhouse effect? What are the potential long-term consequences of greenhouse effect?
How can we combat this problem?
12. The deep body temperature of a healthy person is 37°C. What is it in Kelvins?
13. Consider a system whose temperature is 18°C. Express this temperature in R, K, and °F.
14. The temperature of a system rises by 15°C during a heating process. Express this rise in
temperature in Kelvins.
15. The temperature of a system drops by 27°F during a cooling process. Express this drop in
temperature in K, R, and °C.
16. Consider two closed system A and B. System A contains 3000 kJ of thermal energy at 20°C
whereas system B contains 200 kJ of thermal energy at 50°C. Now the systems are brought
into contact with each other. Determine the direction of any heat transfer between the two
systems.
Page 1 of 2
17. Consider two identical fans, one at sea level and the other on top of a high mountain,
running at identical speeds. How would you compare (a) the volume flow rates and (b) the
mass flow rates of these two fans?
18. It is well-Known that cold air feels much colder in windy weather than what the
thermometer reading indicates because of the “chilling effect” of the wind. The effect is due
to the increase in the convection heat transfer coefficient with increasing air velocities. The
equivalent wind chill temperature in ‘°F is given by [ASHRAE, Handbook of fundamentals
(Atlanta, GA, 1993), p. 8.15].
( ) ( √ )
Where q is the wind velocity in mi/h and Tambient is the ambient air temperature in °F in calm
air, which is taken to be air with light wind and speeds up to 4 mi/h. The constant 91.4°F in
the above equation is the mean skin temperature of a resting person in a comfortable
environment. Windy air at temperature Tambient and velocity q will feel as cold as the calm
air temperature Tequiv using proper conversion factors, obtain an equivalent relation in SI
units where q is the wind velocity in km/handTambientis the ambient air temperature in °C.
19. What is the difference between isolated system and adiabatic process? Explain.
20. Give 5 examples of open system and 5 examples of closed system with diagram.
21. List 10 intensive and 10 extensive properties of system with their SI units.
22. Give 3 examples of “steady, uniform flow”, 3 examples of “steady, non-uniform flow”, 3
examples of “unsteady, uniform flow” and 3 examples of “unsteady, non-uniform flow”
with explanations.
23. Give appropriate reason, why we assume quasi-equilibrium processes in thermodynamics.
Page 2 of 2
CHAPTER#2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel and

Michael A. Boles
2. “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics” by Michael J. Moran,
Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
This handout is NOT a substitute for any book. Therefore, students are strongly advised to read text and reference books and
other relevant literature available in library.
The arrangement of atoms in different phases:

(a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a
solid
(b) groups of molecules move about each other in
the liquid phase,
(c) molecules move about at random in the gas
phase.
Chapter#2: Properties of pure substances
PURE SUBSTANCE
1. A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called pure substance.
2. Example:
a. Liquid water
b. Liquid water and ice
c. Liquid water, and steam
d. Gases (N2, CO2)
e. Air
3. Following are not the pure substances:
a. Oil + water
b. Air unmixed with water
c. Steam with impurities
PHASES
(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas
PHASES OF WATER
a) Compressed liquid or subcooled liquid (not about to
vaporize)
b) Saturated liquid (about to vaporize)
c) Saturated or vapor-liquid mixture (liquid and vapor
phases co-exist)
d) Saturated vapors (about to condense)
e) Superheated vapors (not about to condense)
PROBLEM
What is the difference between gas, vapors and steam?
SATURATION TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

Saturation temperature (Tsat)
1. It is the temperature at which a pure substance changes its phase.
2. Example:
a. Water boils at 100°C (Tsat) at P = 1 atm
b. Water boils at 250°C (Tsat) at P = 4 atm
Saturation pressure (Psat)

3. It is the pressure at which a pure substance changes its phase.
4. Example:
a. Water boils at 1 atm (Psat) at T = 100°C
b. Water boils at 0.0068 atm (Psat) at T = 30°C

LATENT HEATS
The amount of heat absorbed or released during phase-change process is called latent heat.
Latent heat of fusion

It is the heat which is absorbed during melting or released during freezing of a pure substance.
E.g. latent heat of fusion for water is (approx..) 333 kJ/kg at 1 atm.
ICE  LIQUID
Latent heat of vaporization (hfg)

It is the heat which is absorbed during vaporization or released during condensation of a pure substance.
E.g. latent heat of vaporization for water is (approx..) 2257 kJ/kg at 1 atm.
LIQUID VAPORS
PROPERTY DIAGRAM FOR THE PHASE-CHANGE PROCESS (WATER)
1. Higher is the pressure (P):

a. higher is saturation temperature (Tsat)
b. more is specific volume of saturation liquid
c. less is specific volume of saturation vapors
2. At critical point where Pcr=22.09 MPa and Tcr=375.14°C, saturation liquid and saturation vapors
states are identical i.e. vcr = 0.003155 m3/kg.

T-v and P-v property diagrams

P-V DIAGRAM EXTENDING TO INCLUDE SOLID PHASE

For substances that contracts on cooling
For substances that expand on cooling (e.g. water)
1. On a triple line, all three phases co-exist

2. If the pressure is lower than triple line, sublimation will occur.

P-T diagram
1. TTP = Triple point temperature PTP = Triple point pressure

2. TTP and PTP are inherent property of a pure substance
3. For water: TTP = 0.01°C and PTP = 0.6113kPa
4. Special case of dry-ice (CO2): It has triple point pressure (517 kPa) higher than atmospheric pressure
(101 kPa) so it sublimates (i.e. change its phase from solid to vapors directly, without getting
liquefied).
PROBLEMS
1. A pure substance has triple point pressure 0.3bar. It is placed in a chamber where the pressure is
0.01bar and a temperature is such that it is in solid phase. On heating, it first melts and then vaporizes.
Is it possible?
2. A pure substance melts at T=400°C and then vaporize at 340°C at a pressure higher than triple point
pressure. Is it possible?
Answer to both the problems is No.
ENTHALPY
1. The total heat content of a system is called enthalpy.
2. It is a combination property.
H = U + PV [kJ]
h = u + Pv [kJ/kg]

PROPERTY TABLES
Subscripts: f = fluid or liquid g = gas or vapors fg = g – f
A-4: For saturated liquid and saturated vapor states when T is given
A-5: For saturated liquid and saturated vapor states when P is given
A-6: For superheated water
A-7: For subcooled water (optional)
Linear interpolation
Y = (Y2 – Y1)/(X2 – X1) x (X-X1) + Y1
SATURATED LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR STATES

Use property tables A-4 and A-5
PROBLEM
A rigid tank contains 50 kg of saturated liquid water at 90°C. Determine pressure in the tank and volume
of tank.
Solution:
m = 50 kg T = 90°C State: Saturated liquid
P = Psat@T=90°C = ? V=?
P = Psat@T=90°C = 70.14 kPa

V = m.v = m . vf@T=90°C = 50 x 0.001036 = 0.0518 m3
PROBLEM
A mass of 200 g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporized at a constant pressure of 100 kPa.
Determine the volume change and the amount of energy added to water.
Solution:
m = 0.2 kg P = 100 kPa

States: (1) = Saturated liquid (2) = Saturated vapors
∆V = ? ∆H = ?
∆V = V2 – V1 = m(v2-v1) = m(vg - vf) = m.vfg = m.vfg@P=100kPa = 0.2 x 1.6930

= 0.3386 m3
∆H = H2 – H1 = m(h2-h1) = m(hg - hf) = m(hg@P=100kPa – hf@P=100kPa )= 451.6 kJ
Note: hfg is called enthalpy of vaporization or latent heat of vaporization.

SATURATED LIQUID-VAPOR MIXTURE (VLM)

Use property tables A-4, A-5 and quality.
Quality
1. It defines the mass of vapors present in a VLM state.
2. x = mvapor / mtotal = mvap / ( mvap + mliq) = mg / (mg + mf) = mg / mt
3. The value of x is in between 0 and 1.
x = 0 means saturation liquid x = 1 means saturation vapors
Average properties
The liquid and vapors in VLM states are mixed so well that they form a
homogeneous mixture. Therefore, their properties can be taken as
average.
Such that yav = yf + x.yfg and Yav = mt.yav

Also Yf = mf.yf Yg = mg.yg Yav = Yf + Yg
Where yf yav yg
Examples: vav = vf + x.vfg hav = hf + x.hfg uav = uf + x.ufg
PROBLEM
What is specific volume of water at 100°C and 30% quality?
Hint:
Find vf and vg at 100°C from Table A-4 and then calculate vav at x = 0.3.
PROBLEM
At some constant temperature, if vf = 0.002 m3/kg, vg = 0.2 m3/kg and vav = 0.11 m3/kg, calculate x and
plot state on T-v diagram.
Solution:
x = (0.11 – 0.002) / (0.2 – 0.002) = 54%
PROBLEM
A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90°C. If 8 kg of water is in liquid form and the rest is in vapor
form, determine pressure in the tank and volume of tank.
Solution:
mt = 10 kg mf = 2 kg
mg = 8 kg and x = mg / mt = 0.2
T = 90°C State: VLM
P=? V=?

P = Psat@T=90°C = 70.14 kPa

V = mt . vav
where, vav = vav@x=0.2 = vf@T=90°C + x . vfg@T=90°C = 0.001036 + 0.2 x (2.359964) = 0.473 m3/kg
Hence, V = 10 x 0.473 = 4.73 m3
SUPERHEATED WATER
Use property table A-6.
Given problem must be satisfying the following conditions:
T > Tsat (at given P)
P < Psat (at given T)
v > vg, h > hg, u > ug (at given Tsat and Psat)
PROBLEMS
1. v = ? at T = 100°C and P = 0.05 MPa (Ans: 3.4187 m3/kg)
2. v = ? at T = 900°C and P = 7 MPa (Ans: 0.076750 m3/kg)
3. h = ? at T = 350°C and P = 0.01 MPa (Ans: 3178.35 kJ/kg)
P = 0.01 MPa (common)
T (known) h (required)
300 3076.7
350 (3076.7 + 3280)/2
→in mid = 3178.35
400 3280
4. u = ? at T = 250°C and P = 0.35 MPa
5. v = ? at T = 450°C and P = 0.7 MPa

6. h = ? at T = 850°C and P = 9.5 MPa
7. v = ? at T = 110°C and P = 0.01 MPa
8. h = ? at T = 430°C and P = 0.7 MPa
9. P = ? at v = 10.828 m3/kg and T = 900°C
10. T = ? at P = 0.7 MPa and h = 3059.45 kJ/kg
11. T = ? at P = 11 MPa and u = 2920 kJ/kg

PROBLEM
What is the phase and temperature of water at 0.5 MPa and 2890 kJ/kg enthalpy.
Solution:
As state is unclear therefore, a check is required.

h = h@p=0.5MPa = 2890 kJ/kg
hg = hg@P=0.5MPa = 2784 kJ/kg
As h > hg therefore, state is superheated vapors.
(Solve further)
COMPRESSED LIQUID WATER

Use property table A-7.
Given problem must be satisfying the following conditions:
T < Tsat (at given P)
P > Psat (at given T)
v < vf, h < hf, u < uf (at given Tsat and Psat)
Approximation: y = yf@T (use table A-1)
PROBLEM
P = 8 MPa T = 65°C h=?
(Answer: 278.68 kJ/kg)
PROBLEM
Determine the internal energy of compressed liquid water at 80°C and 5 MPa using (a) data from
compressed liquid tables (b) data from saturated liquid tables. Also calculate error involved.
Solution:
(a) u = u@T=80°C,P=5MPa = 333.82 kJ/kg

(b) u = uf@T=80°C = 334.97 kJ/kg
Error = (334.97 - 333.82 ) / 333.82 x 100 = 0.34% < 1% !!!

CONSTANT SPECIFIC VOLUME HEATING

Hint: P = const. or T = const. is not mentioned.
PROBLEM
A rigid tank with a volume of 2.5m3 contains 5 kg of saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water at 75°C.
Now, the water is slowly heated. Determine the temperature at which the liquid in the tank is completely
vaporized. Also, show the process on a T-v diagram.
Solution:
V = 25 m3 m = 5 kg => v = 2.5/5 = 0.5 m3/kg
T = Tsat@vg=v=0.5 = ?
(Answer: 140.7 °C)
IDEAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE

Equation of state
1. Any equation which relates pressure, temperature and specific volume of a substance is called
equation of state.
2. Example:
a. Ideal gas equation of state
b. Van der Waals equation of state
c. Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state
d. Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation of state
e. Viral equation of state
Ideal gas equation of state

Pv = RT
Where,
P = Absolute pressure [Pa]
T = Absolute temperature [K]
R = Gas constant = Ru / M [kJ/kgK]
Ru = Universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kmolK
M = Molar mass (e.g. N2 = 28 kg/kmol)
Note: See Table A-1 for values of R and M. Be careful about unit consistency.
Ideal gas equation between two states

P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2
Ideal gas
1. It is an imaginary substance

2. Real gases at low densities (Low pressure and high temperature) behaves close to ideal gas.
3. Water vapor at pressure less than 10 kPa, regardless of any temperature can be treated as ideal gas.
PROBLEM
Determine the mass of air in a room having dimensions 4m x 5m x 6m at 100 kPa and 25°C. Treat air as
an ideal gas with R=0.287 kPa.m3/kgK
Pv = RT => PV = mRT => m = PV/RT = … = 140.3 kg
SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat
1. It is the amount of specific energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1°C.
2. Unit: kJ/kgK or kJ/kg°C
3. It is a strong function of material and temperature.
Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)

1. If the process is executed at constant pressure then, the amount of specific energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1°C is called specific heat at constant pressure.
2. For example in open systems
3. Denoted by Cp = (∂h/∂T)p
Derivation:
ein – eout = esys
ein –eout = du + P.dv
CpdT = dh
Cp = (dh/dT)p
Also, h2 – h1 = h = Cp(T) dT
Specific heat at constant volume (Cv)

1. If the process is executed at constant volume then, the amount of specific energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1°C is called specific heat at constant volume.
2. For example in close systems
3. Denoted by Cv = (∂u/∂T)v
Derivation:
ein – eout = esys
ein –eout = du
CvdT = du
Cv = (du/dT)v
Also, u2 – u1 = u = Cv(T) dT

Specific heats relation
We know,
h = u + Pv
h = u + RT
dh = du+ RdT
Cp dT = Cv dT + R dT
Cp = Cv + R
Hence,
Cp > Cv
Specific heat ratio

k = Cp / Cv
REMEMBER
For air: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK R = 0.287 kJ/kgK Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK k = 1.4

THERMODYNAMICS
1. Is it true that water boils at higher temperatures at higher pressure? Explain.
2. What is the difference between the critical point and the triple point?
3. Is it possible to have water vapor at – 10°C?
4. Does the amount of heat absorbed as 1 kg of saturated liquid water boils at 100°C have to
be equal to the amount of heat released as 1 kg of saturated water vapor condenses at
100°C?
5. What is the physical significance of hfg? Can it be obtained from knowledge of hf and hg?
How?
6. Is it true that it takes more energy to vaporize 1 kg of saturated liquid water at 100°C than
it would at 120°C?
7. What is quality? Does it have any meaning in the superheated vapor region?
8. Which process requires more energy: completely vaporizing 1 kg of saturated liquid water
at 1 atm pressure or completely vaporizing 1 kg of saturated liquid water at 8 atm pressure?
9. Does hfg change with pressure? How?
10. Can quality be expressed as the ratio of the volume occupied by the vapor phase to the
total volume?
11. In the absence of compressed liquid tables, how is the specific volume of a compressed
liquid at a given P and T determined?
12. A rigid tank with a volume of 2.5 m3 contains 5 kg of saturated liquid – vapor mixture water
at 75°C. Now the water is slowly heated. Determine the temperature at which the liquid in
the tank is completely vaporized. Also, show the process on a T-ν diagram with respect to
saturation lines.
13. A rigid vessel contains 2 kg of refrigerant-134a at 900 kPa and 80°C. Determine the vessel
and the total internal energy. (Use property tables for the refrigerant-135a)
14. A 0.5-m3 vessel contains 10 kg of refrigerant-134a at - 20°C. Determine (a) the pressure, (b)
the total internal energy, and (c) the volume occupied by the liquid phase.
15. A piston-cylinder device initially contains 50 L of liquid water at 25°C and 300 kPa. Heat is
added to the water at constant pressure until the entire liquid is vaporized. What is the
mass and final temperature of water? Also determine the total enthalpy change.
16. A 0.5-m3rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid vapor mixture of water at 100°C. The
water is now heated until it reaches the critical state. Determine the mass of the liquid
water and the volume occupied by the liquid at the initial state.
17. Determine the specific volume, internal energy, and enthalpy of compressed liquid water at
100°C and 15 MPa using the saturated liquid approximation. Compare this values to the
ones obtained from the compressed liquid tables.
Page 1 of 3
18. A piston-cylinder device contains 0.8 kg of steam at 300°C and 1 MPa. Steam is cooled at
contains pressure until one-half of the mass condenses. Show the process on a T-v diagram.
Find the final temperature and also determine the volume change.
19. A rigid tank contains water vapor at 300°C and an unknown pressure. When the tank is
cooled to 180°C, the vapor start condensing. Estimate the initial pressure in the tank.
20. Under what conditions is the ideal-gas assumption are suitable for real gases?
21. What is the difference between R and Ru? How are these two related?
22. What is the difference between mass and molar mass? How are these two related?
23. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled with helium at 20°C and 200 kPa.
Determine the mole number and the mass of the helium in the balloon.
24. A 1-m3tank containing air at 25°C and 500 kPa is connected through a valve to another tank
containing 5 kg of air at 35°C and 200 kPa. Now the valve is opened, and the entire system is
allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Which are at 20°C. Determine
the volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium pressure of air.
25. A 10-kg mass of superheated refrigerant-134a at 0.8 MPa and 40°C is cooled at constant
pressure until it exists as a compressed liquid at 20°C. Show the process on a T-v diagram
with respect to saturation lines. Also determine the change in volume and the change in
total internal energy.
26. A 20-m3 tank contains nitrogen at 25°C and 800 kPa some nitrogen is allowed to escape until
the pressure in the tank drops to 600kPa. If the temperature at this point is 20°C, determine
the amount of nitrogen that has escaped.
27. A rigid tank contains 5 kg of an ideal gas at 4atm and 40°C. Now a valve is opened and half
of mass of the gas is allowed to escape. If the final pressure in the tank is 1.5 atm, what will
be the final temperature in the tank?
28. A 500-m3rigid tank is filled with saturated liquid vapor mixture of water at 200 kPa. If 20
percent of the mass is liquid and the 80 percent of the mass is vapor, what is the total mass
in the tank?
29. A 1-m3 rigid tank contains 10 kg of water (in any phase or phases) at 150°C. What is the
pressure in tank?
30. A 5-m3 rigid vessel contains steam at 20 MPa and 400°C. What is the mass of steam?
31. A piston-cylinder device contains 2 ft3 of saturated water vapors at 50 psia pressure.
Determine the temperature and the mass of vapors inside cylinder.
32. An 80 L vessel contains 4 kg of water at pressure 75 kPa. Determine (a) temperature of
water, (b) quality, (c) enthalpy and (d) volume occupied by the vapor phase only.
33. A rigid tank contains water vapor at 300°C and an unknown pressure. When the tank is
cooled to 180°C, vapors starts condensing. Estimate the initial pressure in the tank. (hint:
cooling at constant specific volume)
Page 2 of 3
34. Fill in the blanks using steam property tables:
(i) u=________ kJ/kg, P=0.28 MPa, T=320 °C
(ii) h=________ kJ/kg, P=1.9 MPa, T=760 °C
3
(iii) v=________ m /kg, P=1.2 Mpa, T=1127 °C
3
(iv) P=________ MPa, v=10.83 m /kg, T=900 °C
3
(v) P=________ MPa, v=1.6 m /kg, T=700 °C
(vi) T=________ °C, P=0.7 MPa, h=3059.45 kJ/kg
(vii) T=________ °C, P=11 MPa, u=2920 kJ/kg
35. Complete the following table using steam property tables:
T (°C) P (kPa) u (kJ/kg) x (%) Phase Description
(i) 200 60% Vapor-Liquid Mixture
(ii) 125 1600
(iii) 1000 2950 -
(iv) 75 500 -
(v) 850 0
Also draw P-v or T-v diagram for each of the above cases.
Page 3 of 3
CHAPTER#3: ENERGY TRANSFER
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel

and Michael A. Boles
2. “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics” by Michael J.
Moran, Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
Chapter#3: Energy transfer
HEAT ENERGY
1. Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of
temperature difference.
2. Heat can be transferred to or from both open and closed
systems.
3. Higher temperature difference causes faster rate of heat
transfer.
4. Heat is transferred from high temperature to low
temperature.
5. The process in which no heat is transferred is called Adiabatic process.
There could be two reasons:
a. Due to well insulation
b. Due to no temperature difference.
6. Unit: kJ or BTU
7. Denoted by:
Q12 (heat transfer between state 1 and 2 of a process)
Q
q = Q/m (specific) [kJ/kg, BTU/lbm]
8. Rate of heat transfer: ̇ ⁄ [kJ/s = kW, BTU/hr]
9. Area under T-s diagram represents heat.
PROBLEM
30 kJ of heat is supplied to a 2 kg body in 5 sec. Determine rate of heat transfer and specific heat.
(Ans: 6 kW, 15 kJ/kg)
Modes of heat transfer

1) Conduction: Due to physical interaction
2) Convection: Transfer of heat between solid surface and moving fluid.
3) Radiation: Due to emission of electromagnetic waves (photons)
WORK ENERGY
1. Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance (Remember: W=F.d)
2. If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work.
3. Work can be transferred to and from both open and closed systems
4. Unit: kJ or BTU
5. Denoted by:
W12 (work transfer between states 1 and 2 of process)
W
w = W/m (specific) [kJ/kg, BTU/lbm]
6. Rate of work transfer: ̇ ⁄ [kJ/s = kW, BTU/hr]
7. Area under P-v diagram represents work.

SIGN CONVENTION
1. Heat transfer to the system is positive. (Qin)
2. Heat transfer from the system is negative. (Qout)
3. Work done on the system is negative. (Win)
4. Work done by the system is positive. (Wout)
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HEAT AND WORK

1. Both are boundary phenomenon.
2. A system can possess energy. A system cannot possess heat or work
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. They have no meaning at state.
4. Both are path functions. Their magnitude depends on the path followed during a process. It is
therefore they have inexact differentials, denoted by  (delta).
TYPES OF WORK
1. Electric work energy

̇
Remember:
Where, We=Electric work energy [J], V=Volts [V], I=Current
[Amperes], ∆t=Time span [sec], R=resistance [Ω]
Be careful about units of time span and electric energy!

2. Mechanical forms of work

In general
Moving boundary work (or boundary work)
a. Boundary work of an isochoric processes
∫
Where: dV=0
b. Boundary work of an isobaric processes
∫ ∫ ( ) ( )
Where: Po=P2=P1 and V=mv
c. Boundary work of an isothermal processes
We know: Pv=RT => PV = mRT
If m, R and T are constant then,
PV = C => P = C/V
Therefore:
∫ ∫ ∫
Between two states:

∫ ( )
Also as: P1V1=P2V2=mRT=C and P1/P2 = V2/V1
Therefore,
⁄
[ ] [ ]
⁄
d. Boundary work of a polytropic processes
During actual expansion and

compression processes of gases, pressure
and volume are often related by PVn = C,
where n (polytropic index) and C are
constants. A process of this kind is called
a polytropic process.
Now, as PVn = C => P = V-n C
Therefore,
∫ ∫
Between two states:
∫ [ ]
Also as: P1V1n=P2V2n
Therefore,
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
PROBLEM
A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a result of heat transfer from surroundings, the
temperature and pressure inside the tank drops to 65°C and 400 kPa respectively. Determine the boundary
work done during this process.

(Ans. 0 due to “rigid tank”=boundary work of isochoric process)
PROBLEM
A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 10 kg of water at 200°C. Heat is now transferred to the
system until temperature reaches to 400°C. Determine work done during the process.
(Ans. It is an isobaric process. See steam tables for properties at given states)
PROBLEM
A piston cylinder device initially contains 0.4m3 of air at 100 kPa and 80°C. The air is now compressed to
0.1m3 in such a way that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Determine the work done
during this process.
(Ans. It is an isothermal process. Use ideal gas equation of state. Wb=-55.45 kJ)
PROBLEM
During some actual expansion and compression process in piston-cylinder devices, the gases have been
observed to satisfy the relationship: PVn=1.3 = C. Calculate the work done when a gas expands from 150
kPa and 0.03m3 to a final volume of 0.2m3. Also calculate the work done when n=1.8. Discuss
comparison between results.
CONSERVATION OF MASS PRINCIPLE

The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as:
Or
(This equation is called “Mass balance”)
In the rate form:
(This equation is called “Mass balance in rate form”)
For study flow, right-hand side of equation will become zero (0) and hence:
̇ ̇
Or
( )
( ) ( )
( )
For incompressible flows: ( )
( ) ( ) ̇

For multiple streams:
Sum all streams by replacing “in” with all entering streams and “out” with all outgoing streams.
PROBLEM

THERMODYNAMICS
1. On a P-v diagram, what does the area under the process curve represent?
2. Is the boundary work associated with constant-volume always zero?
3. An ideal gas at a given state expands to a fixed final volume first at constant pressure and
then at constant temperature. For which case is the work done greater?
4. A mass of 5 kg. of saturated water vapor at 200 kPa is heated at constant pressure until
the temperature reaches 300oC. Calculate the work done by the steam during this Process?
5. A frictionless piston-cylinder device initially contains 200 L of saturated liquid
refrigerant-134a. The piston is free to move, and its mass is such that it maintains a
pressure of 800 kPa on the refrigerant. The refrigerant is now heated until its temperature
rises to 50 oC. Calculate the work done during this process?
6. A mass of 2.4 kg of air at 150 kPa and 12 oC is contained in a gas-tight, frictionless
piston-cylinder device. The air is now compressed to a final pressure of 600 kPa. During
the process, heat is transferred from the air such that the temperature inside the cylinder
remains constant. Calculate the work input during this process?
7. Nitrogen at an initial state of 300 K, 150 kPa, and 0.2 m3 is compressed slowly in an
isothermal process to a final pressure of 800 kPa. Determine the work done during this
process?
8. A gas is compressed from an initial volume of 0.42 m3 to a final volume of 0.12 m3.
During the quasi-equilibrium process, the pressure changes with volume according to the
relation P = aV+b, where a= -1200 kPa/m3 and b = 600 kPa. Calculate the work done
during this process (a) by plotting the process on a P-V diagram and finding the area
under the process curve and (b) by performing the necessary integrations?
9. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 2 kg of nitrogen at 100 kPa. Nitrogen is
now compressed slowly according to the relation PV1.4 = constant until it reaches a final
temperature of 360 K. Calculate the work input during this process?
10. A piston-cylinder device contains 50 kg of water at 150 kPa and 25 oC. The cross-
sectional areas of the piston is 0.1 m2. Heat is now transferred to the water, causing part
of it to evaporate and expand. When the volume reaches 0.2 m3, the piston reached a
linear spring whose spring constant is 100 kN/m. More heat is transferred to the water
until the piston rises 20 cm more. Determine (a) the final pressure and temperature and
(b) the work done during this process. Also, show the process on a P-V diagram?
Page 1 of 2
11. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m3and 30 m/s and leaves at 0.762 kg/m3 and 180
m/s. If the inlet area of the nozzle is 80 cm2, determine (a) the mass flow rate through the
nozzle, and (b) the exit area of the nozzle?
12. A 1-m3rigid tank initially contains air whose density is 1.18 kg/m3. The tank is connected
to a high-pressure supply line through a valve. The valve is opened, and air is allowed to
enter the tank until the density in the tank rises to 7.2 kg/m3. Determine the mass of air
that has entered the tank?
13. A desktop computer is to be cooled by a fan whose flow rate is 0.34 m 3/min. Determine
the mass flow rate of air through the fan at an elevation of 3400 m where the air density is
0.7 kg/m3. Also, if the mean velocity of air is not to exceed 110 m/min, determine the
diameter of the casing of the fan?
14. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer?
15. Does any of the energy of the sun reach the earth by conduction or convection?
16. Which is a better hear conductor, diamond or silver?
17. How does forced convention differ from natural convection?
18. What is block body? How do real bodies differ from a blackbody?
19. Underground water is being pumped into a pool whose cross section is 3m X 4m while
water is discharge through a 6-cm diameter orifice at a constant mean velocity of 5 m/s. If
the water level in the pool rises at a rate of 1.5 cm/min, determine the rate which water
supplied to the pool, in m3/s.
20. Air at 4.18 kg/m3 enters a nozzle that has an inlet-to-exit area ration of 2:1 with a velocity
of 120 m/s and curves with a velocity of 380 m/s. Determine density of air the exit?
21. The air in a 6m X 5m X 4m hospital room is to be completely replaced by conditioned air
every 20 min. If the average air velocity in the circular duct leading to the room is not to
exceed 5 m/s, determine the minimum diameter of the duct?
Page 2 of 2
CHAPTER#4: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering
Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel and Michael A.
Boles
2. “Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics” by Michael J. Moran, Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
Chapter#4: First law of thermodynamics
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Energy can neither be created not be destroyed; it can only change its form.
2. It is also called “The conservation of energy principle”.
ENERGY BALANCE
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.
The above relation is called “Energy balance”.
Energy change (∆Esystem)

For a simple compressible system,
E= U + KE + PE
∆E=∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE
∆E = m(u2-u1) + ½ m (V22-V12) + mg(z2-z1)
For a simple compressible stationary system:
∆KE = ∆PE = 0
∆E = ∆U = m(u2-u1)
For steady flow process,
̇ =0

Mechanism of energy transfer (Ein and Eout)
Heat transfer (Q) Work (W) Mass flow (Emass)

Heat gain: Heating Work production: Turbines, engines Mass is energy!
Heat loss: Cooling Work consumption: Pumps, compressors
Ein – Eout = (Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) + (Emass,in – Emass,out) = ∆E
= 0 for adiabatic = 0 for rigid cylinders = 0 for closed systems
PROBLEM
Write energy balance equation in following forms:
(a) rate form [kJ/s] (b) specific form [kJ/kg] (c) specific rate form [kJ/kg.s]
PROBLEM
A piston-cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapors, maintained at a constant pressure of
300kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from
a 120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs. Determine the final temperature.
Solution:
From energy balance:
(Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) + (Emass,in – Emass,out) = m(u2-u1) + ½ m (V22-V12) + mg(z2-z1)

Qin = 0
Qout = 3.7 kJ
Win = V.I.t = 120 V x 0.2 A x (5 x 60) sec / 1000 = 7.2 kJ
Wout = mP(v2-v1)
Emass,in = Emass,out = 0
K.E = P.E. = 0
Hence,
(0 – 3.7) + (7.2 - mP(v2-v1) ) = m(u2-u1)

=> -3.7 + 7.2 = m [ (u2+P v2) - (u1+P v1)]
=> 3.5 = m(h2-h1)
h1 = hg@p=300kPa = 2725.3 kJ/kg

m = 0.2g = 0.2x10-3 kg
=> 3.5 = 0.2x10-3 (h2 – 2725.3)
=> h2 = 2865 kJ/kg
T2 = T@P=300kPa,h=2865kJ/kg = 200°C
PROBLEM
A rigid tank is divided into two equal parts by a partition. Initially, one side of the tank contains 5 kg of
water at 200 kPa and 25 °C, and the other side is evacuated. The partition is then removed, and the water
expands into the entire tank. The water is allowed to exchange heat with the surroundings until the
temperature in the tank returns to the initial value of 25 °C. Determine (a) the volume of the tank, (b) the
final Pressure, and (c) the heat transfer for this process.
Solution:
(Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) +

(Emass,in – Emass,out) = m(u2-u1) +
½ m (V22-V12) + mg(z2-z1)

Let Qin -Qout = Q (heat transfer)

Win = 0
Wout = 0
K.E = P.E. = 0
Hence,
Q = m(u2-u1)
Here,
u1 = uf@25°C, 200kPa = 104.88 kJ/kg
For u2, state is not clearly mentioned. Therefore,
v1 = vf@25°C = 0.001 m3/kg

V1 = mv1 = 5 x 0.001 = 0.005 m3
V2 = 2V1 = 2 x 0.005 = 0.01 m3
v2 = V2/m = 0.01/5 = 0.002 m3/kg
Note, at T2 = 25°C and v2=0.002 m3/kg,

State: VLM
P2 = 3.169 kPa
x = 2.3e-5
u2 = uf + x.ufg = 104.93
So,
Q = 5(104.93-104.88) = +0.25 kJ (i.e. Qin > Qout)
PROBLEM
An insulated rigid tank initially contains 0.7 kg of helium at 27 °C and 345 kPa. A paddle wheel within a
power rating of 0.02 HP (1 HP = 0.735 kW) is operated within the tank for 30 min. Determine (a) the
final temperature and (b) the final pressure of the helium gas. (Cv of Helium = 3.12 kJ/kgK).
Solution:
(Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) + (Emass,in – Emass,out) = m(u2-u1) + ½ m (V22-V12) + mg(z2-z1)
Qin = 0
Qout = 0
Win = Wp (paddle work)
Wout = 0
K.E = P.E. = 0

Hence,
Wp = m(u2-u1) = m Cv (T2 – T1)
For final temperature:
0.02 x 0.735 x 30 x 60 = 0.7 x 3.12 x (T2 – 27)

T2 = 39.115°C
For final pressure:
P1.V1/T1 = P2.V2/T2 (V1=V2)

345 / (25+273) = P2 / (39.115 + 273)
P2 = 360 kPa
PROBLEM
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.5 m3 of nitrogen gas at 400 kPa and 27 °C. An electric heater
within the device is turned on and is allowed to pass current of 2 for 5 min from a 120-V source.
Nitrogen expands at constant pressure, and a heat loss of 2.8 kJ occurs during this process. Determine the
final temperature of nitrogen. [Ans. 56.7 °C]

RATE OF ENERGY TRANSPORT BY MASS

̇ ̇ ̇ ( ) ̇ ( )
STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
̇ ̇
̇ ̇
̇ ̇ ∑ ̇ ( ) ̇ ̇ ∑ ̇ ( )
For one inlet and one outlet:
̇
̇ ̇ ̇ ( ) ̇ ̇ ̇ ( )

STEADY FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES

Nozzle Diffuser
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
(as (as
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
Compressor Turbine
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
Throttling device
They are kind of flow-resisting devices which causes significant pressure drop in the flowing fluid.
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇

PROBLEM
Air at 10 °C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet
area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared with
the inlet velocity. Determine (a) mass flow rate of the air and (b) the temperature of the air leaving the
diffuser. Also calculate the temperature of air if the exit velocity is 100 m/s.
(Cp=1.005 kJ/kgK, R=0.287 kJ/kgK)
Solution:
=> => T2=303 K
̇ => ̇
PROBLEM
Ait at 80 kPa, 27 °C and 220 m/s enters a diffuser at a rate of 2.5 kg/s and leaves at 42 °C. The exit area
of the diffuser is 400 cm2. The air is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 18 kJ/s during this process.
Determine (a) the exit velocity and (b) the exit pressure of the air. [Ans: 62 m/s, 91.1 kPa]
PROBLEM
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10 MPa and 500 °C at a rate of 3 kg/s and leaves at 20 kPa. If the
power output of the turbine is 2 MWatt, determine the temperature of the steam at the turbine exit.
[Ans: 110 °C]

PROBLEM
The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW, and the inlet and the exit conditions of the
steam are as follow:
Inlet Exit
Pressure = 2 MPa Pressure = 15 kPa
Temperature = 400 °C Steam quality = 90%
Velocity = 50 m/s Velocity = 180 m/s
Elevation = 10 m Elevation = 6 m
(a) Calculate the mass flow rate of the steam.

(b) Determine the work done per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine.
[Ans: 5.74 kg/s, 870.96 kJ/kg]
PROBLEM
A well insulated valve is used to throttle steam from 8 MPa and 500 °C to 6 MPa. Determine the final
temperature of the steam. [Ans: 490.1 °C]

THERMODYNAMICS
1. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m3 and 40 m/s and leaves at 0.762 kg/m3 and
180 m/s. If the inlet area of the nozzle is 90 cm2, determine (a) the mass flow rate
through the nozzle, and (b) the exit area of the nozzle.
2. A 1-m3 rigid tank initially contains air whose density is 1.18 kg/m3. The tank is
connected to a high-pressure supply line through a valve. The valve is opened, and air
is allowed to enter the tank until the density in the tank rises to 7.20 kg/m3. Determine
the mass of air that has entered the tank.
3. Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300
kPa, 200°C, and 30 m/s and leaves at 100
kPa and 180 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle
is 80 cm2. Determine (a) the mass flow rate
through the nozzle, (b) the exit temperature
of the air, and (c) the exit area of the nozzle.
4. Steam at 5 MPa and 400°C enters a nozzle steadily with a velocity of 80 m/s, and it
leaves at 2 MPa and 300°C. The inlet area of the nozzle is 50 cm2, and heat is being
lost at a rate of 120 kJ/s. Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the steam, (b) the exit
velocity of the steam, and (c) the exit area of the nozzle.
5. Air at 600 kPa and 500 K enters an adiabatic
nozzle that has an inlet-to-exit area ratio of 2:1
with a velocity of 120 m/s and leaves with a
velocity of 380 m/s. Determine (a) the exit
temperature and (b) the exit pressure of the air.
6. Air at 80 kPa, 27°C, and 220 m/s enters a diffuser at a rate of 2.5 kg/s and leaves at
42°C. The exit area of the diffuser is 400 cm2. The air is estimated to lose heat at a
rate of 18 kJ/s during this process. Determine (a) the exit velocity and (b) the exit
pressure of the air.
7. Refrigerant-134a enters a diffuser steadily as saturated vapor at 800 kPa with a
velocity of 120 m/s, and it leaves at 900 kPa and 40°C. The refrigerant is gaining heat
at a rate of 2 kJ/s as it passes through the diffuser. If the exit area is 80 percent greater
than the inlet area, determine (a) the exit velocity and (b) the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant.
Page 1 of 2
8. Steam enters a nozzle at 400°C and 800 kPa with a
velocity of 10 m/s, and leaves at 300°C and 200 kPa
while losing heat at a rate of 25 kW. For an inlet area
of 800 cm2, determine the velocity and the volume
flow rate of the steam at the nozzle exit.
9. Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam
are 10 MPa, 450°C, and 80 m/s, and the exit conditions are 10 kPa, 92 percent quality,
and 50 m/s. The mass flow rate of the steam is 12 kg/s. Determine (a) the change in
kinetic energy, (b) the power output, and (c) the turbine inlet area.
10. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10 MPa and 500°C and leaves at 10 kPa with a
quality of 90 percent. Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies,
determine the mass flow rate required for a power output of 5 MW.
11. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500°C at a rate of 3 kg/s and leaves at
20 kPa. If the power output of the turbine is 2.5 MW, determine the temperature of
the steam at the turbine exit. Neglect kinetic energy changes.
12. Argon gas enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 900 kPa and 450°C with a velocity of
80 m/s and leaves at 150 kPa with a velocity of 150 m/s. The inlet area of the turbine
is 60 cm2. If the power output of the turbine is 250 kW, determine the exit
temperature of the argon.
13. Air enters the compressor of a gas-turbine plant at ambient conditions of 100 kPa and
25°C with a low velocity and exits at 1 MPa and 347°C with a velocity of 90 m/s. The
compressor is cooled at a rate of 1500 kJ/min, and the power input to the compressor
is 250 kW. Determine the mass flow rate of air through the compressor.
14. Air at 200 psia and 90°F is throttled to the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia.
Determine the final temperature of the air.
15. A well-insulated valve is used to throttle steam from 8 MPa and 500°C to 6 MPa.
Determine the final temperature of the steam.
16. Refrigerant-134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 700 kPa to a pressure of
160 kPa. Determine the temperature drop during this process and the final specific
volume of the refrigerant.
Page 2 of 2
CHAPTER#5: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by Yunis A.

Cengel and Michael A. Boles
2. “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics” by Michael J.
Moran, Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
Chapter#5: Second law of thermodynamics
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Actual process occurs in a certain direction and not in a reverse direction.
2. Energy has quality as well as quantity.
ACTUAL PROCESSES
For a process to occur actually both the first law and second law must be satisfied.
Direction:
PROBLEM
Which one is more required characteristic of energy: quality or quantity? Explain.
THERMAL RESERVOIRS
1. A hypothetical body with extremely high thermal energy capacity is called thermal reservoir.
2. It can absorb or supply infinite amount of heat without undergoing any temperature change.
3. Examples: Atmosphere, sea/river etc.

HEAT ENGINE
1. Work can be converted into heat directly, completely and easily.
2. But, converting heat into work requires the use of some special
devices called “Heat Engine”
Characteristics of Heat Engine

1. They receive heat from high temperature source (e.g. fuel)
2. They convert a part of this heat into work. (e.g. rotation of shaft)
3. They reject remaining part of heat to low temperature source
(i.e. waste heat, e.g. atmosphere. river)
4. They operate on cycle. (i.e. continuous)
Working Fluid
1. The fluid, to and from which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle is called working fluid.
2. Remember: There is a big difference between “Fuel” and
“Fluid”.
3. Example: Air
Network Output
Wnet = Qin – Qout = QH - QL
Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency = Net work output / Thermal input
Can we save Qout?

Strictly, NO!
Every heat engine must waste some energy by transferring it to a

low-temperature reservoir in order to complete the cycle, even under idealized conditions.

PROBLEM
Heat is transferred to a heat engine from a furnace at a rate of 80 MW. If the rate of waste heat rejection
to a nearby river is 50 MW, determine the net power output and the thermal efficiency for this heat
engine.
[Ans: 30MW, 37.5%]
KELVIN-PLANK STATEMENT
“It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat
from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.”
1. This statement is related to the heat engines.

2. The heat engine must exchange heat with a low temp. sink as well as
high temp. source to keep operating.
3. No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100%. This is not
because of friction but it is the limitation due to Qout.
PROBLEM
A heat engine is operating such that the high and low temperatures for
the source and sink respectively are constant. What will be the efficiency
of this heat engine?
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
“It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature body.”
1. This statement is related to the refrigerators and heat pumps.

2. It simply states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless its
compressor is driven by an external power source, such as an
electric motor. Similar is for heat pumps.
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

1. These devices transfer heat from low temp. medium to high temp.
medium.
2. They operate on cycle.
3. Working fluid: Refrigerants
4. Cycles:
a. Vapor compression cycle (power driven cycle)
b. Vapor absorption cycle (heat driven cycle)

Vapor Compression Cycle
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

1. Performance of heat engines is determined by Thermal efficiency as they give “power output”.
Performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is determined by COP as they give “heat output”.
2. Unlike thermal efficiency, COP can be greater than ‘1’.
3. COP = Desired output / Required input
PROBLEM
Prove that COPHP = COPR + 1

Some important proves:
1. Thermal efficiency of heat engines is always less than 100%:
We know: QH = Wout + QL
Which shows that QH > Wout
Where,
ηth = Wout / QH < 1 (numerator is less than denominator)
2. COP of heat pumps is always greater than ‘1’:
We know: QH = Win + QL
Which shows that QH > Win
Where,
COPHP = QH / Win >1 (numerator is greater than denominator)
3. COP of refrigerators can be less than, equal to or more than ‘1’:
We know: QL = QH – Win
And COPREF = QL / Win
a. When, QL = 3, Win = 3, QH = 6 => COPREF = 3/3 = 1

b. When, QL = 3, Win = 6, QH = 9 => COPREF = 3/6 < 1
c. When, QL = 3, Win = 1, QH = 4 => COPREF = 3/1 > 1

PROBLEM
The food compartment of a refrigerator, shown in Fig, is maintained at 4°C by
removing heat from it at a rate of 360 kJ/min. If the required power input to the
refrigerator is 2 kW, determine (a) the coefficient of performance of the
refrigerator and (b) the rate of heat rejection to the room that houses the
refrigerator.
Solution:
PROBLEM
A heat pump is used to meet the heating requirements of a house and
maintain it at 20°C. On a day when the outdoor air temperature drops to
2°C, the house is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 80,000 kJ/h. If the heat
pump under these conditions has a COP of 2.5, determine (a) the power
consumed by the heat pump and (b) the rate at which heat is absorbed from
the cold outdoor air.
Solution:

PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES
1. Perpetual: Continuing forever.
2. A process cannot take place unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
3. Any device that violates either law is called a perpetual-motion machine.
4. A device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a perpetual-
motion machine of the first kind (PMM1)
5. A device that violates the second law of thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine of the
second kind (PMM2).
PMM-1
PMM-2

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Reversible processes
1. Reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without
leaving any trace on the surroundings.
2. That is, both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial
states at the end of the reverse process.
3. This is possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the
system and the surroundings is zero for the combined (original and
reverse) process.
4. These processes actually do not occur in nature. We may never be able to
have a reversible process, but we can certainly approach it.
5. Reason to study these processes:
a. They are easy to analyze, since a system passes through a series
of equilibrium states during a reversible process.
b. They serve as idealized models to which actual processes can be
compared. Thus, reversible processes can be viewed as theoretical
limits for the corresponding irreversible ones.
Internally reversible
1. A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur within the
boundaries of the system during the process.
2. During an internally reversible process, a system proceeds through a series of
equilibrium states, and when the process is reversed, the system passes
through exactly the same equilibrium states while returning to its initial state.
3. That is, the paths of the forward and reverse processes coincide for an
internally reversible process.
4. Quasi-equilibrium process is an example of such process.
Externally reversible
1. A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside
the system boundaries during the process.
2. Heat transfer between a reservoir and a system is an externally reversible
process if the outer surface of the system is at the temperature of the
reservoir.
Totally reversible
1. A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves no
irreversibilities within the system or its surroundings.
2. Such process involves no internal and external irreversibilities.
Irreversible processes
1. Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.
2. In nature, all the real processes are irreversible processes.

IRREVERSIBILITIES
1. The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities.
2. They include friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions.
3. The presence of any of these effects renders a process irreversible.
4. A reversible process involves none of these.
THE CARNOT CYCLE

1. Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle, first proposed in 1824 by French
engineer Sadi Carnot.
2. The theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine.
3. The Carnot cycle can be executed either in a closed or a steady-flow system.
4. The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal and two adiabatic:
a. Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
b. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
c. Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
d. Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH).
THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

1. The Carnot heat-engine cycle just described is a totally reversible
cycle.
2. Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed, in
which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
3. This time, the cycle remains exactly the same, except that the
directions of any heat and work interactions are reversed:
a. Heat in the amount of QL is absorbed from the low-
temperature reservoir,
b. Heat in the amount of QH is rejected to a high-temperature
reservoir,
c. Work input of Wnet,in is required to accomplish all this.

THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the
efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.
HEAT TRANSFER RATIO

For reversible processes, the heat transfer ratio can be equated to the
ratio of the absolute temperatures the two reservoirs:
THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

1. The hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat
engine.
2. The thermal efficiency of any heat engine can be represented as:
Where QH is heat transferred to the heat engine from a high-temperature reservoir at TH, and QL is heat
rejected to a low-temperature reservoir at TL.
3. For reversible heat engines, the heat transfer ratio in the above relation can be replaced by the ratio of
the absolute temperatures of the two reservoirs.
4. Then the efficiency of a Carnot engine, or any reversible heat engine, becomes:
5. This relation is often referred to as the Carnot efficiency.

6. This is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating between the two thermal energy reservoirs at
temperatures TL and TH can have.

THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP

1. A refrigerator or a heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator, or a Carnot heat pump.
2. The coefficient of performance of any refrigerator or heat pump, reversible or irreversible, is given
by:
where QL is the amount of heat absorbed from the low-temperature medium and QH is the amount of heat
rejected to the high-temperature medium.
3. The COPs of all reversible refrigerators or heat pumps can be determined by replacing the heat
transfer ratios in the above relations by the ratios of the absolute temperatures of the high- and low-
temperature reservoirs.
4. Then the COP relations for reversible refrigerators and heat pumps become:
5. These are the highest coefficients of performance that a refrigerator or a heat pump operating between
the temperature limits of TL and TH can have.

PROBLEM
A Carnot heat engine, shown in Fig., receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from a
high-temperature source at 652°C and rejects heat to a low-temperature sink at
30°C. Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine and (b) the
amount of heat rejected to the sink per cycle.
Solution:
PROBLEM
An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains the refrigerated space at 35°F while
operating in a room where the temperature is 75°F and that has a COP of 13.5. Is this claim reasonable?
Solution:
Claim is “False”.
PROBLEM
A heat pump is to be used to heat a house during the winter, as shown in Fig.
The house is to be maintained at 21°C at all times. The house is estimated to
be losing heat at a rate of 135,000 kJ/h when the outside temperature drops to
-5°C. Determine the minimum power required to drive this heat pump.
Solution:

THERMODYNAMICS
1. A steam power plant receives heat from a furnace at a rate of 280 GJ/h. Heat losses to the
surrounding air from the steam as it passes through the pipes and other components are
estimated to be about 8 GJ/h. If the waste heat is transferred to the cooling water at a rate of
145 GJ/h, determine (a) net power output and (b) the thermal efficiency of this power plant.
2. A steam power plant with a power output of 150 MW consumes coal at a rate of 60 tons/h. If
the heating value of the coal is 30,000 kJ/kg, determine the overall efficiency of this plant.
3. A coal-burning steam power plant produces a net power of 300 MW with an overall thermal
efficiency of 32 percent. The actual gravimetric air–fuel ratio in the furnace is calculated to be 12
kg air/kg fuel. The heating value of the coal is 28,000 kJ/kg. Determine (a) the amount of coal
consumed during a 24-hour period and (b) the rate of air flowing through the furnace.
4. A household refrigerator with a COP of 1.2 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of
60 kJ/min. Determine (a) the electric power consumed by the refrigerator and (b) the rate of
heat transfer to the kitchen air.
5. An air conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate of 750 kJ/min while drawing
electric power at a rate of 6 kW. Determine (a) the COP of this air conditioner and (b) the rate of
heat transfer to the outside air.
6. Water enters an ice machine at 55°F and leaves as ice at 25°F. If the COP of the ice machine is
2.4 during this operation, determine the required power input for an ice production rate of 28
lbm/h. (169 Btu of energy needs to be removed from each lbm of water at 55°F to turn it into ice
at 25°F.)
7. A household refrigerator that has a power input of 450 W and a COP of 2.5 is to cool five large
watermelons, 10 kg each, to 8°C. If the watermelons are initially at 20°C, determine how long it
will take for the refrigerator to coo them. The watermelons can be treated as water whose
specific heat is 4.2 kJ/kg · °C. Is your answer realistic or optimistic? Explain.
8. Determine the COP of a heat pump that supplies energy to a house at a rate of 8000 kJ/h for
each kW of electric power it draws. Also, determine the rate of energy absorption from the
outdoor air.
9. A house that was heated by electric resistance heaters consumed 1200 kWh of electric energy in
a winter month. If this house were heated instead by a heat pump that has an average COP of
2.4, determine how much money the home owner would have saved that month. Assume a
price of 8.5¢/kWh for electricity.
10. A heat pump with a COP of 2.5 supplies energy to a house at a rate of 60,000 Btu/h. Determine
(a) the electric power drawn by the heat pump and (b) the rate of heat absorption from the
outside air.
11. A heat pump is used to maintain a house at a constant temperature of 23°C. The house is losing
heat to the outside air through the walls and the
windows at a rate of 60,000 kJ/h while the energy
generated within the house from people, lights, and
appliances amounts to 4000 kJ/h. For a COP of 2.5,
determine the required power input to the heat pump.
Page 1 of 2
12. Consider two actual power plants operating with solar energy. Energy is supplied to one plant
from a solar pond at 80°C and to the other from concentrating collectors that raise the water
temperature to 600°C. Which of these power plants will have a higher efficiency? Explain.
13. An inventor claims to have developed a heat engine that receives 700 kJ of heat from a source at
500 K and produces 300 kJ of net work while rejecting the waste heat to a sink at 290 K. Is this a
reasonable claim? Why?
14. A Carnot heat engine operates between a source at 1000 K and a sink at 300 K. If the heat
engine is supplied with heat at a rate of 800 kJ/min, determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b)
the power output of this heat engine.
15. An air-conditioning system operating on the reversed Carnot cycle is required to transfer heat
from a house at a rate of 750 kJ/min to maintain its temperature at 24°C. If the outdoor air
temperature is 35°C, determine the power required to operate this air-conditioning system.
16. A Carnot refrigerator operates in a room in which the temperature is 25°C. The refrigerator
consumes 500 W of power when operating and has a COP of 4.5. Determine (a) the rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space and (b) the temperature of the refrigerated space.
17. An inventor claims to have developed a refrigeration system that removes heat from the closed
region at 12°C and transfers it to the surrounding air at 25°C while maintaining a COP of 6.5. Is
this claim reasonable? Why?
Page 2 of 2
CHAPTER#6: ENTROPY
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach"

by Yunis A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles
Thermodynamics” by Michael J. Moran,
Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
Chapter#6: Entropy
INEQUALITIES
1. The second law of thermodynamics often leads to expressions that involve inequalities.
2. For example:
a. An irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engine, is less efficient than a reversible one operating
between the same two thermal energy reservoirs. (ηactual < ηreversible)
b. An irreversible refrigerator or a heat pump has a lower coefficient of performance (COP) than
a reversible one operating between the same temperature limits. (COPactual < COPreversible)
CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
1. It is an important inequality that has major consequences in thermodynamics.
2. It was stated by the German physicist R. J. E. Clausius (1822–1888), one of the founders of
thermodynamics.
3. This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible.
4. Expressed by:
Note: The integration must be performed over the entire cycle.
Demonstration
For the combined system shown:
Applying the energy balance to the combined system:
Where, dEc is the change in total internal energy of combined

system. As the cyclic device is reversible, therefore, using heat
transfer ratio:
From above two relations:
Performing cyclic integration on both the sides:

Chapter#6: Entropy
WC cannot be work output (positive) because, it appears that the combined system is exchanging heat
with a single thermal energy reservoir while involving work during a cycle (think of Kelvin-Planck
statement!).
Considering that TR is the thermodynamic temperature and thus a positive quantity, we must have:
Which is called “Clausius inequality”.
Special case
1. Combined system becomes internally reversible if both the System and Cyclic device contains no
irreversibilities.
2. In such a case, one can conclude that the equality in the Clausius equality holds for totally or just
internally reversible cycles and the inequality for the irreversible ones, i.e.:
ENTROPY
Note that:
1. The cyclic integral of work is not zero: work depends on path, not states.
It is good otherwise heat engines will give zero work output!
2. The cyclic integral of heat is not zero: heat depends on path, not states.
3. The cyclic integral of volume is zero: volume depends on state, not path.
Volume is a property!
Also,
1. A quantity whose cyclic integral is zero depends on the state only and
not the process path, and thus it is a thermodynamic property e.g.
Volume.
2. Therefore, the quantity (Q/T )int rev must represent a property in the
differential form.
3. Clausius realized in 1865 that he had discovered a new thermodynamic
extensive property, and he named this property “Entropy”. It is
designated by S, unit is kJ/K and is defined as:

Chapter#6: Entropy
Special case: Internally reversible isothermal heat transfer processes

1. Simplifying relation of entropy for the case:
Which reduces to:
2. This relation is particularly useful for determining the entropy changes of thermal energy reservoirs
that can absorb or supply heat indefinitely at a constant temperature.
3. Entropy change of a system during an internally reversible isothermal process can be positive or
negative, depending on the direction of heat transfer.
a. Heat transfer to a system increases the entropy of a system
b. Heat transfer from a system decreases it. In fact, losing heat is the only way the entropy of a
system can be decreased.
PROBLEM
A piston–cylinder device contains a liquid–vapor mixture of water at 300 K.
During a constant-pressure process, 750 kJ of heat is transferred to the water.
As a result, part of the liquid in the cylinder vaporizes. Determine the entropy
change of the water during this process.
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

From Clausius inequality:
Or

Chapter#6: Entropy
The second integral in the previous relation is recognized as the entropy change S1 - S2. Therefore:
Which can be rearranged as:
In differential form:
Where:
a. dS represents entropy change (in a system) and Q/T represents entropy transfer.
b. Equality holds for an internally reversible process (entropy change is equal to entropy transfer)
c. Inequality for an irreversible process (entropy change is greater than entropy transfer). That is, some
entropy is generated during an irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence
of irreversibilities!
d. The entropy generated during a process is called entropy generation and is denoted by Sgen:
Note that:
a. The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.

b. Its value depends on the process, and thus it is not a property of the system.
c. Also, in the absence of any entropy transfer, the entropy change of a system is equal to the entropy
generation.
d. For an isolated system (or simply an adiabatic closed system), the heat transfer is zero, and the above
equation reduces to:
Conclusion:
a. This equation can be expressed as the entropy of an isolated system during a process always
increases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process, remains constant. i.e. it never decreases.
b. This is known as the increase of entropy principle.
c. Note that in the absence of any heat transfer, entropy change is due to irreversibilities only, and
their effect is always to increase entropy

Chapter#6: Entropy
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
Internally reversible and adiabatic process is called isentropic process.
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY

1. In conjunction with the first law of thermodynamics,
P-v and T-v diagrams are extensively used.
2. In analysis for 2nd law of thermodynamics, T-s and h-s diagrams
are mostly used.
3. We know:
Integrating both the sides:
4. Hence, the area under the process curve on a T-S diagram represents heat transfer during an internally
reversible process.
5. Isentropic process appears vertical on a T-s diagram. This also shows that there is no heat transfer
during an isentropic process (remember, its adiabatic!)
6. For adiabatic steady-flow devices, the vertical distance h on an h-s diagram is a measure of work, and
the horizontal distance s is a measure of irreversibilities.
7. The h-s diagram is also called a Mollier diagram after the German scientist R. Mollier (1863–1935).
[See appendix: A-10]

Chapter#6: Entropy
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES

The isentropic or adiabatic efficiency is a measure of the deviation of actual processes from the
corresponding idealized ones.
Isentropic efficiency of turbine

The ratio of the actual work output of the turbine to the work output
that would be achieved if the process between the inlet state and the
exit pressure were isentropic.
Where h2a and h2s are the enthalpy values at the exit state for actual and isentropic processes, respectively.
1. The value of adiabatic efficiency greatly depends on the design of the individual components that
make up the turbine.
2. Well-designed, large turbines have isentropic efficiencies above 90%.
3. For small turbines, however, it may drop even below 70%..
Isentropic efficiency of compressors and pumps

The ratio of the work input required to raise the pressure of a gas to
a specified value in an isentropic manner to the actual work input.
Where h2a and h2s are the enthalpy values at the exit state for actual
and isentropic compression processes, respectively.
For pumps:
1. Well-designed compressors and pumps have isentropic efficiencies that range

from 80 to 90%.
2. Compressors are sometimes intentionally cooled to minimize work input.

Chapter#6: Entropy
PROBLEM
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400°C and leaves at 50 kPa and 100°C. If the
power output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and (b) the
mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine.

THERMODYNAMICS
1. During the isothermal heat rejection process of a Carnot cycle, the working fluid experiences an
entropy change of -0.7 Btu/R. If the temperature of the heat sink is 95°F, determine (a) the
amount of heat transfer, (b) the entropy change of the sink, and (c) the total entropy change for
this process.
2. The radiator of a steam heating system has a volume of 20 L and is filled with superheated water
vapor at 200 kPa and 150°C. At this moment both the inlet and the exit valves to the radiator are
closed. After a while the temperature of the steam drops to 40°C as a result of heat transfer to
the room air. Determine the entropy change of the steam during this process.
3. A well-insulated rigid tank contains 2 kg of a saturated liquid–vapor mixture of water at 100 kPa.
Initially, three-quarters of the mass is in the liquid phase. An electric resistance heater placed in
the tank is now turned on and kept on until all the liquid in the tank is vaporized. Determine the
entropy change of the steam during this process.
4. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 7 MPa, 600°C, and 80 m/s and leaves at 50 kPa, 150°C, and
140 m/s. If the power output of the turbine is 6 MW, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the
steam flowing through the turbine and (b) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
5. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500°C with a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s and leaves
at 30 kPa. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.90. Neglecting
the kinetic energy change of the steam, determine (a) the
temperature at the turbine exit and (b) the power output of the
turbine.
6. Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 95 kPa and 27°C to 600 kPa and 277°C.
Assuming variable specific heats and neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies,
determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor and (b) the exit temperature of air if
the process were reversible.
7. Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 100 kPa and 12°C to a pressure of 800 kPa at
a steady rate of 0.2 kg/s. If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor
is 80 percent, determine (a) the exit temperature of air and (b) the
required power input to the compressor.
Page 1 of 1
CHAPTER#7: VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by

Yunis A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles
2. “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”
by Michael J. Moran, Howard N. Shapiro
Disclaimer
This handout is NOT a substitute for any book.

Therefore, students are strongly advised to read text and reference books and other relevant literature available in library.
Chapter#7: Vapor power cycles
VAPOR POWER CYCLES

1. A power cycle in which the working fluid is alternatively vaporized and condensed is called vapor
power cycles.
2. Working fluid: Steam (predominantly used in all vapor power cycles)
THE CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

1. Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature limits but it is
NOT a suitable model for vapor power cycles.
2. Consider following two ways of executing a Carnot cycle in saturation dome of working fluid:
3. Following impracticalities with the above systems must be noted:

i. Process 1-2 in (a):
i. It is isothermal heat addition process.
ii. It is easier to be achieved in 2-phase flows .
iii. It is limited by the critical temperature limit (374°C). Above critical temperature,
isothermal heat transfer is extremely difficult.
ii. Process 2-3 in (a):
i. It is isentropic expansion of working fluid in turbine.
ii. In this case, turbine will be operating in a fluid with high moisture contents.
iii. Impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causes erosion and is a major
source of wear.
iii. Process 4-1 in (a):
i. It is isentropic compression process.
ii. It is not easy to control the condensation process so precisely as to end up with the
desired quality at state 4.
iii. It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
iv. In processes shown in (b):
i. Operating cycle above critical temperatures is not recommended.
ii. Isothermal heat addition above critical temperature (variable pressure) is very
difficult.
iii. Isentropic compression to such a high pressure could be very problematic.

THE RANKINE CYCLE

1. It is an ideal cycle for vapor power cycles.
2. A “simple ideal Rankine” cycle consist of following processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
Energy analysis of Rankine cycle

Heat rate
PROBLEM
Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at
3MPa and 350°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal
efficiency of this cycle. Also determine maximum efficiency this cycle could have?
Solution:
State-1: Thus,
P1= kPa qin=h3-h2= kJ/kg
T1= °C qout=h4-h1= kJ/kg
h1= kJ/kg
v1= m3/kg ηth=1- qout/ qin =
State-2:
P2 = kPa wturb,out = h3-h4 = kJ/kg
wpump,in= v1 (P2-P1) = kJ/kg wnet = wturb,out – wpump,in = kJ/kg
h2=h1+ wpump,in= kJ/kg or
State-3: wnet =qin-qout= kJ/kg
P3= kPa
T3= °C and
h3= kJ/kg
s3= kJ/kgK ηth=wnet/ qin = 26%
State-4:
P4= kPa
s4 = s 3 = kJ/kgK
h4= kJ/kg

DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER

CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
Common source of irreversibilities are:
1. Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the

condenser, and the piping between various components.
2. Heat loss to the surroundings
Remember:
PROBLEM
A steam power plant operates on the cycle (as shown in figure). If the isentropic efficiency of the turbine
is 87 percent and the isentropic efficiency of the pump is 85 percent, determine (a) the thermal efficiency
of the cycle and (b) the net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.
Solution:

INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF A RANKINE CYCLE

Basic idea: Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler,
or decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
Lowering the Condenser Superheating the Steam Increasing the Boiler

Pressure to High Temperatures Pressure
THE IDEAL RANKINE REHEAT CYCLE

How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without facing the
problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine? Answer to above question is: Expand the
steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between.

THERMODYNAMICS
1. Consider a 210-MW steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle.
Steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and
determine (a) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit, (b) the thermal efficiency of
the cycle, and (c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
2. Repeat above problem assuming an isentropic efficiency of 85 percent for both the
turbine and the pump.
3. Consider a coal-fired steam power plant that produces 300 MW of electric power. The
power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle with turbine inlet conditions of 5
MPa and 450°C and a condenser pressure of 25 kPa. The coal has a heating value
(energy released when the fuel is burned) of 29,300 kJ/kg. Assuming that 75 percent of
this energy is transferred to the steam in the boiler and that the electric generator has
an efficiency of 96 percent, determine (a) the overall plant efficiency (the ratio of net
electric power output to the energy input as fuel) and (b) the required rate of coal
supply.
4. Consider a steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle and has a
net power output of 45 MW. Steam enters the turbine at 7 MPa and 500°C and is cooled
in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa by running cooling water from a lake through
the tubes of the condenser at a rate of 2000 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with
respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the
mass flow rate of the steam, and (c) the temperature rise of the cooling water.
5. Repeat above problem assuming an isentropic efficiency of 87 percent for both the
turbine and the pump.
CHAPTER#8: GAS POWER CYCLES
Compiled by
Naveed ur Rehman
References
1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering
Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel and Michael
A. Boles
Thermodynamics” by Michael J. Moran,
Howard N. Shapiro
3. Animated internal combustion engine:
http://goo.gl/V4RogZ
Disclaimer
Chapter#8: Gas power cycles
ENGINE AND POWER CYCLES

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines, and the
thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power cycles.
GAS POWER CYCLES

1. A power cycle in which the working fluid remains in gaseous phase is called gas power cycles.
2. Working fluid: Air (predominantly used in all gas power cycles)
TYPES POWER CYCLES

Open cycles
In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated.
Note that in automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air–fuel
mixture at the end of each cycle. The engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does
not go through a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Closed cycles
In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is recirculated.
TYPES OF HEAT ENGINES

External combustion engines
In external combustion engines (such as steam power plants), heat is supplied to the working fluid from
an external source such as a furnace, a geothermal well, a nuclear reactor, or even the sun.
Internal combustion engines

In internal combustion engines (such as automobile engines), this is done by burning the fuel within the
system boundaries.
PROBLEM
A steam turbine cycle is an example of closed/open gas/vapor power cycle. We may classify it as
internal/external combustion heat engine.
COMMON IDEALIZATIONS EMPLOYED IN ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES

1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid
does not experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices
such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-
equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well
insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.

AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
The actual gas power cycles are rather complex. To reduce the analysis
to a manageable level, the following approximations are considered:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed

loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from
an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that
restores the working fluid to its initial state.
Cold-air-standard assumptions
For further simplifications, if the air is assumed to have constant specific heats whose values are
determined at room temperature (25°C, or 77°F), the air-standard assumptions are called Cold-air -
standard assumptions.
Air-standard cycle
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is frequently referred to as an air-standard
cycle.
AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

A reciprocating engine (basically a piston-cylinder device) is the powerhouse of the vast majority of
automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric power generators, as well as many other devices.
Nomenclature
1. Top Dead Center (TDC) : __________________________________________

2. Bottom Dead Center (BDC) : __________________________________________
3. Stroke : __________________________________________
4. Bore : __________________________________________

5. Intake valve: __________________________________________

6. Exhaust valve: __________________________________________
7. Clearance volume: ______________________________________
8. Displacement volume: ____________________________________
9. Compression ratio (r)
10. Mean effective pressure (MEP)

It is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the
entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net-work as
that produced during the actual cycle.
It can be used as a parameter to compare the performances of reciprocating engines of equal size. The
engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net-work per cycle and thus performs better
CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Depending on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated, reciprocating engines can be
classified as:
1. Spark-ignition (SI) engines: the combustion of the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug
2. Compression-ignition (CI) engines: the air–fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing
the mixture above its self-ignition temperature
Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

OTTO CYCLE (IDEAL CYCLE FOR SI ENGINES)

1. Inventor: Nikolaus A. Otto (1876 in Germany)
2. Also known as Gasoline engines
3. Spark ignition: In SI engines, the air–fuel mixture is compressed to a temperature that is below the
autoignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process is initiated by firing a spark plug.
4. It consists of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
Analysis
Hence, assuming cold-air-standard assumptions:
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and v2 = v3 and v4 = v1. Thus,
So,
Note about Relative volume and pressure
(V1/V2)isentropic = (Vr1/Vr2) and (P1/P2)isentropic = (Pr1/Pr2)

Notes
1. At high compression ratios, the increase in thermal efficiency is not
as pronounced.
2. At high compression ratios, autoignition of fuel may occur (due to
premature ignition of fuel by high pressures rather than spark plug)
produces an audible noise, which is called engine knock.
3. Mixing tetraethyl lead with gasoline is an inexpensive way of raising
octane rating, which is a measure of the engine knock resistance of
a fuel. Thus compression ratios up to 12 can be obtained. Leaded
gasoline, however, has a undesirable side effects on health and
environment.
4. The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle decreases as the molecules of the working fluid get
larger:
a. It is highest for Helium (k=1.66)
b. For Air, k = 1.4
c. For carbon dioxide, k = 1.3
d. For ethane, k = 1.2
e. The working fluid in actual engines contains larger molecules such as carbon dioxide, and the
specific heat ratio decreases with temperature, which is one of the reasons that the actual
cycles have lower thermal efficiencies than the ideal Otto cycle.
5. Thermal efficiency of actual SI engines ranges between 25-30%.
PROBLEM
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at
100 kPa and 17°C, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition
process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature, determine (a) the
maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal
efficiency, and (d ) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
Solution:


DIESEL CYCLE (IDEAL CYCLE FOR CI ENGINES)

1. Inventor: Rudolph Diesel (1890s)
2. Also known as Diesel engines
3. Compression ignition: In CI engines, the air is compressed to a temperature that is above the
autoignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts on contact as the fuel is injected into this
hot air. Therefore, the spark plug and carburetor are replaced by a fuel injector in diesel engines.

1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
Analysis
Let rc = cut-off ratio: the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the combustion process.
Utilizing this definition and the isentropic ideal-gas relations for processes 1-2 and 3-4,
Thermal efficiencies of large diesel engines range from about 35 to 40 %.

PROBLEM
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the
compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C. Accounting for the variation of specific heats with
temperature, determine (a) the temperature after the heat-addition process, (b) the thermal efficiency, and
(c) the mean effective pressure
Solution:
Note:
⁄ ⁄
( ⁄ )
As: ( ⁄ )
=> .
Hence:
( ⁄ )
Also, as ( ⁄ )
COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCIES OF OTTO AND DIESEL CYCLES

1. Note that, under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the efficiency
of a Diesel cycle differs from the efficiency of an Otto cycle by
the quantity in the brackets.
2. This quantity is always greater than 1 for a diesel cycle.
3. Therefore, for the two cycles operating at same compression ratio,
Otto cycle is more efficient:
4. Remember, diesel engines can be designed to operate at much

higher compression ratios, typically between 12 and 24.

DUAL CYCLE
1. Approximating the combustion process in internal combustion
engines as a constant-volume or a constant-pressure heat-
addition process is overly simplistic and not quite realistic.
2. A better (but slightly more complex) approach would be to
model the combustion process in both gasoline and diesel
engines as a combination of two heat-transfer processes, one at
constant volume and the other at constant pressure.
3. The ideal cycle based on this concept is called the dual cycle.
4. The relative amounts of heat transferred during each process can be adjusted to approximate the
actual cycle more closely.
5. Note that both the Otto and the Diesel cycles can be obtained as special cases of the dual cycle.
STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES

1. The two cycles have isothermal heat addition/rejection processes.
2. Both utilizes regeneration, a process during which heat is transferred
to a thermal energy storage device (called a regenerator) during one
part of the cycle and is transferred back to the working fluid during
another part of the cycle.
3. They are reversible cycles therefore:

BRAYTON CYCLE (IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES)

1. Inventor: George Brayton
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

Analysis
Here,
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and P2 = P3 and P4 = P1. Thus,
On further simplification,
Where rp is the pressure ratio,
Notes
1. In most common designs, the pressure ratio of gas turbines ranges from about 11 to 16.
2. In gas-turbine power plants, the ratio of the compressor work to the
turbine work, called the back work ratio, is very high. Usually more
than one-half of the turbine work output is used to drive the
compressor.

PROBLEM
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard
assumptions, determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine, (b) the back
work ratio, and (c) the thermal efficiency.
Solution:

OTHER VARIATIONS OF BRAYTON CYCLE

Brayton cycle with regenerator
Brayton cycle with intercooler, reheater and

regenerator
Combined gas-power cycles

This is a type of cogeneration plant. In general, cogeneration is
the production of more than one useful form of energy (such as
process heat and electric power) from the same energy source.

THERMODYNAMICS
1. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression
process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C, and 750 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the
constant-volume heat-addition process. Taking into account the variation of specific
heats with temperature, determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the
heat addition process, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the
mean effective pressure for the cycle.
Answers: (a) 3898 kPa, 1539 K, (b) 392.4 kJ/kg, (c) 52.3 percent, (d ) 495 kPa
2. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the
beginning of the compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C. Accounting for the
variation of specific heats with temperature, determine (a) the temperature after the
heat-addition process, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the mean effective pressure.
Answers: (a) 1724.8 K, (b) 56.3 percent, (c) 675.9 kPa
3. Air is used as the working fluid in a simple ideal Brayton cycle that has a pressure ratio of
12, a compressor inlet temperature of 300 K, and a turbine inlet temperature of 1000 K.
Determine the required mass flow rate of air for a net power output of 70 MW,
assuming both the compressor and the turbine have an isentropic efficiency of (a) 100
percent and (b) 85 percent. Assume constant specific heats at room temperature.
Answers: (a) 352 kg/s, (b) 1037 kg/s

C #1: I B C: Hapter Ntroduction and Asic Oncepts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

C #1: I B C: Hapter Ntroduction and Asic Oncepts

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

C #1: I B C: Hapter Ntroduction and Asic Oncepts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the different definitions of thermodynamics discussed in the document?

What are the different definitions of thermodynamics discussed in the document?

What are the two main approaches to analyzing thermodynamic systems discussed?

What are the two main approaches to analyzing thermodynamic systems discussed?

CHAPTER#1: INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

Handouts for Thermodynamics

1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel and

THERMODYNAMICS (OLD DEFINITION)

THERMODYNAMICS (NEW DEFINITION)

SELECTED APPLICATION AREAS

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY PRINCIPLE

Handouts for Thermodynamics 2

2. Example: A rock falling off a cliff.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THE SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS AND THEIR SI UNIT

Handouts for Thermodynamics 3

STANDARD PREFIXES IN SI UNITS

SYSTEMS, SURROUNDINGS AND BOUNDARIES

Open System Closed System Isolated System

Handouts for Thermodynamics 4

Handouts for Thermodynamics 5

THE STATE POSTULATE

Handouts for Thermodynamics 6

d. Interaction with surroundings

Quasi Equilibrium Process

Handouts for Thermodynamics 7

FORMS OF ENERGIES OF A SYSTEM

Macroscopic Forms of Energies of a System

Microscopic Forms of Energies of a System

Handouts for Thermodynamics 8

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

∆ºF = 1.8 ∆ºC ∆K = ∆ºC ∆R = ∆ºF ∆R = 1.8 ∆K

a. Graphically show the calibration of ºC versus ºW.

Ice point Steam point

Handouts for Thermodynamics 9

Derive equation of straight line using two-point formula:

y = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1).x + y1; Where, x1=0, x2=100, y1=150, y2=300, x=°C, y=°W

°W = 1.5°C + 150 ; Hence, at °W=100, °C=-33.33 and °W=400, °C=166.66

Absolute (Pabs), Gage (Pg) and Vacuum (Pvac) Pressure

Pvac = Patm – Pabs Pg = Pabs - Patm

Handouts for Thermodynamics 10

FLOW OF HEAT & MASS

Handouts for Thermodynamics 11

1. "Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach" by Yunis A. Cengel and

The arrangement of atoms in different phases:

SATURATION TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

Saturation pressure (Psat)

Handouts for Thermodynamics 2

Latent heat of fusion

Latent heat of vaporization (hfg)

PROPERTY DIAGRAM FOR THE PHASE-CHANGE PROCESS (WATER)

1. Higher is the pressure (P):

Handouts for Thermodynamics 3

T-v and P-v property diagrams

Handouts for Thermodynamics 4

P-V DIAGRAM EXTENDING TO INCLUDE SOLID PHASE

For substances that expand on cooling (e.g. water)