MECHATRONICS

Module – I:-
Sensors and Transducers:- Sensors and transducers, Performance terminology,
Displacement, position and proximity, Velocity and motion, Force, Fluid pressure, Liquid
flow, Liquid level, Temperature, Light sensors, Selection of sensors, Inputting data by
switches. Book – 1: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12.
Signal conditioning:- Signal conditioning, The operational amplifier, Protection, Filtering,
Pulse modulation. Book – 1: 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6.
Digital Signals:- Digital signals, Analogue and digital signals, digital-to-analogue and
analogue-to-digital converters, Multiplexers, Data acquisition, Digital signal processing.
Book – 1: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuation Systems:- Actuation systems, Pneumatic and hydraulic
systems, Directional control valves, Pressure control valves, Cylinders, Servo and
proportional control valves, process control valves, Rotary actuators. Book – 1: 7.1, 7.2, 7.3,
7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8.
Module – II:-
Mechanical Actuation Systems:- Mechanical systems, Types of motion, Kinematic chains,
Cams, GTears, Belt and chain drives, bearings, Mechanical aspects of motor selection. Book
– 1: 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9.
Electrical Actuation Systems:- Electrical systems, Mechanical switches, Solid-state
switches, Solenoids, D.C. motors, A.C. motors, Stepper motors. Book – 1: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4,
9.5, 9.6, 9.7.
Basic System Models:- Mathematical models, Mechanical system building blocks,
Electrical system building blocks, Electrical system building blocks, Fluid system building
blocks, Thermal system building blocks. Book – 1: 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5.
Module – III:- System Models:- Engineering systems, Rotational-translational systems,
Electromechanical systems, Electromechanical systems, Linearity, Hydraulic-mechanical
systems, Summary, Problems. Book – 1: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5.
Closed-loop Controllers:- Continuous and discrete control processes, Terminology, Two-
step mode, Proportional mode, Derivative control, Integral control, PID controller, Digital
controllers, Control system performance, Controller tuning, Velocity control, Adaptive
control, Summary, Problems. Book – 1: 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4, 15.5, 15.6, 15.7, 15.8, 15.9,
15.10, 15.11, 15.12.
Programmable Logic Controllers:- Introduction to PLCs, Basic Structure of a PLC,
Principles of Operation, PLCs versus Computers, Introduction to Internal Architecture and
Hardware Components, PLC Programming, Analog I/O, Selecting a PLC for the
Application, Application of PLCs for Control. Book – 2: 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6,
13.7, 13.8, 13.9.
Text Books: 1. Mechatronics Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical
Engg. Pearson Publication, 4th Edition by William Bolton, 2010. 2. Mechatronics Integrated
Mechanical Electronic Systems by K. P. Ramachandran, G. K. Vijayaraghavan, M. S.
Balasundaram, Wiley India Edition, Printed on 2008. Reference Books: 1. Mechatronics
integrated Technologies for Intelligent Machines by A. Smaili, F.Mrad, Oxford University
Press, Printed on 2009. 2. Mechatronic Sources Book, Cengage Learning India Edition by
Newton C Braga, 2nd Edition, 2010.
 MECHATRONICS

Introduction:
Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of science that includes a combination
of mechanical engineering, electronics, computer engineering, telecommunications
engineering, systems engineering and control engineering.
Originally, mechatronics just included the combination of mechanics and electronics, hence
the word is a combination of mechanics and electronics; however, as technical systems have
become more and more complex the definition has been broadened to include more technical
areas.
It aims at the synergistic integration of mechanics, electronics, control theory, and computer
science within product design and manufacturing, in order to improve and/or optimize its
functionality.
Mechatronics provides solutions that are efficient and reliable systems. Mechatronic
Systems mostly have microcomputers to ensure smooth functioning and higher dependability.
The sensors in these systems absorb signals from the surroundings, react to these signals using
appropriate processing to generate acquired output signals. Few examples of Mechatronics
System are automated guided vehicles, robots, digitally controlled combust engines and
machine tools with self-adaptive tools, aircraft flight control and navigation systems, and
smart home appliances (e.g. Washers, dryers, etc.)

The mechatronics system includes:

• Measurement and actutation module – Signals are received from the external world and
feedback signal. This segment consists of actuators and sensors like stepper motors,
solenoids, AC/DC, strain gauge, temperature sensor/pressure sensors/photo sensors.
• Communication Module – The relative position of actuators and position of sensors can
be measured to generate appropriate signals. These signals are transferred through the
communication module to the CPU. The signal conditioning circuits, interfacing circuits
and bus communication form the communication module.
• CPU – When the CPU recieves the signal, they can perform logical and arithmetic
operations with a processor and software. An appropriate control signal is generated by
the CPU.
• Output signal conditioning module – This module includes amplifiers to drive plotter,
audio-visual indicators, ADC/DAC’s and displays. The output signal is forwarded to
feedback module.
• Feedback module – This module generate signal proportional to the output signal which
is forwarded to the measurement and actuation module. The signal from the external
environment and the feedback signal are compared by the measurement and actuation
module.
 Sensors and Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction

A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. Transducer is the other
term that is sometimes interchangeably used instead of the term sensor, although there are
subtle differences. A transducer is a term that can be used for the definition of many devices
such as sensors, actuators, or transistors.

Performance and terminology

The desirable features of sensors are:
1. Range / span
2. Errors and accuracy
3. Nonliearity
4. Hysteresis
5. Dead band and Saturation
6. Output impedance
7. Repeatability
8. Reliability
9. Sensitvity
10.Resolution
11.Frequency Response
12.Response time
13.Calibration
1.Range and Span
Range: lowest and highest values of the stimulus
Span: the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest values of the input
that being sensed.
Input full scale (IFS) = span
Output full scale (OFS): difference between the upper and lower ranges of the output of the
sensor.
Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and lower limits and is usually expressed in db.
Example: a sensors is designed for: −30 °C to +80 °C to output 2.5V to 1.2V
Range: −30°C and +80 °C
Span: 80 − ( −30)=110 ° C
Input full scale = 110 ° C
Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
Dynamic range=20log(140/30)=13.38db
Errors and Accuracy
Errors: is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured
error= measured value –true value
As a percentage of full scale (span for example) error is calculated as;
e = ∆t/(tmax-tmin)*100
where tmax and tmin are the maximum and minimum values the device is designed to
operate at.
Errors and Accuracy Example:
Accuracy: is the extent to which the measured value might be wrong and normally
expressed in percentage
Example: A thermistor is used to measure temperature between –30 and +80 °C and produce
an output voltage between 2.8V and 1.5V. Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is ±0.5
°C. so the measured value may be high than or lower than by 0.5 ° C
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the deviation of the sensor’s output at any given point when approached from
two different directions
Caused by electrical or mechanical systems
– Magnetization
–Thermal properties
– Loose linkages
If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of 50 °C, the output might be
4.95V when temperature increases but 5.05V when temperature decreases.
This is an error of ±0.5% (for an output full scale of 10V in this idealized example).
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the ideal linear transfer function.
Nonlinearity must be deduced from the actual transfer function or from the calibration
curve.
A few methods to do so:
a. by use of the range of the sensor – Pass a straight line between the range points (line 1)
b. use a linear best fit (least squares) through the points of the curve (line 2)
c. use the tangent to the curve at some point on the curve Take a point in the middle of the
range of interest -Draw the tangent and extend to the range of the curve (line 3)
Deadband
Deadband: the lack of response or insensitivity of a device over a specific range of the
input.
In this range which may be small, the output remains constant.
A device should not operate in this range unless this insensitivity is acceptable. Dead Zone
Output impedance
Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit current of the port (i.e.
current when the output is shorted) output impedance is important for interfacing.
Repeatability
 Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor to represent the same value under identical
conditions when measured at different times.
– usually associated with calibration
– given as percentage of input full scale of the maximum difference between two readings
taken at different times under identical input conditions
Reliability
Reliability: a statistical measure of quality of a device which indicates the ability of the
device to perform its stated function, under normal operating conditions without failure for a
stated period of time or number of cycles.
Given in hours, years or in MTBF
Usually provided by the manufacturer .Based on accelerated lifetime testing.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output for a given change in input, usually
a unit change in input. Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function.
Also is used to indicate sensitivity to other environment that is not measured.
Example: sensitivity of resistance measurement to temperature change
Resolution
Resolution: the minimum increment in stimulus to which the sensor can respond. It is the
magnitude of the input change which results in the smallest observable output. •
Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1V is used to measure the output of a
sensor. The change in input (temperature, pressure, etc.) that will provide a change of 0.1V
on the voltmeter is the resolution of the sensor/voltmeter system.
In digital systems generally, resolution may be specified as 1/ 2N (N is the number of bit.)
Frequency response
Frequency response: The ability of the device to respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal) input
A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.) as a function of frequency
Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the device is usable (sensors and actuators)
Provides important design parameters
Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode diagram of the device)
Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensor
Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object.
Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some
reference point.

Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object has
moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.

Displacement sensors

1. Potentiometer Sensors

Figure 2.2.1 Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear

displacement

Figure 2.2.1 shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to measure
the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the
principle of conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a
resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body,
acting as a movable electric contact.
 The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using

• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)

• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation

The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of large
number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire. Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin
embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 %
while the conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 µm.

During the sensing operation, a voltage VS is applied across the resistive element. A voltage
divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is
measured as shown in the figure 2.2.2. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of
the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output
voltage VA.

Figure 2.2.2 Potentiometer: electric circuit

VA = I RA (2.2.1)
But (2.2.2)

Therefore (2.2.3)

As we know that R = ρL /A where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is area of

cross section
(2.2.4)

Applications of potentiometer

These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded position.

These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection
molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used
in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

2. Strain Gauges

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we
can say,

(2.2.5)

where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of
G is consideredin between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
Figure 2.2.3 A pattern of resistive foils

Figure 2.2.4 Wheatstone's bridge

Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation 2.2.5.
It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure 2.2.3. These foils are made
of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic
(ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are secured to the
workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL. As the workpiece undergoes
change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This
change in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance bridge as shown in
Figure 2.2.4.In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

(2.2.6)

where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and R3 are

known constant value resistors. The measured deformation or displacement by the stain gauge
is calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across
nodes A and B equal to zero.

Applications of strain gauges

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and
failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection
measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.

Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic
press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

3. Capacitive element based sensor

Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three plates, with
the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might
take in two forms:

(a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes

(b) area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

Figure 2.2.5 shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.
 Figure 2.2.5 Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

(2.2.7)

where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of free
space, Aarea of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.

As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,

(2.2.8)

(2.2.9)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance voltage
would be in proportional to displacement x.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object towards
the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate separation. This changes the capacitance
which is used to detect the object.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control

• Grease level monitoring

• Level control of liquids

• Metrology applications

- to measure shape errors in the part being produced

- to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such as surface
grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by measuring errors in the
machine tools themselves

• Assembly line testing

- to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features

- to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.

4. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Figure 2.2.6 Construction of LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of
linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity
error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure 2.2.6 shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three
coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other
two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs
oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be
monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.

Figure 2.2.7 Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion
in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced
from the central position as shown in Figure 2.2.7, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2,
then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage
from the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage
increases in proportion with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as
low pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.

LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position
sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is
highly reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms,
automated measurement in machine tools.

A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation.
Readers are suggested to prepare a report on principle of working and construction of RVDT
sensor.

Applications of LVDT sensors

• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM

Proximity sensors

1. Eddy current proximity sensors

Figure 2.3.1 Schematic of Inductive Proximity Sensor

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials. They
comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit. Figure 2.3.1 shows the
construction of eddy current proximity switch.When an alternating current is passed thru this coil,
an alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the
coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field. These eddy currents
create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current. This can
be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current.

Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable and have
high sensitivity for small displacements.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors

• Automation requiring precise location

• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
3. Optical encoders

Figure 2.3.3 Construction and working of optical encoder

Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. Figure 2.3.3 shows the
construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally
spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These
sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical element
e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole which is
used locate the ‘home' position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes
of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction
of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer
track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can
be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution
would be,

360°/100=3.6°

4. Pneumatic Sensors
 Figure 2.3.4 Working of Pneumatic Sensors [1]

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the proximity of an
object close to it. The displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure.
Figure 2.3.4 shows a schematic of construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of
three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the absence of any obstacle
/ object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in the port B.
However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output
port B. This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch.

These sensors are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.

5. Proximity Switches

Figure 2.3.5 Configurations of contact type proximity switch [1]

Figure 2.3.5 shows a number of configurations of contact-type proximity switch being used in
manufacturing automation. These are small electrical switches which require physical contact and
a small operating force to close the contacts. They are basically employed on conveyor systems
to detect the presence of an item on the conveyor belt.

Figure 2.3.6 Reed Switch [1]

Magnet based Reed switches are used as proximity switches. When a magnet attached to an
object brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds attract to each other and close the switch
contacts. A schematic is shown in Figure 2.3.6.

7 LED based proximity sensors

Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and photosensitive devices such as
photo diodes and photo transistors are used in combination to work as proximity sensing devices.
Figure 2.3.7 shows two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes to detect the objects
breaking the beam and reflecting light.
Figure 2.3.7 LED based proximity sensors [1]
6. Hall effect sensor

Figure 2.3.8 Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

Figure 2.3.8 shows the principle of working of Hall effect sensor. Hall effect sensors work on the
principle that when a beam of charge particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the current beam is deflected from its straight line path.Thus one side of the disc
will become negatively charged and the other side will be of positive charge. This charge
separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of distance of magnetic field
from the disc carrying current.

The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a container. The
container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at its top. An electric circuit
with a current carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet
will come close to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to
stop the fluid to come inside the container.

These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of position of an
object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at
100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants
and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.

Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors

1. Tachogenerator

Figure 2.4.1 Principle of working of Techogenerator [1]

Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists of an assembly of a

toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in figure 2.4.1. Toothed wheel is mounted on the
shaft or the element of which angular motion is to be measured. Magnetic circuit comprising of
a coil wound on a ferromagnetic material core. As the wheel rotates, the air gap between wheel
tooth and magnetic core changes which results in cyclic change in flux linked with the coil. The
alternating emf generated is the measure of angular motion. A pulse shaping signal conditioner
is used to transform the output into a number of pulses which can be counted by a counter.

Figure 2.4.2 Construction and working of AC generator

An alternating current (AC) generator can also be used as a techognerator. It comprises of rotor
coil which rotates with the shaft. Figure 2.4.2 shows the schematic of AC generator. The rotor
rotates in the magnetic field produced by a stationary permanent magnet or electromagnet.
During this process, an alternating emf is produced which is the measure of the angular velocity
of the rotor. In general, these sensors exhibit nonlinearity error of about ± 0.15% and are
employed for the rotationsup to about 10000 rev/min.

2. Pyroelectric sensors

Figure 2.4.3 Principle of pyroelectricity

These sensors work on the principle of pyroelectricity , which states that a crystal material such
as Lithium tantalite generates charge in response to heat flow . In presence of an electric field,
when such a crystal material heats up, its electrical dipoles line up as shown in figure 2.4.3. This
is called as polarization. On cooling, the material retains its polarization. In absence of electric
field, when this polarized material is subjected to infra red irradiation, its polarization reduces.
This phenomenon is the measure of detection of movement of an object.

Figure 2.4.4 Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin film
electrodes on opposite faces as shown in figure 2.4.4. Initially the electrodes are in electrical
equilibrium with the polarized material. On incident of infra red, the material heats up and reduces
its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and electrodes. To
 balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which is calibrated against
the detection of an object or its movement.

Applications of Pyroelectric sensors [2]

• Intrusion detector
• Optothermal detector
• Pollution detector
• Position sensor
• Solar cell studies
• Engine analysis
• 3. Strain Gauge as force Sensor

Figure 2.4.5 Strain gauge based Load cell

• Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle of change in electrical resistance. When,
a mechanical element subjects to a tension or a compression the electric resistance of the
material changes. This is used to measure the force acted upon the element. The details
regarding the construction of strain gauge transducer are already presented in Lecture 2 of
Module 2.
• Figure 2.4.5 shows a strain gauge load cell. It comprises of cylindrical tube to which strain
gauges are attached. A load applied on the top collar of the cylinder compress the strain gauge
element which changes its electrical resistance. Generally strain gauges are used to measure
forces up to 10 MN. The non-linearity and repeatability errorsof this transducer are ±0.03% and
±0.02% respectively.

4. Fluid pressure
Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure. Various types
ofinstruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are used to monitor the fluid pressure.
Specially designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are generally used to measure the inlet
manifold pressure in applications such as automobiles. A typical arrangement of strain gauges on
a diaphragm is shown in figure 2.4.6. Application of pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm.
This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of radial and/or lateral strains. These
strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 2.4.6 A diaphragm

Figure 2.4.7 Schematic of Capsule and Bellow

 Figure 2.4.8 Bellow with a LVDT [1]

Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced sensitivity in

comparison with that of diaphragms. Figure 2.4.7 shows a schematic of a Capsule and a Bellow.
A stack of capsules is called as ‘Bellows’. Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure
in terms of change in resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT. Figure 2.4.8 shows a
typical arrangement of the same.

5. Tactile sensors

Figure 2.4.9 Schematic of a tactile sensor [1]

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an object.
They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units (VDUs) of
CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9 shows the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which transmits the
vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which generates vibrations due
to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via soft
film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper PVDF layer. When some
pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets affected and the output voltage
changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch displays.

6. Piezoelectric sensor

Figure 2.4.10 Principle of working of Piezoelectric sensor

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces
such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic
crystal materials such as Quartz (Figure 2.4.10). On application of force or pressure these
materials get stretched or compressed. During this process, the charge over the material changes
and redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and the other negatively
charged. The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges
have been displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,

q = kx = SF

where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

7. Liquid flow

Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli's principle of fluid flow through a
constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured. The
fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of the
constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.
7.a Orifice plate:

Figure 2.4.11 Orifice Plate [1]

Figure 2.4.11 shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a disc with a hole at its center,
through which the fluid flows. The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the
diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter downstream. Orifice
plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear
behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.

7.b Turbine meter

Figure 2.4.12 Schematic of turbine meter [1]

Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor mounted centrally in
the pipe along which the flow is to be measured. Figure 2.4.12 shows the typical arrangement of
 the rotor and a magnetic pick up coil. The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic
pick up coil counts the number of magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of magnetic
field by the rotor blades. The angular velocity is proportional to the number of pulses and fluid
flow is proportional to angular velocity.

8. Fluid level

The level of liquid in a vessel or container can be measured,

a. directly by monitoring the position of liquid surface

b. indirectly by measuring some variable related to the height.

Direct measurements involve the use of floats however the indirect methods employ load cells.
Potentiometers or LVDT sensors can be used along with the floats to measure the height of fluid
column. Force sensed by the load cells is proportional to the height of fluid column.

Temperature and light sensors

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical systemin terms of expansion or contraction of

solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors
are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting
etc. The construction details and principle of working of some of the temperature sensors are
discussed in following sections.

1. Bimetallic strips

Figure 2.5.1 Construction and working of Bi-metallic strip

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips with
the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure 2.5.1 shows a
typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips bend, the
soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then the electric
circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired
application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.

2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship as
shown in Figure 2.5.2. The correlation is

(2.5.1)

Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (°C) and R0 is the temperature at 0°C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually
made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C

Figure 2.5.2 Behavior of RTD materials [1]

 Figure 2.5.3 Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Figure 2.5.3 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a
Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a
sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature
changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

RTDs are used in the form of thin films,wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals
such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass
adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other
applications are:

• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

3. Thermistors

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature. The
material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered metal oxide
(mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) ordoped polycrystalline
ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO 3) and other compounds. As the temperature of
semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to move about increases which
results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.Thermistors are rugged and small
in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.

Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure 2.5.4 shows
the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5
 mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through
two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.

Figure 2.5.4 Schematic of a thermistor

Applications of Thermistors

• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food Handling and processing industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators,
freezers, hair dryers, etc.

4. Thermocouple

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces an
electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed
of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there is a continuous
current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.5.5 shows the schematic of thermocouple
circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction temperature and
composition of two metals. It is given by,

ΔVAB = αΔT (2.5.2)

Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant ofproportionality.

 Figure 2.5.5 Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel(95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2%

aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple. Table 2.5.1 shows
the various other materials, their combinations and application temperature ranges.

Applications of Thermocouples

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron and
aluminum industry

Light sensors

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensorssuch
as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other industrial
applications.

Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance semiconductor
 material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdSphotoresistor varies inversely to the
amount oflight incident upon it.Photoresistor follows the principle of p hotoconductivity which
results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor
material.

Figure 2.5.6 shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a
ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coil electrodes
are connected to the control system though lead wires. On incidence of high intensity light on
the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used further to generate
the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Figure 2.5.6 Construction of a photo resistor

Photoresistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control, safety,
amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.

Applications of photo resistor

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to automatically control
the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots. The light sensor
enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain
amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control
• Photo diodes
• Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It
is made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n
configuration. When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of silicon) fall
on the device, they are absorbed and electron-hole pairs are created. The depth at which
the photons are absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the energy of the
photons, the deeper they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When
the minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field and
an electric current establishes.
• Photodiodes are one of the types of photodetector, which convert light into either current
or voltage. These are regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed to detect vacuum UV or X-rays or packaged with a opening or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.

•
• Figure 2.5.7 Construction of photo diode detector
• Figure 2.5.7 shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is constructed from single
crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin
and formed by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping material such as boron.
Depletion region is narrow and is sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of
silicon. Light irradiates at front surface, anode, while the back surface is cathode. The
incidence of light on anode generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is
the measure of light intensity.

Applications of photo diodes

Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control

Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers
 Industry

• Bar Code Scanners

• Light Pens
• Brightness Controls
• Encoders
• Position Sensors
• Surveying Instruments
• Copiers - Density of Toner

Safety Equipment

• Smoke Detectors
• Flame Monitors
• Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
• Intruder Alert - Security System

Automotive

• Headlight Dimmer
• Twilight Detectors
• Climate Control - Sunlight Detector

Communications

• Fiber Optic Links

• Optical Communications
• Optical Remote Control

Protection, conversion and pulse width modulation

1. Protection

In many situations sensors or transducers provide very high output signals such as high current
or high voltage which may damage the next element of the control system such as
microprocessor.

1.1 Protection from high current:

The high current to flow in a sensitive control system can be limited by:

1. Using a series of resistors

2. Using fuse to break the circuit if current value exceeds a preset or safe value

1.2 Protection from high voltage:

Zener diode circuits are widely used to protect a mechatronics control system from high values
of voltages and wrong polarity. Figure 2.7.1 shows a typical Zener diode circuit.

Figure 2.7.1 Zener diode circuit diagram

Zener diode acts as ordinary or regular diodes upto certain breakdown voltage level when they
are conducting. When the voltage rises to the breakdown voltage level, Zener diode breaks down
and stops the voltage to pass to the next circuit.

Zener diode as being a diode has low resistance for current to flow in one direction through it
and high resistance for the opposite direction. When connected in correct polarity, a high
resistance produces high voltage drop. If the polarity reverses, the diode will have less resistance
and therefore results in less voltage drop.

Figure 2.7.2 Schematic of an Optoisolator

In many high voltage scenarios, it is required to isolate the control circuit completely from the
input high voltages to avoid the possible damage. This can be achieved by Optoisolators. Figure
2.7.2 shows the typical circuit of an Optoisolator. It comprises of a Light emitting diode (LED)
and a photo transistor. LED irradiates infra red due to the voltage supplied to it from a
microprocessor circuit. The transistor detects irradiation and produces a current in proportion to
the voltage applied. In case of high voltages, output current from Optoisolator is utilized for
disconnecting the power supply to the circuit and thus the circuit gets protected.

2. Wheatstone bridge:

Figure 2.7.3 Configuration of a Wheatstone bridge

Wheatstone bridge is used to convert a resistance change detected by a transducer to a voltage

change. Figure 2.7.3 shows the basic configuration of a Wheatstone bridge. When the output
voltage Vout is zero then the potential at B must be equal to D and we can say that,

(2.7.1)

I 1 R 1 = I2 R 2 (2.7.2)

Also,

Vbc = Vdc , (2.7.3)

I 1 R 2 = I2 R 4 (2.7.4)

Dividing equation 2.7.2 by 2.7.4,

R1 / R2 = R3 / R4 (2.7.5)
The bridge is thus balanced.

The potential drop across R1 due to supply voltage Vs,

(2.7.6)

Similarly,

(2.7.7)

Thus the output voltage V0 is given by,

(2.7.8)

(2.7.9)

When V0 = 0, above equation gives balanced condition.

Assume that a transducer produces a resistance change from R1 to R1 + δ R1 which gives a change
in output from V0 + δ V0,

From equation 2.7.9 we can write,

(2.7.10)

Hence,

(2.7.11)

If δR1 is much smaller than R1 the equation 2.7.11 can be written as

(2.7.12)

We can say that change in resistance R1 produces a change in output voltage. Thus we can
convert a change in resistance signal into voltage signal.
3. Pulse modulation

Figure 2.7.4 Pulse amplitude modulation

Figure 2.7.5 Pulse width modulation

During amplification of low level DC signals from a sensor by using Op-amp, the output gets
drifted due to drift in the gain of Op-amp. This problem is solved by converting the analogue DC
signal into a sequence of pulses. This can be achieved by chopping the DC signal in to a chain of
pulses as shown in Figure 2.7.4. The heights of pulses are related to the DC level of the input
signal. This process is called as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). It is widely used in control
systems as a mean of controlling the average value of the DC voltage. If the width of pulses is
changed then the average value of the voltage can be changed as shown in Figure 2.7.5. A term
Duty Cycle is used to define the fraction of each cycle for which the voltage is high. Duty cycle
of 50% means that for half of the each cycle, the output is high.
Data conversion devices

Data Conversion Devices are very important componentsof a Machine Control Unit (MCU). MCUs
are controlled by various computers or microcontrollers which are accepting signals only in Digital
Form i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s, while the signals received from signal conditioning module or
sensors are generally in analogue form (continuous). Therefore a system is essentially required
to convert analog signals into digital form and vis-à-vis. Analog to Digital Converter is abbreviated
as ADC. Figure 2.8.1 shows a typical control system with data conversion devices.

Based on the signals received from sensors, MCU generates actuating signals in the Digital form.
Most of the actuators e.g. DC servo motors only accept analogue signals. Therefore the digital
signals must be converted into Analog form so that the required actuator can be operated
accordingly. For this purpose Digital to Analog Converters are used, which are abbreviated as
DACs. In subsequent sections we will be discussing about various types of ADC and DAC devices,
their principle of working and circuitry.

Figure 2.8.1 A control system with ADC and DAC devices

Basic components used in ADCs and DACs

1. Comparators

In general ADCs and DACs comprise of Comparators. Comparator is a combination of diodes and
Operational Amplifiers. A comparator is a device which compares the voltage input or current
input at its two terminals and gives output in form of digital signal i.e. in form of 0s and 1s
indicating which voltage is higher. If V+ and V- be input voltages at two terminals of comparator
then output of comparator will be as
 V + > V - → Output 1

V + < V - → Output 0

2. Encoders

Though the output obtained from comparators are in the form of 0s and 1s, but can't be called
as binary output. A sequence of 0s and 1s will be converted into binary form by using a circuit
called Encoder. A simple encoder converts 2 n input lines into ‘n' output lines. These ‘n' output
lines follow binary algebra.

3. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

As discussed in previous section ADCs are used to convert analog signals into Digital Signals.
There are various techniques of converting Analog Signals into Digital signals which are enlisted
as follows. However we will be discussing only Direct Conversion ADC, detail study of other
techniques is out of the scope of the present course.

1. Direct Conversion ADC or Flash ADC

2. Successive Approximation ADC
3. A ramp-compare ADC
4. Wilkinson ADC
5. Integrating ADC
6. Delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp
7. Pipeline ADC (also called subrangingquantizer)
8. Sigma-delta ADC (also known as a delta-sigma ADC)
9. Time-interleaved ADC

3.1 Direct Conversion ADC or Flash ADC

 Figure 2.8.2 Circuit of Flash ADC

Figure 2.8.2 shows the circuit of Direct conversion or Flash ADC. To convert a digital signal of N-
bits, Flash ADC requires 2N -1 comparators and 2N resistors. The circuit provides the reference
voltage to all the comparators. Each comparator gives an output of 1 when its analog voltage is
higher than reference voltage or otherwise the output is 0. In the above circuit, reference voltages
to comparators are provided by means of resistor ladder logic.

The circuit described in figure 2.8.2 acts as 3 Bit ADC device. Let us assume this ADC works
between the range of 0-10 Volts. The circuit requires 7 comparators and 8 resisters.Now the
voltages across each resistor are divided in such a way that a ladder of 1 volt is built with the
help of 1K-Ohm resistances. Therefore the reference voltages across all the comparators are 1-
7 volts.

Now let us assume that an input voltage signal of 2.5 V is to be converted into its related digital
form. As 2.5V is greater than 1V and 2V, first two comparators will give output as 1,1. But 2.5V
is less than 3,4,5,6,7 V values therefore all other comparators will give 0s. Thus we will have
output from comparators as 0000011(from top). This will be fed to the encoder logic circuit. This
circuit will first change the output in single high line format and then converts it into 3 output
lines format by using binary algebra. Then this digital output from ADC may be used for
manipulation or actuation by the microcontrollers or computers.

4. Digital to Analog Converters

As discussed in previous section DACs are used to convert digital signals into Analog Signals.
There are various techniques of converting Digital Signals into Analog signals which are as follows
however we will be discussing only few important techniques in detail:
1. Pulse-width modulator
2. Oversampling DACs or interpolating DACs
3. The binary-weighted DAC
4. Switched resistor DAC
5. Switched current source DAC
6. Switched capacitor DAC
7. The R-2R ladder
8. The Successive-Approximation or Cyclic DAC,
9. The thermometer-coded DAC

4.1 Binary Weighted DAC

Figure 2.8.3 Circuit of binary weighted DAC

Figure 2.8.4 An op-amp used in DAC

As name indicates, in binary weighted DAC, output voltage can be calculated by expression which
works on binary weights. Its circuit can be realized in Figure 2.8.3. From the figure it can be
noted that most significant bit of digital input is connected to minimum resistance and vice versa.
Digital bits can be connected to resistance through a switch which connects resistance-end to
the ground . The digital input is zero when former bit is connected to reference voltage and if it
is 1. This can be understood from Figure 2.8.4. DAC output voltage can be calculated from
property of operational amplifiers. If V1 be input voltage at MSB (most significant bit), V2 be
input voltage at next bit and so on then for four bit DAC we can write,

(2.8.1)

Note: Here V1, V2, V3, V4, will be Vref if digital input is 1 or otherwise it will be zero.

Hence output voltage can be found as:

(2.8.2)

However Binary weighted DAC doesn't work for multiple or higher bit systems as the value of
resistance doubles in each case.

Thus simple and low bit digital signals from a transducer can be converted into a related
continuous value of voltages (analogue) by using binary weighted DAC. These will further be
used for manipulation or actuation.

4.2 R-2R Ladder based DAC

Figure 2.8.5 R-2R Ladder based DAC

In R-2R ladder logic, shortcoming of Binary Logic has been removed by making the value of
maximum resistance double however the rest of the circuit remains same.Figure 2.8.5 shows the
circuit of R-2R Ladder based DAC. If we apply voltage division rule in above case, then we can
calculate that output voltage as,

(2.8.3)

Where VAL can be calculated from the digital signal input as,

(2.8.4)

In this way output voltage is obtained by converting the digital signals received from
microprocessor/ microcontroller. These voltages will further be used to actuate the desired
actuator viz. DC/AC motors.

In this module we have studied the principle of operation of various sensors which are commonly
used in mechatronics and manufacturing automation. Also the signal conditioning operations and
the devices which are used to generate the proper signals for desired automation application
have been studied. In the next module we will study the construction and working of
microprocessor and the devices which are being used in controlling the various operations of
automation using the microprocessors.
DIGITAL SIGNAL

A digital signal refers to an electrical signal that is converted into a pattern of bits. Unlike
an analog signal, which is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities, a
digital signal has a discrete value at each sampling point. The precision of the signal is
determined by how many samples are recorded per unit of time. For example, the
illustration below shows an analogue pattern (represented as the curve) alongside a digital
pattern (represented as the discrete lines).

A digital signal is easily represented by a computer because each sample can be defined
with a series of bits that are either in the state 1 (on) or 0 (off). Digital signals can be
compressed and can include additional information for error correction.

SAMPLING

Sampling Basic process of sampling is the gating of an analogue signal by a periodic pulse
which will only allow the signal through whilst each pulse is on. The gating signal or the
sampling function s(t) has pulses of constant height, length (τ) and separation time (T). The
analog baseband signal νm(t) is usually level shifted, so no part of it is negative; therefore
all samples will be positive. See next slide Multiplying the baseband signal νm(t) by the
sampling signal s(t), the sampled signal νs is obtained, made from slices (samples). νs =
νms(t) T (Ts) is the sampling interval, fs= 1/Ts is the sampling frequency and τ is the
sampling time. The sampling function s(t) is a train of narrow pulses; by Fourier analysis,
the associated spectrum has the form of a series of harmonics of the pulse repetition
frequency fs , with a sinc envelope having zeros at harmonics of 1/ τ – see following slides
Because usually τ << T, a simplification can be made for the first harmonics –

sinc(nπτ/T) ~ 1,

giving a spectrum with constant amplitude.

Action of sampling
The result of sampling is the function:

Vs=Vms(t)=(Amt/)[1+coswmt+ cos(ws-wm)t+2cos wst+cos(ws+wm)t+ cos(2ws-wm)t

+2cos2 wst +cos(2ws+wm)t+.......]
To recover the original baseband by filtering, the Nyquist criterion must be met.
The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest baseband frequency:
fs >= 2 fm (= fN ),
where fN is said to be Nyquist frequency.
Practically, if the sampling occurs at too slow a rate, the lower sideband (fs - fm )
of the sampling frequency overlaps the baseband, corrupting it. Nyquist criterion is
illustrated by the figure next slide.
Another problem avoided using this criterion is aliasing; a lower sideband of fs can
appear within the baseband range and be thought to be part of it (disguised itself,
taking a false name – alias).
It happens when the original signal is affected by noise (presents higher frequency
than
highest signal frequency); use of low-pass filter or anti-aliasing filter.
Quantization
Quantization is an interpretation of a continuous quantity by a finite set of discrete
values; means establishing numerical (binary) values, starting from an analog signal
value.
Using N bits, may obtain 2N levels; each value of each sample will have associated a
N bit binary value Amplitude quantization approximates its input by a discrete
amplitude taken.
from finite set of values
Quantization step size will be done by:

Quantization error means the difference between the signal’s value and the
associated binary value.
Sample and Hold
To convert analog signals to digital ones is needed to keep sample’s height until the
next sample occurs – sample and hold S/H .Result is a stepped waveform as in figure.

An example of S/H circuit is given below; the role of the capacitor is to be charged
quickly (sampling time) and then to hold the sampled voltage until the next sample
has to replace it Input buffer (amplifier) offers a high input impedance to the analog
signal and a low output impedance for a fast charge of the capacitor C
The output buffer has a high input impedance, denying the hold capacitor to
discharge, so having a constant value at its input

An example of S/H circuit is given below; the role of the capacitor is to be charged
quickly (sampling time) and then to hold the sampled voltage until the next sample
has to replace it
Input buffer (amplifier) offers a high input impedance to the analog signal and a low
output impedance for a fast charge of the capacitor C .The output buffer has a high
input impedance, denying the hold capacitor to discharge, so having a constant value
at its input

Quantized Sampling
Theoretical background: Nyquist sampling theorem: sample at twice the highest
signal frequency (for a voice carrying signal with bandwidth of 4kHz, sample at 8kHz,
or every 125μsec, having 8000samples/sec)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), with the following steps:
-signal sampling, using the proper sampling frequency (higher than twice the highest
signal frequency); samples represented as PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) pulses
-quantification of the samples, using the available number of digits, obtaining the
PCM pulses and their digital values; more digits, more accuracy, greater cost
-digital values representation as pulse trains
Delta Modulation – approximates the analogue signal by a staircase function
moving up/down by one quantization level at each sampling interval; output function
has a binary behavior (moves up or down at each sample interval); method less used
in computer networks