Mechatronics 1
Mechatronics 1
Mechatronics 1
Module – I:-
Sensors and Transducers:- Sensors and transducers, Performance terminology,
Displacement, position and proximity, Velocity and motion, Force, Fluid pressure, Liquid
flow, Liquid level, Temperature, Light sensors, Selection of sensors, Inputting data by
switches. Book – 1: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12.
Signal conditioning:- Signal conditioning, The operational amplifier, Protection, Filtering,
Pulse modulation. Book – 1: 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6.
Digital Signals:- Digital signals, Analogue and digital signals, digital-to-analogue and
analogue-to-digital converters, Multiplexers, Data acquisition, Digital signal processing.
Book – 1: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuation Systems:- Actuation systems, Pneumatic and hydraulic
systems, Directional control valves, Pressure control valves, Cylinders, Servo and
proportional control valves, process control valves, Rotary actuators. Book – 1: 7.1, 7.2, 7.3,
7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8.
Module – II:-
Mechanical Actuation Systems:- Mechanical systems, Types of motion, Kinematic chains,
Cams, GTears, Belt and chain drives, bearings, Mechanical aspects of motor selection. Book
– 1: 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9.
Electrical Actuation Systems:- Electrical systems, Mechanical switches, Solid-state
switches, Solenoids, D.C. motors, A.C. motors, Stepper motors. Book – 1: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4,
9.5, 9.6, 9.7.
Basic System Models:- Mathematical models, Mechanical system building blocks,
Electrical system building blocks, Electrical system building blocks, Fluid system building
blocks, Thermal system building blocks. Book – 1: 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5.
Module – III:- System Models:- Engineering systems, Rotational-translational systems,
Electromechanical systems, Electromechanical systems, Linearity, Hydraulic-mechanical
systems, Summary, Problems. Book – 1: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5.
Closed-loop Controllers:- Continuous and discrete control processes, Terminology, Two-
step mode, Proportional mode, Derivative control, Integral control, PID controller, Digital
controllers, Control system performance, Controller tuning, Velocity control, Adaptive
control, Summary, Problems. Book – 1: 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4, 15.5, 15.6, 15.7, 15.8, 15.9,
15.10, 15.11, 15.12.
Programmable Logic Controllers:- Introduction to PLCs, Basic Structure of a PLC,
Principles of Operation, PLCs versus Computers, Introduction to Internal Architecture and
Hardware Components, PLC Programming, Analog I/O, Selecting a PLC for the
Application, Application of PLCs for Control. Book – 2: 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6,
13.7, 13.8, 13.9.
Text Books: 1. Mechatronics Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical
Engg. Pearson Publication, 4th Edition by William Bolton, 2010. 2. Mechatronics Integrated
Mechanical Electronic Systems by K. P. Ramachandran, G. K. Vijayaraghavan, M. S.
Balasundaram, Wiley India Edition, Printed on 2008. Reference Books: 1. Mechatronics
integrated Technologies for Intelligent Machines by A. Smaili, F.Mrad, Oxford University
Press, Printed on 2009. 2. Mechatronic Sources Book, Cengage Learning India Edition by
Newton C Braga, 2nd Edition, 2010.
MECHATRONICS
Introduction:
Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of science that includes a combination
of mechanical engineering, electronics, computer engineering, telecommunications
engineering, systems engineering and control engineering.
Originally, mechatronics just included the combination of mechanics and electronics, hence
the word is a combination of mechanics and electronics; however, as technical systems have
become more and more complex the definition has been broadened to include more technical
areas.
It aims at the synergistic integration of mechanics, electronics, control theory, and computer
science within product design and manufacturing, in order to improve and/or optimize its
functionality.
Mechatronics provides solutions that are efficient and reliable systems. Mechatronic
Systems mostly have microcomputers to ensure smooth functioning and higher dependability.
The sensors in these systems absorb signals from the surroundings, react to these signals using
appropriate processing to generate acquired output signals. Few examples of Mechatronics
System are automated guided vehicles, robots, digitally controlled combust engines and
machine tools with self-adaptive tools, aircraft flight control and navigation systems, and
smart home appliances (e.g. Washers, dryers, etc.)
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. Transducer is the other
term that is sometimes interchangeably used instead of the term sensor, although there are
subtle differences. A transducer is a term that can be used for the definition of many devices
such as sensors, actuators, or transistors.
Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object has
moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.
Displacement sensors
1. Potentiometer Sensors
Figure 2.2.1 shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to measure
the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the
principle of conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a
resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body,
acting as a movable electric contact.
The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using
The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of large
number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire. Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin
embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 %
while the conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 µm.
During the sensing operation, a voltage VS is applied across the resistive element. A voltage
divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is
measured as shown in the figure 2.2.2. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of
the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output
voltage VA.
VA = I RA (2.2.1)
But (2.2.2)
Therefore (2.2.3)
Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection
molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used
in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
2. Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we
can say,
(2.2.5)
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of
G is consideredin between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
Figure 2.2.3 A pattern of resistive foils
(2.2.6)
Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and
failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection
measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic
press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.
Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three plates, with
the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might
take in two forms:
(a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
Figure 2.2.5 shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.
Figure 2.2.5 Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor
(2.2.7)
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of free
space, Aarea of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,
(2.2.8)
(2.2.9)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance voltage
would be in proportional to displacement x.
Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object towards
the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate separation. This changes the capacitance
which is used to detect the object.
• Metrology applications
Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion
in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced
from the central position as shown in Figure 2.2.7, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2,
then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage
from the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage
increases in proportion with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as
low pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position
sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is
highly reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms,
automated measurement in machine tools.
A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation.
Readers are suggested to prepare a report on principle of working and construction of RVDT
sensor.
Proximity sensors
Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials. They
comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit. Figure 2.3.1 shows the
construction of eddy current proximity switch.When an alternating current is passed thru this coil,
an alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the
coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field. These eddy currents
create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current. This can
be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current.
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable and have
high sensitivity for small displacements.
Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. Figure 2.3.3 shows the
construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally
spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These
sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical element
e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole which is
used locate the ‘home' position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes
of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction
of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer
track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can
be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution
would be,
360°/100=3.6°
4. Pneumatic Sensors
Figure 2.3.4 Working of Pneumatic Sensors [1]
Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the proximity of an
object close to it. The displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure.
Figure 2.3.4 shows a schematic of construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of
three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the absence of any obstacle
/ object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in the port B.
However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output
port B. This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch.
These sensors are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.
5. Proximity Switches
Figure 2.3.5 shows a number of configurations of contact-type proximity switch being used in
manufacturing automation. These are small electrical switches which require physical contact and
a small operating force to close the contacts. They are basically employed on conveyor systems
to detect the presence of an item on the conveyor belt.
Magnet based Reed switches are used as proximity switches. When a magnet attached to an
object brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds attract to each other and close the switch
contacts. A schematic is shown in Figure 2.3.6.
Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and photosensitive devices such as
photo diodes and photo transistors are used in combination to work as proximity sensing devices.
Figure 2.3.7 shows two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes to detect the objects
breaking the beam and reflecting light.
Figure 2.3.7 LED based proximity sensors [1]
6. Hall effect sensor
Figure 2.3.8 shows the principle of working of Hall effect sensor. Hall effect sensors work on the
principle that when a beam of charge particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the current beam is deflected from its straight line path.Thus one side of the disc
will become negatively charged and the other side will be of positive charge. This charge
separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of distance of magnetic field
from the disc carrying current.
The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a container. The
container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at its top. An electric circuit
with a current carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet
will come close to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to
stop the fluid to come inside the container.
These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of position of an
object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at
100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants
and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.
1. Tachogenerator
2. Pyroelectric sensors
These sensors work on the principle of pyroelectricity , which states that a crystal material such
as Lithium tantalite generates charge in response to heat flow . In presence of an electric field,
when such a crystal material heats up, its electrical dipoles line up as shown in figure 2.4.3. This
is called as polarization. On cooling, the material retains its polarization. In absence of electric
field, when this polarized material is subjected to infra red irradiation, its polarization reduces.
This phenomenon is the measure of detection of movement of an object.
Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin film
electrodes on opposite faces as shown in figure 2.4.4. Initially the electrodes are in electrical
equilibrium with the polarized material. On incident of infra red, the material heats up and reduces
its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and electrodes. To
balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which is calibrated against
the detection of an object or its movement.
• Intrusion detector
• Optothermal detector
• Pollution detector
• Position sensor
• Solar cell studies
• Engine analysis
• 3. Strain Gauge as force Sensor
• Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle of change in electrical resistance. When,
a mechanical element subjects to a tension or a compression the electric resistance of the
material changes. This is used to measure the force acted upon the element. The details
regarding the construction of strain gauge transducer are already presented in Lecture 2 of
Module 2.
• Figure 2.4.5 shows a strain gauge load cell. It comprises of cylindrical tube to which strain
gauges are attached. A load applied on the top collar of the cylinder compress the strain gauge
element which changes its electrical resistance. Generally strain gauges are used to measure
forces up to 10 MN. The non-linearity and repeatability errorsof this transducer are ±0.03% and
±0.02% respectively.
4. Fluid pressure
Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure. Various types
ofinstruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are used to monitor the fluid pressure.
Specially designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are generally used to measure the inlet
manifold pressure in applications such as automobiles. A typical arrangement of strain gauges on
a diaphragm is shown in figure 2.4.6. Application of pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm.
This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of radial and/or lateral strains. These
strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.
5. Tactile sensors
In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an object.
They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units (VDUs) of
CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9 shows the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which transmits the
vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which generates vibrations due
to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via soft
film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper PVDF layer. When some
pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets affected and the output voltage
changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch displays.
6. Piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces
such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic
crystal materials such as Quartz (Figure 2.4.10). On application of force or pressure these
materials get stretched or compressed. During this process, the charge over the material changes
and redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and the other negatively
charged. The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges
have been displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,
q = kx = SF
7. Liquid flow
Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli's principle of fluid flow through a
constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured. The
fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of the
constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.
7.a Orifice plate:
Figure 2.4.11 shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a disc with a hole at its center,
through which the fluid flows. The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the
diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter downstream. Orifice
plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear
behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor mounted centrally in
the pipe along which the flow is to be measured. Figure 2.4.12 shows the typical arrangement of
the rotor and a magnetic pick up coil. The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic
pick up coil counts the number of magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of magnetic
field by the rotor blades. The angular velocity is proportional to the number of pulses and fluid
flow is proportional to angular velocity.
8. Fluid level
Direct measurements involve the use of floats however the indirect methods employ load cells.
Potentiometers or LVDT sensors can be used along with the floats to measure the height of fluid
column. Force sensed by the load cells is proportional to the height of fluid column.
1. Bimetallic strips
RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship as
shown in Figure 2.5.2. The correlation is
(2.5.1)
Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (°C) and R0 is the temperature at 0°C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually
made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C
Figure 2.5.3 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a
Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a
sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature
changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
RTDs are used in the form of thin films,wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals
such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass
adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other
applications are:
3. Thermistors
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature. The
material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered metal oxide
(mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) ordoped polycrystalline
ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO 3) and other compounds. As the temperature of
semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to move about increases which
results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.Thermistors are rugged and small
in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.
Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure 2.5.4 shows
the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5
mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through
two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.
Applications of Thermistors
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food Handling and processing industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators,
freezers, hair dryers, etc.
4. Thermocouple
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces an
electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed
of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there is a continuous
current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.5.5 shows the schematic of thermocouple
circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction temperature and
composition of two metals. It is given by,
Applications of Thermocouples
Light sensors
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensorssuch
as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other industrial
applications.
Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance semiconductor
material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdSphotoresistor varies inversely to the
amount oflight incident upon it.Photoresistor follows the principle of p hotoconductivity which
results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor
material.
Figure 2.5.6 shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a
ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coil electrodes
are connected to the control system though lead wires. On incidence of high intensity light on
the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used further to generate
the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.
Photoresistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control, safety,
amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to automatically control
the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots. The light sensor
enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain
amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control
• Photo diodes
• Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It
is made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n
configuration. When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of silicon) fall
on the device, they are absorbed and electron-hole pairs are created. The depth at which
the photons are absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the energy of the
photons, the deeper they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When
the minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field and
an electric current establishes.
• Photodiodes are one of the types of photodetector, which convert light into either current
or voltage. These are regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed to detect vacuum UV or X-rays or packaged with a opening or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.
•
• Figure 2.5.7 Construction of photo diode detector
• Figure 2.5.7 shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is constructed from single
crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin
and formed by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping material such as boron.
Depletion region is narrow and is sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of
silicon. Light irradiates at front surface, anode, while the back surface is cathode. The
incidence of light on anode generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is
the measure of light intensity.
Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers
Industry
Safety Equipment
• Smoke Detectors
• Flame Monitors
• Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
• Intruder Alert - Security System
Automotive
• Headlight Dimmer
• Twilight Detectors
• Climate Control - Sunlight Detector
Communications
1. Protection
In many situations sensors or transducers provide very high output signals such as high current
or high voltage which may damage the next element of the control system such as
microprocessor.
The high current to flow in a sensitive control system can be limited by:
Zener diode circuits are widely used to protect a mechatronics control system from high values
of voltages and wrong polarity. Figure 2.7.1 shows a typical Zener diode circuit.
Zener diode acts as ordinary or regular diodes upto certain breakdown voltage level when they
are conducting. When the voltage rises to the breakdown voltage level, Zener diode breaks down
and stops the voltage to pass to the next circuit.
Zener diode as being a diode has low resistance for current to flow in one direction through it
and high resistance for the opposite direction. When connected in correct polarity, a high
resistance produces high voltage drop. If the polarity reverses, the diode will have less resistance
and therefore results in less voltage drop.
In many high voltage scenarios, it is required to isolate the control circuit completely from the
input high voltages to avoid the possible damage. This can be achieved by Optoisolators. Figure
2.7.2 shows the typical circuit of an Optoisolator. It comprises of a Light emitting diode (LED)
and a photo transistor. LED irradiates infra red due to the voltage supplied to it from a
microprocessor circuit. The transistor detects irradiation and produces a current in proportion to
the voltage applied. In case of high voltages, output current from Optoisolator is utilized for
disconnecting the power supply to the circuit and thus the circuit gets protected.
2. Wheatstone bridge:
(2.7.1)
I 1 R 1 = I2 R 2 (2.7.2)
Also,
R1 / R2 = R3 / R4 (2.7.5)
The bridge is thus balanced.
(2.7.6)
Similarly,
(2.7.7)
(2.7.8)
(2.7.9)
Assume that a transducer produces a resistance change from R1 to R1 + δ R1 which gives a change
in output from V0 + δ V0,
(2.7.10)
Hence,
(2.7.11)
(2.7.12)
We can say that change in resistance R1 produces a change in output voltage. Thus we can
convert a change in resistance signal into voltage signal.
3. Pulse modulation
During amplification of low level DC signals from a sensor by using Op-amp, the output gets
drifted due to drift in the gain of Op-amp. This problem is solved by converting the analogue DC
signal into a sequence of pulses. This can be achieved by chopping the DC signal in to a chain of
pulses as shown in Figure 2.7.4. The heights of pulses are related to the DC level of the input
signal. This process is called as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). It is widely used in control
systems as a mean of controlling the average value of the DC voltage. If the width of pulses is
changed then the average value of the voltage can be changed as shown in Figure 2.7.5. A term
Duty Cycle is used to define the fraction of each cycle for which the voltage is high. Duty cycle
of 50% means that for half of the each cycle, the output is high.
Data conversion devices
Data Conversion Devices are very important componentsof a Machine Control Unit (MCU). MCUs
are controlled by various computers or microcontrollers which are accepting signals only in Digital
Form i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s, while the signals received from signal conditioning module or
sensors are generally in analogue form (continuous). Therefore a system is essentially required
to convert analog signals into digital form and vis-à-vis. Analog to Digital Converter is abbreviated
as ADC. Figure 2.8.1 shows a typical control system with data conversion devices.
Based on the signals received from sensors, MCU generates actuating signals in the Digital form.
Most of the actuators e.g. DC servo motors only accept analogue signals. Therefore the digital
signals must be converted into Analog form so that the required actuator can be operated
accordingly. For this purpose Digital to Analog Converters are used, which are abbreviated as
DACs. In subsequent sections we will be discussing about various types of ADC and DAC devices,
their principle of working and circuitry.
1. Comparators
In general ADCs and DACs comprise of Comparators. Comparator is a combination of diodes and
Operational Amplifiers. A comparator is a device which compares the voltage input or current
input at its two terminals and gives output in form of digital signal i.e. in form of 0s and 1s
indicating which voltage is higher. If V+ and V- be input voltages at two terminals of comparator
then output of comparator will be as
V + > V - → Output 1
V + < V - → Output 0
2. Encoders
Though the output obtained from comparators are in the form of 0s and 1s, but can't be called
as binary output. A sequence of 0s and 1s will be converted into binary form by using a circuit
called Encoder. A simple encoder converts 2 n input lines into ‘n' output lines. These ‘n' output
lines follow binary algebra.
As discussed in previous section ADCs are used to convert analog signals into Digital Signals.
There are various techniques of converting Analog Signals into Digital signals which are enlisted
as follows. However we will be discussing only Direct Conversion ADC, detail study of other
techniques is out of the scope of the present course.
Figure 2.8.2 shows the circuit of Direct conversion or Flash ADC. To convert a digital signal of N-
bits, Flash ADC requires 2N -1 comparators and 2N resistors. The circuit provides the reference
voltage to all the comparators. Each comparator gives an output of 1 when its analog voltage is
higher than reference voltage or otherwise the output is 0. In the above circuit, reference voltages
to comparators are provided by means of resistor ladder logic.
The circuit described in figure 2.8.2 acts as 3 Bit ADC device. Let us assume this ADC works
between the range of 0-10 Volts. The circuit requires 7 comparators and 8 resisters.Now the
voltages across each resistor are divided in such a way that a ladder of 1 volt is built with the
help of 1K-Ohm resistances. Therefore the reference voltages across all the comparators are 1-
7 volts.
Now let us assume that an input voltage signal of 2.5 V is to be converted into its related digital
form. As 2.5V is greater than 1V and 2V, first two comparators will give output as 1,1. But 2.5V
is less than 3,4,5,6,7 V values therefore all other comparators will give 0s. Thus we will have
output from comparators as 0000011(from top). This will be fed to the encoder logic circuit. This
circuit will first change the output in single high line format and then converts it into 3 output
lines format by using binary algebra. Then this digital output from ADC may be used for
manipulation or actuation by the microcontrollers or computers.
As discussed in previous section DACs are used to convert digital signals into Analog Signals.
There are various techniques of converting Digital Signals into Analog signals which are as follows
however we will be discussing only few important techniques in detail:
1. Pulse-width modulator
2. Oversampling DACs or interpolating DACs
3. The binary-weighted DAC
4. Switched resistor DAC
5. Switched current source DAC
6. Switched capacitor DAC
7. The R-2R ladder
8. The Successive-Approximation or Cyclic DAC,
9. The thermometer-coded DAC
(2.8.1)
Note: Here V1, V2, V3, V4, will be Vref if digital input is 1 or otherwise it will be zero.
(2.8.2)
However Binary weighted DAC doesn't work for multiple or higher bit systems as the value of
resistance doubles in each case.
Thus simple and low bit digital signals from a transducer can be converted into a related
continuous value of voltages (analogue) by using binary weighted DAC. These will further be
used for manipulation or actuation.
(2.8.3)
Where VAL can be calculated from the digital signal input as,
(2.8.4)
In this way output voltage is obtained by converting the digital signals received from
microprocessor/ microcontroller. These voltages will further be used to actuate the desired
actuator viz. DC/AC motors.
In this module we have studied the principle of operation of various sensors which are commonly
used in mechatronics and manufacturing automation. Also the signal conditioning operations and
the devices which are used to generate the proper signals for desired automation application
have been studied. In the next module we will study the construction and working of
microprocessor and the devices which are being used in controlling the various operations of
automation using the microprocessors.
DIGITAL SIGNAL
A digital signal refers to an electrical signal that is converted into a pattern of bits. Unlike
an analog signal, which is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities, a
digital signal has a discrete value at each sampling point. The precision of the signal is
determined by how many samples are recorded per unit of time. For example, the
illustration below shows an analogue pattern (represented as the curve) alongside a digital
pattern (represented as the discrete lines).
A digital signal is easily represented by a computer because each sample can be defined
with a series of bits that are either in the state 1 (on) or 0 (off). Digital signals can be
compressed and can include additional information for error correction.
SAMPLING
Sampling Basic process of sampling is the gating of an analogue signal by a periodic pulse
which will only allow the signal through whilst each pulse is on. The gating signal or the
sampling function s(t) has pulses of constant height, length (τ) and separation time (T). The
analog baseband signal νm(t) is usually level shifted, so no part of it is negative; therefore
all samples will be positive. See next slide Multiplying the baseband signal νm(t) by the
sampling signal s(t), the sampled signal νs is obtained, made from slices (samples). νs =
νms(t) T (Ts) is the sampling interval, fs= 1/Ts is the sampling frequency and τ is the
sampling time. The sampling function s(t) is a train of narrow pulses; by Fourier analysis,
the associated spectrum has the form of a series of harmonics of the pulse repetition
frequency fs , with a sinc envelope having zeros at harmonics of 1/ τ – see following slides
Because usually τ << T, a simplification can be made for the first harmonics –
sinc(nπτ/T) ~ 1,
Action of sampling
The result of sampling is the function:
Quantization error means the difference between the signal’s value and the
associated binary value.
Sample and Hold
To convert analog signals to digital ones is needed to keep sample’s height until the
next sample occurs – sample and hold S/H .Result is a stepped waveform as in figure.
An example of S/H circuit is given below; the role of the capacitor is to be charged
quickly (sampling time) and then to hold the sampled voltage until the next sample
has to replace it Input buffer (amplifier) offers a high input impedance to the analog
signal and a low output impedance for a fast charge of the capacitor C
The output buffer has a high input impedance, denying the hold capacitor to
discharge, so having a constant value at its input
An example of S/H circuit is given below; the role of the capacitor is to be charged
quickly (sampling time) and then to hold the sampled voltage until the next sample
has to replace it
Input buffer (amplifier) offers a high input impedance to the analog signal and a low
output impedance for a fast charge of the capacitor C .The output buffer has a high
input impedance, denying the hold capacitor to discharge, so having a constant value
at its input
Quantized Sampling
Theoretical background: Nyquist sampling theorem: sample at twice the highest
signal frequency (for a voice carrying signal with bandwidth of 4kHz, sample at 8kHz,
or every 125μsec, having 8000samples/sec)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), with the following steps:
-signal sampling, using the proper sampling frequency (higher than twice the highest
signal frequency); samples represented as PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) pulses
-quantification of the samples, using the available number of digits, obtaining the
PCM pulses and their digital values; more digits, more accuracy, greater cost
-digital values representation as pulse trains
Delta Modulation – approximates the analogue signal by a staircase function
moving up/down by one quantization level at each sampling interval; output function
has a binary behavior (moves up or down at each sample interval); method less used
in computer networks