Farm Machinery and Power PDF
Farm Machinery and Power PDF
Farm Machinery and Power PDF
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equal to one tenth of its body weight. Power developed by an average pair of
bullocks is about 1 hp for usual farm work.
Advantages:
1. Easily available.
2. Used for all types of work.
3. Low initial investment.
4. Supplies manure to the field and fuels to farmers.
5. Live on farm produce.
Disadvantages:
1. Not very efficient.
2. Seasons and weather affect the efficiency.
3. Cannot work at a stretch.
4. Require full maintenance when there is no farm work.
5. Creates unhealthy and dirty atmosphere near the residence.
6. Very slow in doing work.
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running electrical motors for pumping water, dairy industry, cold storage,
farm product processing, and cattle feed grinding. It is clean source of power
and smooth running. The operating cost remains almost constant throughout
its life. Its maintenance and operation need less attention and care. On an
average, about 1/10th of the total electrical power generated in India, is
consumed for the farm work, approximately it is 4600 megawatt.
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Lecture No.2
Internal combustion engine - different components and their functions, working
principle of four stroke and two stroke cycle engine, comparison between diesel and
petrol engine, difference between four and two stroke engine.
Heat engine is a machine for converting heat, developed by burning fuel into
useful work (or) it is equipment which generates thermal energy and
transforms it into mechanical energy. Heat engine is of two types: (i) External
combustion engine, and (ii) Internal combustion engine.
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of the piston. Usually a cylinder is bored in a cylinder block. A gasket, made
of copper sheet or asbestos is inserted between the cylinder and the cylinder
head. The combustion space is provided at the top of the cylinder head where
combustion takes place. There is a rod called connecting rod for connecting
the piston and the crankshaft. A pin called gudgeon pin or wristpin is
provided for connecting the piston and the connecting rod of the engine. The
end of the connecting rod which fits over the gudgeon pin is called small end
of the connecting rod. The other end which fits over the crank pin is called
big end of the connecting rod. The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which
are fitted in the crankcase. A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft
for smoothening the uneven torque, produced by the engine. There is an oil
sump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating
different parts of the engine (Fig.1).
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Fig. 2.Components of I.C.Engine
Cylinder block: It is the solid casting which includes the cylinder and water
jackets (cooling fins in the air cooled engines).
Cylinder head: It is detachable portion of an engine which covers the
cylinder and includes the combustion chamber, spark plugs and valves.
Cylinder liner or sleeve: It is a cylindrical lining either wet or dry which is
inserted in the cylinder block in which the piston slides. Cylinder liners are
fitted in the cylinder bore and they are easily replaceable. The overhauling
and repairing of the engines, fitted with liners is easy and economical. Liners
are classified as: dry liner, and wet liner. Dry liner makes metal to metal
contact with the cylinder block casting. Wet liners come in contact with the
cooling water, whereas dry liners do not come in contact with cooling water.
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casting and low cost. Aluminum and its alloys are preferred mainly due to its
lightness.
Head (crown) of piston: It is top of the piston.
Skirt: It is that portion of the piston below the piston pin which is designed
to absorb the side movements of the piston.
Piston ring: It is a split expansion ring, placed in the groove of the piston.
Piston rings are fitted in the grooves, made in the piston. They are usually
made of cast iron or pressed steel alloy. The functions of the ring are as
follows:
(a) It forms a gas tight combustion chamber for all positions of piston.
(b) It reduces contact area between cylinder wall and piston wall for
preventing friction losses and excessive wear.
(c) It controls the cylinder lubrication.
(d) It transmits the heat away from the piston to the cylinder walls.
Piston rings are of two types: (a) Compression ring and (b) Oil ring.
(a) Compression ring. Compression rings are usually plain, single piece and
are always placed in the grooves, nearest to the piston head.
(b) Oil ring. Oil rings are grooved or slotted and are located either in lowest
groove above the piston pin or in a groove above the piston skirt. They
control the distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder and the piston. They
prevent excessive oil consumption also. Oil ring is provided with small holes
through which excess oil returns back to the crankcase chamber.
Piston pin: It is also called wrist pin or gudgeon pin. Piston pin is used to
join the connecting rod to the piston. It provides a flexible or hinge like
connection between the piston and the connecting rod. It is usually made of
case hardened alloy steel.
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Crankshaft: It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the
reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the flywheel. Usually
the crankshaft is made of drop forged steel or cast steel. The space that
supports the crankshaft in the cylinder block is called main journal, whereas
the part to which connecting rod is attached is known as crank journal.
Fly wheel: Fly wheel is made of cast iron. Its main functions are as follows:
(a) It stores energy during power stroke and returns back the same energy
during the idle strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion by virtue of its
inertia.
(b) It also carries ring gear that meshes with the pinion of the starting motor.
(c) The rear surface of the flywheel serves as one of the pressure surfaces for
the clutch plate.
(d) Engine timing marks are usually stamped on the flywheel, which helps in
adjusting the timing of the engine.
(e) Some times the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for transmitting
power.
Crankcase: The crankcase is that part of the engine which supports and
encloses the crankshaft and camshaft. It provides a reservoir for the
lubricating oil of the engine.
Cam shaft: It is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves
at proper time. Camshaft is driven by crankshaft by means of gears, chains or
sprockets. The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed of the
crankshaft in four stroke engine. Camshaft operates the ignition timing
mechanism, lubricating oil pump and fuel pump. It is mounted in the
crankcase, parallel to the crankshaft.
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Inlet manifold: It is that part of the engine through which air or air-fuel
mixture enters into the engine cylinder. It is fitted by the side of the cylinder
head.
Exhaust manifold: It is that part of the engine through which exhaust gases
go out of the engine cylinder. It is capable of with-standing high temperature
of burnt gases. It is fitted by the side of the cylinder head.
I.C. engines are of two types: (i) Petrol engine (carburetor type, spark ignition
engine), and (ii) diesel engine (compression ignition engine).
Petrol engine: It is the engine, in which liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized
and mixed with air in correct proportion before entering onto the engine
cylinder during suction stroke. The fuel is ignited in the cylinder by an
electric spark.
Diesel engine: In this engine, during suction stroke, only air is entered into
the cylinder and compressed. The fuel is injected through fuel injectors and
ignited by heat of compression.
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The four strokes of the piston are as follows:
1. Suction stroke: During this stroke, only air or mixture of air and fuel are
drawn inside the cylinder. The charge enters the engine through inlet valve
which remains open during admission of charge. The exhaust valve remains
closed during this stroke. The pressure in the engine cylinder is less than
atmospheric pressure during this stroke.
3. Power stroke: During power stroke, the high pressure developed due to
combustion of fuel causes the piston to be forced downwards. The connecting
rod with the help of crankshaft transmits the power to the transmission system
for useful work. Both valves are closed during this stroke.
4. Exhaust stroke: Exhaust gases go out through exhaust valves during this
stroke. All the burnt gases go out of the engine and the cylinder becomes
ready to receive the fresh charge. The inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve
remains open during this stroke. The exhaust valve is closed just after the end
of the exhaust stroke, and the inlet valve is opened just before the burning of
the suction stroke to repeat the cycle of operation.
Thus it is found that out of four strokes, there is only one power stroke
and three idle strokes. The power stroke supplies necessary momentum for
useful work.
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Fig. 3. Working of four stroke cycle engine
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First stroke (suction + compression): When the piston moves up the cylinder,
it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and the transfer port, which are
normally almost opposite to each other. This traps a charge of fresh mixture
in the cylinder and further upward movement of the piston compresses this
charge. Further movement of the piston also uncovers a third port in the
cylinder suction port. More fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the
crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is
ignited as in the four stroke cycle.
Second stroke (Power + exhaust): The rise in pressure in the cylinder caused
by the burning gases forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the
piston goes down, it covers and closes the suction port, trapping the mixture
drawn into the crankcase during the previous stroke then compressing it.
Further downward movements of the piston uncover first the exhaust port and
then transfer port. This allows the burnt gases to flow out through exhaust
port. Also the fresh mixture under pressure in the crankcase is transferred into
the cylinder through transfer port during this stroke. Special shaped piston
crown deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help
in driving out the exhaust gases.
When the piston is at the top of its stroke, it is said to be at the top dead
centre (TDC). When the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, it is said to be at
its bottom dead centre (BDC). In two stroke cycle engine, both the sides of
the piston are effective, which is not the case in case of four stroke cycle
engine.
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2.6 Comparison between diesel and petrol (carburetor) engines
S.No. Diesel engine Petrol engine
1. Diesel fuels are used. Vapourizing fuels such as petrol,
powerine or kerosene are used.
2. Air alone is taken in during Mixture of air and fuel is taken in.
suction stroke.
3. Fuel is injected into super Air-fuel is compressed in the
heated air of the combustion combustion chamber where it is
space where burning takes ignited by an electric spark.
place.
4. Air-fuel ratio is not constant Air and fuel are almost always in the
as the quantity of air drawn ratio of 15:1, but to vary the engine
into the cylinder is always power, quantity of mixture is varied.
the same. To vary the load
and speed the quantity of
fuel injected is changed.
7. 4.5 litres of fuel is sufficient 4.5 litres of fuel will last about 12 hp
for nearly 20 hp hour. hour.
11. Engine weight per horse Engine weight per horse power is
power is high. comparatively low.
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2.7 Comparison between two stroke and four stroke engines
S.No. Particulars Four stroke engine Two stroke engine
1. No. of power stroke one power stroke for one power stroke
every two revolutions for each revolutions
of the crankshaft of the crankshaft
2. Power for the same Small Large (about 1.5
cylinder volume times of 4 stroke)
3. Valve mechanism Present Ports instead of
valves
4. Construction and cost Complicated and Simple, cheap
expensive
5. Fuel consumption Little High (about 15%
more)
6. Removal of exhaust Easy Difficult
gases
7. Durability Good Poor
8. Stability of operation High Low
9. Lubrication Equipped with an Using fuel, mixed
independent with lubricating oil
lubricating oil circuit
10. Oil consumption Little Much
11. Carbon deposit inside Not so much Much because of
cylinder mixed fuel
12. Noise Suction & exhaust is Suction & exhaust
noiseless, but other is noiseless, but
working is noisy other working is
noise less
13. Air tight of crankcase Un necessary Must be sealed
14. Cooling Normal Chances of
overheating
15. Self weight and size Heavy & large Light & small
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Lecture No.3
Terminology related to engine power: IHP, BHP, FHP, DBHP, compression ratio,
stroke bore ratio, piston displacement, and mechanical efficiency. Numerical problems
on calculation of IHP, BHP, C.R., stroke bore ratio, piston displacement volume.
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Horse power: It is the rate of doing work. One HP is equivalent to 75 kg-m /
sec.
Indicated Horse Power (IHP): it is the total horse power developed by all
the cylinders and received by pistons, without friction and losses within the
engine.
PLAN n
IHP = (for four stroke engine)
4500 2
PLAN
IHP = n (for two stroke engine)
4500
Where P - Mean effective pressure in Kg/cm2
L- Length of the piston stroke in meters
A -Cross sectional area of piston in cm2
N- rpm of the engine
n - Number of cylinders in the engine
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Mechanical efficiency: It is the ratio of the brake horse power to the
indicated horse power.
BHP
Mechanical efficiency= 100
IHP
Piston speed (Np) : It is the total length of travel of the piston in a
cylinder in one minute. Piston speeds of the high speed tractor engine range
between 300 to 500 m/m.
Displacement volume (Vd) : It is the total swept volume of all the
pistons during power strokes occurring in a period of one minute.
Vd = ALn
A – piston area
L – piston stroke
N – number of power strokes per minute for all cylinders.
Example 1: Calculate the BHP of a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder I.C. Engine which has
cylinder bore of 14 cm, stroke length of 16 cm, crankshaft speed of 1100
rpm, frictional horse power of 30, and mean effective pressure is 8 kg/cm2.
Solution:
Data given: D = 14 cm ; L = 16 cm; N = 1100 rpm; FHP =30 and P=8 kg/cm2
PLAN n
IHP = (for four stroke engine)
4500 2
2
8 0.16 14 1100
4 4
IHP = = 96.4
4500 2
I.H.P = B.H.P + F.H.P
BHP = IHP – FHP = 96.4 – 30 = 66.4
Solution:
Data given: BHP =30; N = 1500; P=6 kg/cm2; 80%
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BHP
Mechanical efficiency= 100
IHP
BHP 30 100
IHP = = = 37.5
80
PLAN n
IHP = (for four stroke engine)
4500 2
L
Stroke-bore ratio = 1.3 L = 1.3 D
D
2
6 1.3D D 1500
4 4
IHP =
4500 2
Example 3: A Four cylinder four stroke diesel engine has a cylinder diameter
of 20 cm, stroke-bore ratio is 1.45, clearance volume 4508 cm3, engine speed
250 rpm, mean effective pressure 6.8 kg/cm2 and mechanical efficiency is
75%. Calculate (i) IHP, (II) BHP (iii) Compression ratio and (iv) Swept
volume.
Solution:
Data given: D = 20 cm; N =250; P = 6.8 kg/cm2; 75%
clearance volume = 4508 cm2
L
Stroke-bore ratio = 1.45
D
Where D= 20 cm
L = 1.45× 20 = 29 cm
PLAN n
(i) IHP = (for four stroke engine)
4500 2
2
6.8 0.29 20 250
4 4
IHP = = 68.9
4500 2
BHP
(ii) Mechanical efficiency= 100
IHP
IHP 68.9 75
BHP = = = 51.7
100 100
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(iii) and (iv) Compression ratio: Swept volume + Clearence volume
Clearence volume
Swept volume = A x L
3
= (20) 2 29 = 9114.3 cm
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9114.3 4508
Compression ratio = = 3.02
4508
Example 4: Calculate (i) IHP (ii) BHP (iii) Stroke bore ratio (iv)
Compression ratio (v) Swept volume of a four stroke four cylinder I.C. engine
with the following data:
Cylinder size : 12.5 x 15 cm
Fly wheel speed : 1200 rpm
Mean effective pressure : 7 kg/cm2
Mechanical efficiency : 70%
Clearance volume : 150 CC
Solution
Data given: L = 15 cm; D = 12.5 cm; N = 1200; P = 7 kg/cm2; 70%
PLAN n
(i) IHP = (for four stroke engine)
4500 2
2
7.0 0.15 12.5 1200
4 4
IHP = = 68.7
4500 2
BHP
(ii) Mechanical efficiency= 100
IHP
IHP 68.7 70
BHP = = = 48.1
100 100
L 15
(iii) Stroke-bore ratio = = 1.2
D 12.5
(iv) and (v) Compression ratio: Swept volume + Clearence volume
Clearence volume
Swept volume = A x L
3
= (12.5) 2 15 = 1841.5 cm
4
1841.5 150
Compression ratio = = 13.3
150
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Lecture No.4
Fuel supply and cooling system of I.C. engine – types, components and their functions,
working principle of forced circulation cooling system.
4.1.1 Volatility
It is the vapourizing ability of a fuel at a given temperature. It indicates the
operating characteristics of the fuel inside the engine. It is measured by means
of distillation tests on the fuel.
In IC engine, all the liquid fuel must be converted into vapour fuel
before burning. Petrol which shows lower initial and final boiling points,
compared to other fuels, vapourizes at a lower temperature. HSD oil is most
difficult to vapourize. Its vapourizing temperature is higher than that of the
petrol, hence the petrol vapourizes quicker than diesel oil in the engine
cylinder. This helps in easy starting of petrol engines. The oil that vapourizes
quickly can be distributed well in different cylinders of the engine, hence
distribution of fuel in different cylinders is better in petrol engine than that of
diesel engine.
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4.1.3 Ignition quality
It refers to ease of burning the oil in the combustion chamber. Octane number
and cetane number are the measures of ignition quality of the fuel. Octane
number is standard yardstick for measuring knock characteristics of fuels.
Cetane number is the relative measure of the interval between the
beginning of injection and auto-ignition of the fuel. The higher the cetane
number, the shorter the delay interval and the greater its combustibility. Fuels
with low cetane Numbers will result in difficult starting, noise and exhaust
smoke.
4.2 Detonation
Detonation or engine knocking refers to violent noises heard in an engine
during the process of combustion after the piston has passed over the TDC. It
is an undesirable combustion and results in sudden rise in pressure, a loss of
power and overheating of the engine. This may cause damage to pistons,
valves, gasket and other parts.
Detonation is caused by improper combustion chamber, high
compression pressure, early ignition timing, improper fuel and inadequate
cooling arrangement.
4.3 Pre-ignition
Burning of air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber before the piston has
reached the TDC is called pre-ignition. This may be due to excessive heat in
the cylinder.
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filter to the injection pump, which is generally driven by the camshaft. The
purpose of fuel injection pump is to deliver a metered quantity of fuel at a
predetermined time under pressure (120 to 175 kg/cm2 or more) through the
high pressure tubes to the injection nozzles or injectors. The fuel that leaks
out from the injection nozzles passes out through leakage pipe and returns to
the fuel tank through the over flow pipe. In some tractors and industrial
engines, the fuel supply is by gravity and hence no fuel lift pump is provided.
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hole on the cap. Usually a wire gauge strainer is provided under the cap to
prevent foreign particles. Usually a drain plug is provided at the bottom for
flow of fuel.
Fuel filter
It is a device to remove dirt and solid particles from the fuel to ensure trouble
free fuel supply (Fig.7). Solid particles and dust in diesel fuel are very
harmful for giving a fine degree of filtration. Fuel injection equipment in
diesel engines is extremely sensitive to dirt and solid particles present in fuel.
It consists of a hollow cylindrical element contained in a shell, an
annular space being left between the shell and the element. The filtering
element consists of metal gauge in conjunction with various media such as
packed fibers, woven cloth, felt, paper etc. These filters are replaced at certain
intervals, specified by the manufacturer.
Usually there are two filters in diesel engine: (1) Primary filter and (2)
secondary filter. The primary filter removes water and coarse particle of dirt
from the fuel. The secondary filter removes fine sediments from the fuel.
Usually the primary filter is placed between the tank and the fuel lift pump.
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engine. It is used to create pressure varying from 120 to 175 kg/cm2. Fuel
injection pumps are mostly constant stroke type and in most of the tractors
there is an individual pump for each cylinder.
The pumps used in tractor are of two types: (i) multi element pump and (ii)
(ii) Distributor (Rotor) type pump.
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Fuel injector
It is the component which delivers finely atomized fuel under high pressure to
the combustion chamber of the engine. Modern tractor engines use fuel
injectors which have multiple holes.
Air cleaner
It is a device, which filters and removes dust, moisture and other foreign
matter from the air before if reaches the engine cylinder. Air cleaner is
usually of two types: (1) Dry type air cleaner and (2) Oil bath type air
cleaner.
Governor
Governor is a mechanical device designed to control the speed of an engine
within specified limit used on tractor or stationary engine for: (i) maintaining
a nearly constant speed of engine under different load conditions (ii)
protecting the engine and the attached equipments against high speeds, when
the load is reduced or removed. Tractor engines are always fitted with
governor. There is an important difference in principle between the controls
of a tractor engine and that of a motor car. In case of motor car, the fuel
supply is under direct control of the accelerator pedal, but in tractor engine,
the fuel supply is controlled by the governor. The operator changes the engine
speed by moving the governor control lever.
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A governor is essential on a tractor engine for the reason that load on
the tractor engine is subjected to rapid variation in the field and the operator
can not control the rapid change of the engine speed without any automatic
device. For example, if the load on the tractor is reduced, the engine would
tend to race suddenly. If the load is increased, the engine would tend to slow
down abruptly. Under these circumstances, it becomes difficult for the
operator to regulate always the throttle lever to meet the temporary changes in
the engine load. A governor automatically regulates the engine speed on
varying load condition and thus the operator is relieved of the duty of constant
regulating the throttle lever to suit different load conditions.
Principle of governor
Engine Governor is used for automatically controlling the speed of an engine
regulating the intake of fuel or injection fuel, so that engine speed is
maintained at the desired level under all conditions of loading.
Governor used on tractor engine is called variable speed governor and the one
used on stationary engine is called constant speed governor. Governing
system is classified as: (i) hit and miss system, (ii) throttle system
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For satisfactory performance of the engine, neither overheating nor over-
cooling is desirable. Experiments have shown that best operating temperature
of I.C engine lies between 140ºF to 200 ºF, depending upon types of engines
and load conditions.
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Disadvantages
There is uneven cooling of the engine parts. Engine temperature is generally
high during working period.
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Water pump
It is a centrifugal type pump. It has a casing and an impeller, mounted on a
shaft. The casing is usually made of cast iron. Pump shaft is made of some
non-corrosive material. At the end of the shaft, a small pulley is fitted which
is driven by a V-belt. Water pump is mounted at the front end of the cylinder
block between the block and the radiator. When the impeller rotates, the water
between the impeller blades is thrown outward by centrifugal force and thus
water goes to the cylinder under pressure. The pump outlet is connected by a
hose pipe to the bottom of the radiator. The impeller shaft is supported on one
or more bearings. There is a seal which prevents leakage of water.
Radiator
Radiator is a device for cooling the circulating water in the engine. It holds a
large volume of water in close contact with a large volume of air so that heat
is transferred from the water to the air easily.
Hot water flows into thee radiator at the top and cold water flows out
from the bottom. Tubes or passages carry the water from the top of the
radiator to the bottom, passing it over a large metal surface. Air flows
between the tubes or through the cells at right angles to the downward
flowing water. This helps in transferring the heat from the water to the
atmosphere. On the basis of fabrication, the radiator is of two types: tubular
type and cellular type.
Tubular type radiator: It has round or flat water tubes, leading from the top
to the bottom of the radiator. They may be soldered, brazed or welded in
place or fastened by means of a stuffing box at each end. Fins or folded strips
of light sheet metal, placed between the tubes, increase the radiating surface
and improve the heat transfer.
Cellular type radiator: It has a core made of short air tubes which are laid
horizontally and soldered together at the ends with space between them to
allow water to flow. It is also called Honey comb type radiator.
Thermostat valve
It is a control valve, used in the cooling system to control the flow of water
when activated by a temperature signal.
It is a special type of valve, which closes the inlet passage of the water
connected to the radiator. The thermostat is placed in the water passage
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between the cylinder head and the top of radiator. Its purpose is to close this
passage when the engine is cold, so that water circulation is restricted,
causing the engine to reach operating temperature more quickly. Thermostats
are designed to start opening at 70ºC to 75 ºC and then fully open at 82 ºC for
petrol engine and 88-90 ºC for diesel engine.
The thermostat valves are of two types:
(a) Bellows and
(b) Bimetallic.
(a) Bellows type: Bellows type thermostats have got bellows, which contain
a liquid like alcohol or ether. The liquid expands with the increase of
temperature and raises the valve off its seat. This permits the water to
circulate between the engine and the radiator.
(b) Bimetallic type: It consists of a bimetallic strip. Unequal expansion of
two metallic strips causes the valve to open and allows the water to flow to
the radiator.
Water jackets: Water jackets are cored out around the engine cylinder so that
water can circulate freely around the cylinder as well as around the valve
opening.
Fan: The fan is usually mounted on the water pump shaft. It is driven by the
same belt that drives the pump and the dynamo. The purpose of the fan is to
provide strong draft of air through the radiator to improve engine cooling.
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Lecture No.5
Ignition and power transmission system of I.C engine – types, components and their
functions, working principle of battery ignition system.
Working
Electric current is supplied by the battery to the ignition circuit. When the
distributor breaker points are closed, low voltage current flows through the
primary winding of the ignition coil to the distributor terminal and through
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the breaker points to the ground. During this time, a strong magnetic field
built up in the coil. When the piston is at the end of compression stroke, the
distributor points are opened, the magnetic field in the coil starts collapsing.
Thus, a current is induced in the primary winding of the coil, which tends to
prevent break down of the magnetic field. A very high voltage is produced in
the secondary winding due to sudden collapse of the magnetic field. This
sudden collapse of the magnetic field in the coil, produces a very high voltage
across the secondary winding terminals to a value of 20 to 24 thousand volts.
The high-voltage surge is delivered to the center terminal of the distributor
cap, where it is picked up by the rotor and directed to the proper spark plug.
The high voltage is capable of jumping the spark across the gap of the spark
plug and ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture (Fig.10).
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the gap setting should be closer. In adjusting the spark plug gap, it is always
the outer electrode that is bent. The central electrode is never bent, otherwise
the porcelain insulator may break. Sometimes, one or more cylinders of a
tractor engine do not fire, or fire irregularly. This is generally due to dirty,
cracked or ground plugs. A rich mixture causes carbon deposits on the plugs.
Under all circumstances, the plugs should be taken out and cleaned properly.
The heat range of the spark plug is determined by the distance the
heat must travel from the lower most tip of the central electrode to the engine
block (via) the spark plug gasket. The farther the heat travels, the hotter the
plug will run. Based on this, the spark plugs classified into two types: (a) cold
plug and (b) hot plug. Cold plug has a short insulator, extending into the
cylinder. It conducts the heat away from the point rapidly, allowing it to be
cooled by the cylinder jacket. The short path dissipates heat quickly, so it is
named as cold plug. Cold plugs are used on petrol engines. Hot plug has
comparatively longer insulator, so the heat has to pass through a longer path
to reach the cooling water and hence the heat is not dissipated quickly. Hot
plugs are used for powerine engines.
Distributor
This is a rotary switch driven by the engine through gears at half the engine
speed. This device used for interrupting the low voltage primary current and
distributing the resulting high voltage current to the engine cylinder in proper
sequence and in proper time.
The main functions of distributor are:
(i) it closes and opens the primary circuit.
(ii) it distributes the resulting high voltage current to the engine cylinder in
proper sequence and in proper time.
Distributor cap is made of Bakelite or similar non-conducting material. High-
tension cables connect the terminals in the distributor cap to the spark plug.
Ignition coil
It serves the purpose of a small transformer, which sets up low voltage (may
be 6 volts) to very high voltage (may be 20,000 volts). It is necessary to jump
the gap of the spark plug. The ignition coil is sealed to prevent entry of
moisture which would cause short circuiting within the coil.
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Condenser
A condenser consists of a pair of flat metal plates, separated by air. The most
common type of condenser is of metal foil strips, separated by wax
impregnated paper. The condenser in the distributor is connected across the
contact breaker points. It is used to produce a quick collapse of the magnetic
field in the coil to obtain extremely high voltage. In doing so, the condenser
prevents sparking across the contact breaker points, thus preventing the points
from burning.
Ignition switch
A switch is provided in the primary circuit for starting and stopping the
engine is called ignition switch. It may be push pull type or key type.
Dynamo
The purpose of the dynamo is to keep the battery charged and to supply
current for ignition, light and other electrical accessories. The dynamo
supplies direct current to the battery and keeps it fully charged.
Storage battery
Storage battery is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical
energy. There are several types of battery, but lead-acid battery is most
common for IC engines, used for tractors and automobiles. A battery consists
of plates, separators, electrolyte, container and terminal wire.
Plates are of two types: (i) positive and (ii) negative. All positive and
negative plates are rectangular in shape. All positive plates are connected
together to form a positive group and negative plates are connected together
to form a negative group. Positive plates are made of lead and antimony and
negative plates are made of spongy lead. Separators are used to act as
insulators between the plates to prevent them from touching each other to
avoid short-circuiting. Usually separators are made of wood, rubber and
cellulose fibre. Electrolyte is the chemical solution used in battery for
chemical reaction. It consists of 35% sulphuric acid and 65% distilled water
by weight with a specific gravity of 1.280 in fully charged condition. The
specific gravity is measured by hydrometer. The electrolyte level should be
12 to 14 mm above the top edge of the plates. Specific gravity of the
electrolyte should be checked at suitable interval. If the specific gravity is
35
below 1.225, it should be charged. Container is usually made of hard rubber.
The tops are covered with rubber material and sealed with a water proof
compound. Terminal wires are two in number, one connects the positive
terminal and other connects the negative terminal with the electric circuit.
36
5.2.2 Clutch
Clutch is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the
transmission gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of
friction between driving members and driven members.
Necessity of clutch in a tractor
Clutch in a tractor is essential for the following reasons:
(i) Engine needs cranking by any suitable device. For easy cranking, the
engine is disconnected from the rest of the transmission unit by a suitable
clutch. After starting the engine, the clutch is engaged to transmit power from
the engine to the gear box.
(ii) In order to change the gears, the gear box must be kept free from the
engine power, otherwise the gear teeth will be damaged and engagement of
gear will not be perfect. This work is done by a clutch.
(iii) When the belt pulley of the tractor works in the field it needs to be
stopped without stopping the engine. This is done by a clutch.
Essential features of a good clutch
(i) It should have good ability of taking load without dragging and chattering.
(ii) It should have higher capacity to transmit maximum power without
slipping.
(iii) Friction surface should be highly resistant to heat effect.
(iv) The control by hand lever or pedal lever should be easy.
Types of clutch
Clutches are mainly of three types:
(1) Friction clutch (2) Dog clutch (3) Fluid coupling.
Friction clutch (Fig.12) is most popular in four wheel tractors. Fluid clutch is
also used in some tractors these days. Dog clutch is mostly used in power
tillers. Friction clutch may be subdivided into three classes: (a) Single plate
clutch or single disc clutch (b) Multiple plate clutch or multiple disc clutch (c)
Cone clutch.
37
5.2.3 Gears
Speed varies according to the field requirements and so a number of gear
ratios are provided to suit the varying conditions. Gears are usually made of
alloy steels. As the tractor has to transmit heavy torque all the time, best
quality lubricants free from sediments, grit, alkali and moisture, is used for
lubrication purpose. SAE 90 oil is generally recommended for gear box.
5.2.4 Differential
Differential unit (Fig.13) is a special arrangement of gears to permit one of
the rear wheels of the tractor to rotate slower or faster than other. While
turning the tractor on a curve path, the inner wheel has to travel lesser
distance than the outer wheel. The inner wheel requires lesser power than the
outer wheel, this condition is fulfilled by differential unit, which permits one
of the rear wheels of the tractor to move faster than the other at the turning
point.
38
Lecture No.6
Lubrication system of I.C. engine – types, purpose, components and their functions,
working principle of forced feed system. Tractors classification, types, points to be
considered in selection of tractors, estimating the cost of operation of tractor power.
39
6.2 Types of Lubricants
Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals. Lubricants
made of animal fat, does not stand much heat. It becomes waxy and gummy
which is not very suitable for machines. Vegetable lubricants are obtained
from seeds, fruits and plants. Cotton seed oil, Olive oil, linseed oil and Castor
oil are used as lubricant in small simple machines. Mineral lubricants are
most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained from crude petroleum
found in nature. Petroleum lubricants are less expensive and suitable for IC
Engines.
40
different parts of the engine. The system is commonly used on high speed
multi-cylinder engine in tractors, trucks and automobiles.
Components
Oil Pump
It is usually a gear type pump, used to force oil into the oil pipe. The pump is
driven by the camshaft of the engine. The lower end of the pump extends
down into the crankcase, which is covered with a screen to check foreign
particles. A portion of the oil is forced to the oil filter and the remaining oil
goes to lubricate various parts of the engine. An oil pressure gauge fitted in
the line, indicates the oil pressure in the lubricating system. About 3 kg/cm 2
pressure is developed in the lubrication system of a tractor engine.
Oil filters
Lubricating oil in an engine becomes contaminated with various materials
such as dirt, metal particles and carbon. An oil filter removes all the dirty
elements of the oil in an effective way. It is a type of strainer using cloth,
paper, felt, wire screen or similar elements. Some oil filters can be cleaned by
washing, but in general old filters are replaced by new filters at specified
interval of time. It is normally changed after about 120 hours of engine
operation. Oil filters are of two types: (i) full-flow filter, and (ii) by-pass filter
41
Full flow filter
In this filter, the entire quantity of oil is forced to circulate through it before it
enters the engine. A spring loaded valve is usually fitted in the filter as a
protection device against oil starvation in case of filter getting clogged.
By pass filter
By pass filters take a small portion of oil from the pump and return the
filtered oil into the sump. Over a period of operation, all the oil in the
crankcase passes through the filter. Through the filter, the balance oil reaches
directly to the engine parts.
Crankcase breather
The engine crankcase is always fitted with some kind of breather, connecting
the space above the oil level with the outside atmosphere. During the
operation of engine, the crankcase oil reaches a temperature of 160-170°F or
even more and simultaneously the air above it gets heated up. Consequently
the air is likely to expand and cause pressure rise if it were unable to escape.
The purpose of breather is to prevent building up pressure in the crankcase. It
serves as ventilating passage of air.
Relief valve
It is provided to control the quantity of oil circulation and to maintain correct
pressure in the lubricating system.
42
1936-1937: Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were
introduced.
1960-61: Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer
M/s Eicher Good Earth.
1971: Escorts tractor Ltd started producing ford tractor.
1982 Universal tractors were established.
43
(d) Special purpose tractor: It is used for definite jobs like cotton fields,
marshy land, hill sides, garden etc. Special designs are there for special
purpose tractor.
44
6.4.5 Estimating the cost of tractor power
The cost of operation of tractor is divided under two heads known as Fixed
cost and Operating cost.
Fixed cost includes: (i) Depreciation, (ii) Interest on the capital, (iii) Housing,
(iv) Insurance and (v) Taxes.
Operating cost includes: (i) Fuel, (ii) Lubricants, (iii) Repairs and
maintenance, and (iv) Wages.
Fixed cost
Depreciation: It is the loss of value of a machine with the passing of time.
C S
D
L H
Where
D is the depreciation per year
C is the capital investment
S is the salvage value, 10% of capital
H is the number of working hours per year and
L is the life of machine in years
Housing: Housing cost is calculated on the basis of the prevailing rates in the
locality. In general, it may be taken as 1% of the initial cost of the tractor per
year.
Insurance: Insurance charge is calculated on the basis of the actual payment
to the insurance company. In general, it may be taken as 1% of the initial cost
of the tractor per year.
Taxes: Taxes is calculated on the basis of the actual taxes paid per year. In
general, it may be taken as 1% of the initial cost of the tractor per year.
45
Operating cost
Fuel cost: It is calculated on the basis of actual fuel consumption in the
tractor.
Lubricants: Charges for lubricants should be calculated on the actual
consumption. In general, it may be takes 30 to 35% of the fuel cost.
Repairs and maintenance: It varies between 5 to 10% of the initial cost of
the tractor per year.
Wages: It is calculated on the basis of actual wages of the driver.
Problem 1:
Calculate the cost of operation of a 35 HP tractor per hour and hp hour. Initial
cost is Rs. 5,50,000-00, life of the tractor is 12 years, number of working
hours are 1200 per year, interest on the capital is 10%, cost of the diesel is Rs.
40/- per litre, fuel consumption is 5 litres per hour, wages of the driver is Rs.
36,000/-, lubricants cost is 35% of the fuel cost, repairs and replacements is
10% of initial cost; housing, taxes and insurance is 1.5% each of the initial
cost.
Solution
Data given: C = Rs. 5,50,000/-
L = 12 years
H = 1200 hours er year
i = 10%
Cost of diesel = Rs.40/- per litre
Fuel consumption = 5 litres/hour
Wages of the driver = Rs. 36,000/- per annum
Lubricants cost = 35% of fuel cost.
Repairs and replacements cost = 10% of initial cost
Housing, taxes and insurance = 1.5% each of the initial cost
Fixed cost
Depreciation
C S 550000 0
D = = Rs. 38.19 per hour
L H 12 1200
( Since salvage value is not given, hence it is taken as “0”)
46
Interest
C S i
I
2 H
550000 0 10 1
I= = Rs. 22.92 per hour
2 100 1200
Housing cost
1.5 1
H= 550000 = 6.87 per hour
100 1200
Similarly, Insurance is Rs. 6.87 and Taxes are Rs. 6.87 per hour
Total fixed cost per hour = 38.19+22.92+6.87+6.87+6.87 = Rs. 81.72
Operating cost
Fuel cost = 40 ×5 = Rs. 200.00 per hour
35
Lubricants cost = 200 = Rs. 70.00 per hour
100
10 1
Repairs and replacements cost = 550000 = Rs. 45.83
100 1200
36000
Wages = = Rs. 30.00
1200
Total operating cost per hour = 200+70+45.83+30 = Rs. 345.83
Total cost of operation per hour = Total fixed cost + Total operating cost
= 81.72 + 345.83 = Rs. 427.55
427.55
Total cost of operation per hp per hour = = Rs. 12.22
35
47
Lecture No.7
Tillage - primary and secondary tillage. M.B. plough – functions, constructional
features, operational adjustments and maintenance.
7.0 Tillage
It is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable condition for
crop production. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth
to a certain depth and to loosen the soil mass, so as to enable the roots of the
crops to penetrate and spread into the soil. Tillage may be called the practice
of modifying the state of soil to provide favourable conditions for plant
growth. Tillage operation is most labour consuming and difficult operation,
compared to all subsequent operation in the field.
7.1 Objective of tillage
1. to obtain deep seed bed, suitable for different type of crops.
2. to add more humus and fertility to soil by covering the vegetation.
3. to destroy and prevent weeds.
4. to aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
5. to increase water absorbing capacity of the soil.
6. to destroy the insects, pests and their breeding places and
7. to reduce the soil erosion.
7.2.1 Primary tillage: It constitutes the initial major soil working operation.
It is normally designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials, and
rearrange aggregates. The operations performed to open up any cultivable
land with a view to prepare a seed bed for growing crops in known as Primary
tillage. Implements may be tractor drawn or animal drawn implements.
Animal drawn implements mostly include indigenous plough and mould-
board plough. Tractor drawn implements include mould-board plough, disc
plough, subsoil plough, chisel plough and other similar implements.
7.2.2 Secondary tillage: Tillage operations following primary tillage which
are performed to crease proper soil tilth for seeding and planting are
Secondary tillage. These are lighter and finer operations, performed on the
soil after primary tillage operations. Secondary tillage consists of
48
conditioning the soil to meet the different tillage objectives of the farm. The
implements used for secondary tillage operations are called Secondary tillage
implements. They include different types of harrow, cultivators, levelers,
cited crushers and similar implements. These operations are generally done
on the surface soil of the farm. Seconday tillage operations do not cause
much soil inversion and shifting of soil from one place to other. These
operations consume less power per unit area compared to primary tillage
operations. Secondary tillage implements may be tractor drawn or bullock
drawn implements. Bullock drawn implements include harrows, cultivators,
hoes etc.
49
a trapezoidal furrow cross section and leaves some unploughed land between
the two adjacent furrows. To plough almost every bit of soil in the field, an
indigenous plough has to be used three times. This is the main reason for the
high energy and time requirements in using an indigenous plough as
compared to other types. For complete and through ploughing of a field, the
indigenous plough must be operated three times: first ploughing, then cross
ploughing and finally ploughing along the corners.
7.4.1 Components
M.B. Plough consists of (a) Share, (b) Mould Board, (c) Landside and (d)
Frog (Fig.15).
50
Fig.16. Parts of share
Different portions of the share are called by different names such as (I) share
point, (ii) cutting edge, (iii) wing of the share (iv) gunnel (v) clevage edge.
The forward end of the cutting edge which actually penetrates into the soil is
called share point.
The front edge of the share which makes horizontal cut in the soil is called
cutting edge if the share.
The outer end of the cutting edge of the share is called wing of the share. It
supports the plough bottom.
The vertical face of the share which slides along the furrow well is called
gunnel. It takes the side thrust of the soil and supports the plough bottom
against the furrow wall.
The edge of the share which forms joint between mould board and share on
the frog. The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel. The steel mainly
contains about 0.7-0.8% carbon and about 0.5-0.8% manganese besides other
minor elements.
Types of share
Share is of different such as (a) slip share (b) slip nose share (c) shin share (d)
bar share and (e) bar point share (Fig.17).
a) Slip share: it is one piece with curved cutting edge having no additional
part. It is a common type of share, mostly used by the farmers. It is simple in
design, but it has got the disadvantage that the entire share has to be replaced
if it is worn out due to constant use.
b) Slip nose share: it is a share in which the point of the share is provided by
a small detachable piece. It has the advantage that the share point can be
replaced as and when required . If the point is worn out, it can be changed
without replacing the entire share, effecting considerable economy.
c) Shin share: it is a share, having a shin as an additional part. It is similar
to the slip share with the difference that an extension is provided to fit by the
side of the mould board. This prevents the mouldboard from wearing along its
cutting edge.
d) Bar share : It is provided with an extension on its gunnel side which acts
as the landside of the plough bottom. It does not offer any advantage over the
other types.
51
e) Bar point share: it is a share, in which the point of the share is provided
by an adjustable and replaceable bar. This bar serves the purpose of point of
the share and landside of the plough. As the point wears out, it is pushed
forward.
Mould Board
Mould board is the part of the plough, which receives the furrow slice from
the share, it lifted, turns and breaks the furrow slice. Different soil conditions
require mould boards of varying shapes and sizes to carryout a good job of
ploughing. The texture of the soil, amount of moisture and extent of
vegetative cover on the surface determine the soil pulverization. The
pulverization and inversion depend upon the curvature of the mouldboard. A
long, gradual curved mouldboard turns the furrow gently and does not break
the soil much. Short, abruptly curved mould boards twist and shear the soil
and pulverize it. Mouldboards for general use fall between the two extremes
of the conditions. Mould boards are made of cast iron.
The mould board is of following types (Fig.18): (i) General purpose (ii)
stubble (iii) sod and breaker (iv) slat and (v) high speed.
(i) General purpose mould board
It is the best for all round general farm use to give through pulverization. It is
a mould board having medium curvature lying between stubble and sod. The
sloping of the surface is gradual. It turns the well-defined furrow slice and
pulverizes the soil thoroughly. It has a fairly long mould board with a gradual
twist, the surface being slightly convex.
(ii) Stubble mould board
It is adopted for ploughing an old ground where good pulverization is desired.
Its curvature is not gradual, but it is abrupt along the top edge. This causes
the furrow slice to be thrown off quickly, pulverization is much better than
52
the other type of mould board. It is best suited in stubble soil i. e under
cultivation for years together. Stubble soil is that, soil in which stubble of the
plants from the previous crop is still left on the land at the time of ploughing.
This type of mould board is not suitable for lands with full of grasses.
7.4.2 Plough accessories: there are few accessories are necessary for plough
such as: (a) coulter, (ii) jointer and (iii) gauge wheel (Fig.19).
53
Fig.18. Types of mould board
Coulter
It is device used to cut the furrow slice vertically from the land ahead of the
plough bottom. It cut the furrow slice from the land and leaves a clear wall. It
also cuts trashes which are covered under the soil by the plough. The coulter
may be a) rolling type b) sliding type.
(a) Rolling coulter
It is round steel disc, used on ploughs to cut trash and help to keep the
plough from clogging. In general, the coulters should be set about 5cm
shallower than the depth of ploughing. To obtain a neat furrow wall, the
coulter is usually set 2 cm outside the landside of the plough. It is so fitted
that it can be adjusted up and down and side ways.
(b) Sliding coulter
It is a stationery knife fixed downward in a vertical position on the ground. It
includes knife, which does not roll over the ground but slides on the ground,
the knife may be different shapes and sizes.
Jointer
It is a small irregular piece of metal having a shape similar to an ordinary
plough bottom. It looks like a miniature plough. The jointer should be set to
cut 4 to 5 cm deep. The purpose of the jointer is to cut a small furrow off the
54
main furrow slice and throw it towards the furrow. The jointer should be set
as near the coulter as possible.
Gauge wheel
It is an auxiliary wheel of an implement, helps to maintain uniformity in
respect of depth of sloughing in different soil conditions it is usually placed in
hanging position.
Throat clearance
Fig. 19. Plough accessories of M.B.Plough
Throat clearance
It is the perpendicular distance between point of share and lower position of
the beam of the plough.
55
(a) (b)
Fig.20. (a) Vertical suction, horizontal suction and (b) throat clearance of M.B.Plough
Plough size
The size of mould board is expressed by the width of furrow that is designed
to cut. It is the perpendicular distance from the wing of the share to the line
joining the point of share and the heel of the landside. Animal drawn ploughs
are usually available in the range between 15 and 20 cm. The size of the light
plough is above 100 mm width but below 150 mm; medium plough is 150 to
200 mm and heavy plough is 200 mm and above.
Vertical clevis: it is a vertical plate with a no of holes at the end of the beam
to control the depth of operation and to adjust the line of pull.
Horizontal clevis: it is a device to make the lateral adjustment of the plough
relative to the line of pull.
The centre of pull or resistance: It is the point where all the forces on a
plough are act. The centre lies at a distance equal to ¾th size of the plough
from wing of the share.
56
Lecture No.8
Disc plough – functions, constructional details, operational adjustments and
maintenance.
57
(ii) Comparatively, the disc plough leaves the soil in rough and cloddy
condition than that of mould board plough.
(iii) Disc plough is much heavier than mould board plough for equal
capacities because penetration of this plough is affected largely by its weight
rather than suction. There is one significant difference between mould board
plough and disc plough i.e., mould board plough forced into the ground by the
suction of the plough, while the disc plough is forced into the ground by its
own weight.
Disc: It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and
inverting the soil. It is made of heat treated steel of 5 to 10 mm thickness. The
edge of the disc is well sharpened to cut the soil.
Disc angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is
inclined to the direction of travel. Usually, the disc angle of good plough
varies between 42 and 450 (Fig.22).
Tilt angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is
inclined to vertical plane. Usually, the tilt angle of good plough varies
between 15 and 250(Fig.22).
58
Disc ploughs are favoured in areas where the climate is dry and where the soil
is rough and stony. They also work well in heavy clay, hard pan and loose
sandy soils. Such soil conditions do not permit the operation of mould board
ploughs to good advantage. It is also preferred for land infested with heavy
growth of vegetation and for land requiring deep ploughing for reclamation
purposes. It leaves the trash on top of the ground to conserve soil moisture.
Penetration of the disc plough depends mainly on the weight of the plough as
a whole. Tractor drawn disk ploughs weigh between 180 and 540 kg per disk.
But the animal drawn plough weighs about 30 kg per disk.
Disc ploughs are broadly classified as:
1. Standard disc plough - animal drawn and tractor drawn
2. Vertical disc plough or harrow ploughs
59
favourable, the disk angle should be increased to improve the penetration, but
the width of cut should be reduced (Fig.23).
60
The following adjustments that are done on the disk ploughs to control the
depth or width of ploughing or to increase the pulverization:
(i) by increasing the tilt angle, penetration is improved.
(ii) by increasing the disk angle, penetration is improved but the width of cut
is reduced.
(iii) by adding weights to the plough, penetration can be increased.
(iv) the width of the cut by the plough may be adjusted by adjusting the angle
between the frame and land wheel axle.
61
Lecture No.9
Numerical problems on M.B. plough and disc plough.
Draft: It is the horizontal component of the pull parallel to the line of motion.
Draft speed
Metric hp =
75
Where draft in kg
Speed in m/s
Draft depends upon: (1) sharpness of cutting edge, (2) working speed, (3)
working width, (4) working depth, (5) type of implement, (6) soil condition,
and (7) attachments.
Unit draft: It is the draft per unit cross-sectional area of the furrow.
Theoretical field capacity: It is the rate of field coverage of the implement,
based on 100 percent of time at the rated speed and covering 100 percent of
its rated width.
W S 36
Theoretical field capacity =
10000
Where, Theoretical field capacity in ha/hr
W is the width of cut of machine in cm
S is the speed of travel in m/s
Effective field capacity (C): It is the actual area covered by the implement
based on its total time consumed and its width.
S W E
C=
10 100
Where C is the effective field capacity, ha/hr
S is the speed of travel in kmph
W is the theoretical width of cut of the machine in m
E is the field efficiency in percent
Field efficiency: It is the ratio of effective field capacity and theoretical field
capacity expressed in percent.
62
Problem 1: Determine the horse power required to pull a four bottom 32 cm
plough, working to depth of 14 cm. The tractor is operating at a speed of 5.5
kmph. The soil resistance is 0.8 kg/cm2.
Solution:
Total width of ploughing = 32×4 = 128 cm
Furrow cross section = 128 ×14 = 1792 cm2
Total draft = soil resistance × furrow cross section
= 0.8 × 1792 = 1433.6 kg
Draft speed 1433.6 5.5 1000
HP = = 29.2
75 75 3600
Problem 2: Calculate the area covered per day of 8 hours by a tractor drawn
four bottom 35cm plough if the speed of the ploughing is 5kmph, the time lost
in turning is 10%.
Solution:
4 35 2
Area covered per hour = 5 1000 = 7000 m
100
560000
Area to be covered in 8 hrs = 7000×8 = 56,000 m2 = = 5.6 ha
10,000
5.6 10
Turning loss = = 0.56 ha
100
Actual area covered in 8 hrs = 5.6 – 0.56 = 5.04 ha
Solution:
Furrow cross section = 4 35 8 = 1120 cm2
Total draft = 1120 ×0.8 = 896 kg
63
Problem 4: Total draft of four bottom, 35 cm MB plough when ploughing 18
cm deep at 5 kmph speed is 1600 kg. (a) Calculate the unit draft in kg/cm 2 (b)
What is actual power requirement? (c) If the field efficiency is 75% what is
the rate of doing work in ha/hr.
Solution:
1600
Unit draft = = 0.635 kg/cm2
4 35 18
1600 5 1000
HP requirement= = 29.6
75 3600
S W E
C=
10 100
Where C is the effective field capacity, ha/hr
S is the speed of travel in kmph
W is the theoretical width of cut of the machine in m
E is the field efficiency in percent
5 4 35 75
Area covered per hr i.e., C = 0.525 ha/hr
10 100 100
64
Lecture No.10
Harrows – types, functions, operation of disc harrows. Cultivators – rigid and
spring loaded tynes. Puddlers, cage wheel, rotovators. Intercultural implements –
hoes and weeders for dry and wetland cultivation.
10.0 Harrowing
It is secondary tillage operation which pulverizes, smoothens and packs the
soil in seed bed preparation and/or to control weeds.
10.1 Harrow
A harrow is a implement that cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening
and pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix materials with
soil. It is an implement used to break the clods after ploughing, to collect
trash from the ploughed land and to level the seed bed.There are several types
of harrows used in India are mentioned below:
Harrows
65
Single action disc harrow
It is a harrow with two gangs placed end to end, which throw the soil in
opposite directions. The discs are arranged in such a way that right side gang
throws the soil towards right, and left side gang throws the soil towards left.
Double action disc harrow
A disc harrow consisting of two or more gangs, in which a set of one or two
gangs follow behind the set of the other one or two, arranged in such a way
that the front and back gangs throw the soil in opposite directions. Thus the
entire field is worked twice in each trip. It may be of two types:
(i) Tandem, and
(ii) Off-set.
Tandem disc harrow
It is a disc harrow comprising of four gangs in which each gang can be angled
in opposite direction.
Off-set disc harrow
It is a disc harrow with two gangs in tandem, capable of being off-set to either
side of the centre line of pull. Two gangs are fitted one behind the other. The
soil is thrown in both directions because discs of both gangs face in opposite
directions. It is very useful for orchards and gardens. It travels left or right of
the tractor. The line of pull is not in the middle, that‟s why it is called off-set
disc harrow (Fig.25).
66
1. Disc: It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and
inverting the soil. Disc is made of high grade heat treated hardened steel.
Tractor drawn disc harrows have concave discs of size varying from 35 to 70
cm diameter. Concavity of the disc affects penetration and pulverization of
soil. Usually two types of disc are used in disc harrows: (a) Plain disc and
(b) Cut-away disc.
Plain discs have plain edges and they are used for all normal works. Most of
the harrows are fitted with plain discs only. Cut-away discs have serrated
edges and they cut stalks, grasses and other vegetative matter better than plain
discs. Cut-away discs are not very effective for pulverization of soil but it is
very useful for pudding the field especially for paddy cultivation.
2.Gang: It is an assembly of concave discs mounted on a common shaft with
spools in between.
3. Gang axle or arbor axle: It is a shaft on which a set of discs are mounted.
The spacing between the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15cm to 23cm for
light duty harrows and 25 to 30 cm for heavy duty harrows.
4. Gang angle: The angle between the axis of the gang and the line
perpendicular to the direction of travel is called Gang angle.
5. Gang control lever: A lever which operates the angling mechanism of disc
harrow is called Gang control lever.
6. Spool or Spacer: The flanged tube, mounted on the gang axle between
every two discs to retain them at fixed position laterally on the shaft is called
spool or spacer. It is just a device for keeping the discs at equal spacing on the
axle. It is usually cast in special shapes and sizes and is generally made of
cast iron.
7. Bearing: Bearing is essential to counteract the end thrust of the gangs due
to soil thrust. Disc harrow bearings are subjected to heavy radial and thrust
loads. Chilled cast iron bearings, ball bearings or tapered roller bearings may
be used on disc harrows. Oil soaked wooden bearings are very common for
disc harrows, because they are cheaply available. Chilled cast iron bearings
are also used due to their durability.
8. Transport wheel: In trailing type discs harrows, transport wheels are
provided for transport work on roads and for preventing the damage of the
roads. This also helps in protecting the edges of the discs. Mounted type disc
harrows do not require wheels for transport purpose.
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9. Scraper: Scraper prevents the discs from clogging. It removes the soil that
may stick to the concave side of the disc.
10. Weight box: A box like frame is provided on the main frame of the
harrow for putting additional weight on the implement. Additional weight
helps in increasing the penetration of the discs in the soil.
10.5 Animal drawn disc harrow: It consists of: (i) disc, (ii) gang frame,
(iii) beam, (iv) gang angle mechanism, (v) scraper, (vi) spacer(spool), (vii)
clevis, (viii) axle, (ix) middle tyne, and (x) bearings (Fig.26).
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1. Disc: Disc is the main part of the harrow which cuts and pulverizes the
soil. Discs are arranged in two gangs. The thickness of the material used for
disc is at least 3.15 nm. The cutting edge is beveled for easy penetration. The
disc has a square opening in the centre to allow the passage of the axle. The
disc is usually made of steel with carbon content ranging from 0.80 to 0.90%.
2. Gang frame: All the gangs are mounted on a frame, called Gang frame. It
is usually made of sturdy mild steel structure. The gang frame is bolted to the
beam of the implement.
3. Beam: It is that part of the harrow which connects the implement with the
yoke. The rear end of the beam has a clevis to fix its height of hitching to suit
the size of animals. It is made of wood which is locally available in the area.
4. Gang angle mechanism: It is a mechanism by means of which the gang
angles are adjusted. Arranged of adjusted the width and depth of cuts of the
implement, is done by gang mechanism. The lever of the gang angle is
usually made of mild steel flat with a wooden handle. The gang angle can be
adjusted approximately in the range from 0º to 27 º only.
5. Scraper: It is that part of the harrow which scrapes the soil from the
concave side of the disc and keeps it clean for effective working of the harrow
in the field.
6. Spacer (spool): Spacer is used to separate the two adjacent discs and to
keep them in position. It is usually made of cast iron. The spacer has a
suitable square opening in the middle to allow the passage of the axle.
7. Clevis: Clevis is the part fitted to the beam and the frame which permits
vertical hitching of the harrow.
8. Axle: The axle is usually 20 × 20 mm square section. The length of axis
depends upon the size of the harrow.
9. Middle tyne: The tyne which breaks the unbroken strip of soil left in
between two gangs of the harrow during operation is called middle tyne. This
tyne is suitable fixed to the rear end of the gang frame in such a way that it is
replaced easily.
10. Bearing: There is one or two bearings, made of cast iron or wood fitted at
each end of the gang.
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Fig.26. Animal drawn disc harrow
10.6 Drag harrows
Drag harrows have been used since ancient times; early farmers used to cut
branches from the trees for use in leveling the soil. Even today in some places
farmers drag long bamboo pieces with long nails to break the soil crust and
stir the surface. These harrows are used to break the clods, to stir the soil, to
uproot the early weeds, to level the ground, to break the soil crust and to
cover the seeds. There are two principal kinds of drag harrows, namely, (1)
spike tooth and (2) spring type harrow.
Spike tooth harrows are either rigid or flexible. The flexible type tractor
drawn can be rolled up for transporting. But the animal drawn harrows are
always of rigid frame type. There may or may not be provision for changing
the angle of the spikes while operating the harrow. The basic frame of the
harrow may be triangle (Fig.27). It has pointed steel pegs (teeth) about 23 cm
long with their pointed ends towards ground. Each peg is rigidly clamped
with the help of a U-bolt to the cross bars of the frame. In the case of harrows
with a wooden frame, the pegs have threatened ends to be tightened from the
top. Generally the wooden frame is triangular in shape, and the pegs are fixed
along the three arms of the frame. Before operating the harrow in the field,
adjustments should be made for efficient and effective operation. The peg
point is tilted backward vertically so that soil is not accumulated in the front.
The pegs of the rigid harrows are fixed slightly tilted so that no arrangement
is needed to change the angle. The harrow is dragged over the surface by
means of a chain or rope tied to the yoke. The animal drawn harrows cover
almost 1 to 1.2 m width and are used to stir the soil to a depth of about 5 cm.
The depth of penetration can be increased by adding weights to the frame.
Spring tyne tractor drawn harrows have looping, elliptical or spring like
tynes. But the animal drawn unit is only provided with elliptical tynes. They
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are used extensively to prepare ploughed land before planting. They penetrate
much deeper than spike tooth harrows and are generally used in the soil where
obstructions like stones, roots and weeds are hidden a few centimeters below
the surface. The basic frame of the harrow is mostly rectangular. The spring
tynes are bolted staggered on to the frame to avoid clogging during operation.
Spike tooth and spring tyne harrows do not require lubrication. The
harrow teeth, however, are adjustable and may be loosened and turned to
present a new cutting edge when they wear out. Teeth may also be removed
for sharpening. Spring tyne harrows can be sharpened by grinding. The spikes
of the spike tooth harrow are either square or diamond shaped and are of the
self sharpening type.
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improved V-shaped blade if fitted on the implement can provide relief from
clogging.. Besides, it offers the advantage of reduction in draft, easy
penetration and smooth working in the field.
10.7 Cultivator
10.7.1 Cultivator with spring loaded tines
A tine hinged to the frame and loaded with a spring so that it swings back
when an obstacle is encountered, is called spring loaded tine. Each tine of this
cultivator is provided with two heavy coil springs, tensioned to ensure
minimum movement except when an obstacle is encountered. The springs
operate, when the points strike roots or large stones by allowing the tines to
ride over the obstruction, thus preventing damage. On passing over the
obstruction, the tines are automatically reset and work continues without
interruption. The tines are made of high carbon steel and are held in proper
alignment on the main frame members. This type of cultivator is particularly
recommended for soils which are embedded with stones or stumps. A pair of
gauge wheel is provided on the cultivator for controlling the depth of
operation. The cultivator may be fitted with 7, 9, 11, 13 tines or more
depending upon the requirement (Fig.29).
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10.7.2 Cultivator with rigid tines
Rigid tines of the cultivator are those tines which do not deflect during the
work in the field. The tynes are bolted between angle braces, fastened to the
main bars by sturdy clamps and bolts. Spacing of the tines are changed simply
by slackening the bolts and sliding the braces to the desired position. Since
rigid tines are mounted on the front and rear tool bars, the spacing between
the tynes can be easily adjusted without getting the tines chocked with
stubbles of the previous crop or weed growth. A pair of gauge wheel is used
for controlling the depth of operation (Fig.30).
10.8 Puddlers
Puddling of soil is one of the most common farm operations in paddy growing
areas. The most desirable soil conditions at the time of transplanting appears
to be one having semi-pervious hard pan covered with approximately 10 to 15
cm dense mud and very little free water on the surface.It usually refers to the
churning of soil in the presence of excess water by means of a puddler or any
other implement for that purpose. Purpose of puddling is to reduce leaching of
water, to kill weeds by decomposing and to facilitate the transplanting of
paddy seedlings by making the soil softer. It is done in a standing water of 5
to 10 cm depth in the field, which has already received one ploughing by the
mould board plough. In some areas, an indigeneous plough is used as a
puddler by some farmers.
Puddlers are classified as: (i) hand operated puddlers, (ii) animal drawn
puddlers, and (iii) tractor drawn puddlers. Among the various types, animal
drawn puddlers are mostly used in the country. The indigenous plough and
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peg tooth harrow are used for puddling in paddy growing areas. None of these
implements are as effective as the rotating blade type puddlers.
The open blade type implement is commonly used for puddling in south
India. It consists of series of steel or cast iron blades fastened to a cast iron
hub at an angle. The number of cast iron hubs may be two or more. These
hubs revolve on a steel shaft to which the wooden beam and the operator‟s
seat are attached. Sometimes, these hubs form an integral part of the shaft
which revolves either in wooden or metallic bearings at the ends in the frame.
This type of implement is generally a walking type. The effective width of the
puddler varies between 0.9 and 1.2 m (Fig.31).
There are four classes of tractor drawn puddlers: (i) tine tiller, (ii) rotating
blade puddler, (iii) disk harrow and (iv) power rotary tiller. Among these
tractor drawn implements, disk harrow and power rotary tiller are in great use.
10.8.2 Rotavator
It is an implement that cuts and pulverizes the soil by impact forces through a
number of rotary times or knives mounted as a horizontal shaft. It is also
called „rotary tiller‟. It is suitable for shallow cultivation and weed control. It
consists of a power driven shaft on which knives or tines are mounted to cut
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the soil and trash. Rotor has got several types of tines fitted on the shaft
having a speed of 200-300 rpm. Generally, sharp edged L-shaped blades are
used on the rotor. According to power used, rotavators are classified as
animal-drawn, engine operated and tractor-drawn rotavators. One or two
operations of this implement are sufficient for good pulverization of soil
depending upon soil and crop conditions. It is not meant for sandy soil. The
power from the engine to rotor shaft is transmitted through chain. A clutch is
provided in transmission system for engaging and disengaging power. The
speed of rotor is kept at about 350 rpm for rated rpm of 1500 of prune mover.
The depth of penetration can be adjusted up to 12.5 cm. The suitable
protective cover is provided at the rear to prevent under scattering of soil. It
can cover about 1.5-2.0 ha/day. Bullock-drawn engine operated rotary tiller
is quite useful for timely preparation of seedbed particularly in rice-wheat
rotation. Power tiller operated rotary tillers are also quite useful for hilly
areas and small hand holdings.
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Fig. 32. ANGRAU Puddler
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Fig. 33. Paddy weeder
77
Lecture No.11
Sowing equipment - seed cum fertilizer drills – types, functions, types of metering
mechanisms, functional components, calibration. Paddy transplanters.
Frame. The frame is usually made angle iron with suitable braces and
brackets. The frame is strong enough to withstand all types of loads inn
working condition.
Seed box. It may be made of mild steel sheet or galvanized iron with a
suitable cover. A small agitator is sometimes provided to prevent clogging of
seeds.
Covering device. It is a device to refill a furrow after the seed has been
placed in it. Covering the seeds are usually done by patta, chains, drags,
packers, rollers and press wheels, designed in various sizes and shapes.
Transport wheel. There are two wheels fitted on the main axle. Some seed
drills have got pneumatic wheels also. The wheels have suitable attachments
to transmit power to operate seed dropping mechanism.
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11.1 Seed metering mechanism
The mechanism of a seed drill or fertilizer distributor which deliver seeds or
fertilizers from the hopper at selected rates is called Seed metering
mechanism. Seed metering mechanism may be of several types: (i) fluted feed
type, (ii) internal double run type, (iii) cup feed type, (iv) cell feed
mechanism, (v) brush feed mechanism, (vi) auger feed mechanism, (vii)
picker wheel mechanism, and (viii) star wheel mechanism.
Most common type of metering devices that delivers a more or
less continuous flow of seeds is fluted roller type or internal double run type.
These metering devices are driven by ground wheel. Some of above metering
devices have not been commercially accepted and popularized.
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11.1.2 Internal double run type seed metering mechanism
It has a double faced wheel; one face has a larger opening for the larger seeds
and the other face or side has a smaller opening for use with smaller seeds. A
gate is provided in the bottom of the box to cover the opening not in use.
When one of the sides is being used, the seed is prevented from flowing
through the other side by using a special cover. The discs mounted on a
spindle and housing in a casing fitted below the seed box. The rate of seeding
is varied by adjusting the speed of the spindle which carries the discs. This
mechanism is used for metering bold and small seeds (Fig.35).
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spindle, carrying a number of discs with a ring of cups attached to the
periphery of each disc. The spindle with its frame and attachment is called
Feed barrel. When the spindle rotates, one disc with its set of cups rotates and
picks up few seeds and drops them into small hoppers. The cups have two
faces, one for larger seeds and other for smaller seeds. The seed rate is
controlled by the size of the cups and the rate at which the seed barrel
revolves. This type of mechanism is common on British seed drills (Fig.35).
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11.1.8 Star wheel seed metering mechanism
It is a feed mechanism which consists of a toothed wheel, rotating in a
horizontal plane and conveying the fertilizer through a feed gate below the
star wheel.
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The disc penetrates well in the soil, cuts all the trashes and clods in the field.
It works in sticky soils also, but the discs are costly and maintenance work is
bit difficult.
(b) Double disc type furrow openers: In double disc type furrow opener,
there are two flat discs, set at an angle to each other. The discs open a clean
furrow and leave a small ridge in the centre. The seeds are dropped between
the two discs, providing a more accurate placement. It is suitable for the
trashy lands. Seed drills attached with tractors having high speeds, usually
have this type of furrow opener.
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Step 2: Find the length of a strip (L) having nominal width W necessary to
cover 1/25th of a hectare.
10000 1 400
L= m
W 25 W
Step 3: Determine the number of revolutions (N) the ground wheel has to
make to cover the length of the strip (L).
400
D N
W
400
N rpm
D W
Step 4: Raise the seed drill in such a way that the ground wheels turn freely.
Make a mark on the drive wheel and a corresponding mark at a convenient
place on the body of the drill to help in counting the revolutions of the drive
wheel.
Step 5: Put selected seed and fertilizer in the respective hoppers. Place a sack
or a container under each boot for seed and fertilizers.
Step 6: Set the rate control adjustment for the seed and the fertilizer for
maximum drilling. Mark this position on the control for reference.
Step 7: Engage the clutch or on-off adjustment for the hoppers and rotate the
drive wheel at the speed N.
400
N= rpm
D W
Step 8: Weigh the quantity of seed and fertilizer, dropped from each opener
and record on the data sheet.
Step 9: Calculate the seed and fertilizer, dropped in kg/ha and record on the
data sheet.
Step 10: Repeat the process by suitable adjusting the rate control till desired
rate of seed and fertilizer drop is obtained.
Problem 1: The following results were obtained while calibrating a seed drill.
Calculate the seed rate per hectare.
No. of furrow openers – 8
Spacing between furrows – 15 cm
Diameter of drive wheel – 1.5 m
RPM of the drive wheel – 600
Seed collected – 25 kg.
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Solution:
Effective width of seed drill = 8 ×15 = 120 cm = 1.2 m
Circumference of drive wheel = 1.5 m
2
Area covered in one revolution = 1.5 1.2 =5.66 m
Problem 2: Calculate the cost of seeding one hectare of land with bullock
drawn seed drill of 5×30 cm size. The speed of bullocks is 3 kmph. Hire
charges of bullocks is Rs. 100/- per pair, hire charges of seed drill is Rs.200/-
per day and wage of operator is Rs.200/- per day of 8 hours.
Solution:
Width of seed drill = 5×30 = 150 cm = 1.5 m
Area covered per hr = width × speed = 1.5 ×3×1000 =4500 m2 =0.45 ha
To cover 0.45 ha of area, one hour is required
1
To cover one ha of area, time requirement = = 2.22 hr
0.45
Time taken/ha = 2.22 hr
100 200 200
Cost of seeding/hr = = Rs. 62.50/-
8
Cost of seeding/ha = 62.5 ×2.22 = 138.75/-
Problem 3: A fluted feed seed drill has eight furrow openers of single disc
type. The furrow openers are spaced 30 cm apart and the main drive wheel
has a diameter of 110 cm. How many turns of main drive wheel would occur
when the seed drill has covered one hectare of area.
Solution:
Circumference of drive wheel = 110 = 345.7 cm
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Problem 4: Maximum yield of maize is obtained with a population of 30,000
plants per hectare. The rows are 140 cm apart and an average emergence of
80% is expected. Find: (a) How many seeds per hill should be planted if hills
are 140 cm apart? (b) What would be seed spacing if crop is drilled?
Solution:
30000
Number of seeds per ha = =37500
0.80
Area covered per hill = 140 × 140 = 19600 cm2 = 1.96 m2
10000
No. of hills per ha = = 5102
1.96
37500
(a) No.of seeds per hill = = 7.35 rounded to 8
5102
10000
(b) Total length of row = = 7142.85 m
1.4
7142.85
Spacing of drilled seed = = 0.19 m =19 cm.
37500
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fingers on four bar linkage mechanism catch 3-4 seedlings at a time separate
them from the mat and place it in the puddle soil. A float supports the
machine on the water while working in the field. There are two end wheels
that facilitate the movement of the transplanter. A marker is provided to
demarcate the transplanting width during operation. The machine maintains
row to row and plant to plant spacing. The planting capacity of the machine
is about 0.05-0.1 ha/hr. These transplanters are now commercially available
in India.
87
Lecture No.12
Harvesting equipment – sickles, self propelled reaper, alignment and registration.
Combines, functions of combines.
12.1 Sickle
It is a simple harvesting tool. It is used for harvesting crops and cutting other
vegetations (Fig.38). It is essentially consists of a metallic blade and a
wooden handle. Blade is the main metallic part of the sickle. It is desirable to
make the blade of carbon steel. It is made in a curved shape. The tooth of
serrated sickle is made sharp for efficient working in the field. The handle of
the sickle is made of well seasoned wood. The forged end of the blade for
fixing the handle is called tang. The plain or serrated edge in the inner side of
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the blade is called cutting edge. Protective metallic bush fitted at the junction
of the blade and the handle to keep the tang tight in the handle is called
ferrule. Harvesting by sickle is very slow and labour consuming device.
12.2 Mower
Mower is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath. The
conventional mower has the following main parts (Fig.39):
a) Frame to support moving parts
b)Power transmitting unit to receive and transmit motive force
c) Cutter bar to cut crops and separate it from uncut portion.
d)Wheels for transport and for operating the cutting mechanism
e) Auxiliary parts to lift and drop the cutter bar
Frame
The frame of the mower is a heavy casting which supports other parts and
provides openings for main axle, countershaft and crankshaft. It also provides
space for gears, clutch and bearings. The lever for lifting the cutter bar is
attached to the frame.
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Power transmitting unit
In bullock drawn mowers, the power transmitting unit consists of main axle,
gears, crankshaft, crank wheel and pitman. The main axle receives power
from one of the transporting wheels. A spur gear mounted on the main axle
drives the spur pinion on one end of the countershaft in the gear box. The
crank wheel and the pitman are fixed on the outer end of the crankshaft. The
reciprocating (back and forth) motion is transmitted to the pitman, which in
turns operates the knife in the cutter bar. The knife is connected to the pitman
with a ball and socket joint. The knife makes about 1600 cutting strokes per
minute. In order to engage or disengage the driving unit, generally a dog
clutch is provided on the counter shaft so that the man can operate it by foot
from the seat.
The tractor drawn semi-mounted or mounted type mowers are operated
by the P.T.O. shaft. In this case, the cutting mechanism is driven
independently of the forward speed of the mower. A shaft is connected with
the PTO shaft, which drives a V pulley with the help of a universal joint. The
V pulley rotates another smaller pulley on the crank shaft of the machine and
reciprocating motion is transmitted to the cutter bar. Other basic components
of the machine are the same as that of bullock drawn mower with some
variations in size and minor accessories.
Cutter bar
It is an assembly comprising of fingers, knife section, ledger plate, wearing
plate, knife guides (clips) and shoes (Fig.40). It is used for cutting grasses and
forage. It is made of high grade steel. It works like a knife. The knife is a
metal bar, on which triangular shaped sections are mounted. The cutting
edges of these knife sections are mostly smooth edges. The knife sections
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move back and forth and cut plants in both directions. The section of knife
should always stop at the centre of the guard on each stroke. The length of the
stroke is 7.5 cm. Ledger plate is a hardened metal, inserted in a finger over
which knife sections move to give a scissor like cutting action. Knife clips
hold the knife sections down against ledger plates but allow it to move freely.
Knife clips are placed together with wearing plates to absorb the rearward
thrust of the crop to the knife. Wearing plate is a hardened steel plate,
attached to the finger bar to form a bearing surface for the back of the knife.
A badly worn wearing plate or a loose knife clip may allow the knife to bend.
Pitman is a type of connecting rod which is pinned to the crankshaft with the
help of a pin. It transmits reciprocating motion to a knife head. Wooden
pitman is commonly used for the mowers.
A shoe is always provided on each end of the cutter bar to regulate the height
of cut above the ground. The inner shoe is larger in section and is placed at
the inner end of the cutter bar. The outer shoe is placed at the outer end and is
smaller in section. The inner shoe has a larger area of contact with the ground
than the outer one. This results in smooth and easy sliding of the cutter bar on
the ground. Grass board is provided at the outer end of the mower, which
causes the cut plants to fall towards the cut material. The angle of the grass
board can be changed for different crops.
Wheels
Early imported mowers had a pair of wheels made of cast iron with sufficient
width and number of lugs to develop better grip in the soil. Now pneumatic
wheels have been introduced. Because of the ratchet and pawl arrangements,
the transport wheels transmit power to the knife.
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Auxiliary parts
There is a lever provided within the easy reach of the operator to enable him
to lift the cutter bar from his seat. In addition to this, all animal drawn mowers
are provided with a foot lift so that the cutter bar can be raised when turning
at corners or to avoid obstructions. A hand lever is also provided to adjust the
height of the cut.
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though a few tractor drawn combine harvesters manufactured by Minneapolis
Moline U.S.A, and self-propelled Russian combine harvesters were available
with some Govt. farms and landlords. However, between 1970-73
introduction of E512 GDR combine in Punjab, Haryana and M.P. was made
in a big way. This was another revolution in the farm mechanization sector.
Gradually indigenous production started with the manufacture of a Swaraj
8100 combine harvester in organized sector by M/s Punjab Tractors Ltd.,
which followed manufacturing of the machine in small sector in a small way.
Surprisingly in 30 years of its production on commercial scale in India
there are 60 more manufacturers with a production capacity of 5 to 150
combines per year. On an average about 800 combines are added every year
on Indian farms. All these manufacturing units are located in the state of
Punjab.
93
Lecture No.13
Plant protection equipment – types of sprayers, constructional features of knapsack
sprayer, hand compression sprayer, foot sprayer, rocker sprayer and power sprayer,
care and maintenance of sprayers.
13.0 Sprayers
Insect pests and weeds cause considerable damage to the commercial crops. If
not controlled in time, the entire crop gets lost and, therefore, farmers are
likely to suffer in many ways. Among the important methods of weed control
and plant protection systems, the following methods have been recognized as
the effective and economical ones under different situations:
a) Mechanical control
b)Chemical control
c) Biological control
d)Agronomical methods
e) Bio-physical methods
f) Fire as control
The mechanical control of weeds is most widely used in India and in many
developing countries due to the availability of farm labour at relatively low
rates of wages. Whereas, the chemical method of plant protection has been
universally accepted due to saving of time, labour and its effectiveness with
relatively low expenditure. In developing countries, combination of chemical
and mechanical methods of weed control has been successfully accepted. The
chemicals for protecting the plants from various injurious or organisms need
to be applied on plant surfaces in the form of sprays, dusts, mist etc. Sprayers
and dusters are available in many forms for this purpose.
13.1 Sprayers
Sprayer is a machine to apply fluids in the form of droplets. Sprayer is used
for the following purpose: (i) application of fungicides to minimize fungal
diseases, (ii) application of insecticides to control insect pests, (iii) application
of herbicides to remove weeds and (iv) application of micronutrients on the
plants. The main functions of sprayer are: (i) to break the liquid into droplets
of effective size, (ii) to distribute them uniformly over the plants, and (iii) to
regulate the amount of liquid to avoid excessive application
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13.2 Desirable quality of sprayer
(a) The sprayer should produce a steady stream of spray materials in the
desired fineness of the particle so that the plants to be treated may be covered
uniformly.
(b) It should deliver the liquid at sufficient pressure so that it reaches all the
foliage and spreads uniformly over the surface of the plant
(c) It should be light weight, sufficiently strong, easily workable and
repairable.
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13.4.1 Bucket type sprayer
It consists of a hand operated single or double acting pump (Fig.42), which
may be placed into any ordinary bucket containing spraying solution. Plunger
rod is hollow and serves as the compression chamber. Liquid is discharged in
both suction and delivery strokes, hence a continuous application can be
made. One hand operates plunger, while another hand keeps the pump in
stable position. This pump is mostly made of brass. It is very light and easily
handled and develops sufficient pressure to spray small gardens and low trees.
It develops a pressure of 4 -10 kg/cm2.
96
Fig. 43. Line diagram of knapsack sprayer
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13.4.5 Rocking sprayer
This type of sprayer consists of a lever operated pump assembly which rests
on a wooden platform (Fig.45). Suction hose with a strainer is immersed in a
separate container containing the spray liquid. Delivery system consists of a
separate pressure chamber, a flexible hose, spray lance, and a spray nozzle.
The lever attached to the pump is operated by the rocking- forward and
backward movement of the handle. Pressure is developed in the pressure
chamber, which may attain pressure of 14-18 kg/cm2. Such sprayers are used
for spraying tall plants like coconut and arecanut trees, and sugar cane plants.
Uniform spraying can be done if sufficient pressure is maintained in the
pressure chamber. It needs two persons to operate the sprayer, one for
operating the pumping system and another for the application of spray liquid.
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13.5.1 Hand compression sprayer
The compressed air sprayer consists of an air pump, is fitted vertically inside
the airtight chamber. The outlet pipe is suspended in the liquid in the
chamber, the end running into the bottom of the chamber, the other end is
provided with a nozzle. The chamber is usually filled to three fourths of its
capacity, leaving one-fourth volume for the compressed air. Before spraying,
the pressure is developed by pumping air into the chamber and continued till
sufficient pressure is built. When sufficient pressure is developed, then the
delivery system is operated to obtain spray in the form of fine droplets. The
tank capacity is usually 14 lts. Frequent pumping must be done to maintain
the required pressure.
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Agitator: Agitators are needed to agitate the liquid in the tank. Propeller or
paddle type mechanical agitators are provided to agitate the liquid. Horizontal
shaft with flat blades rotating at about 100 to 200 rpm may be used. Paddle tip
speed in excess of 2.5 m/s may cause foaming.
Air chamber: An air chamber is provided on the discharge line of the pump
to level out the pulsations of the pump thereby providing a constant nozzle
pressure,
Pressure gauge: It is provided on the discharge line to guide the operator
regarding spray pressure. It should be under specified limit.
Strainer: It is provided in the suction line between the tank and the pump to
remove dust, dirt and other foreign materials.
Boom: It is driven by a tractor, has a long boom in a horizontal plane on
which nozzles are fixed at specified spacing. The boom can be adjusted
vertically to suit the height of plants in different fields.
Nozzle: It is used to break the liquid into the desired spray and deliver it to
plants.
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Fig. 46. Line diagram of power sprayer
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Lecture No.14
Dusters – hand rotary and power operated dusters, care and maintenance of dusters.
Duster is a machine to apply chemical in dust form. Dusters make use of air
streams to carry pesticides in finely divided dry form on the plants. A duster
essentially consists of: (a) hopper, (b) agitator, (c) feed control, (d) fan or
blower and (e) delivery nozzle.
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14.3 Power duster
The power duster of small capacity is generally mounted on the back of the
operator. It consists of cylindrical container, blower, high speed engine and
discharge hose pipe. The cylindrical container is provided with two
compartments, one for gasoline, and the other for the powder to be dusted.
The blower is directly mounted on the crankshaft of the high speed (4000
rpm) air cooled engine. The air pressure is utilized to agitate the dust in the
container in order to blow it through the flexible hose pipe. The direction of
the dust is regulated by a movable delivery spout suitably fitted with the unit.
The dust can be blown up to about 6 meters height. Such a duster can cover
about a hectare in a day. This type of duster can be converted into a sprayer
with little modifications. Portable type power dusters are also in use. They are
mounted on two wheel trolleys.
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Lecture No.15
Tractor mounted equipments for land development and soil conservation – functions of
bund former, ridger, and leveling blade.
15.1 Ridger
It is an implement (Fig.49) which cuts and turns the soil in two opposite
directions simultaneously for forming ridges. It is also known as furrower.
Ridger is used to form ridges, for sowing row crop seeds and plants in well
tilted soil. The ridger is also used for forming field channels or furrowers,
earthing up and similar other operations. Ridgers are also known as riding
plough and double mould board plough.
A ridger consists of beam, clevis, frog, handle, mould boards, braces,
share, and sliding shoe. The ridger generally has V-shaped or wedge shaped
share, fitted to the frog. The nose or the tip of the share penetrates into the soil
and breaks the earth. The mould boards lift, invert and cast aside the soil,
forming deep channels and ridges of the required size.
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Fig. 49. Ridger
15.2 Leveller
In irrigated areas, land leveling is an essential operation for farming. Level
fields receive uniform penetration of irrigation water with high efficiency.
The possibility of water logging and soil erosion is reduced considerably.
Land leveling is usually done in the slack season when the field is free from
crops.
Wooden logs or planks are the most common type of field levelers used
by farmers. They are operated in ploughed land to collect loose soil from high
spots and dump it into depressions. The other improved type of land leveler
which is used on the large farms, is called the leveling karaha (scoop) or
scraper.
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Hitching loop: Two ends of the loop are fitted to the side of the soil trough.
The loop is made of mild steel round.
Handle: Two handles, are usually made of timber or mild steel flat.
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Lecture No.16
Farm mechanization – engineering intervention for production and productivity,
percentage share of different power sources, level of mechanization of different
operations (power sources).
107
(specially wind mills for water pumping). The availability of power from
different sources has been given in Table 2.
Table 1: Availability of farm power in India
Year Total Sources wise, %
power, Animate power Mechanical Electrical
kW/ha (Human + animal)
1951 0.25 97.4 2.1 0.5
1961 0.31 94.9 3.7 1.4
1971 0.36 79.2 16.3 4.5
1981 0.63 48.2 32.3 19.5
1991 0.92 34.5 34.7 30.8
1999 1.25 21.0 44.2 34.8
(Estimated)
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There is a good scope of farm mechanization in India de to the following
reasons: (i) improved irrigation facility in the area, (ii) introduction of high
yielding varieties of seeds, (iii) introduction of high dose of fertilizers and
pesticides for different crops, (iv) introduction of new crops in different crops
of the country, and (v) multi-cropping system and intensive cultivation,
followed in different parts of the country.
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Table 1: Status of farm equipment manufacturing industries
Equipment Manufacturers in Equipment Manufacturers in
No. No.
Agricultural 20 Seed drills 2500
tractors
Power tillers 9 Ploughs, 5000
cultivators and
harrows
Earth mowers 3 Tractor parts and 546
accessories
Pumps 600 Earth moving 188
machinery &
parts
Sprinkler sets 35 Diesel oil engine 200
Drip irrigation 35 Rice processing 300
system industry
Plant protection 300 Sugarcane 50
equipment crusher
Combines 48 Chaff cutter 50
Reapers 60 Dairy and food 500
industries
Threshers 6000 Village craftsman 1 million
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References
1. Nakra, C. P. 1986. Farm Machinery and Equipment. Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New
Delhi.
2. Klenin, N.I., Popov, I.F., and Sakun, V. A. 1985. Agricultural Machines. Amerind
publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Jagdishwar Sahay. 2006. Elements of Agricultural Engineering. Standard
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
4. Michal, A. M., and Ojha, T. P. 2008. Principles of Agricultural Engineering, Vol. I.
Jain Brothers, New Delhi.
5. Kepner, R. A., Roy Bainer, and Barger, B. L. 1978. Principles of farm machinery.
CBS publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
6. Jain, S. C. 2003. Farm Machinery - An Approach. Standard Publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi.
7. Surendar Singh. 2007. Farm Machinery-Principles and Applications. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
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