APPLIED

Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805

ENERGY
www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

The externally-fired gas-turbine (EFGT-Cycle)

for decentralized use of biomass
Martin Kautz *, Ulf Hansen
University of Rostock, Institute of Energy Systems, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 2, D-18051 Rostock, Germany

Abstract

The externally-fired gas turbine unites two advantages. On the one hand, the utilisation of the
waste heat from the turbine in a recuperative process and, on the other, the possibility of burning
‘‘dirty’’ fuel. In particular, the EFGT opens a new option to utilise biomass for combined-heat-
and-power and contributes to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. A micro-gas turbine with 100 kW
electric-output is chosen as an example to study the effects of temperature difference and pressure
loss in the gas-to-air heat exchanger on cycle efficiency and power. The simulation calculations
are performed with the code AspenPlus. In addition to cycle optimisation, the effect of low-calorific
biogas on the combustion air ratio and the possibility of solar energy as a heat source for the EFGT
are studied. For combusting biomass in an EFGT-Cycle, two alternatives are possible: First, a spe-
cial, well-designed combustor for solid biomass, with a cyclone to reduce particles in the exhaust gas.
Secondly, a gasifier with gas cleaning and a standard gas-burner. Waste heat from the process can be
used for the gasification process, especially for drying and preheating the biomass. The detailed
results are presented in the [Kautz M. Auslegung von extern gefeuerten Gasturbinen für dezentrale
Energieanlagen im kleinen Leistungsbereich. Dissertation, Universität Rostock, Fakultät für
Maschinenbau und Schiffstechnik; 4.11.2005.].
 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Externally-fired-gas-turbine; Hot-air turbine; Biomass; Decentralized CHP; Heat exchanger

*
Corresponding author. Present address: Technische Universitat Bergakademie, Freiberg, Germany. Tel.: +49
3731 39 3944; fax: +49 3731 39 3942.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Kautz).

0306-2619/$ - see front matter  2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2007.01.010
796 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805

1. Introduction

The future world energy-supply will have to rely on all energy resources, especially
renewable energies. The technologies should combine high conversion-efficiencies with
low emissions, in particular CO2. Modern energy-conversion technologies like internal-
combustion engines and gas turbines demand clean fuels as the combustion gases are in
direct contact with the moving parts of the machine. Indirect systems separate the combus-
tion and the thermodynamic conversion cycle. A conventional coal-fired steam cycle plant
is the best example. The same principle applies to the Stirling engine. The indirectly or
externally-fired gas-turbine (EFGT) is a novel technology under development for small
and medium scale power-and-heat supplies [1].
The externally-fired-gas turbine unites two advantages. On the one hand, the utilisation
of waste heat from the turbine in a recuperative process increases the efficiency and, on the
other, the possibility of burning ‘‘dirty’’ fuel. In particular, the EFGT opens a new option
to (i) utilise biomass for combined heat-and-power and (ii) contribute to reduce green-
house-gas emissions. Although the technology was studied for coal in the 1950s [2], it is
still in the early stages of development.
The micro-gas turbine with a recuperator is a promising technology for introducing the
EFGT-cycle. Furthermore, due to the smallness of the power unit, it is compatible with
the even biomass output of a single farm. The heat exchanger of the EFGT-cycle can be based
on the same recuperation technology as in the micro gas-turbine, although it will operate at a
much higher temperature. Also, a new type of combustor is needed to burn a low-calorific and
mostly-unclean fuel. The aim of this investigation is to study system parameters and in par-
ticular the key components of the high-temperature heat-exchanger and the combustor.

2. Thermodynamic principles

The simple once-through gas turbine is shown in Fig. 1. The compressed air-fuel mixture
is burnt in the combustor and the hot gas expands in the turbine, which drives the com-
pressor and the electric generator. The energy content in the hot exhaust-gas from the tur-
bine is not utilised.
The thermodynamic cycle is shown as a temperature-entropy-diagram in Fig. 2. The
comparatively poor efficiency of the open gas-turbine process results from the high
exhaust temperature (500–600 C). A large amount of heat is released unused to the atmo-
sphere. A first priority is to utilise the waste heat, either in a combined cycle with a waste-
heat boiler and a steam turbine or in a combined heat-and-power system. A further pos-
sibility is the recuperative air-heating in the gas-turbine itself.

fuel
2 burner
3
compressor turbine
G
generator
1
4
air exhaust gas

Fig. 1. The simple once-through gas-turbine system.

 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805 797

Qin PT

PT − PC
ηth =
Q in

PC

s
Fig. 2. Ts-diagram of the simple gas-turbine process.

In the recuperative gas-turbine process, heat from the hot turbine exhaust-gas is trans-
ferred to the colder compressed air in a heat exchanger between the compressor and com-
bustor. Due to the preheating of the air, less fuel is required and the thermal efficiency
increased. A precondition for the recuperative heat-transfer is that the exhaust gas is hot-
ter than the compressed air, i.e. T4 > T2. Furthermore, a temperature difference is neces-
sary to facilitate the heat transfer so that the exhaust gas cannot be cooled down all the
way to T2, but to a slightly higher temperature T2R. The efficiency of the gas turbine with
recuperation is given by
PT  PC PT  PC
g0th ¼ ¼
Q_ 0in Q_ in  m_ air  cp; air  ðT 2R  T 2 Þ
The degree of recuperation depends on the temperature of the air leaving the compres-
sor and this again on the pressure ratio. A high pressure-ratio leads to a large temperature
increase in the compressor. Consequently, recuperation is most efficient in turbines with
low pressure-ratios. This is typical for the simpler design in the low power unit size,
whereas the modern turbines in the 100-MW-class have pressure ratios so high as to make
them unsuitable for recuperation.
The recuperation can be carried one step further with all the heat input to the gas tur-
bine process provided in a heat exchanger. This is an indirect gas-turbine utilising waste
heat from another process. However, the heat can also be provided by placing the combus-
tor in the hot exhaust-air stream from the turbine. The externally-fired gas-turbine (EFGT)
has the thermodynamic advantage of the preheated air and that the combustion gases do
not pass through the turbine. In the recuperator the gas is cooled to a temperature in
excess of the compressor’s outlet-temperature and the waste heat to the environment is
minimised, cf. Fig. 3.
exhaust gas
6
2 heat exchanger
3
compressor turbine
5
G
burner generator
1 4
air fuel

Fig. 3. The externally fired-gas turbine.

798 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805

T ΔTH
Qin

ΔTL

Fig. 4. Ts-diagram of the externally-fired gas-turbine.

In comparison with the directly-fired gas-turbine the EFGT sets less stringent require-
ments with respect to composition and cleaning of the combustion gas. It has the advan-
tage of allowing the burning of non-standard fuels, for instance biogenic fuels. The smaller
unit-size also enables decentralized units appropriate for the biomass output from farms,
agricultural processing units and forestry. The burner works under atmospheric pressure
and hence expensive compression of biogas is not needed.
The Ts-diagram for the EFGT-cycle is presented in Fig. 4. The temperature differences
DTH and DTL in the heat exchange are important parameters in the design optimisation.
In general, a small temperature-difference improves the utilisation of the heat and the effi-
ciency, but increases the size of the heat exchanger, the costs and the pressure drop.

3. Simulation studies

A micro gas-turbine Turbec T100 (ABB/Volvo) with a 100 kW electric output is chosen
as the design basis in order to study the effects of temperature difference and pressure loss
in the gas-to-air heat exchanger on the cycle efficiency and power. The Turbec machine
consists of a one-stage radial compressor and a radial turbine with an external combustor
[3]. A recuperator is used to raise the net electric-efficiency from 16% to 30%. The technical
data are given in Table 1.

Table 1
Design data for Turbec T100 micro gas-turbine
Net electric-output 100 kW
Thermal-power input 333 kJ/s
Turbine power 282 kW
Compressor power 159 kW
Net electric-efficiency, ISO 30.0 %
Fuel type Natural gas
Exhaust-gas temperature 650 C
Air temperature compressor outlet 214 C
Gas-temperature turbine inlet 950 C
Gas-temperature after recuperator 270 C
Mass flow air 0.7833 kg/s
Mass flow, natural-gas 0.0067 kg/s
Mass flow, exhaust-gas 0.79 kg/s
Pressure ratio 4.5
Efficiency compressor 0.768
Efficiency turbine 0.826
Heat-exchanger area in the recuperator 164 m2
 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805 799

In the simulation all components with the respective flows of process media are
depicted. The input parameters and the design points, e.g. pressure ratio and gas-turbine
inlet temperature can be varied. Different options for utilising the waste-heat exist, e.g.
drying of biomass. The simulation calculations are performed with the code AspenPlus [4].
In the model of the externally-fired gas-turbine, the Turbec combustor is replaced by a
heat exchanger and a new atmospheric burner at the turbine’s outlet. The recuperator
becomes part of the heat exchanger. The inner efficiency gi, C = 0.768 of the compressor
stage and gi,T = 0.826 of the turbine stage of have been derived from the general data
of the Turbec machine and are used in the simulation of the EFGT. The first series of cal-
culations are for natural gas and subsequently other gases are investigated. All calcula-
tions are performed for ISO standard conditions (15 C, 1.013 bar and 60% humidity).
The pressure ratio has the largest impact on power and efficiency, and the results for vary-
ing pC between 2 and 8 are shown in Fig. 5. The curves have individual maxima: the high-
est output is achieved with a pressure ratio of 6.0, whereas the highest efficiency is found
for 2.9. The design pressure ratio of 4.5 is a compromise.
The key component in the EFGT is the counter-flow heat-exchanger and the most
important parameter is the temperature difference between the hot and the cold gas. At
the hot end of the heat exchanger, where the hot gas enters and the heated air exits, the
temperature-difference is defined by DTH = T5 – T3 (Fig. 4). The result of a parameter var-
iation between 10 and 150 K is shown in Fig. 6. The efficiency is a function of the turbine’s
inlet temperature and temperature difference in the heat exchanger; the pressure ratio is
constant at 4.5.
For a realistic difference of 70 K and a turbine temperature of 900 C, the net electric-
efficiency reaches 27.8 %. The importance of the temperature difference is demonstrated by
reducing DTH to 30 K, which increases the efficiency by 3%. This is understandable as a
decrease in temperature difference in the heat exchanger implies that the exhaust gas leav-
ing the system is cooler, approaching the air temperature at the compressor’s outlet, and
less heat is wasted to the environment. A higher turbine inlet-temperature will in general
improve the cycle performance.
Another important parameter is the pressure drop in the heat exchanger. An increase in
the backpressure of the turbine reduces the pressure difference in expansion and directly

110
100
90
80
Pel [kW]

ηel [%]

70 32
60 30
50 28
26
24
22
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
pressure ratio (compressor) πC [-]

Fig. 5. Power and efficiency of the EFGT as functions of pressure ratio [· ” design point].
800 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805

45 10
30

temperature difference in HE [K]

40 50
70
35 90

el. efficiency ηel [%]

110
130
30 150

25
20

15

10
5

0
500 700 900 1100 1300
temperature T3 [°C]

Fig. 6. Efficiency as a function of temperature-difference in the heat exchanger and turbine-inlet temperature
[DT = 70 K and T3 = 900 C = > gel = 27.8%, · ” design point].

impacts on the power output. The total pressure drop in the system consists of the pressure
drop in the airflow on the cold side and in the gas flow on the hot side. The effect of both
on the net efficiency is shown in Fig. 7.
In a realistic design, the total pressure-drop should not exceed 0.1 bar and a reasonable
operating point is marked in the Figure. The actual pressure drop is determined by the
heat-exchanger area, again a result of the temperature difference, and the geometric design.
In further calculations, the turbine’s exit-pressure p4 has been varied, see Fig. 8. The
installation of an additional heat-exchanger below the recuperator, utilising the waste heat
for an external drying process, would increase p4 from 1.1 to 1.3 bar. On the other hand,
placing a suction blower at the exit of the heat exchanger could decrease the pressure. This
implies lowering p4 from 0.8 to 1.073 bar and would increase the system’s efficiency. How-
ever, the suction blower demands additional power and would only be justified when the
efficiency is higher than that of the turbine.
pressure drop in HE (hot side) [bar]

32
31
el. efficiency ηel [%]

30
29
0.03
28 x 0
27
26 0.05
25 0.1
24
0.15
23
22 0.2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
pressure drop in heat exchanger (cold side) [bar]

Fig. 7. Net electric-efficiency as a function of pressure drop in the heat exchanger (HE) [Dp (hot side HE &
burner) = 0.06 bar and Dp (cold side) = 0.03 bar = > gel = 27.8%, · ” design point].
 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805 801

p [bar]
6
0.74 0.84 0.94 1.04 1.14 1.24
150 36
140 34
130 32
120
Pel [kW] 30

ηel [%]
110 28
100 26
90 24
80 22
70 20
60 18
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
p4 [bar] Δp = p4 - p6 = 0.06

Fig. 8. Variation of the turbine’s exit-pressure p4 [· ” design point p4 = 1.073 bar].

As already mentioned, preheating of the air in the recuperator leads to a lower fuel-con-
sumption, e.g. in the standard Turbec micro gas-turbine, the air enters the combustor at
580 C. The air ratio is roughly 7.5, which signifies a large amount of surplus air compared
to the stoichiometric combustion. In the externally-fired gas-turbine, the temperature of
the air leaving the turbine is around 650 C and a similar high air-ratio exists in the com-
bustor. With large amount of surplus air, there may be a danger of unstable combustion.
With preheated air, the influence of fuel quality on the combustion temperature
decreases with increasing air-ratio. Furthermore, with increasing air ratio, the influence
of fuel quality on the combustion temperature decreases, so demonstrating a potential
advantage for the EFGT with biomass. In the case of too much surplus air, some of it
may bypass the combustion chamber and either be added to the combustion gas before
entering the heat exchanger or used for other purposes. One possibility is a drying process
demanding clean hot-air, as for instance in the food industry.
In an indirectly-heated gas turbine, any heat at a sufficiently high temperature can be
used. Solar energy, as a heat source is one possibility. In a solar thermal-electric system,
the EFGT has the same role as the Stirling engine. The solar heat from the collector is
focused on a hot-air heat-exchanger and either alone, or together with a backup fuel,
serves as the energy input to the gas turbine. The process is shown in Fig. 9. For smaller
power units, parabolic or dish collectors would be suitable, whereas for larger units solar
towers are more appropriate. With biofuels to make-up for solar deficiencies and the diur-
nal variation, the system would rely fully on renewable energy-resources.

exhaust gas
6
heat exchanger
2 3a solar heating
3b
compressor turbine
5
G
burner generator
1 4
air fuel

Fig. 9. Simplified diagram of the EFGT with solar-energy input.

802 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805

4. High-temperature heat-exchanger

Most of the components of the EFGT are standard parts. The only new items are the
high-temperature heat exchanger and the combustor for alternative fuels. For combusting
biomass in an EFGT-cycle, two alternatives are possible (Fig. 10). In both cases, the com-
bustor works at atmospheric pressure and problems with feeding solid fuel to a burner at
high pressure or compression of the gas are avoided.

 For solid biomass, a combustor burning finely-ground material would have to be cou-
pled with a cyclone to reduce the number of particles in the exhaust gas, and in the case
of a low-ash-melting point, also to remove the liquid slag. Alternatively, the biomass
can be burned in a fluidised bed.
 The raw gas, from a thermal-gasification process, may be utilised without tar removal
as the higher hydrocarbons are cracked at the prevailing high-temperature in the com-
bustor. The biogas passes through a filter to remove solid particulates before being fed
to a standard gas-burner. Waste heat from the recuperator can be used for drying and
preheating biomass.

The key component in the process is the heat exchanger. In principle, it may be of either
regenerator or recuperator type. For reasons of better cleaning and to avoid gas leakage
between the clean air and the gas side, a recuperator design has been chosen. The present
recuperators operate in the range 200–600 C. Building on the technology for recupera-
tors, it is necessary to have an additional heat exchanger for compressed air in the temper-
ature range from 600 to 1000 C. To withstand high temperatures of more than 1000 C,
the heat exchanger requires to be special materials, either metals or ceramics. As men-
tioned, the turbine’s inlet-temperature is not very high. So there are no problems caused
by slag and pasted ash as the temperature in the combustion chamber is below the biomass
ash-melting point. Furthermore, the mechanical loads are not high, as the pressure differ-
ence between the air and the gas side is moderate, ca. 5 bar. The challenge is to construct a
heat exchanger for minimal temperature-difference (i.e. using a large heat-exchanger area)
with minimal pressure loss (small heat-exchanger area).

biomass gasification raw hot

gas burner

recuperator

burner with
cyclone

biomass drying regenerator

and crushing

fluidised bed

Fig. 10. Typical unit size and efficiency of a small combined heat-and-power plant burning solid biomass.
 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805 803

The estimated heat-flux could be twice as high as in a standard recuperator. Because of

the more expensive materials required for high temperatures, the price could be around
three times as much as for a standard recuperator. For experimental studies, the combus-
tion test facility of the Institute for Energy Systems at the University of Rostock is used to
test a high temperature resistant stainless-steel heat-exchanger module, cooled by com-
pressed air. The design is of the tube-and-shell-type to facilitate easy cleaning of the heated
surfaces.
The heat exchanger, with its big thermal mass, can withstand differences in fuel quality.
The whole system can be controlled easily and is not very vulnerable to power changes.
Metallic double-tube heat exchangers, with ball structure / spherical configuration on
the surface of the inner tube to increase the surface area and turbulence, are suitable
for economic production and operation. Furthermore, a tube-bundle heat-exchanger with
a structured surface is promising for EFGT-process because of conventional geometry and
the self-cleaning effect due to length-expansion.

5. Comparison

The combustion gases from biofuels are frequently rich in particulates and may be
chemically aggressive and cannot be used without cleaning in combustion engines or a
directly-fired gas-turbine. The indirect cycle shifts the problem to the heat exchanger,
which can more easily accommodate high impurity loads. This is common for both the
Stirling engine and the conventional steam cycle with which the EFGT competes in the
market for small to medium size CHP-units. A tentative comparison of the net electric-effi-
ciency of typical technologies burning solid biomass is given in Fig. 11.
Steam-cycle power-plants are well established, but need to be in the MW-range to achieve
a reasonable efficiency [5]. The water-steam technology is complex and expensive and is only
justified in large units. At the other end of the scale, the Stirling engine achieves high efficien-
cies even in the kW-range [6]. The technology is at the demonstration stage with units oper-
ating on natural gas and in combination with a solar dish. The EFGT relies on standard gas-
turbine components. The atmospheric biomass combustor is under development and the
gas-to-gas heat-exchanger can draw on a wide experience in the chemical and power indus-

30 )
GT on e
EF pist in
( rb
25
i ne m tu
g
en stea
20 e am
in e
g st
en
η [%]

g )
15
irl
in rew
St e (sc
gin
10 en
am
ste
5

0
1 10 100 1000 10.000
Pel [kW]

Fig. 11. Typical unit size and efficiency of small combined heat-and-power plants burning solid biomass.
804 M. Kautz, U. Hansen / Applied Energy 84 (2007) 795–805

try. The costs of a future commercial EFGTs are difficult to predict at the present stage, but
a rough idea may be gleaned from Martelli [1] who suggests a 50% increase compared with a
standard gas-turbine. With the cost of micro gas-turbines in the range €1000–1200 per kW-
el, this would lead to €1500–1800 per kW for the EFGT. A small steam-unit with 2 MW-el is
reported to call for an investment of €2200 per kW-el [5]. Also for the Stirling engine, the
cost estimates are still uncertain. Due to the general cost-size relation, a small unit is specif-
ically more expensive per kW output than a large one, and the investment costs for the 10–
30 kW range will likely be higher than for the two other technologies.
It is still impossible to say with any certainty which technology will yield the lowest gen-
erating costs as this entails operation, maintenance and availability considerations. How-
ever, the EFGT promises to become a competitive energy-conversion technology for bio
fuels, in particular for solid biomass.

6. Conclusions

In general, fuels causing problems in conventional gas-turbines can be burned in the

EFGT. The possible power-spectrum from 30 to 2.000 kWel is very suitable for decentral-
ized CHP units, utilizing biomass and contributing to minimizing CO2-emission. The cycle
can be operated more economically if waste biomass is used.
The external firing may be realised either with solid, liquid or gaseous biogenic fuels.
The combustion technology needs to be developed, but can draw on experience and
designs of combustors for fossil fuels. At present, the most interesting option is low-calo-
rific gas from gasification, which has difficulties in finding appropriate conversion technol-
ogies due to a large amount of impurities.
The implicit utilisation of the waste heat from the turbine in the indirectly, heated cycle
improves the efficiency, which is close to the high efficiency realised in the micro gas-tur-
bine with recuperation. The optimisation of the heat exchanger and the recuperator is a
prime objective. Whereas the recuperator uses conventional materials, the high-tempera-
ture heat-exchanger requires special materials, either metallic or ceramic. In the longer
term perspective, a combination with solar energy is a challenging option.
The additional costs of the heat exchanger and the biomass combustor will have to be
compensated by the lower price of biomass and waste materials in comparison with pre-
mium fuels like natural gas in standard gas-turbine power-plants. In comparison with a
combined cycle, where the waste heat from the turbine is utilised in a steam cycle, the cost
of a gas–gas heat exchanger is lower than for a complete water-steam cycle. However, the
EFGT-cycle is not in direct competition with a steam power-plant or a Stirling engine,
because its power range fills the gap between the two. The efficiency and the investment
cost of the EFGT promise advantages over the other technologies.

References

[1] Martelli F et al. Technical study and environmental impact of an external fired gas turbine power plant fed by
solid fuel. In: First World Conference of Biomass, Sevilla; 2000.
[2] Foster-Pegg RW, Haddon RW, Lefcort M. Coal fired gas turbine project, 1956 Operation. Canada: McGill
University Montreal & Department of Mines. Available from: http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/pse.
[3] Kautz M. Auslegung von extern gefeuerten Gasturbinen für dezentrale Energieanlagen im kleinen
Leistungsbereich, Dissertation, Universität Rostock, Fakultät für Maschinenbau und Schiffstechnik;
4.11.2005.
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[4] AspenPlus. Available from: http://www.aspentech.com.

[5] Heinrich P. KWK aus festen Biomassen – Entwicklungsstand, Aktivitäten und deren Bewertung, IE-Tagung,
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