Predicting the Long Term Behaviour and Service Life of Concrete

Dams
Robin G. Charlwood
Chairman, ICOLD Committee on Concrete Dams,
Past Vice-President, United States Society on Dams, and
Principal, Robin Charlwood & Associates PLLC, Edmonds, Seattle WA, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]

future and be available to function safely under demanding

Abstract conditions such as seasonal temperature extremes, floods and
earthquakes, to name a few. In order to understand the future
There are a large number of very important and valuable behavior of concrete it helps to understand how concrete
large concrete dams around the world that are entering developed as a construction material in large dams. The
“middle age”. This article addresses the question of United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR or Reclamation)
predicting their long term behavior and service life. The has developed a time lined framework of the development of
article firstly reviews the basic nature and physical properties concrete construction of dams in the Western US through the
of concrete in dams. Then the types and causes of ageing 20th Century [1], [2]. This framework can be used as a
phenomena and deterioration mechanisms are identified and powerful diagnostic tool to help quickly identify possible
the key processes of sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate issues that may affect a given dam. This framework has been
reactions and freeze-thaw damage reviewed. extended to drive a risk based assessment methodology for
the safety assessment of concrete dams [3]. The need to deal
To assist predicting future behavior it is suggested that a with “ageing” of the concrete in the structures is clearly
knowledge of the development of the state of the art of increasing as many of them enter “middle age, being over 50
concrete technology is essential. A review of the evolution of or more years old.
concrete for large American dams is presented as an
illustration. This characterizes the development in four This paper therefore addresses the following issues:
distinct eras through the 20th Century. 1) What is concrete?
2) Physical properties of hardened concrete;
Then a framework for the analysis of ageing processes and 3) Types, causes and detection of ageing;
their consequences is presented with reviews of rehabilitation 4) Mechanisms of concrete dam deterioration;
work, prevention measures and the increasingly important 5) Developing the state-of-the-art of concrete
issue of chemical expansion of existing concrete dams. This technology n the United States;
leads to conclusions regarding the remaining service life of 6) Analysis of ageing processes and their
concrete dams. consequences on dam safety;
7) Rehabilitation work, particularly using
modern methods and materials;
Introduction 8) Prevention measures (physical and
organizational ) to mitigate ageing process;
Concrete has been used in dams of varying designs which 9) Chemical expansion of existing concrete;
have evolved over the years, ranging from early masonry and and,
gravity dams, through 20th century designs using multiple 10) Conclusions regarding remaining service
arches and buttresses, arch dams, concrete faced rock filled life of concrete dams.
dams (CFRD), to the currently popular roller compacted
concrete (RCC). In addition, concrete has been used in
various appurtenant works including spillways, intake towers What is Concrete?
and channels, outlet works, fish passage facilities and
navigation works. The American Concrete Institute defines concrete as “a
composite material that consists essentially of a binding
The water resources and hydro-electric industries are medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of
increasingly aware that it is necessary to understand how aggregate, usually a combination of fine aggregate and coarse
these structures will perform over extended periods into the aggregate; in Portland-cement concrete, the binder is a
mixture of Portland cement and water.”[4] The earliest

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concretes date at least as far back as early Roman times deleterious substances and physical processes. The climate is
including the aqueducts and the historic Pantheon in Rome. a significant factor influencing the long-term durability of
These concretes did not use Portland cement as a binder. concrete structures. One of the reasons the ancient structures
Rather, they used combinations of lime and pozzolanic sands have survived is because they were constructed in relatively
mixed with broken rocks and shards of pottery. dry, temperate climates.

Most 20th Century concretes are composed of about 75 Physical Properties of Hardened Concrete
percent aggregate by volume and about 25 percent “cement
paste.” The paste is the binder and contains cementitious The ICOLD Committee on Concrete Dams has prepared a
materials and water. The cementitious materials include new Bulletin titled “The Physical Properties of Hardened
primarily Portland cement and, increasingly in modern dams, Concrete” which will be published by ICOLD in early 2010.
an additional cementing material such as a pozzolan. The objectives of this Bulletin include providing a
Pozzolans are finely ground, calcined (heated to a high comprehensive basis for numerical modeling of concrete
temperature) materials that react with lime to form dams at various stages of their life. Long term ageing and
compounds similar to Portland cement. Natural pozzolans deterioration effects are addressed and can be used in
are heated by geologic events such as volcanos. Artificial estimating future behavior.
pozzolans are calcined in a kiln of furnace, such as fly ash.
The ratio of water to cementitious materials is about 1.5:1 by The physical properties of hardened conventional concrete
solid volume or 1:2 by weight. The individual components for dams have been addressed in seven Chapters dealing with
are mixed wet for about 5 to 10 minutes, then placed in forms all frequently used engineering parameters (strengths, elastic
to harden into their final shape. properties, creep, drying shrinkage, thermal properties, water
permeability, durability and frost resistance).
The chemical process that turns the wet concrete into a
hardened mass is called “hydration,” a reaction between the The structure of each chapter is generally as follows:
cement and water that forms strong chemical bonds.
Concrete does not get hard by drying like some clay bricks • Definition of the property;
and lime mortars. It must retain the moisture to allow the
• Typical behaviour, just after construction or during
cement to chemically hydrate; usually for about one month.
the normal service life of the dam, as reported by the
The best concrete is one that stays continuously moist at a
experience acquired;
temperature of about 5 to 20 degrees Celsius, such as near the
center of a mass concrete dam. The strongest concrete • Factors influencing the property, such as: components
contains just sufficient water to chemically react with the and composition of the concrete, time, ageing
available cement, about 25 to 40 percent water to cement by related to physical and chemical processes,
weight. The weakest concretes are those that contain excess temperature, humidity, stresses, etc. Expected
water or prematurely dry out, stopping the reaction. effects on the property;
Pozzolanic materials do not naturally harden through
hydration with water, they must have added calcium • Methods for experimental determination of the
hydroxide, or lime, to allow the reactions to take place. property, both in laboratory and in situ; and
Fortunately, one of the chemical by-products of cement • Transfer of acquired parameters of the mass concrete
hydration is calcium hydroxide. Thus, added pozzolan when material to be utilised in mathematical models, in
combined with cement and water makes for even stronger the design phase, for the total behaviour of the mass
and often more durable concrete. Cement hydration also concrete dam.
generates heat and can lead to temperature cracking when the
interior mass wants to expand while the exterior contracts as The subject and content of each Chapter are as follows.
it cools. Thus, a balance is required in mix design to
optimize the cement content and seek to reduce the potential Strength properties
for temperature cracking. Concrete strength is defined as the maximum stress recorded
during the load testing of specimens carried out to failure.
The durability of concrete depends on the durability of its The type of loading excites different types of strength:
constituents; cement paste and aggregates. A concrete with compressive-tensile-shear strengths are of main importance,
strong paste may not be durable if combined with poor both for static and dynamic (earthquake) loading. Typically
aggregate, and visa versa. One of the most important dams have strength requirements at high maturity and have a
parameters is the “porosity” of the paste, which is a function rather high scatter of strength values as compared to common
of the amount of water relative to the cementitious materials. civil structures.
Excess water can dilute the cement paste leaving a more New testing techniques taking advantage of knowledge in
porous medium. This can be attacked more easily by fracture mechanics could provide valuable information about

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post-peak stress-strain behaviour, both under uniaxial and the conductivity and diffusivity, specific heat and coefficient
biaxial tensile and compressive stress conditions. However of thermal expansion.
they are not addressed in this Bulletin and could be the
Water Permeability
subject of another more extensive bulletin in the future.
The flow of water or moisture through a concrete dam can
Elastic Properties affect its general performance and particularly its durability.
The stress-strain concrete behaviour is quite complex and it Permeability and moisture coefficients can be estimated
has been variously theoretically characterised. However for through suitable test methods. Furthermore models describing
most of usual applications the classic and simplest the mobility of water in a porous material such as concrete
constitutive model, based on linear elasticity in an isotropic have been developed through the years and briefly presented.
homogeneous material, can be used. The two parameters of Frost resistance
Static Modulus of Elasticity (E) and Poisson’s ratio (ν) have The deterioration of the concrete in a dam can be ascribed to
been examined with reference to the main factors affecting a series of chemical and physical causes (both internal and
them and to the proposed correlation with the compressive external). Freezing and thawing is the most common external
strength. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity through non physical attack. External exposure conditions and concrete
destructive techniques are presented and used both to quality are of main importance as they determine the
evaluate the elastic properties and to determine the concrete resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing cycles. Tests to
quality and integrity. Finally the significance of elastic evaluate the frost resistance are considered to prevent the
properties on dam behaviour and the use of elastic properties phenomenon and specific diagnostic investigations are
in mathematical models for dam structural analysis are suggested to identify it in frost affected concrete dams to be
discussed. repaired.
Creep properties
Creep is time-dependent deformation due to sustained load. It Types, causes and detection of ageing
is generally accepted that concrete creep is a rheological
phenomenon associated with the gel-like structure of the A long service life is often considered synonymous with
cement paste. Creep deformation can also be explained durability. It is customary to define durability of Portland
partly in terms of visco-elastic deformation of the cement Cement concrete with reference to the environmental
paste and to the gradual transfer of load from cement paste to conditions (ACI Committee 201) and its ability to resist
aggregate. Creep properties are of particular relevance to weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or other form of
understand the mechanism leading to the prediction of deterioration in terms of retaining its ability to retain its
potential thermal cracking of mass concrete: the most original form, quality and serviceability.
extensive use of creep data is in thermal stress analysis for
concrete dams. Recently it has been found that some form of Water is usually available and is generally involved in the
enhanced creep occurs in structures affrtected by alkali- forms of deterioration of concrete in dams and the rate of
aggregate reactions and can significantly affect the long term deterioration is often related to the degree of permeability.
accumulation of compressive stresses.
Physical effects that adversely affect the durability of
Drying Shrinkage concrete include: surface wear; cracking due to salt; and
Volume changes in concrete can be caused by mechanical, exposure to temperature extremes such as fire or frost.
physical and chemical processes: in this Chapter only volume
changes due to the moisture variations in concrete and the Deleterious chemical effects include: leaching of cement
consequent drying shrinkage are dealt with. The effect of paste by acidic solutions; sulfate attack, alkali-aggregate
drying shrinkage of concrete in large dams is discussed: it reactions (AAR); and corrosion of embedded steel.
reduces rapidly with the thickness and become negligible at a
depth of about 0.50 m. Mechanisms of Concrete Dam Deterioration
Thermal properties
Temperature has very important effects on concrete dams. The turn of the 20th Century presented numerous challenges
Two distinct phenomena need to be considered: to constructing durable concrete structures, one of which was
• the hydration of the cement which causes an increase population expanding into harsh climate zones. The quality
of temperature during the hardening phase of of concrete was impaired by limitations of the quality of the
concrete; and materials and the methods of construction. In some
• the environmental variation of temperature under the instances, limitations on the quality of the basic concrete
normal service conditions. materials: cement, sand, and gravel, and the proportioning of
ingredients impaired quality concrete construction under the
In both cases the analysis of the temperature distribution in severe exposures and harsh climates of the west. In other
the dam and of the consequent induced stresses need data on instances, the methods of batching, mixing, placing, and

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protecting the concrete limited the rate of construction and formation of a secondary compound, ettringite, accompanied
the overall quality of the structures. Lastly, the methodology by a large volumetric expansion and cracking of the concrete.
behind concrete design and construction was just developing ISA was also known as “cement corrosion” in the early
and was not well documented or distributed throughout the 1900's and is very common in the white “alkali flats” of the
industry. A number of significant events and innovations arid western American states and in seawater, particularly
during the 20th Century contributed to the development of tidal zones. ISA was noted in USBR structures on the Sun
concrete as a durable engineering material resulting to what is River project in Montana in 1908, shortly after the formation
now considered “modern concrete.” of the U.S. Reclamation Service [5]. There were cases of
disintegration of a concrete canal lining in the Central Valley
Firstly, durability environments are discussed and then the Project in California only five years after construction [6].
state-of-the-art developments related to constructing durable Early observations in these failures identified certain cement
concrete are addressed. brands as being more resistant to deterioration in these
environments than others. “Bad” cements were less resistant
There are a number of environments that aggressively attack and avoided if possible in favor of more resistant “good”
Portland cement concrete. These include the following: cements.

• Sulfate environment; Alkali-Aggregate Reactions

• Alkali-silica or alkali-carbonate environment - Alkali aggregate reactions (AAR) are the chemical reactions
“alkali-aggregate reactions”; between certain specific mineralogical types of aggregates
• Freezing and thawing environment; (either sand or gravel) and the alkali compounds (generally
• Acid environment; less than 2 percent of the cement composition) of cement in
• Chloride (corrosion) environment; and the presence of moisture. “Typical manifestations of
• Wetting and drying environment. concrete deterioration through alkali-silica reaction are
expansion; cracking, which frequently is of such nature the
Concretes that remain durable under these conditions were designation “pattern” or “map” cracking; exudations of jelly-
proportioned in some way to withstand the elements, either like or hard beads on surfaces; reaction rims on affected
accidentally or purposely. Some advances in the aggregate particles within the concrete; and sometimes
development of durable concrete resulted from observations popouts.”[7] The reaction products have a swelling nature,
of concretes that essentially used chemically resistant leading to tensile stresses that cause micro-cracking within
cements or “accidentally” introduced beneficial admixtures, the concrete. The cracking may allow moisture to more
and comparing them with those that rapidly fell to pieces. readily be absorbed by the silica gel or accelerate freezing
and thawing damage.
The three most critical natural deterioration mechanisms Alkalis in cement can react with certain “glassy,” siliceous
affecting hydraulic structures are sulfate attack, alkali-silica aggregates such as opals, chalcedony, cherts, andesites,
reaction, and freezing-thawing attack. These three basalts, and some quartz; termed alkali-silica reaction or
mechanisms are described in the paragraphs that follow. In ASR, and certain specific carbonate aggregates called alkali-
many cases, concrete deterioration is caused by a carbonate reaction [8]. Alkali-silica reaction was probably
combination of aggressive environments, such as wetting and first experienced by USBR at American Falls Dam in Idaho,
drying in concert with sulfate attack in some desert climates completed in 1927. However, extensive freezing and
or freeze-thaw attack and alkali-silica reaction in some thawing deterioration and poor quality construction practices
mountainous and extreme latitude zones. Here, micro- masked ASR as a primary cause of deterioration at American
fractures caused by one destructive element allow moisture to Falls Dam. Some structures, such as Parker Dam and Stewart
more easily penetrate the paste and contribute to a secondary Mountain Dam suffered early rapid expansion and distress,
reaction. Chloride/corrosion of reinforcing steel and the then became relatively stable after a few years as the
resulting deterioration has been a major issue with highways available alkalis and reactive aggregates were consumed
and bridges but has not been a major deterioration early in the process. Other structures, such as USBR’s
mechanism for concrete dams due to the absence of Seminoe Dam in Wyoming and several Tennessee Valley
chlorides. Authority projects in the Eastern United States are showing
continued expansion and resulting distress even 50 years after
Internal Sulfate Attack construction [9]. In these ongoing expansion cases it appears
Internal sulfate attack (ISA) is a chemical degradation of that the alkalis are also supplied by certain minerals, such as
cement paste caused by high concentrations of sulfates in feldspars, in the aggregates and the reaction and associated
soils and groundwater. ISA is caused by chemical expansion may possibly continue essentially indefinitely.
interactions between sulfate ions and constituents of the
cement paste. The disintegration appears to be caused by
chemical reactions with cement hydration products and the

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Many new cases of expansion instances are being identified subject to cyclic freezing, such as in spillways, and
worldwide including that caused by alkali aggregate particularly those in fluctuating water surface levels, or in
reactions, alkali-silica reactions (ASR) and alkali carbonate splash or spray zones are the most susceptible to
reactions (ACR), as well as reactions in which free lime or deterioration.[12]
magnesia has a role, and those caused by internal sulphate
attack (ISA). This situation arises from the fact that a large Freeze-thaw deterioration is most pronounced in more porous
number of dams are of significant age and that most of the concrete having a high water to cement ratio and those
pathologies observed have evolved very slowly. concretes without purposely entrained, air bubbles; such as in
concretes commonly used in early 20th Century construction.
Only a few years ago, an ICOLD paper stated that nearly 10 Freeze-thaw deterioration was first identified early in USBR
per cent of concrete and masonry dams damaged by ageing history under the general term of durability of concrete
undergo expansion. Recent studies suggest that this figure is without specific causes or solutions. The form of damage is
higher, as many cases of dam expansion have been reported present in the colder and mountainous regions and non-
recently and it should also be noted that the phenomenon can existent in the desert southwestern United States. A mixture
occur even if it is not directly apparent. placed on the All-American Canal in California would have
no problems, but, the very same concrete placed on the
This pathology currently accounts for one of the most Yakima Project in Washington State would be severely
significant scenarios with respect to the deterioration of affected.
concrete dams and hydro projects. Over 100 cases found to
be seriously affected by alkali-aggregate reactions in terms of Developing the State-of-the-Art of Concrete
dam safety and operations were discussed at the 1995 Technology in the United States
USCOLD Conference on Alkali Aggregate Reactions in
Hydroelectric Projects and Dams [10].
Even with quality materials, durable concrete could not
effectively be mixed and placed in the larger structures
A special “Workshop on Chemical Expansion of Concrete in
without new construction practices and equipment. The
Dams and Hydropower Projects” was organized by the
historical development of durable concrete for USBR dams
ICOLD Committee on Concrete Dams jointly with the
provides valuable insights for use generally and can roughly
SPANCOLD Committee on Concrete for dams and hosted by
be divided into four generations with regard to both materials
the International Journal for Hydropower and Dams in
and methods of construction. Each generation contributed to
Granada, Spain in October 2007 [11]. A number of new
the knowledge base of the developing state-of-the-art. The
cases of concern, several with apparently low rates of
first generation of concrete technology covers from its
expansion, were reported at this meeting.
inception in 1902 until about World War I. These
practitioners were the first “pioneers” of USBR concrete
The ICOLD Committee on Concrete Dams is preparing a
construction. The next generation, from 1918 until the late
new Bulletin “Chemical Expansion of Concrete in Dams and
1920's, began developing concrete as an engineering
Hydroelectric Projects” to present the current understanding
material. The Boulder/Hoover generation began in the late
of expansion phenomena in concrete dams and hydroelectric
1920's and continued up to World War II. This generation
projects and to update and amplify the information of the
solved many of the fundamental problems encountered in
ICOLD Bulletin 97 published in 1991. It will consider all
massive concrete construction and many of the standardized
kinds of chemical expansion phenomena, including that due
quality concrete construction practices. They uncovered the
to alkali aggregate reactions (ASR and ACR), reactions in
mysteries of sulfate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction, and
which free lime or magnesia has a role, and those due to
freezing and thawing durability, leading to the first truly
sulphur compounds (ISA).
engineered, modern, durable concretes. The post war
generation incorporated the basic concepts of modern
Freezing and Thawing Deterioration
concrete in a multitude of applications for dams, pumping
Freezing and thawing (FT) deterioration is the deleterious
and power plants, canals, and tunnels under a variety of
expansion of water within the cement paste resulting in
differing site conditions.
destruction of the concrete matrix. Water present in the
cement paste expands about 9 percent upon freezing. When
confined within a rigid, crystalline micro-structure, the The Early Years - The Concrete Pioneers
expanding ice crystals can exert pressures far exceeding the The first generation of concrete practitioners developed the
tensile capacity of the paste, causing cracking and ultimately technology largely through trial and error and continued
disintegration of the concrete. The concrete must be nearly observation. The earliest concrete was composed of poorly
saturated when it undergoes the freezing for this form of manufactured cements, unprocessed aggregates, and was
deterioration to take place. Repeated cycles of freezing and mixed by hand or small mixers. The materials themselves;
thawing are common in water conveyance structures. Areas cement, sand, and gravel were subject to great variability.
The concrete mixture was proportioned by “recipe” based on

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previous experience, not necessarily as an engineered Concrete manufacturing methods also improved during the
material. Many early USBR projects were somewhat isolated 1920's, including centrally batched and mixed concrete plants
geographically and there was less communication beyond and systems to haul and transport concrete to the site. The
regional boundaries. A change in location or structural daily output of concrete plants increased, resulting in fewer
design was not necessarily followed with an appropriate cold joints. The horse and wagon was being replaced by the
change in concrete mixture design, resulting in spotty locomotive and trucks. Larger projects were constructed and
performance. Labor was cheap, equipment and cement were more mechanized processes were developed. Still, the
expensive. The resulting mixtures contained the least amount process of consolidating concrete was left to the common
of cement necessary to meet low strength requirements, at laborer through rodding and spading. The first methods to
least by today’s standards. Concrete was largely transported consolidate concrete with mechanical equipment were just
by wheelbarrows and compacted in place by manual tamping, being developed. Better treatment of cold joints was
spading, and rodding. The production rates were very slow, developed during this time, improving the continuity between
resulting in frequent “cold joints” or unplanned flaws that adjacent placements.
allowed seepage and subsequent deterioration.
Boulder Dam / The “Hoover Generation”
The earliest USBR construction projects did not have the In 1928, the Boulder Canyon Act ratified the Colorado River
benefit of a developed methodology and specific equipment Compact and authorized construction of Hoover Dam [16].
for concrete construction. Construction practices gradually The size of the Hoover Dam required a completely new
improved during the first USBR construction era. Many technology for large-scale concrete design and construction.
structures fortunately utilized techniques that have helped The “Hoover Generation” raised concrete materials
them resist degradation. Theodore Roosevelt Dam in technology, design methods, and concrete construction
Arizona utilized a masonry facing and cyclopean concrete technology to unprecedented heights. This generation of
methods: large “plum stones” were placed followed by concrete technologists formulated large-scale research and
smaller cobbles and boulders and then the concrete was development programs of special cements to meet the
added to fill the remaining voids. This construction specific engineering properties for massive concrete
technique left large stones across the construction joint structures. They answered some fundamental questions
surface that reduced shear planes. The mixtures had a low about cement chemistry and the effects on mass concrete.
cement content on a per cubic yard basis that reduced thermal Solving these questions required close cooperation and
cracking and the cost [13]. communication between government agencies,
manufacturers, contractors, and private and academic
The Abrams Generation research institutions. The application of scientific methods to
The first major advance in concrete technology during the solve complex durability problems led to what we now know
20th Century occurred about 1918 with the publication of as “modern concrete.”
Duff Abrams’ “Design of Concrete Mixtures” [14]. Abrams
improved on the recipe proportioning methods through One of the first steps required for concrete for Hoover Dam
deliberate design practices with proportioning methods and was to investigate the composition of cement to reduce the
mix design tables. Abrams classic research and his “water to amount of heat generated as it hydrated. Extensive research
cement ratio law” provided the foundation of concrete mix on cement composition resulted in developing a low-heat
design still followed today. He found concrete strength and cement for mass concrete, now known by the American
thus quality could be controlled by the relative proportions of Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) as Type IV
water and cement. He also found it was possible to design cement. The hydration product “tri-calcium aluminate,”
mixes for the same strength using different materials. abbreviated in a simplified form as “C3A,” was found to be
Concrete mixes could be designed and proportioned to meet a one of the principal compounds that generates heat during the
variety of conditions and structural requirements. Stronger hydration process. Reclamation specified the chemical
concretes were developed to resist deterioration by the composition of cement supplied to Hoover Dam in 1933 to
environment. Researchers began investigating the assure a low heat of hydration. The low-heat cement also had
fundamental physical-chemical reactions that were needed to improved durability because the low C3A cements had better
advance the state-of-the-art. One of the first inroads to resistance to sulfate attack. This improved resistance to
developing durable concrete took place with the identification sulfate attack was the basis for specifying less than 5 percent
of the chemical reaction products of cement hydration, and a C3A for cement used on the Kendrick Project in 1938;
method to compute the relative proportions of each another forerunner of the ASTM Type V (sulfate-resisting)
constituent in cement by Bogue in 1927 [15]. This important cement [17].
step was necessary to formulate different compositions of
cement. With the knowledge of its composition, it was Construction of such large projects as Hoover and Grand
possible to purposely change materials and manufacturing Coulee Dams could not have been accomplished without
processes to enhance the performance of Portland cement. advances in concrete aggregate processing, concrete

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manufacturing, transporting, and placing. The use of block in the 1930's may have resulted from specifications allowing
construction techniques and artificial, post-cooling reduced grinding aids during cement manufacturing that may have
the potential for thermal cracking. Specialized concrete batch entrained some air [24]. Anecdotal evidence points to other
plants with rail transporting and “high-lines” or cable ways, accidental introductions of air in concrete in the United States
were used to transport and place large quantities in round-the- as early as the 1920's. These concretes were quickly rejected
clock operations. One of the under-appreciated advances in due to lower density and compressive strength! Higginson
concrete quality developed by eliminating the back-breaking even refers to the possibility of forms of entrained air in
“tamping” techniques of consolidation was the high- stucco specified by Marcus Vitrivius Pollio in the First
frequency, mechanical concrete vibrator [18]. Vibrators Century A.D [25]. USBR quickly changed their
allowed a lowered unit water content of the mixture and thus specifications and changed to air-entrained concrete [26].
lowered the cement content. The concrete generated less heat By1945, USBR had finally overcome the three primary
and became less porous, while costing less. causes of concrete durability problems in the west, resulting
in what is considered “modern concrete;” an engineered
In the early 1940’s, the last two pieces of the durability concrete capable of resisting the physical and chemical forces
puzzle were identified and finally corrected. Alkali- of nature.
aggregate reaction was encountered by USBR at American
Falls Dam, and about 150 miles downstream of Hoover Dam The Post-WWII Generation: “The Constructors”
at Parker Dam. While American Falls Dam was undergoing The post-WWII generation of concrete technologists applied
rehabilitation from a variety of causes, Parker Dam was just the fundamentals of modern concrete to “customize” it for a
being completed in 1937. Within two years, cracks appeared variety of new applications and over a wide range of different
in the dam [19]. The cracking at Parker Dam was severe environments. This generation began as post-war citizen
enough to warrant a large scale research investigation and a soldiers returned to the United States and continued through
blue ribbon panel of consultants. In the end, the chemical the cold war. These people were the constructors. During
reactions between certain altered andesites and rhyolites in the fifties and sixties USBR was completing “a dam a year.”
less than 2 percent of the aggregates and the alkalis in the Large, thick arch dams became high-strength, double
cement fostered ASR [20]. First observed in Pennsylvania in curvature, thin arch dams.
the early 1920's at the Buck Hydroelectric Plant, ASR
became a noticeable problem throughout the country in the Projects were constructed across the desert and through
1930's and early 1940's [21]. The solution to ASR was to use 14,000 foot high mountain ranges. Some of the largest water
petrographic techniques to identify those aggregates with the development and distribution systems were completed during
potential for expansion and to specify a 0.6 percent limit of this era, the Central Arizona and Central Utah Projects. The
alkalis in the cement [22]. USBR quickly instituted the low- concretes used new additives to achieve greater durability,
alkali limit for concrete with potentially reactive aggregates economy, and performance. These concretes should remain
by April of 1941. durable through the next century.

The last major advance in developing durable concrete was One of the most significant contributions of this generation
the result of both accident and observation in 1938. In New improved durability and also made concrete less expensive.
York State, certain highway pavements were observed to The purposeful addition of natural pozzolans in the early 20th
have superior performance when a particular brand of cement Century was done somewhat as a cost-saving measure and
was used in the concrete. The highway departments began later to reduce the temperature rise of mass concrete. USBR
specifying this particular brand of cement for all their began investigating a power plant by-product, fly ash, in the
highway construction without fully understanding the reason 1930's and 1940's as a substitute for natural pozzolans in
for superior performance. Microscopic examination of the mass concrete. The first large-scale specified use of fly ash
concrete revealed a paste structure containing tiny, entrained, was at Hungry Horse Dam in 1950 [27]. USBR continued
air bubbles brought about by using beef tallow in the cement research on fly ash, yielding other benefits such as improving
kilns during manufacturing [23]. This produced the first “air- the sulfate resistance of concrete. In the 1970's cement
entrained” cement, accompanied by significantly improved shortages prompted USBR to begin using fly ash in normal
freezing and thawing resistance compared to other cements. structural concrete and canal linings to save cement. The
The microscopic air bubbles absorbed the expansive forces of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s implementation of
freezing ice crystals within the paste, preventing micro- the Resource Conservation Recovery Act, beginning in 1980,
cracking. Though not a direct player in the initial strongly encouraged the reuse of recycled materials,
identification of entrained air, USBR began testing concrete including fly ash in concrete [28]. The long-term benefits of
for freeze-thaw durability in the mid-1930’s as a means of using fly ash will continue for generations as these concretes
evaluating concrete, aggregate quality, and other additives, are less porous, and more resistant to sulfate attack and
some of which may have accidentally entrained air. The alkali-silica reaction, even more than with sulfate-resisting,
perceived superior durability of Grand Coulee Dam concrete low-alkali cements [29].

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Robin G Charlwood Predicting the Long Term Behavior and Service Life of Concrete Dams LTBD09-Graz

The Present Generation and Beyond Understanding the predominant processes at work can
By about 1990, the last of USBR’s large dams were being provide a basis to plan an appropriate structural management
completed and a new era was underway. Most of USBR’s program. In some such cases the process may have a finite
construction program is now devoted to rehabilitation of the lifetime while in others it will continue indefinitely. When
existing structures. The Reclamation Safety of Dams Act of the process is seen to be continuing indefinitely, the approach
1978 provided the Secretary of the Interior with the authority needs to be one of long-term maintenance rather than a one-
to construct, restore, operate, and maintain new or modified time fix and long-term budget provisions made accordingly.
features at existing USBR dams for safety of dams purposes Economic analyses of remedial measures options should thus
[30]. As the inventory of dams was closely examined, it be done on a “life cycle” basis. In some cases these may
became apparent that many dams were in need of attention. indicate that there is only a finite economical remaining
The safety of dams program recognized dams constructed service life and plans need to be made for a replacement
prior to changes in the state-of-the-art in dam design and structure. There have been a limited number of cases
construction were candidates for funding under this act. In recently identified in Canada and the United States with
addition to dam safety needs, many aging USBR structures ongoing ASR where this is the case.
were in need of some type of repair due to the ravages of
time. An example is Tieton Dam, constructed in Washington Rehabilitation work, particularly using modern
State in 1925. The concrete lined spillway suffered from methods and materials
serious freezing and thawing deterioration. It was first
rehabilitated in the 1970's and again in 1999 with operations
Many methods of treating surface deterioration have been
and maintenance funding. Concrete canals, power and
developed including: chemical treatment of the upstream
pumping plants, and appurtenant structures are also being
face; upstream concrete type coating using epoxy, gunite or
rehabilitated throughout the west. The present generation of
shotcrete; sealant materials to provide a waterproof
concrete technologists benefitted from four generations of
membrane; geo-membranes attached to the face; downstream
research and development. They must continue to apply the
drainage layers covered with gunite or shotcrete and
hard won practical knowledge of their predecessors to
reinforced and anchored to the downstream face, grouting or
maintain the existing infrastructure well into the 21st Century. other internal treatment; and RCC buttresses on the
downstream face.
Analysis of ageing process and its consequences
on dam safety and project operations Remedies for more invasive forms of deterioration such as
alkali-aggregate reactions or other swelling or internal
In most cases of deterioration the specific causative process mechanisms tend to be more structural in nature since no
can be identified by inspection by concrete materials experts, “cure” is available once the structure is constructed. Some
frequently using petrographers, augmented by field and solutions have involved anchoring to improve shear strength
laboratory testing. The role of non-destructive testing on lift joints or as an attempt to restrain the structure against
techniques such as ultra-sonic testing and their analysis and the cause. Others involved stress relief by slot cutting or
presentation using tomography methods is a developing field other structural modifications.
and can help develop an “internal” view of the structural
condition. Prevention measures (physical and
organizational) to mitigate ageing processes
The effects of these processes on structural integrity and dam
safety can sometimes be obvious and in other cases such as No material is inherently durable. As a result if interactions
AAR, detailed modeling, sometimes using special purpose with its environment, the microstructure and consequently,
finite element analyses, is necessary to identify the the properties of materials change with time. A material may
mechanisms and forecast potential effects such as cracking be assumed to have reached its end of service life when its
and deformation in the future. properties under given conditions have deteriorated to such
an extent that that the continuing use of the structure is unsafe
A related key aspect is the long term susceptibility to or the costs of ongoing repairs make the structure
corrosion and performance of high strength anchors. These uneconomical.
are increasingly used to improve stability of structures where
construction joints are deteriorating or where criteria have In addition to having to deal with the physical and chemical
escalated. Corrosion of reinforcing steel is clearly a major processes of deterioration, the determination of acceptability
problem although is often more of a maintenance issue and of the condition of such structures is often made more
not always related to dam safety. difficult by changing criteria such as escalation in design
floods (PMF’s) and earthquakes (MCE’s) due to improved
knowledge and society’s evolving demands for public safety.

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The economic value of the water supply, energy generation The knowledge currently available to assess reaction factors
or flood control facilities containing these structures is and mechanisms is still not sufficiently exhaustive;
frequently substantial and thus life extension and sometimes, no clear facts can be found with regard to the
rehabilitation of existing concrete dams and appurtenant chronology of the formation of compounds found and the
works is an important activity. It is vital that the industry product which triggers the expansion phenomenon when the
understands the processes of ageing, how to assess its extent analysis is carried out. Furthermore, most analyses,
and what measures can be taken to cost effectively extend the particularly those focused on the reactivity potential of
life of these facilities. aggregates, are neither reliable nor applicable to all types of
minerals. In particular, it is difficult to determine the potential
Although the list of accomplishments is long, the USBR’s future expansion in existing projects with ASR.
Tim Dolen nominated the following as the “top five”
contributions to durable concrete in the 20th Century (in There are a number of increasingly comprehensive numerical
chronological order) [31]: models being developed to model AAR. Initially “mechanical
analogue” models have been used, some with good success in
• Abrams’ design of concrete mixtures and “water- predicting future behavior. Newer “kinetic” models have
cement ratio law” - Abrams applied engineering been developed which include coupled thermal, moisture and
practices to concrete mixtures and he was the first to material behavior and are being tested. These new generation
institutionalize control of the water content to models hold great promise but are complex and reliable
improve concrete quality; calibration techniques need to be developed so that they can
be used confidently to forecast future deterioration and
• Development of special cements to improve concrete behavior. See the Granada workshop presentations by Grimal
quality, such as low-heat and sulfate resisting and others for examples [11].
cements;
Expansion characteristics make it difficult to establish a
• Development of the internal vibrator to consolidate detailed diagnosis and laboratory tests which produce results
concrete - this equipment significantly reduced the that can be used with confidence to assess the extent of the
water content of concrete, making it less permeable; problems and develop remedial action. In fact, traces of
anomalous reactions can be found in sound concrete, and the
• Determining the causes of and solutions to alkali- fact that tests done on different materials are generally
aggregate reaction and freezing and thawing attack - qualitative, and cannot be applied universally, adds further
using scientific methods such as petrographic complications to the conclusions drawn in the analysis.
mineralogical examination and long-term testing to
identify the parameters which affected the durability On reviewing the current state of expansion phenomena, it
of concrete under these conditions; and can be concluded that more knowledge is required on the
fundamental processes involved in concrete expansion, and
• Incorporating fly ash in concrete construction - fly ash how it can be avoided or managed if it is present. Dam
improved concrete workability, decreased the managers are concerned about the lack of uniformity with
porosity of the cement paste, and improved its regard to the degree of reliability in procedures currently
resistance to sulfate attack and alkali-silica reaction. carried out within the diagnosis. Furthermore, the remedies
required to deal with this type of anomaly are not clear. This
heterogeneity of criteria must be addressed.
Chemical expansion of existing concrete dams
Pathologies of this kind are not treated to a sufficient degree
Although initial progress was achieved in preventing AAR in and may therefore give rise to shortcomings associated with
some areas, the phenomena of chemical expansion of existing dam and hydroelectric project control and maintenance. This
concrete dams still currently accounts for one of the most problem therefore requires a concerted effort to improve the
significant scenarios with respect to the deterioration of situation.
concrete dams and hydro projects and deserves special
attention [32]. It is strongly suggested that expansion data should be
compiled internationally in a systematic manner, to allow a
With regard to tests and analyses, the complex reactivity in reliable scientific analysis to be made, as a basis to produce
the concrete is difficult to reproduce in laboratory conditions, practical recommendations for avoidance and management of
where reproduction and measurement of the broad range of these various expansion phenomena.
variables is limited and difficult, and are not even well
understood at this time. Clearly laboratory activities need to
be improved.

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Robin G Charlwood Predicting the Long Term Behavior and Service Life of Concrete Dams LTBD09-Graz

Conclusions regarding Remaining Service Life [3] Dolen, Timothy P., Scott, Gregg A., von Fay, Kurt F., Hamilton, Bob.
of Concrete Dams Effects of Concrete Deterioration on Safety of Dams. Report No. DSO-
03-05, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, December
2003.
There is little doubt that in constructing new concrete dams,
careful selection of materials, supplemented by sufficiently [4] American Concrete Institute, ACI 116R, Report on Cement and
comprehensive testing, appropriate mix design and good Concrete Terminology, Farmington Hills, MI, 2001.
quality control will go a long way to ensuring longevity. The
[5] Jewett, J.Y., Cement and Concrete Work of the United States
effective life of concrete dams can, in almost all cases, be Reclamation Service with Notes on Disintegration of Concrete by
extended indefinitely with proper modern design and Action of Alkali Waters, Proceedings of ASTM, Vol. 8, Philadelphia,
construction, appropriate operation and good maintenance, PA, 1908, pp. 480 - 493.
and with rehabilitation of deficiencies when required.
[6] Harboe, Edward M., Longtime Studies and Field Experiences with
Sulfate Attack, American Concrete Institute Special Publication No. 77-
The issue of very long term chemical expansion of existing 1, Detriot, MI, 1977.
concrete dams appears to be of increasing concern and should
be the subject of ongoing research and development. [7] Durability of Concrete Construction, American Concrete Institute
Monograph No. 4, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, The Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 1968, p. 59-60.
The most pervasive agent of deterioration is water, and thus
measures to limit access of water to the concrete, both [8] Meilenz, R.C., Petrographic Examination of Concrete Aggregate to
externally and internally should be the primary objective in Determine Potential Alkali Reactivity, Highway Research Report No.
18-C, 1958, p. 29-35.
most cases of existing and new construction. In addition to
techniques such as grouting and sealing to reduce leakage and [9] Mohorovic, C.E., and Dolen, T.P., 1998-99 Concrete Coring-
leaching, although superficial, regular “housekeeping” and Laboratory Testing Program, Seminoe Dam, Kendrick Project,
cleaning of exposed faces which minimizes plant growth and Wyoming, Bureau of Reclamation Technical Service Center, Denver,
CO, August, 1999.
accumulation of deleterious deposits, can play a significant
beneficial role plus adding value through pride of ownership. [10] Charlwood, Robin G., Solymar, Zoltan V., An International
Perspective: AAR in Hydroelectric Projects and Dams, Second
International Conference on Alkali Aggregate Reactions in
Acknowledgements Hydroelectric Projects and Dams, USCOLD, Chattanooga, TN.
October 1995, pages 19 – 55.
The author expresses thanks to the members of the ICOLD
Committee on Concrete Dams for their stimulating [11] Information and copies of presentations are available on-line at
http://www.dam-research.org/Granada-2007/index.html.
collaboration on this topic. In particular the author
recognizes Dr. Mario Berra of CESI-RICERCA in Milan for [12] Smoak, W. Glenn, Guide to Concrete Repair, Bureau of Reclamation
his hard work on the preparation of the ICOLD Bulletin on Technical Service Center, Denver, CO, April, 1997, p. 4.
Physical Properties of Hardened Concrete and Juan Buil Sanz
[13] Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Dams and Control
and his colleagues on the SPANCOLD Committee on Works, Third Edition, Washington, D.C., 1954, pp. 57-60.
Concrete for their support for the Granada Workshop and the
new ICOLD Bulletin on Chemical Expansion of Concrete in [14] Abrams, Duff, A., Design of Concrete Mixtures, Structural Materials
Dams and Hydroelectric Projects. Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, IL, 1918.

[15] Bogue, R.,H., Calculation of the Compounds in Portland Cement,

In addition, The author expresses particular thanks to Industrial and Engineering Chemical Analysis, Vol. 1, No. 4, October,
Timothy P. Dolen, Research Civil Engineer & Senior 1929.
Technical Specialist, Materials Engineering and Research
[16] Bureau of Reclamation, Brief History of the Bureau of Reclamation,
Laboratory, Technical Service Center, United States Bureau Bureau of Reclamation History Program, Denver, CO, July, 2000, p. 4.
of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, USA. Tim has kindly
shared summaries of a series of invaluable studies on ageing [17] Moran, Willis, T. Bureau of Reclamation Viewpoint on Portland
and durability of USBR’s large dams, several extracts from Cement Specifications, 1952.
which have been incorporated into this article. [18] McCarty, M.I., High Frequency Vibratory Machines for Concrete
Placement, Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 30,
References ACI, Detroit, MI, September, 1933.

[19] DePuy, G.W., Petrographic Investigations of Concrete and Concrete

[1] Dolen, Timothy P. Cement History Database, Bureau of Reclamation, Aggregates at the Bureau of Reclamation, ASTM STP-1061,
Science and Technology Program, Research Project FI908, Decision Petrography Applied to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, ASTM,
Support system for Aging Concrete, 2000. Philadelphia, PA, 1990, p. 33-46.

[2] Dolen, Timothy P., Historical Development of Durable Concrete for

the Bureau of Reclamation. ICOLD Montreal 21st Congress Question
82, Transactions v4, page 291, 2003.

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Robin G Charlwood Predicting the Long Term Behavior and Service Life of Concrete Dams LTBD09-Graz

[20] Stanton, T. E., Expansion of Concrete Through Reaction Between

Cement and Aggregates, Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 66, December,
1940, pp. 1781-1811.

[21] Kammer, H.A. and Carlson, R.W., Investigation of Causes of Delayed

Expansion of Concrete in Buck Hydroelectric Plant, Proceedings of
ACI, Vol. 37, June, 1941, p.665.

[22] DePuy, ibid, 1990.

[23] Lawton, E.C., Durability of Concrete Pavement - Experiences in New

York State, Proceedings of ACI, Detroit, MI, Vol. 35, June, 1939, p.
561.

[24] Bureau of Reclamation, Effect of the admixture, T.D.A., on the

durability of concrete, Cement Laboratory Report No. Ce-33, Denver,
CO, June 30, 1942.

[25] Higginson, E.C., Air-Entrained Concrete in Modern Construction,

Presented before the Engineering Section of the Colorado-Wyoming
Academy of Science, Boulder, CO, May 2, 1952.

[26] Price, Walter, H., In the Beginning, Bureau of Reclamation, Concrete

Laboratory Technical Conference, December, 1981.

[27] Bureau of Reclamation, Laboratory and Field Investigations of

Concrete, Hungry Horse Dam, Hungry Horse Project, Concrete
Laboratory Report No. C-699, Denver, CO, December 4, 1953.

[28] Harboe, Edward, M., Fly Ash and the EPA Guidelines, Presentation to
the Division of Design, February, 1984.

[29] Kalousek, G.L., Porter, L.C., and Benton, E.J., Concrete for Long-time
Service in Sulfate Environment, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 2,
Pergamon Press, New york, 1972, pp. 79-89.

[30] United States Government, Public Law 95-578, November 2, 1978.

[31] Dolen, Timothy M, ibid.

[32] Charlwood, Robin G., Buil Sanz, Juan M., Chemical Expansion of
Concrete in Dams and Hydroelectric Projects. Hydropower and Dams,
Issue 3, 2008.

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