Test Technician (2774) PDF
Test Technician (2774) PDF
Test Technician (2774) PDF
Study Guide
for
Test Technician Test
Human Resources
Southern California Edison Company
|
REV04302019 1
2774 Test Technician Test
Introduction
The test is a job knowledge test designed to cover the major knowledge areas
necessary to perform the job. This Guide contains strategies to use for taking
tests and a study outline, which includes knowledge categories, major job
activities, and study references.
Test Session
It is important that you follow the directions of the Test Administrator exactly. If
you have any questions about the testing session, be sure to ask the Test
Administrator before the testing begins. During testing, you may NOT leave the
room, talk, smoke, eat, or drink. Since some tests take several hours, you should
consider these factors before the test begins.
All questions on this test are multiple-choice or hot spot questions. Multiple
choice questions have four possible answers. Hot spot questions have a picture,
and you must click the correct spot on the picture to answer the question. All
knowledge tests will be taken on the computer. For more information on this,
please see the next section of this study guide on Computer Based Testing.
A scientific calculator will be provided for you to use during the test. You
will be given the choice between the following calculators: Casio fx-115es
plus or Texas Instruments TI-36X.
You will NOT be able to bring or use your own calculator during testing.
You will receive a Test Comment form so that you can make comments about
test questions. Write any comments you have and turn it in with your test when
you are done.
At the end of this Guide you have been provided with a Study Guide Feedback
page. If a procedure or policy has changed, making any part of this Guide
incorrect, your feedback would be appreciated so that corrections can be made.
|
REV04302019 2
2774 Test Technician Test
Log in Screen
You will be seated at a testing station. When you are seated, the computer will prompt
you to enter the candidate ID and password you received in your invitation e-mail. You
MUST have your candidate ID and password or you will be unable to take the test. Once
you have confirmed your identity by entering this information, you will see a list of tests
available to you.
Sample/Tutorial
Before you start your actual test, a Sample/Tutorial Test is provided to help you become
familiar with the computer and the mouse. From the list of exams that appear when you
complete the log in, you will select Sample/Tutorial. You will have up to 10 minutes to
take the Sample/Tutorial Test. The time you spend on this Sample Test does NOT count
toward your examination time. Sample questions are included so that you may practice
answering questions. In the Sample/Tutorial Test, you will get feedback on your
answers. You will not receive feedback on your actual test.
Example
During the test, you may see several different types of items. Many of the questions will
be multiple choice items. A few items will be pictures, where you’ll have to click the spot
on the picture that answers the question. Those picture questions are known as “Hot
Spot” questions. More information on each type is below.
When you begin the test, you can see the total time allowed for completion
displayed at the top of the screen. You can scroll up to see that information at
any time during the test.
You can change your answers at any time during the test until the time runs out,
or you click the “Submit” button. Once you click Submit, you cannot change your
answers.
REV04302019 3|
2774 Test Technician Test
To answer each multiple choice question, you should move the mouse pointer over the
circle (radio button) next to the answer of your choice, and click the left mouse button.
1. In order to answer each question, first read the question and determine the
response that best answers the question. Put the mouse pointer directly over
the circle corresponding to that response.
2. While the pointer is over the circle corresponding to the best answer, click the
left mouse button.
3. The answer you selected should now have a green dot in the circle. If you need
to select an alternate answer, simply move the pointer over that circle, and click
again.
REV04302019 4|
2774 Test Technician Test
To answer each Hot Spot question, you should move the mouse pointer over the part of
the image that best answers the question, and click the left mouse button. You will see a
pointer appear in that spot. If you want to change your answer, simply move the mouse
pointer to a new area on the picture and click again. The pointer will move to the new
spot.
1. In order to answer each question, first read the question and determine the
place on the image that best answers the question. The pointer that will
indicate your answer can always be seen in the bottom left of the image. It
looks like this:
Put the mouse pointer directly over the spot on the image you want to select, and
click the left mouse button.
|
REV04302019 5
2774 Test Technician Test
2. The pointer will move from the bottom left of the image and appear over the
spot you selected.
3. To change your answer, simply move the mouse pointer to the new spot, and
click again. The pointer graphic will move to the new spot you’ve selected. In
order for your answer to be considered be correct, the center of the pointer
( • ) must be over the correct spot on the graphic.
|
REV04302019 6
2774 Test Technician Test
The test contains multiple-choice questions. The purpose of this section is to help you to
identify some special features of a multiple-choice test and to suggest techniques for you
to use when taking one.
Your emotional and physical state during the test may determine whether you are
prepared to do your best. The following list provides common sense techniques you can
use before the test begins.
Technique Remarks
Be confident - If you feel confident about passing the test, you may lose
some of your anxiety.
Concentrate - Try to block out all distractions and concentrate only on the
test. You will not only finish faster but you will reduce your
chances of making careless mistakes.
|
REV04302019 7
2774 Test Technician Test
Budget your times - Pace yourself carefully to ensure that you will have enough
time to complete all items and review your answers.
Make educated - Make an educated guess if you do not know the answer or
guesses if you are unsure of it.
Remember the techniques described in this section are only suggestions. You should
follow the test taking methods that work best for you.
|
REV04302019 8
2774 Test Technician Test
There are a total of 101 items on the test and the passing score is 75%.
C. Mathematics (8 items)
Trigonometry – knowledge of sine, cosine, tangent ratios, and their
application in electrical theory (e.g., phasor angle); this includes the ability
to solve triangle problems using trigonometric functions.
Study References
1. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/
2. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/
3. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/video-lectures/
4. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/
Important Note: The knowledge categories described below are different from the
knowledge categories that appear in the Test Technician Study Guide Workbook
provided through SCE PPT. Please refer to the knowledge categories in this guide, not
the knowledge categories in the workbook, for relevance to the test.
REV04302019 9|
2774 Test Technician Test
Page Comments
|
REV04302019 10
Appendix
Test Technician
Study Guide Workbook
N O T I C E
Copyright © 2010 by
Power Production Training
Westminster California 92683
All rights reserved
Below are the major job knowledge categories that are covered on
the test.
A. Electrical Theory
B. Electronic Theory
C. Mathematics
E. Equipment Knowledge
F. Safety
Study References
Basic Electricity
Bureau of Navy Personnel, Dover Publications
Vector Analysis
Industrial Press, Stroud and Booth
Basic Electronics
Bernard Grob, McGraw Hill Book Co.
Basic Electricity
Bureau of Navy Personnel,
Substation Training School
• Sines
• Cosines
• Tangents
Objectives
Key Words
The lengths of the sides of a right triangle are related to the size of the
angle . This is the basis for trigonometric (trig) functions.
The sides of the triangle in Figure 28 are labeled based on the angle
about which you are talking, A or (theta) in this case. The side
opposite is labeled “a.” The side next to or adjacent to is labeled
“b.” The hypotenuse is still called the hypotenuse and is labeled
“c.” The angle opposite the hypotenuse, or the right angle (90°), is
labeled “C.”
The ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse is called the sine of angle .
Sine is abbreviated sin.
length of opposite side
sin =
length of hypotenuse
or
a
sin =
c
The reciprocal of sin , the length of the hypotenuse divided by the
length of the opposite side, is called the cosecant, or CSC .
If you know any two parts of the sine equation, you can easily
calculate the third. If you know the sine of an angle and want to
find the angle itself, you can write this as sin-1 or arcsin.
Solution:
5.9
sin =
21
5.9
= sin-1
21
= sin-1 0.2809
From standard trig tables, or using a calculator with trig functions,
sin-1 16.3° = 0.2807, which is very close to 0.2809.
Therefore 16.3°
It is usually helpful to draw a simple diagram of problems.
The ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse is called the cosine of .
Cosine is abbreviated cos.
len g th o f a dja cen t sid e
cos =
len g th o f h yp oten u se
or
b
cos =
c
The reciprocal of the cos , the length of the hypotenuse divided by
the length of the adjacent side, is called the secant, or sec . See
Figure 28, repeated below.
A plot of cos for from 0° to 360° looks like Figure 30. Notice that
cos is never larger than +1 or less than -1.
Look at a sample problem: How high will a 35 ft. long ladder reach
up a vertical wall if it makes an angle of 18.2° with the wall?
Solution:
b
cos 18.2° =
35
b = 35 cos 18.2°
From standard trig tables, or using a calculator with trig functions,
cos 18.2° = 0.9500.
b = 35 (0.95)
= 33.25 ft.
The ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side is called the tangent of .
Tangent is abbreviated tan.
len g th o f o pp o site sid e
tan =
len g th o f a dja cen t sid e
or
O
cos =
A
Solution:
a
tan 41° =
29 3
a= 293 tan 41°
From standard trig tables, or using a calculator with trig functions,
tan 41° = 0.8693.
a = 293 (0.8693)
= 254.7 ft.
The Law of Sines states that in any triangle ABC, the sides are
proportional to the sines of the opposite angles. See Figure 31 for an
example of a typical triangle ABC.
d d
sin A = sin B =
b a
Dividing by sin A
b sin A a sin B
=
sin A sin A
a sin B
b =
sin A
Dividing by sin B
b a sin B
=
sin B sin A sin B
b a
or =
sin B sin A
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
a b b c c a
= = =
sin A sin B sin B sin C sin C sin A
The Law of Cosines states that in any triangle ABC, the square of
any side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides
diminished by twice the product of the other two sides and the
cosine of the included angle. See Figure 31, repeated below.
b2 = d2 + (AD)2
d DB
sin B = cos B =
a a
Then AD = AB - DB = c - a cos B
and b2 = d2 + (AD)2 = (a sin B)2 + (c - a cos B)2
or b2 = a2 sin2 B + (c2 -2ac cos B + a2 cos2 B)
b2 = a2 sin2 B + c2 -2ac cos B + a2 cos2 B
b2 = a2 (sin2 B + cos2B) + c2 - 2ac cos B
It can be shown from the Pythagorean Theorem that:
(sin2 B + cos2 B) = 1
NOTE: In general, the Law of Sines is used when two angles and
one side or two sides and an angle opposite one of them are
known, while the Law of Cosines is used when two sides and the
included angle or three sides are known.
Practice problems using the trig functions are in the next section.
Use standard trig table functions or, if you have one, a calculator
with trig functions, to solve these problems. Answers are at the end
of the module.
1. A tower is braced by a cable fastened 15 ft. below the top and to an anchor
that is 65 ft. from the base of the tower. If the brace makes an angle of 70°
with the ground, how high is the tower?
This equation says that the rms voltage equals 70.7 percent of the
peak voltage. Recall what rms value means. This is the equivalent
dc voltage that would produce the same amount of power over one
complete cycle.
Basic Equation
Line voltage is too high for most of the devices used in electronics
equipment. This is why a transformer is commonly used in almost
all electronics equipment. This transformer steps the ac voltage
down to lower levels that are more suitable for use with devices
like diodes and transistors.
N
V2 N 2 V1 (4-2)
1
Step-Up Transformer
When the secondary winding has more turns than the primary
winding, more voltage is induced in the secondary than in the
primary. In other words, when N2/N1 is greater than one, the
transformer is referred to as a step-up transformer. If N1 = 100 turns
and N2 = 300 turns, the same flux cuts through three times as many
turns in the secondary as in the primary winding. This is why the
secondary voltage is three times as large as the primary voltage.
Step-Down Transformer
When the secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary
winding, less voltage is induced in the secondary than in the
primary. In this case, the turns ratio, N2:N1, is less than one, and the
transformer is called a step-down transformer. If N1 = 100 turns
and N2 = 50 turns, the same flux cuts through half as many turns in
Effect on Current
P2 = P1
or
V2I2 = V1I1
I 1 V2
I 2 V2
or
N
I N2 I (4-3)
1 1 2
N
I N1 I (4-4)
2 1
2
Suppose the voltage from a power outlet is 120 V rms. What is the
peak voltage?
Solution
Vrms
Vp
0.707
Now, substitute the rms voltage and calculate the peak voltage:
120V
Vp 170V
0.707
This tells us that the sinusoidal voltage out of the power outlet has
a peak value of 170 V.
Example 4–2
Solution
120V
V2 24 V
5
Example 4–3
Solution
1A
I1 0.2A
5
N2
V p2 V p1
N1
Recall the dot convention used with transformers. The dotted ends
of a transformer have the same polarity of voltage at any instant in
time. When the upper end of the primary winding is positive, the
upper end of the secondary winding is also positive. When the
upper end of the primary winding is negative, the upper end of the
secondary winding is also negative.
Here is how the circuit works. On the positive half cycle of primary
voltage, the secondary winding has a positive half sine wave across
it. This means the diode is forward-biased. However, on the
negative half cycle of primary voltage, the secondary winding has a
negative half sine wave. Therefore, the diode is reverse-biased. If
you use the ideal-diode approximation for an initial analysis, you
will realize that the positive half cycle appears across the load
resistor, but not the negative half cycle.
For instance, Fig. 4-4 shows a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1.
The peak primary voltage is
170V
V p2 34V
5
Figure 4-5 shows the load voltage. This type of waveform is called
half-wave signal because the negative half cycles have been clipped
off or removed. Since the load voltage has only a positive half cycle,
the load current is unidirectional, meaning that it flows only in one
direction. Therefore, the load current is a pulsating direct current. It
starts at zero at the beginning of the cycle, then increases to a
maximum value at the positive peak, then decreases to zero where
it sits for the entire negative half cycle.
Figure 4-5
Half-wave Signal
Period
1 1
T 0.0167s 16.7ms
f 60 Hz
DC or Average Value
where Vp is the peak value of the half-wave signal across the load
resistor. For instance, if the peak voltage is 34 V, the dc voltmeter
will read
Approximations
Example 4–4
Solution
Because of the 8:1 step down, the secondary voltage has a peak
value of
340V
V p2 42.5V
8
Ignoring the diode drop means that the load voltage is a half-wave
signal with a peak value of 42.5 V.
1
T 0.02s 20ms
50Hz
Figure 4–6
Full-wave Rectifier
Figure 4–7
Example of Full-wave Rectifier
120V
V p1 170V
0.707
170V
V p2 34V
5
Figure 4-8 shows the load voltage. This type of waveform is called a
full-wave signal. It is equivalent to inverting or flipping the
negative half cycles of a sine wave to get positive half cycles.
Because of Ohm's law, the load current is a full-wave signal with a
peak value of
17V
Ip 17mA
1k
where V p is the peak value of the half-wave signal across the load
resistor. For instance, if the peak voltage is 17 V, the dc voltmeter
will read
Output Frequency
1 1
T1 0.0167s 16.7ms
f 60Hz
16.7ms
T2 8.33ms
2
1 1
f2 120Hz
T2 8.33ms
This says the output frequency equals two times the input
frequency. In symbols,
f out 2 f in (4-7)
Example 4–5
Solution
V p1 340V
The peak secondary voltage has the same peak value as before:
V p2 42.5V
Also, the rectified output signal has a frequency of twice the input
frequency. In this case, the output frequency is
Figure 4–9
Bridge Rectifier
Here is how it works. During the positive half cycle of line voltage,
diodes D2 and D3 conduct; this produces a positive half cycle across
the load resistor. During the negative half cycle of line voltage,
diode D1 and D4 conduct; this produces another positive half cycle
across the load resistor. The result is a full-wave signal across the
load resistor.
For instance, Fig. 4-10 shows a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1.
The peak primary voltage is still equal to
120V
V p1 170V
0.707
Figure 4–10
Example of Bridge Rectifier
170V
V p2 34V
5
Figure 4-11 shows the ideal load voltage. As you see, the shape is
identical to that of a full-wave rectifier. Therefore, the frequency of
the rectified signal equals 120 Hz, twice the line frequency. Because
of Ohm's law, the load current is a full-wave signal with a peak
value of
34V
Ip 34mA
1k
The additional voltage drop across the second diode is one of the
few disadvantages of the bridge rectifier, Also, there are two bulk
resistances in series with the load resistance. But the effect is again
negligible with the circuit values shown in Fig, 4-10. Unless you are
designing a bridge rectifier, you will not normally use the third
approximation because the bulk resistance is usually much smaller
than the load resistance.
Example 4–6
Suppose the bridge rectifier of Fig. 4-9 has an input voltage of 240 V
rms with a frequency of 50 Hz. If the step-down transformer has a
turns ratio of 8:1, what is the load voltage?
Solution
Vp1 340V
The peak secondary voltage has the same peak value as before:
Vp2 42.5V
Figure 4–12
Capacitor-input Filter
Just past the positive peak, the diode stops conducting, which
means the switch opens. Why? Because the capacitor has Vp . volts
across it. Since the secondary voltage is slightly less than Vp, the
diode goes into reverse bias. With the diode now open, the
capacitor discharges through the load resistance. But here is the key
idea behind the capacitor-input filter: by deliberate design, the
discharging time constant (the product of RL and C) is much greater
than the period, T, of the input signal. Because of this, the capacitor
will lose only a small part of its charge during the off time of the
diode as shown in Fig. 4-13a.
Figure 4–13
(a) Half-wave Filtering (b) Full-wave Filtering
Full-Wave Filtering
An Important Formula
I
VR (4-8)
fC
I = dc load current
f = ripple frequency
C = capacitance
DC Voltage
The situation is like an artist painting a picture. The best artist starts
with the largest brush when beginning a painting. The artist then
switches to a medium-sized brush to improve the picture, and,
finally, may use the smallest brush to get the finest detail. No good
artist ever uses a small brush all of the time.
Vdc V p2
Second Approximation
Vdc V p2 1.4V
Third Approximation
VR
Vdc ( withripple ) Vdc ( withoutripple )
2
Example 4–7
Solution
10mA
VR 0.117V
(120Hz)(470F)
Solution
120V
V2 12.7V
9.45
12.7V
V p2 18V
0.707
With an ideal diode and ignoring the ripple, the dc load voltage
equals the peak secondary voltage:
Vdc 18V
16.6V
I 16.6mA
1k
This is the peak-to-peak ripple and is what you would see if you
looked at the load voltage with the ac input of an oscilloscope. This
ripple has little effect on the dc load voltage:
0.294 V
Vdc (with ripple) = 16.6 - 16.5V
2
This gives you the basic idea of how to calculate the dc load voltage
and ripple.
Voltage Multipliers
Figure 4-15
Half-wave Voltage Doubler
Figure 4-16
Full-wave Voltage Doubler
Study Aids
The following study aids will help to reinforce the ideas discussed
in this chapter. For best results, use these study aids within 6 hours
of reading the earlier material. Then review these study aids a week
later and a month later to ensure that the concepts remain in your
long-term memory.
The bridge rectifier has four diodes. The load voltage is a full-wave
rectified sine wave with a peak value approximately equal to peak
secondary voltage. The de or average load voltage equals 63.6
percent of the peak load voltage. The ripple frequency equals two
times the line frequency.
This is a capacitor across the load resistor, The idea is to charge the
capacitor to the peak voltage and let it supply current to the load
when the diodes are nonconducting. With a large capacitor, the
ripple is small and the load voltage is almost a pure dc voltage.
dc value ripple
Important Equations
The following formulas are useless if you don't know what they
mean in words. Suggestions: Look at each formula, then read the
words to find out what the formula means. Your chances of
learning and remembering are much better if you concentrate on
words rather than formulas:
Vrms = .707Vp
Vdc = 0.318Vp
One of the things you can do with calculus is work out the average
value of time-varying signal. If you really want to know where the
number 0.318 comes from, you will have to learn calculus.
Otherwise, just memorize the equation. It says the dc or average
value of a half-wave rectified sine wave equals .318 percent of the
peak voltage.
Vdc = 0.636 VP
fout = 2fin
I
VR =
FC
ID = 0.5IL
PIV = Vp2
This applies to full-wave and bridge rectifiers. It says that the peak
inverse voltage across a non conducting diode equals the peak
secondary voltage.
Questions
The following may have more than right answer. Select the best
answer. This is the one that is always true, or covers more
situations, or fits the context, etc.
a. Decrease c. Increase
b. Stay the same d. None of these
4-6. During the day the line frequency varies slightly from its
nominal value of 60 Hz. Suppose the line frequency is 61 Hz.
What is the period of the rectified output voltage from a half-
wave rectifier?
4-7. A step-down transformer with a turns ratio of 3:1 is connected
to a half-wave rectifier. If the line voltage is 115 V rms, what is
the peak load voltage? Give the two answers: one for an
ideal diode, and another for the second approximation.
Sec. 4-3 The Full-wave Rectifier
4-8. During the day, the line frequency drops down to 59 Hz. What
is the frequency out of a full-wave rectifier for this input
frequency? What is the period of the output?
4-9. Refer to Fig. 4-7. Suppose the line voltage varies from 105 V
rms to 125 V rms. What is the peak load voltage for the two
extremes? (Use ideal diodes.)
4-10. If the turns ratio of Fig. 4-7 is changed to 6:1, what is the dc
load current?
4-15. The rms secondary voltage of Fig. 4-30 is 12.7 V. Use the ideal
diode and ignore the effect of ripple on dc load voltage. Work
out the values of each of these quantities: dc load voltage, dc
load current, dc diode current, rms primary current, peak
inverse voltage, and turns ratio.
4-16. Repeat Prob. 4-15, but use the second approximation and
include the effect of ripple on the dc load voltage.
4-17. Draw the schematic diagram of a bridge rectifier with a
capacitor-input filter and these circuit values: V2 = 20 V, C
1000 F, RL = 1 k . What is the load voltage and peak-to-
peak ripple?
Sec. 4-8 Troubleshooting
4-18. You measure 24 V rms across the secondary of Fig. 4-30. Next
you measure 21.6 V dc across the load resistor. What is the
most likely trouble?
4-19. The dc load voltage of Fig. 4-30 is too low. Looking at the
ripple with a scope, you discover it has a frequency of 60 Hz.
Give some possible causes.
Advanced Problems
Use Fig. 4-32 for the remaining problems. If you haven't already
done so, read Example 4-12 before attempting these problems. You
can measure voltages in any order; for instance, V2 first, VL second,
and VR third, or whatever. These voltages are the clues to the
trouble. After measuring a voltage, try to figure out what to
measure next. Troubleshooting has so many possibilities that it is
impractical to try to give rules for every situation. The best
approach is to measure something, then think about what this tells
you. Usually, the measurement gives you an idea of what you
should measure next. Keep making measurements until you have
enough clues to logically figure out what the trouble is.
4-1. 35.4 V
4-3. 651 V
4-5. 208 mA
4-7. 54.2 V and 53.5 V
4-9. 14.9 V and 17.7 V
4.11. 6.54 mA (ideal) and 6.27 mA (second)
4.13. 0.245 V
4.15. 18 V, 18 mA, 9 mA, 2.7 mA, 18 V, and 9.45
4.17. Ideal: 28.3 V and 0.236 V; second: 26.9 V and 0.224 V
4.19. Possible troubles include and open diode or an open
connection in one of the diode branches.
4.21. You should check the load resistance to see if it is being
shorted out.
4.23. Ideal and ignore ripple. VL = 33.9 V, C = 252 F, IO = 51 mA,
and PIV = 33.9; second and ignore ripple: . VL = 32.5 V,
C = 252 F, IO = 49.2 mA, and PIV = 33.9; second and include
ripple: VL = 30.9 V, C = 252 F, IO = 46.8 mA, and PIV = 33.9
V
4.25. We can look up the sine of the angle every 5 degrees
between 0° and 90°. There are 19 samples including the sine
of 0°. By adding up the sine values and dividing by 19, we
get 0.629. This is close to the exact value of 0.636. If a
more accurate answer is needed, we could use a smaller
interval, say every degree.
4.27. 44.2 A
4-29. Trouble 2: Diode open; Trouble 3: Load resistor shorted
4-31. Trouble 6: Load resistor open; Trouble 7: Secondary winding
open.
Rectifier diodes are the most common type of diode. They are used
in power supplies to convert ac voltage to dc voltage. But
rectification is not all that a diode can do. Now we will discuss
diodes used in other applications. The chapter begins with the
zener diode, which is optimized for its breakdown properties.
Zener diodes are very important because they are the key to
voltage regulation. The chapter also covers optoelectronic diodes.
Schottky diodes, varactors, and other diode
I-V Graph
Figure 5-1c shows the I-V graph of a zener diode. In the forward
region, it starts conducting around 0.7 V, just like an ordinary
Figure 5-1
Zener Diode
(a) Symbol (b) Alternative Symbol (c) Diode Curve
Do not let the use of the minus signs confuse you. Minus signs need
to be included with graphs because you are simultaneously
showing forward and reverse values. But you don't have to use
minus signs in other discussions if the meaning is clear without
them. For instance, it is preferable to say that a zener diode has a
breakdown voltage of 10 V, rather than to say it has a breakdown
voltage of - 10 V. Anyone who knows how a zener diode works
already knows it has to be reverse-biased. A pure mathematician
might prefer to say a zener diode has a breakdown voltage of - 10
V, but a practicing engineer or technician will prefer to say it has a
breakdown voltage of 10 V.
Zener Resistance
Because all diodes have some bulk resistance in the p and n regions,
the current through a zener diode produces a small voltage drop in
addition to the breakdown voltage. To state it another way, when a
zener diode is operating in the breakdown region of Fig. 5-lc, an
increase in current produces a slight increase in voltage. The
increase is very small, typically a few tenths of a volt. This may be
Figure 5-2
Zener Regulator
For instance, suppose you want to know the voltage across the
series resistor of Fig. 5-2b. Here is the usual way to find it when you
have a built-up circuit. First, measure the voltage from the left end
of RS to ground. Second, measure the voltage from the right end of
RS to ground. Third, subtract the two voltages to get the voltage
across RS. This indirect method is necessary because the common
lead of many plug-in voltmeters is grounded. (Note: If you have a
floating VOM, you can connect directly across the series resistor.)
In Fig. 5-2, the voltage across the series resistor equals the
difference between the source voltage and the zener voltage.
Therefore, the current through the resistor is
VS VZ
IS (5-1)
RS
Once you have the value of series current, you also have the value
of zener current. Why? Because Fig. 5-2 is a series circuit and you
know that current is the same in all parts of a series circuit.
Second Approximation
Figure 5-3
Zener approximation
Figure 5-3b shows the second approxima-
(a) Ideal; (b) Second
tion of a zener diode. A zener resistance (relatively small) is in
approximation
Solution
10V
IS 12.2mA
820
Figure 5–4
Example
30V
IS 36.6mA
820
Figure 5-5a shows a loaded zener regulator, and Fig, 5-5b shows the
same circuit in a practical form. This circuit is more complicated
than the unloaded zener regulator analyzed in the previous section,
but the basic idea is the same. The zener diode operates in the
breakdown region and holds the load voltage constant. Even if the
source voltage changes or the load resistance varies, the load
voltage will remain fixed and equal to the zener voltage.
Breakdown Operation
How can you tell if the zener diode of Fig, 5-5 is operating in the
breakdown region? The designer of the circuit usually takes care of
this. Here is the formula that applies:
RL
VTH VS (5-2)
RS R L
Figure 5–5
Zener Regulator
This is the voltage that exists when the zener diode is disconnected
from the circuit. This voltage has to be greater than the zener
voltage; otherwise, breakdown cannot occur.
Here is where the equation comes from. When the zener diode is
disconnected from the circuit, all that's left is a voltage divider
consisting of RS in series with RL. The current through this voltage
divider is
The load voltage without the zener diode equals the previous
current times the load resistance. When you multiply the current by
the load resistance, you get the right side of Eq. (5-2), where VTH
stands for the Thevenin voltage. This is the voltage with the zener
diode out of the circuit.
Series Current
VS VZ
IS (5-3)
RS
Load Current
Ideally, the load voltage equals the zener voltage because the load
resistor is in parallel with the zener diode. As an equation,
VL = VZ (5-4)
VL
IL (5-5)
RL
Zener Current
IS = IZ + IL
I Z = I S - IL (5-6)
This tells you that the zener current no longer equals the series
current, as it does in an unloaded zener regulator. Because of the
load resistor, the zener current now equals the series current minus
the load current.
Process
1. Series current
2. Load current
3. Zener current
or symbolically,
1. IS
If you take into account the small zener resistance, you will find
that there is a small ripple across the load resistor. But this ripple is
much smaller than the original ripple coming out of the power
supply. In fact, you can estimate the new ripple with this equation:
RZ
VR ( out) VR (in) (5-7)
RS RZ
Example 5–2
Solution
Use Eq. (5-2), or better still, use your head. Mentally disconnect the
zener diode. Then all that is left is a voltage divider with 270 in
series with 1k . Therefore, the current through the voltage divider
is
18V
I 14.2mA
1.27k
Figure 5–6
Example
Since this voltage is greater than the zener voltage (10 V), the zener
diode will operate in the breakdown region when it is reconnected
to the circuit.
Naturally, you can plug the values directly into Eq. (5-2) as follows:
1K
VTH 18V 14.2V
1.27 K
Example 5–3
Solution
You are given the voltage on both ends of the series resistor.
Subtract the voltages, and you can see that 8 V is across the series
resistor. Then Ohm's law gives
8V
IS 29.6mA
270
10V
IL 10mA
1k
IZ = 29.6 mA - 10 mA = 19.6 mA
Example 5–4
8.5
VR (OUT ) (2V) 0.061V 61mV
278.5
Example 5–5
Solution
Example 5–6
Solution
Optoelectronic Devices
Light-Emitting Diode
VS V D
IS (5-8)
RS
Seven-Segment Display
Figure 5–11
(a) Seven-segment Indicator; (b) Schematic Diagram
Photodiode
Figure 5–12
Photodiode
Figure 5–13
Optocoupler
Example 5–7
Solution
Figure 5-14c shows the schematic symbol for a varactor. How is this
device used? You can connect a varactor in parallel with an
inductor to get a resonant circuit. Then you can change the reverse
voltage to change the resonant frequency. This is the principle
behind tuning in a radio station, a TV channel, etc.
One of the devices used for line filtering is the varistor (also called a
transient suppressor). This semiconductor device is like two back-to-
back zener diodes with a high breakdown voltage in both
directions. For instance, a V130LA2 is a varistor with a breakdown
voltage of 184 V (equivalent to 130 V rms) and a peak current rating
of 400 A. Connect one of these across the primary winding, and you
don't have to worry about spikes. The varistor will clip all spikes at
the 184-V level and protect your equipment.
The Appendix shows the data sheet for the 1N746 series of zener
diodes. This data sheet also covers the 1N957 series and the 1N4370
series. Refer to these data sheets during the following discussion.
Again, most of the information on a data sheet is for designers, but
there are a few items that even troubleshooters and testers will
want to know about.
Maximum Power
PZ = VZIZ (5-9)
As long as PZ is less than the power rating, the zener diode can
operate in the breakdown region without being destroyed.
Commercially available zener diodes have power ratings from 4 to
more than 50 W.
For example, the data sheet for the 1N746 series lists a maximum
power rating of 400 mW. A safe design includes a safety factor to
keep the power dissipation well below this 400-mW maximum. As
mentioned elsewhere, safety factors of 2 or more are used for
conservative designs.
Maximum Current
PZM
IZM (5-10)
VZ
400mW
I ZM 33.3mA
12V
The data sheet gives two maximum current ratings: 30 and 35 mA.
Notice these values bracket our theoretical answer of 33.3 mA. The
data sheet gives you two values because of the tolerance in the
tenet voltage.
Tolerance
Zener Resistance
Derating
The derating factor shown on a data sheet tells you how much you
to reduce the power rating of a device. For instance, the 1N746
series has a power rating of 400 mW for a lead temperature of 50¡C.
The derating factor is given as 3.2 mW/ ¡C. This means that you
have to subtract 3.2 mW for each degree above 50¡C . Even though
you may not be involved in design, you have to be aware of the
effect of temperature. If it is known that the lead temperature will
be above 50¡C, the designer has to derate or reduce the power
rating of the zener diode.
Troubleshooting
Now, let's discuss what can go wrong with the circuit. When a
circuit is not working as it should, a troubleshooter usually starts
by measuring node voltages. These voltage measurements give
clues that help isolate the trouble. For instance, suppose he or she
measures these node voltages
VA = + 18 V VB = + 10 V VC = 0
When you are trying to figure out what causes incorrect voltages,
trial and error is useful. That is, you play the what-if game. Here is
what may go through a troubleshooter's mind after measuring the
foregoing node voltages.
What if the load resistor were open? No, the load voltage would
still be + 10 V. What if the load resistor were shorted? No, that
would pull nodes B and C down to ground, producing 0 V. All
right, what if the connecting wire between nodes B and C were
open? Yes, that would do it. That's got to be it.
This trouble produces unique symptoms. The only way you can get
this set of voltages is with an open connection between nodes B and
C.
VA = +18V VB = 0 VC = 0
What do you think the trouble is? Think about this for a few
minutes. When you have an answer, read what follows.
I've got voltage at A, but not at B and C. What if the series resistor
were open? Then no voltage could reach node B or node C, but I
would still measure + 18 V between node A and ground. Yes, the
series resistor is probably open.
That's strange. Well, is there any other way I can get +18 V at node
A and 0 V at nodes B and C? What if the zener diode were shorted?
What if the load resistor were shorted? What if a solder splash were
between node B or node C and ground. Any of these will produce
the symptoms I'm getting.
When components burn out, they usually become open, but not
always. Some semiconductor devices can develop internal shorts,
in which case, they are like zero resistances. Other ways to get
shorts include a solder splash between traces on a printed-circuit
board, a solder ball touching two traces, etc. Because of this, you
must include what-if questions in terms of open components, as
well as open components.
Example 5–8
Assume an ideal zener diode and work out the node voltages for all
possible shorts and opens in Fig. 5-15.
Solution
If the series resistor were open, then the voltage could not reach
node B. In this case, nodes B and C would have zero voltage.
Continuing like this, we can get the remaining entries shown in
Table 5-1.
Study the table. You can learn a lot from it. Also, use the T-shooter
at the end of this chapter to practice troubleshooting a zener
regulator.
Table 5–1
Zener Regulator Troubles and Symptoms
Load Lines
VS VZ
IS (5-11)
RS
20 VZ
IS
1000
Figure 5–16
As before, we get the saturation point (vertical Zener Diode
intercept) by setting VZ equal to zero and Circuit
solving for IZ to get 20 mA. Similarly, to get
the cutoff point (horizontal intercept), we set
IZ equal to zero and solve for VZ to get 20 V.
The following study aids will help to reinforce the ideas discussed
in this chapter. For best results, use these study aids within 6 hours
of reading the earlier material. Then review these study aids a week
later and month later to ensure that the concepts remain in your
long-term memory.
The reverse recovery time is the time it takes a diode to shut off
after it is suddenly switched from forward to reverse bias. This
time may only be a few nanoseconds, but it places a limit on how
high the frequency can be in rectifier circuit. The Schottky diode is
a special diode with almost zero reverse recovery time. Because of
this, the Schottky diode is useful at high frequencies where short
switching times are needed.
The width of the depletion layer increases with the reverse voltage.
This is why the capacitance of a varactor can be controlled by the
reverse voltage. This leads to remote tuning of radio and television
sets.
The most important quantities on the data sheet of zener diodes are
the zener voltage, the maximum power rating, the maximum
current rating, and the tolerance. Designers also need the zener
resistance, the derating factor, and a few other items.
Vocabulary
open varactor
optocoupler varistor
The following formulas are useless if you don’t know what they
mean in words. Suggestion: Look at each formula, then read the
words to find out what it means.. Your chances of learning and
remembering are much better if you concentrate on words rather
than formulas.
VS _ VZ
IS
RS
RL
VTH VS
RS R L
This is the voltage across the load resistor when the zener diode is
disconnected. One way to remember it this: VS divided by RS + RL
is the load current. Multiply this load current by RL and you get
VTH. The value of VTH has to be larger than the zener voltage to get
voltage regulation.
IZ = IS - IL
PZ = VZIZ
The zener power equals the zener voltage times the zener current.
This power has to be less than the maximum power rating listed on
the data sheet. Otherwise, you may burn out or seriously degrade
the characteristics of the zener diode.
VS V D
IS
RS
This gives you the current through a resistor in series with a LED. It
says the current equals the voltage across the series resistor divided
by the resistance. Use 2 V for the value of VD, unless you have a
more accurate value for the voltage across the LED.
The following may have more than one right answer, Select the best
answer. This is the one that is always true, or covers more
situations, etc.
Basic Problems
5-1. 24.2 mA
5-3. 26.9 mA
5-5. 14.6 V
5-7. 19.6 mA
5-9. Ps is 194 mW, PL is 96 mW, and Pt is 195 mW
5-11. 33.7 mV
5-13. 5.91 mA
5-15. 13 mA
5-17. 200 mW
5-19. 11.4 V, 12.6 V
5-21. a. O b. 16.4 V c. O d. O
5-23. Check for a short across the 330 R.
5-25. 12.2 V
5-27. Many designs are possible here. One design is a 1N754, a
series resistance of 270 R, and a load resistance of 220 R. This
design results in a series current of 48.9 mA, a load current
of 30.9 mA, zener current of 18 mA.
5-29. 26 mA
5-31. 7.98 V
5-33. Trouble 2: Wire ED open
5-35. Trouble 5: No supply voltage
All of the examples involve the use of powers of ten with one
exception. Example 5 illustrates the proper use of the P-12-R circle
formula to find the current flowing in a simple circuit. This
involves taking the square root of a number. Since the procedure
for finding square roots of quantities expressed in scientific
notation is covered in Lesson 10, only very simple numbers are
used in the example.
2. Given the same circuit as in Example 1, use Ohm’s law to find the current
flowing when the voltage is 12.6 volts and the resistance is 820 ohms.
a. Draw the circle formula for Ohm’s law.
b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your
thumb; in this case, cover I.
E E
I= c. The resulting formula is I =
R R
12.6 V d. Substitute the values of voltage and resistance
I= in the formula.
820
1
1.2 6 X 1 0 e. Convert to powers of ten.
I=
8.2 X 1 02
12
1.26 X 10 f. Bring the bottom exponent across the division
I= line, up to the top and change its sign.
8.2
1
1.2 6 X 1 0 g. Combine the exponents. Here a +1 and a -2
I= equal -1.
8.2
3. Again considering the same circuit as before, find the power dissipated
by the resistor when the applied voltage is 45 volts and the current flowing
through the resistor is 16 mA.
5. Given a simple circuit, find the current flowing through a 4-ohm resistor
when the resistor is dissipating 100 watts of power.
P P
I2 = c. The resulting formula is I2 = .
R R
100 W d. Substitute the values of power and resistance
I2 = in the formula.
4
I2 = 25 e. Divide; note that the result is the square of
current.
I= 25 f. To get the current, you must then find the
square root of 25.
I=5A g. If you have a calculator with a square root key,
enter 25, press the square root key, and the
answer, 5, will appear in the display. You may
also use the square root tables in the
Appendix. To find the square root of 25, look up
25 in the table, and look across to the column
labeled square roots ( ) where you should
see “5.”
2 2
E E
P= c. The resulting formula is P = .
R R
2
(15 V) d. Substitute the values of voltage and resistance
P= in the formula.
3.3 k
2
2.25 X 10 f. Square 1.5 X 10+1 by multiplying it by itself,
P= remembering to add the exponents.
3.3 X 103
7. In the simple circuit shown below, the applied voltage forces current to
flow through the resistor. If the voltage is increased while the resistance
remains constant, the current will increase. Remember, in a circuit with a
constant resistance, voltage and current vary directly.
On the chart next to the circuit, the increase in voltage is indicated by an
arrow pointing up (), the constant resistance is indicated by a dot (•),
and the resulting increase in current flow is also indicated by an arrow
point up (). In a direct relationship, when one quantity increases, the
other quantity decreases. Using this information and considering the
simple circuit shown, complete the chart by filling in the blank spaces with
the appropriate symbol:
means the quantity increases
means the quantity decreases
• means the quantity remains constant
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
1. I = 21.8 A
P = 39.9 mW
2. P = 78.2 W
R = 7.82 k
3. E = 682 V
P = 46.5 W
4. R = 20.0
P = 10 W
5. I = 21.6 mA
P = 163 mW
6. R = 5.2 k
P = 2.82 mW
7. P = 224 W
R = 151 k
8. I = 53.8 mA
P = 565 mW
There are two options that may be taken to find RT. The
product-over-sum formula or the sum of the reciprocal formula.
This first example will use the product-over-sum formula:
R1 X R2
RT =
R1 R2
The key objective of this lesson has been achieved if you can
calculate the total resistance of any basic parallel circuit. To gain
some practice in this area, the problems below are provided.
Depending upon the approach you use to solve these problems and
how you round off intermediate results, your answers may vary
slightly from those given here. However, any differences you
encounter could only occur in the third significant digit of your
answer. If the first two significant digits of your answers do not
agree with those given here, recheck your calculations.
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
9.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
17.
18.
19.
1. 8.52
2. 3.07 k
3. 368 k
4. 53.5
5. 1.58 k
6. 49.7
7. 918
8. 13.8
9. 846
10. 1.71 k
11. 174 k
12. 133
13. 27.9 k
14. 1.55
15. 9.41
16. 679 m
17. 268 k
18. 129
19. 907
Once you know the total resistance, you can find the total
current by using Ohm’s law in the form IT = ET/RT. Substituting
the appropriate values in the formula gives:
ET 72 V
IT =
RT 24 k
IT = 3 mA
This total current can be used to find the voltage across R1.
Remember, since R1 is in series with the rest of the circuit, the
total current must flow through R1. If you use Ohm’s law in the
form E = 1 X R and substitute the appropriate values, you get:
Looking at the chart or the circuit, you can see that you know
two things about R5, you know its resistance, and you know the
current flow through it. You can use Ohm’s law in the form E =
I X R to find ER5.
ER5 = IR5 X R5
ER5 = 2 mA X 27 k
ER5 = 54 V
Because R3, R4, and R5 are in parallel, they have 54 volts
dropped across them. If they all have the same voltage across
them and they all have the same resistance value, then the
You could check your work at this point by adding IR3, IR4 and
IR5 to see that they do add up to the total current of 6 milliamps.
Because R6 is in series with the rest of the circuit, the total
current must flow through it. Thus IR6 equals 6 milliamps and
you can now use this information to find ER6.
ER6 = IR6 X R6
ER6 = 6 mA X 2 k
ER6 = 12 V
As shown, you know the voltage across and current flow
through each portion of the circuit.
RT = 17 k
Circuit reduction techniques can also be used to find RT. First,
consider R1 in parallel with R2. Using the product-over-the-sum
formula:
R1 X R2
R1,2 =
R1 R2
10 k X 15 k
R1,2 =
10 k 15 k
4 4
R1,2 = (1 X 104 ) X (1.5 X 104 )
(1 X 10 ) (1.5 X 10 )
8
1.5 X 10
R1,2 =
2.5 104
Because R3, R4 and R5 all have the same resistance value, they
can be reduced to an equivalent resistance by using the formula:
The key objective of this lesson has been achieved if you can
analyze any series parallel circuit in a variety of situations such as:
2.
1. Req = 58.5 k
2. Req = 7.39 k
3. Req = 199
4. Req = 1.61 k
5. Req = 76.9 k
2. Write a loop equation for the circuit shown below using electron
current, and write another loop equation using conventional
current.
When you set this equal to zero, the loop equation for this
circuit, considering electron current, is:
E1 - IR3 - IR2 - E2 - IR1 = 0
To write a loop equation for conventional current, traverse the
loop again and write down the voltages according to your rules.
Assume the same direction for current as before. If you start at
the same point (the positive terminal of E1) and mover through
the circuit counterclockwise, you should get:
-E1 (since you go through E1 against the direction it pushes
conventional current)
-IR3 (since you traverse R3 in the assumed direction for
conventional current)
-IR2 (since you traverse R2 in the assumed direction for
conventional current)
First, substitute the appropriate values from the circuit into the
equation.
12 - 0.56 kI - 2.2 kI - 8 - 1.5 kI = 0
When the two source voltages are added algebraically, they
yield 4.
4 - 0.56 kI - 2.2 kI - 1.5 kI = 0
You can combine the I terms to get:
4 - 4.26 kI = 0
Transpose the 4, remembering to change its sign.
- 4.26 kI = -4
Divide both sides of the equation by -4.26 k.
4.26 kI 4
4.26 k 4.26 k
I = 0.939 mA or 939 A
Since this answer is positive, the assumed direction for the
electron current (counterclockwise) is correct.
Conventional Current Equation
-E1 - IR3 - IR2 + E2 - IR1 = 0
First, substitute the appropriate values from the circuit into the
equation.
ER2 = I2 X R2
ER2 = 0.8 mA X 20 k
ER2 = 16 V
ER3 = I3 X R3
ER3 = 0.4 mA X 15 k
ER3 = 6 V
Recall the rule for determining the polarity of the voltage across
a resistor, which states that electron current flows through a
resistor from minus to plus or from the negative side to the
positive side. Thus, the voltage drops and their polarities are as
shown on the next page.
a.
b.
c.
d.
1.a. I1 + I2 = I3
1.b. I1 = I2 + I3
1.c. I1 + I3 = I2
1.d. I4 + I3 = I1 + I2
1.e. I1 = I2 + I3 + I4 + I5
2.a. Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw.
10 -22I1 - 15 - 10I1 = 0
Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw.
15 -18I3 - 15I3 = 0
2.b. Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw.
20 -27I1 - 33I3 = 0
Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw.
25 + 33I3 - 39I2 = 0
2.c. Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw.
30 - 56 kI1 - 68 kI3
Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw.
40 - 68 kI3 - 47I2
2.d. Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw.
80 - 1.2 kI1 = 0
Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw.
Look at the chart and locate the 500 millisecond position on the
horizontal axis. Now trace directly upward (following the
dotted line) and note the point on the charging curve that is
reached at 500 ms.
Locate that point on the curve, and then trace directly down to
the horizontal axis. At this point you read the time elapsed: 0.6
time constants. You know that 1 time constant is 8.46 seconds, so
the total elapsed time is 0.6 X 8.46 or 5.08 seconds.
7. A “strobe” flash attachment for a camera has a bulb that
requires 0.02 coulomb of charge at 450 volts in order to flash
properly. What is the minimum size capacitor that could be
satisfactorily used?
Since both the quantity of charge (Q) and voltage (E) are known,
the equation C = Q/E can be used to solve this problem. Simply
substitute in the capacitor values and solve for C.
C = Q/E
0.0 2 C (co u lomb)
C=
4 50 V
C = 0.0000444 F or 44.4 F
1 X 1.5 s = 1.5 s
1.5 X 1.5 s = 2.25 s
2 X 1.5 s = 3.0 s
3 X 1.5 s = 4.5 s
4 X 1.5 s = 6.0 s
5 X 1.5 s = 7.5 s
First, find the total capacitance of the upper circuit branch using
the series capacitance formula:
1
CT =
1/ C1 1/ C2 1C3 .. .
1
CT =
1/ 4 1/ 8
1
CT =
0.25 0.125
1
CT =
0.375
CT = 2.67 F
e.
4.
2.a. CT = 1 F
2.b. CT = 1.33 F
2.c. CT = 5 F
2.d. CT = 0.75 F
2.e. CT = 10 F
3.a. Q = 900 C
3.b. Q = 3.6 mC
3.c. C = 390 F
3.d. E = 1.33 V
3.e.Q = 72 C
4.a. T = 2.2s
4.b. 11 s
4.c. 39.5 V
4.d. 75.8 V
4.e.1.03 s
The time constant for this circuit may be found by using the
inductive time constant formula, T = L/R. In this circuit, L is
equal to 5 henries and R is equal to 820 ohms. 5/820 = 0.0061
second, or 6.1 milliseconds. This is one time constant for this
circuit. Five time constants are required for the circuit to reach
its steady-state condition. The maximum steady-state current in
an inductive circuit is determined by using Ohm’s law. The total
voltage, E (here 25 volts), must be divided by the total circuit
resistance RT to give you the steady-state current. In this circuit,
the total resistance is taken to be 820 ohms, the value of the
resistor performing the calculation: 25 V/820 = 30.5 mA. This
value of current will be flowing in the circuit after five time
constants.
The value of current flowing after only two time constants may
be found by using the universal time constant graph. First,
locate the two time constant mark on the horizontal line. Trace
the graph line up until it intersects the “current buildup” curve.
The intersection point is labeled 86%. This means that at this
point, the circuit current is at 86% of the steady-state value. So,
the current value at 2 time constants may be found by
multiplying 0.86 X 30.5 mA. The current flowing after two time
constants is equal to 26.2 mA. The value of the current at any
time constant point may be determined by using the universal
time constant graph in the manner just presented. To find the
voltage across the resistor at the end of two time constants,
multiply the current at that point (26.2 milliamps), times the
resistance (820 ohms), to get your answer (21.5 volts).
Solution:
a. T = L/R
T = 12/2700
T = 4.44 ms
b. ET/RT = IT
5/2700 = 1.85 mA = steady-state current
c. To find the circuit current at 2 milliseconds, the first thing to do
is locate 2 milliseconds on the horizontal axis of the time
constant graph. This axis of the graph is measured out in terms
of time constants. You must get the chart to read out in seconds.
This may be done by dividing 2 milliseconds by 4.44
milliseconds, to determine the exact percentage 2 milliseconds is
as compared to 4.44 milliseconds. Two ms.4.44 ms = 0.45. In
terms of time constants, 2 milliseconds is equal to 0.45 (0r 45%)
of one time constant. Locate 0.45 on the horizontal axis of the
graph. Trace upward until that graph line intersects the current
buildup curve. The intersection occurs at approximately 37%.
This indicates that the current flowing at this point is 37% of the
steady-state current, or 0.37 X 1.85 mA which is equal to 0.68
mA. To find the voltage across the resistor, multiply this current
(0.68 milliamps) times the resistance (2700 ohms) to yield the
voltage (1.84 volts).
Basic Construction
Figure 1 Figure 2
A Typical Transformer Schematic Drawing of a Transformer
Figure 4 Figure 5
Step-up Transformer Step-down Transformer
NS
NP
5
turns ratio
10
1
2
Figure 7
Transformer Voltage Induction
EP
EiP =
NP
EP
E iP
NP
8
8
IV
If each turn of the secondary has the same voltage induced in it,
then the secondary voltage is equal to the number of secondary
turns times the induced voltage. This can be written
E P
E S N S (8-16)
N P
Or rearranging,
NS
E S E P (8-17)
N P
E P
E S N S
N P
8
= 4
8
= 4V
The transformer's secondary voltage is 4 volts—4 turns times 1 volt
per turn.
Figure 9
Example for Calculating Turns Ration and ES
NS
turns ratio
NP
1 0,0 00
1 ,0 00
10
1
10
E S 1 0E P
1 0(1 0V)
1 00 V
Figure 10
Example for Calculating Transformer IS
ES
IS
RL
100V
1k
0.1A
100mA
PP = PS
EP IP = ES IS
Rewriting this,
IP ES
(8-18)
IS EP
IP NS
Then
IS NP
N S
Or I P I S
N P
I P N S
I S
I S N P
100
100mA
10
(10) 100mA
1000mA
1A
The primary current in the transformer is one ampere.
PP E P I P
(10V) (1A )
10W
PS E S I S
(100v) (100mA)
10,000mW
10W
Figure 12
Variable-Output Autotransformer
Figure 13
Variable-Output Transformer
Multiple-secondary Transformers
Transformer Specifications
Figure 16
Simple Inductive Circuit
X L 2fL (8-21)
Where
X L inductive reactance (ohms)
2 = 6.28
f = frequency(Hz)
L inductance(H)
Figure 17
Example Circuit for Calculating
Inductive Reactance
Figure 19 Figure 20
Inductive Reactance Versus Inductive Reactance Versus
Frequency for an Inductance at a
Inductance of 10 mH Frequency of 159 Hz
XL
L (8-23)
2f
XL
f
2L
5000
(628)(8.5H)
93.7Hz
Equation 8-23 can be used to determine the value of inductance
needed to produce an inductive reactance of 10 kilohms at a
frequency of 300 kilohertz.
XL
f
2 f
3
10x10
(6.28)(300 x103 Hz)
0.531 x 102 H
= 5.31mH
PXT E L1 I L1
(40V) (15.9mA)
636mVAR
PL2 E L2 I L2
(40V) (31.8mA)
1272mVAR
Also, the total reactive power in a parallel circuit equals the total
applied voltage times the total current.
PXT E A I T
(40V) (47.7mA)
1908mVAR
Figure 21
Example Series Inductive Circuit
Worked-Out Examples
2. Define inductance.
b. CEMF=EL
i
L (8mH) (2mA /sec)= (8 x 10 H) (2 x 10 A/s ec)
-3 -3
t
= 16 x 10 V = 16 V
-6
Solution::
a. LT (no LM) = L1 + L2 = 18H + 2H = 20H
b. LT (aid) = L1 + L2 + 2LM = 18H + 2H + 2(2.4H)
= 18H + 2H + 4.8H = 24.8H
L M k L1 x L2 0.4 18H x 2H
where
0.4 36H 0.4 (6)H 2.4H
c. LT (oppose) = L1 + L2 - 2LM = 18H + 2H - 2(2.4H)
LT (oppose) = 20H - 4.8H = 15.2H
Solution::
L1 x L 2 (10mH ) (40mH) 400
LT = mH
L1 x L 2 10mH 40mH 50
L T 8mH
Solution:
N 1
E sec S E pri 150V 15V (This is also 50 hertz.
N P 10
E sec 15V
I sec 5.56mA
RL 2.7k
N 1
I pri = S I sec = 5.56mA = 0.556mA
N P 10
P pri = E pri x I pri = (150V) (0.556mA) = 83.4mW
P sec = E sec x I sec = (15V) (0.56mA) = 83.4mW
Note that Ppri = Psec !
3
0.0693 x 10 H 0.0693mH 69.3H
12. Solve for the values indicated using the circuit shown.
(Assume LM = 0.)
EA 16V
e. I T 1.02mA
X LT 15.7k
13. Solve for the values indicated using the circuit shown.
(Assume LM = 0.)
20. From Problem 19, you see that as the frequency applied to
an inductor increases, the inductive reactance of it
____________. (increases, decreases).
a. L T = ____________. f. IT = ____________.
b. XL1 = ____________. g. ELI = ____________.
c. XL2 = ____________. h. EL2 = ____________.
d. IL1 = ____________. i. IL2 = ____________.
e. XLT = ____________.
Circuit a Circuit b
a. XLT = ____________. i. XLT = ____________.
b. ELI = ____________. j. IL1 = ____________.
c. EL2 = ____________. k. IL2 = ____________.
d. IT = ____________. l. IT = ____________.
e. PLI = ____________. m. PL1 = ____________.
f. PL2 = ____________. n. PL2 = ____________.
g. PLT = ____________. o. PLT = ____________.
4. Increase
Common 3500
5. k 0.875
Total 4000
N S : N P 1: 4.76
15. Autotransformer
16. Ppri 1920 mW;Psec 1650 mW
Psec
% eff x 100
Ppri
1650mW
x 100 = 85.9%
1920mW
17. a. 26.67V
B. 3.92 mA
c. 0.87 mA
18. a. 80%
b. 1:5 (NS:NP)
19. a. 1.26
b. 62.8
c. 15k
20. Increases
21. 15.4H
22. 18.7 Hz
Finally, the idea of how ac power and dc power can differ because
of ac reactance is explained. Also, types of ac current meters are
described including the wattmeter.
(a) (b)
Figure 1
AC Circuits with Resistance but no Reactance
(a) Resistances R1 and R2 in series (b) Resistances R1 and R2 in Parallel
Series Resistances
For the circuit in Figure 1a, with two 50- resistances in series
across the 100-V source, the calculations are as follows:
R T = R1 + R 2 = 50+ 50 = 100
VT 100
I= 1A
R T 100
V1 IR1 1 x 50 50 V
V2 = IR 2 = 1 x 50 = 50 V
The voltage drops V1 and V2 are both in phase with the series
current I, which is the common reference. Also I is in phase with
the applied voltage VT because there is no reactance.
For the circuit in Figure 1b, with two 50- resistances in parallel
across the 100-V source, the calculations are
VA 100
I1 = 2A
R1 50
VA 100
I2 = 2A
R2 50
I T = I1 + I 2 = 2 + 2 = 4 V
With a total current of 4 A in the main line from the 100-V source,
the combined parallel resistance is 25 . This RT equals 100 V/4A
for the two 50- branches.
Each branch current has the same phase as the applied voltage.
Voltage VA is the reference because it is common to both branches.
Figure 2
Series Circuit with XL Alone
(a) Schematic diagram (b) Phasor diagram
XL Values in Series
X L T = X L 1 + X L 2 = 50 + 50 = 100
VT 100
I= 1A
R LT 100
V1 = IX L1 = 1 + 50 = 50 V
V 2 = IX L 2 = 1 + 50 = 50 V
Note that the two series voltage drops of 50 V each add to equal the
total applied voltage of 100 V.
IL Values in Parallel
VA 100
I1 = 2A
XL 1 50
VA 100
I2 = 2A
X L2 50
I T = I1 + I2 = 2 + 2 = 4 A
Figure 3
Parallel Circuit with XL Alone
(a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram
These two branch currents can be added because they both have
the same phase. The angle is 90° lagging the voltage reference
phasor as shown in Figure 3b.
parallel circuits.
Figure 4
Series Circuit With XC Alone
(a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram
XC Values in Series
For Figure 4a, the calculations for V1 and V2 are the same as before.
These two series voltage drops of 50 V each add to equal to total
applied voltage.
With regard to the phase angle for the capacitive reactance, the
voltage across any XC always lags its capacitive charge and
discharge current “I” by 90°. For the series circuit in Figure 4, “I” is
the reference phasor. The capacitive current leads by 90°. Or, we
can say that each voltage lags “I” by -90°.
Figure 5
Parallel Circuit With XC Alone
(a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram
In a circuit with both XL and XC, the opposite phase angles enable
one to cancel the effect of the other. For XL and XC in series, the net
reactance is the difference between the two series reactances,
resulting in less reactance than either one. In parallel circuits, the IL
and IC branch currents cancel. The net line current then is the
difference between the two branch currents, resulting in less total
line current than either branch current.
XL and XC in Series
Figure 6
When XL and XC Are in Series, Their Ohms of Reactance Cancel
(a) Series Circuit (b) Phasors for XL and XC With Net Resultant
(c) Equivalent Circuit with Net Reactance of 20 of XL
For the two series reactances in Figure 6a, the current is the same
through both XL and XC. Therefore, the voltage drops can be
calculated as
VL or IXL = 6 A x 60 = 360 V
VC or IXC = 6 A x 40 = 240 V
Note that each individual reactive voltage drop can be more than
the applied voltage. The sum of the series voltage drops still is 120
V, however, equal to the applied voltage. This results because the
IXL and IXC voltages are opposite. The IXL voltage leads the series
current by 90°; the IXC voltage lags the same current by 90°.
Therefore, IXL and IXC are 180° out of phase with each other, which
means they are of opposite polarity and cancel. Then the total
voltage across the two in series is 360 V minus 240 V, which equals
the applied voltage of 120 V.
XL and XC in Parallel
Figure 7
When XL and XC are in Parallel, Their Branch Currents Cancel
(a) Parallel Circuit (b) Phasors for Branch Currents IC and IL With
Net Resultant (c) Equivalent Circuit With Net Line Current of 1 A for IC
After the total R and net reactance X are found, they can be
combined by the formula
Z
2
R X
2
(24-1)
Figure 8
Impedance Z of Series Circuit
(a) Resistance R, XL, and XC in Series
(b) Equivalent Circuit With One Net Reactance (c) Phasor Diagram
I = V/Z
All the series components have the same 2-A current. Therefore, the
individual drops in Figure 8a are
VR = IR = 2 x 40 = 80 V
VC = IXC = 2 x 90 = 180 V
VL = IXL = 2 x 60 = 120 V
Since IXC and IXL are voltages of opposite polarity, the net reactive
voltage is 180 minus 120 V, which equals 60 V. The phasor sum of
IR at 80 V and the net reactive voltage IX of 60 V equals the applied
voltage VT of 100 V.
Phase Angle of Z
The phase angle of the series circuit is the angle whose tangent
equals X/R. The angle is negative for XC but positive for XL.
I T I R 2 IX2 (24-2)
Calculating IT
The next step is to calculate IT as the phasor sum of IR and IX. Then
IT I R 2 IX2
42 32
16 9 25
IT 5 A
Figure 10
Total Line Current IT of Parallel Circuit
(a) Branches of R, XL, and XC in Parallel
(b) Equivalent Circuit with IR and Net Reactive Branch Current
(c) Phasor Diagram
ZT=VA/IT
Phase Angle
For this example, IX is the net inductive current of the 3-A IL. Also,
IR is 4 A. These phasors are shown in Figure 10c. Then is a
negative angle with the tangent of -3/4 or -0.75. This phase angle is
-37°, approximately.
Figure 11
Parallel AC Circuit With More Components than Figure 10,
But The Same Values of Z, I, and
Figure 12
Reducing a Series-Parallel Circuit with R, XL, and XC to a Series Circuit
With one R and One X. (a) Actual Circuit (b) Simplified Arrangement
(c) Series Equivalent Circuit (d) Phasor Diagram
Figure 12b.
of 100 .
In Figure 12c, the 100- XL is in series with the 100- R1-2. This
value is for R1 and R2 in parallel.
a. How much is X L + X L ?
1 2
Real Power
or
Figure 13
Real Power In Series Circuit.
(a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram
In both examples, the real power is the same 400 W, because this is
the amount of power supplied by the generator and dissipated in
the resistance. Either formula can be used for calculating the real
power, depending on which is more convenient.
Power Factor
R
Power factor = cos =
Z
For the parallel circuit in Figure 10, we use the resistive current IR
and the IT:
IR 4A
Power factor = cos = 0.8
IT 5A
With all resistance and zero reactance, R and Z are the same for a
series circuit, or IR and IT are the same for a parallel circuit, and the
ratio is 1. Therefore, unity power factor means a resistive circuit. At
the opposite extreme, all reactance with zero resistance makes the
power factor zero, meaning that the circuit is all reactive.
Apparent Power
For the example in Figure 13, with 400 V and the 2-A I, 60° out of
phase, the apparent power is VI, or 400 x 2 = 800 VA. Note that
apparent power is the VI product alone, without considering the
power factor cos .
Note that the factor sin for the VARs gives the vertical or reactive
component of the apparent power VI. However, multiplying VI by
cos as the power factor gives the horizontal or resistive
component for the real power.
AC Meters
Figure 14
Wattmeter (a) Schematic of Voltage and Current Coils
(b) Meter For Range of 0 to 200 W. (W. M. Welch Mfg. Co.)
In Figure 14a, the coils L I and L I in series are the stationary coils
1 2
Summary
The differences in R, XL, XC, and Z are listed in the Table 1, but the
following general features should also be noted. Ohms of
opposition limit the amount of current in dc circuits or ac circuits.
Resistance R is the same for either case. However, ac circuits can
have ohms of reactance because of the variations in alternative
current or voltage. Reactance XL is the reactance of an inductance
with sine-wave changes in current. Reactance XC is the reactance of
a capacitor with sine-wave changes in voltage.
Table 1
Types of Ohms in AC Circuits
The phasors for ohms, volts, and amperes are shown in Figure 15.
Note the similarities and differences:
Resistance
The R, VL, and IR always have the same angle because there is no
phase shift in a resistance. This applies to R in either a series or a
parallel circuit.
Reactance
In short, IC and IL are opposite from each other, and both are
opposite from their corresponding reactances.
Phase Angel Z
Phase Angle I
The phasor resultant of branch currents is the total line current IT.
The phase angle of IT can be any angle between 0 and 90°. In a
parallel circuit, I is the angle of IT with respect to the applied
voltage VA.
The I is the same value but of opposite sign from Z for Z, which is
the impedance of the combined parallel branches.
The reason for the change of sign is that I is for IT with respect to
the common V, but Z is for VT with respect to the common current
I.
XL; (b) a 200- XL; (c) an 80- XC; (d) a 200- XC.
3. An ac circuit has a 40- R, a 90- XL, and a 60- XC, all in series.
The impedance Z equals (a) 50 ; (b) 70.7 ; (c) 110 ; (d) 190 .
4. An ac circuit has a 100- R, a 100- XL, and a 100- XC, all in
series. The impedance Z of the series combination is equal to (a)
33-1/3 ; (b) 70.7 ; (c) 100 ; (d) 300 .
5. An ac circuit has a 100- R, a 300- XL, and a 200- XC, all in
series. The phase angle of the circuit equals (a) 0°; (b) 37°; (c)
45°; (d) 90°.
6. The power factor of an ac circuit equals (a) the cosine of the
phase angle: (b) the tangent of the phase angle; (c) zero for a
resistive circuit; (d) unity for a reactive circuit.
7. Which phasors in the following combinations are not in
opposite directions? (a) XL and XC; (b) XL and IC; (c) IL and IC; (d)
XC and IC.
8. In Figure 8a, the voltage drop across XL equals (a) 60 V; (b) 66-
2/3 V; (c) 120 V; (d) 200 V.
9. In Figure 10a, the combined impedance of the parallel circuit
equals (a) 5 ; (b) 12.5 ; (c) 20 ; (d) 100 .
10. The wattmeter (a) has voltage and current coils to measure real
power; (b) has three connections, two of which are used at a
time; (c) measures apparent power because the current is the
same in the voltage and current coils; (d) can measure dc power
but not 60-Hz ac power.
1. Refer to Figure 1a. (a) Calculate the total real power supplied by
the source. (b) Why is the phase angle zero? (c) What is the
power factor of the circuit?
2. In a series ac circuit, 2 A flows through a 20- R, a 40- XL, and
a 60- XC. (a) Make a schematic diagram of the series circuit. (b)
Calculate the voltage drop across each series component. (c)
How much is the applied voltage? (d) Calculate the power
factor of the circuit. (e) What is the phase angle ?
3. A parallel circuit has the following five branches: three
resistances of 30 each; an XL of 600 ; and XC of 400 . (a)
Make a schematic diagram of the circuit. (b) If 100 V is applied,
how much is the total line current? (c) What is the total
impedance of the circuit? (d) What is the phase angle ?
4. Referring to Figure 8, assume that the frequency is doubled
from 500 to 1000 Hz. Find XL, XC, Z, I, and for this higher
frequency. Calculate L and C.
5. A series circuit has a 300- R, a 500- X C , a 300- X C , an 800-
1 2
400 V. (a) Draw the schematic diagram with all components. (b)
Draw the equivalent circuit reduced to one resistance and one
reactance. (c) Calculate ZT, I, and .
6. Repeat Prob. 5 for a circuit with the same components in
parallel across the voltage source.
7. A series circuit has a 600- R, a 10-H inductance L, and a 4-F
capacitance C, all in series with the 60-Hz 120-V power line as
applied voltage. (a) Find the reactance of L and of C. (b)
Calculate ZT, I, and Z.
8. Repeat Prob. 7 for the same circuit, but the 120-V source has f =
10 Mhz.
Calculate IT.
15. With 420 mV applied, an ac circuit has the following parallel
branches: R1 = 100 ; R2 = 175 ; X L = 60 ;
1
Section 1 a. 0°
b. 0°
Section 2. a. 90°
b. -90°
Section 3 a. -90°
b. 90°
Section 4 a. 20
b. 1 A
Section 5 a. XC = 30
b. XC = 30
Section 6 a. IL = 3 A
b. IL = 3 A
Section 7 a. 200
b. 200
c. 100
Section 8 a. Watt
b. Voltampere
Section 9 a. T
b. T
Section 10 a. Real power
b. V
Section 11 a. R
b. XL
c. XC
Section 12 a. VL and VC
b. IR and IL
1. (a) 100 W
(b) No reactance
(c) 1
2.
3. (b) I = 10 A, approx.
(c) Z = 10
(d) = 0°
4.
5. (c) ZT = 500
I = 0.8 A
Z = 53°
6.
7. (a) XL = 0, approx.
XC = 665
(b) ZT = 890
I = 135 mA
Z = -47.9°
8.
9. (a) 180°
10.
11. R = 102
12.
13. C = 300 pF
14.
15. IT = 6.9 mA, I = -16.9°
ZT = 60.9 , Z = 16.9°
16.
17. R = 9704
Figure 1
Positive and Negative Numbers
Figure 2
The j Axis at 90° From Real Axis
The operator for a number can be any angle between 0 and 360°.
Since the angle of 90° is important in ac circuits, the factor j is used
to indicate 90°. See Figure 2. Here, the number 5 means 5 units at
0°, the number -5 is at 180°, while j5 indicates the 90° angle.
The j is usually written before the number. The reason is that the j
sign is a 90° operator, just as the + sign is a 0° operator and the -
sign is a 180° operator. Any quantity at right angles to the zero axis,
therefore, 90° counterclockwise, is on the +j axis.
0° = 1
90° = j
180° = j2 = -1
270° = j3 = j2 x j = -1 x j = -j
360° = same as 0°
Figure 4
Phasors Corresponding to Real Terms and j Terms, In
Rectangular Coordinates
Also note that either the real term or j term can be the larger of the
two. When the j term is larger, the angle is more than 45°; when the
The applications are just a question of using a real term for 0°, +j
for 90°, and -j for -90°, to denote the phase angles. Specifically,
Figure 5 below illustrates the following rules:
Figure 5
Rectangular Form of Complex Numbers For Impedances
(a) Reactance XL is +J (b) Reactance XC is -j
Figure 6
Rectangular Form of Complex Numbers For Branch Currents
(a) Current IL is -j (b) Current LC is + j
ZT = 4000 + j2000
ZT = 3000 - j9000
ZT = 0 + j7
ZT = 12 + j0
ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + … + etc.
or
Z1 x Z2
ZT for two parallel impedances
Z1 Z2
Figure 7
Reactance XL is a +j Term and XC is a -j Term, Whether in Series
or in Parallel (a) Series Circuit (b) Parallel Branches (c) Complex
Branch Impedances Z1 and Z2 in Parallel
a. XL of 7 in series with R of 4 .
b. XC of 7 in series with zero R.
(9 + j5) + (3 + j2) = 9 + 3 + j5 + j2 = 12 + j7
(9 + j5) + (3 - j2) = 9 + 3 + j5 - j2 = 12 + j3
(9 + j5) + (3 - j8) = 9 + 3 + j5 - 8 = 12 - j3
4 x j3 = j12 j12 ÷ 4 = j3
j5 x 6 = j30 j30 ÷ 6 = j5
j5 x (-6) = -j30 -j30 ÷ (-6) = j5
-j5 x 6 = -j30 -j30 ÷ 6 = -j5
-j5 x (-6) = j30 j30 ÷ (-6) = -j5
To Multiply or Divide a Real Number by a Real
Number
j4 x j3 = j212 = (-1)(12)
= -12
j4 x (-j3) = -j212 = -(-1)(12)
= 12
To Divide a j Term by a j Term
j12 ÷ j4 = 3 -j12 ÷ j4 = -3
Follow the rules of algebra for multiplying two factors, each having
two terms:
= 27 - j3 - (-1)10
= 27 - j3 + 10
= 37 - j3
Note that -j210 equals +10 because the operator j2 is -1 and -(-1)10
becomes +10.
a. (2 + j3) + (3 + j4) = ?
b. (2 + j3) x 2 = ?
The phase angle of the resultant is the angle whose tangent is 3/4
or 0.75. The angle equals 37°. Therefore, 4 + j3 = 5 37 .
When calculating the tangent ratio, note that the j term is the
numerator and the real term is the denominator because the
tangent of the phase angle is the ratio of the opposite side to the
adjacent side. With a negative j term, the tangent is negative, which
means a negative phase angle.
2 + j4 = 4 16 (arctan 2) = 4.4763
Note that arctan 2, for example, means the angle with a tangent
equal to 2. This can also be indicated as tan-1 2. In either case, the
angle is specified as having 2 for its tangent, and the angle is 63.4°.
4 + j2 = 4.4726.5
8 + j6 = 10 37
8 - j6 = 10 37
4 + j4 = 5.66 45
4 - j4 = 5.66 45
These examples are the same as those given before for finding the
magnitude and phase angle of a complex number.
0 + j5 = 590
0 - j5 = 5 90
5 + j0 = 50
For Multiplication
4x230 830
4x2 30 8 30
4x230 830
4x( 230) 830
This rule follows from the fact that a real number has an angle of
0°. When you add 0° to any angle, the sum equals the same angle.
This rule is also a special case that follows from the fact that a real
number has a phase angle of 0°. When you subtract 0° from any
angle, the remainder equals the same angle.
For the opposite case, however, when you divide a real number by
a complex number, the angle of the denominator changes its sign in
the answer in the numerator. This rule still follows the procedure of
subtracting angles for division, since a real number has a phase
angle of 0°. As examples,
10 100
530 530
20 30 2 30
10 100
5 30 5 30
20 (30) 2 30
Stated another way, we can say that the reciprocal of an angle is the
same angle but with opposite sign. Note that this operation is
similar to working with powers of 10. Angles and powers of 10
follow the general rules of exponents.
a. 620x230 ?
b. 620 230 ?
Figure 9
Converting Polar Form of Z to Rectangular Form of R ± jX
(a) Positive Angle in First Quadrant has + j Term
(b) Negative Angle - in Fourth Quadrant has -j Term
In Figure 9a, assume that Z in polar form is 537 . The sine of 37°
is 0.6 and its cosine is 0.8.
R = Z cos = 5 x 0.8 = 4
X = Z sin = 5 x 0.6 = 3
537 =4 + j3
This example is the same as the illustration in Figure 8. The + sign
for the j term means it is XL, not XC.
In Figure 9b, the values are the same, but the j term is negative
when is negative. The negative angle has a negative j term
because the opposite side is in the fourth quadrant, where the sine
is negative. However, the real term is still positive because the
cosine is positive.
These rules apply for angles in the first or fourth quadrant, from 0
to 90° or from 0 to -90°. As examples:
14.1445 10 j10
14.14 45 10 j10
10 90 0 j10
10 90 0 j10
10030 86.6 j50
100 30 86.6 j50
10060 50 j86.6
100 60 50 j86.6
When going from one form to the other, keep in mind whether the
angle is smaller or greater than 45° and if the j term is smaller or
larger than the real term.
For angles between 0 and 45°, the opposite side, which is the j term,
must be smaller than the real term. For angles between 45 and 90°,
the j term must be larger than the real term.
ZT in Rectangular Form
ZT = 2 + j4 + 4 - j12
= 6 - j8
Figure 10
Complex Numbers Applied to Series AC Circuits
(a) Circuit with Series Impedances (b) Current and Voltages
(c) Phasor Diagram of Current and Voltages
ZT in Polar Form
Z T 6 j8
36 64arctan 8/6
100arctan 1.33
Z T 1053
The angle of -53° for ZT means this is the phase angle of the circuit.
Or the applied voltage and the current are 53° out of phase.
The reason for the polar form is to divide ZT into the applied
voltage VT to calculate the current I. See Figure 10b. Note that the
VT of 20 V is a real number without any j term. Therefore, the
applied voltage is 20 0 . This angle of 0° for VT makes it the
reference phase for the following calculations. We can find the
current as
VT 200
I
ZT 10 53
20 (53)
I 253A
Note that ZT has the negative angle of -53° but the sign changes to
+53° for I because of the division into a quantity with the angle of
0°. In general, the reciprocal of an angle in polar form is the same
angle with opposite sign.
The fact that I has the angle of +53° means it leads VT. The positive
angle for I shows the series circuit is capacitive, with leading
current. This angle is more than 45° because the net reactance is
more than the total resistance, resulting in a tangent function
greater than 1.
The phasors for these voltages are in Figure 10c. They show the
phase angles using the applied voltage VT as the zero reference
phase.
For VC, its angle of -37° means it lags the generator voltage VT by
this much. However, this voltage across XC still lags the current by
90°, which is the difference between 53° and -37°.
The angle of 143° for VL in the second quadrant is still 90° leading
the current at 53°, as 143° - 53° = 90°. With respect to the generator
voltage VT, though, the phase angle of VL is 143°.
If we want to add the voltage drops around the circuit to see if they
equal the applied voltage, each V must be converted to rectangular
form. Then these values can be added. In rectangular form then the
individual voltages are
VT 200 V approximately
Note that for 8143 in the second quadrant, the cosine is negative
for a negative real term but the sine is positive for a positive j term.
Figure 11
Complex Numbers Used for Parallel AC Circuit to
Convert a Parallel Bank to an Equivalent Series Impedance
= 7.07 x 0.707 = 5
Therefore,
ZT 5 j5 in rectangular form
1
Conductanc e G S
R
1
Susceptance B S
X
1
Adm ittance Y S
Z
YT 0.1 j0.1S
In polar form,
Figure 12
Finding ZT For Any Two Complex Impedances
ZI and Z2 in Parallel
10 j410.822
Then
56.6 8
ZT
10.822
Therefore
ZT 5.24 14
ZT 5.08- j1.27
Figure 13
Fining IT For Two Complex Branch Currents in Parallel
I T I1 I 2
(6 j6) (3 j4)
I T 9 j2 A
Note that I1 has +j for the +90° of capacitive current, while I2 has -j
for inductive current. These current phasors have the opposite
signs from their reactance phasors.
IT 92 22
85 9.22 A
tan 2/9 0.22
12.53
Figure 14
Finding ZT For Any Three Complex Impedances In Parallel
Branch Impedances
Branch Currents
VA 100
I1 1.414 45 1 j1
Z1 70.7 45
VA 100
I2 2.00 37 1.6 j1.2
Z 2 5037
VA 100
I3 2.00 53 1.2 j1.6
Z3 5053
In rectangular form,
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
IT = 3.8 - j1.8
In polar form,
VA 100
ZT
IT 4.2 25.4
Z T 23.8 25.4
ZT = 21.5 + j10.2
Match the values in the column at the left with those at the
right.
1. 24 + j5 + 16 + j10 a. 14 50
2. 24 - j5 + 16 - j10 b. 76
3. j12 x 4 c. 1200 - j800
4. j12 x j4 d. 40 + j15
5. j12 ÷ j3 e. 90 + j60 V
9. 90 V of VR + 60 V of VL I. j48
12. 1542x30 l. 20
1. Give the mathematical operator for the angles of 0°, 90°, 180°,
270°, and 360°.
2. Define the sine, cosine, and tangent functions of an angle.
3. How are mathematical operators similar for logarithms,
exponents, and angles?
4. Compare the following combinations: resistance R and
conductance G, reactance X and susceptance B, impedance Z
and admittance Y.
5. What are the units for admittance Y and susceptance B?
6. Why do ZT and I1 for a circuit have angles with opposite signs?
Figure 15
21. In Figure 16, find Z T by calculating Zbc of the parallel bank
and combining with the series Zab.
Figure 16
Section 1 a. 0°
b. 180°
Section 2 a. 90°
b. -90 or 270°
Section 3 a. T
b. T
Section 4 a. j3 k
b. -j5 mA
Section 5 a. 4 + j7
b. 0 - j7
Section 6 a. 5 + j7
b. 4 + j6
Section 7 a. 14.14
b. 45°
Section 8 a. 12 50
b. 3 10
Section 9 a. 10 + j10
b. 10 - j10
Section 10 a. 53°
b. 143°
c. 90°
Section 11 a. (6 + j8)/(5 + j4)
b. (6 - j8)/(5 - j4)
Section 12 a. 10 + j4
b. 56.68
Section 13 a. 4 + j5 A
b. 9 - j2 A
Section 14 a. 40 + j30
b. 5037
c. 2 37A
1. (a) 4 - j3
(b) 4 + j3
(c) 3 + j6
(d) 3 - j3
3. (a) 5 37
(b) 537
(c) 3.1818.5
(D) 4.25 45
5. ZT = 65.36 + J23.48
7. (A) 4.514
(b) 4.534
(c) 100 84
(d) 100 60
9. ZT = 12.6518.5
11. ZT = 5.25 14.7
13. R = 5.08
XC = 1.27
15. R = 21.4
XL = 10.2
17. ZT = 50 37 = 40 - j30
I = 237 = 1.6 + j1.2 A
VR = 8037 = 64 + j48V
VL = 120127 = -72 + j96 V
VC = 180 53 = 108 - j144 V
19. ZT = 2.07 k 14.6 k
I = 3.88 mA 14.6 mA
21. ZT = 13.446.5