THE TIRE COMPOSITE*

T. M. KERSKER,F. J. KOVACand M. F. DACUE

The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, Akron, Ohio (USA)

(Received: 25 April, 1969)

SUMMARY

After fifty years ofuse, tires have evolved into a transportation product of unsurpassed
universality. Tires are basically a composite structure of a reinforced elastomer. The
unique properties of textiles have made them the preferred reinforcing component.
The engineering of textiles for this complex composite will be discussed. Special
emphasis will be given to recent innovations including (a) wide range of new materials,
(b) advanced tire concepts, (c) better understanding of dynamic interaction of struc-
ture configuration, and (d) expanded capability of computers.

INTRODUCTION

A tire is a textile/rubber composite (Fig. 1). The tire composite is in the form of a
network of textile cord structures arranged in a parallel configuration and imbedded
in a rubber matrix. Rubber, as used here, is defined as an elastomer compounded
with various fillers and chemical ingredients.
The stress-strain characteristics of textiles and rubber are more dissimilar
than most composite components (Fig. 2). The textile component is high in strength
with relatively low elongation; the rubber matrix is relatively low in strength with
high elongation. The ratio of ultimate textile stress to ultimate rubber (matrix)
stress is approximately 50. This ratio is high in comparison with dispersion-
strengthened or particle-strengthened composites and is even higher than most
fiber-strengthened composites.

* Based on a paper presented at the National Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, 19 March, 1969, New Orleans, Louisiana.

Fibre Science and Technology--O Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd, England--Printed in Great Britain
42 V. M. KERSKER, F. J. KOVAC, M. F. DAGUE

THE TEXTILE/RUBBER COMPOSITE MODEL

The relationships existing between the materials in a tire composite are geometri-
cally illustrated in Fig. 3. It can be seen that we are examining in detail the insert
shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The tire composite.

TEXTILE

6~'u
STRESS == 5 0

~RUBBER

STRAIN
Fig. 2. Tire composite components.
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 43

One layer o f this m o d e l can be described m a t h e m a t i c a l l y by using the basic

principles o f isotropic c o m p o s i t e materials. 1 These are briefly s u m m a r i z e d in
eqns. (1) to (3). These e q u a t i o n s will be discussed in general a n d then d e v e l o p e d to

hcj

* X
Fig. 3. Laminate model.

show how they are used in an a p p r o a c h to the engineering o f p n e u m a t i c tires. The

terms used in this discussion are defined as follows:

d = d i a m e t e r o f the textile c o m p o n e n t
E = elastic m o d u l u s
G = shear m o d u l u s
a = stress
h = thickness o f c o m p o s i t e structure
1 = length o f textile c o m p o n e n t
V = volume fiaction
--- c o r d angle
6 = n u m b e r o f textile cords p e r unit v o l u m e o f c o m p o s i t e
e = strain
o = elastic c o n s t a n t o f r u b b e r layer
% = shear b o n d stress.
Subscripts
c = composite
m = matrix
t = textile c o m p o n e n t
u = ultimate.
44 T. M. KERSKER+ F. J. KOVAC, M. F. DAGUE

Equation (1) is a general equation for composite stress as a function of stress of

the textile times volume fraction of the textile plus stress of the matrix times
volume fraction of the matrix.
0"e = o-iV, -t- Crm(I - Vt) (n)

Ultimate composite stress is a function of the ultimate stress of the textile times the
volume of the textile plus the stress of the matrix at the breaking elongation of the
textile times the volume of the matrix (eqn. 2).
O'cu = O'tuV t -t- (O'm)et (l -- Vt) (2)

The expression for composite modulus is given in eqn. (3).

E c = E tVt + E m ( l - Vt) (3)

From the preceding equations, it can be seen that the strength and modulus
properties of a composite are functions of (1) volume of textile (Vt), and (2) textile
properties. This assumes that:

(1) The reinforcing textile carries the major share of the structural load.
(2) The rubber contribution to strength and modulus of the composite is minor
and can be neglected. This can be shown theoretically and empirically. Mathe-
matically it can be shown that as the length of the textile increases (as in tires), the
composite strength and modulus becomes less dependent on the matrix. 2

DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL V t

Therefore, volume of the textile is of major importance. Determination of optimal

Vt can be investigated by means of eqn. (4).
When a textile/rubber composite, illustrated by the layers shown in Fig. 3,
is subjected to stress, the force per cord must be balanced by the resistant shear
force at the textile/rubber interface. This force balance is expressed in eqn. (4).
7rd 2
F = r~ndl = a t - - (4)
4

When the force per cord (F) results in a sufficient shear bond stress such that failure
occurs at the textile/rubber interface (rbu), further increases in the load-carrying
ability of the textile will not increase the composite strength. By solving eqn. (4)
for at (where zb~ is substituted for %) and determining a¢~ from eqn. (1) (when
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 45

a t = at, ), the relationship between the ultimate composite stress and the textile
volume fraction can be obtained. This relationship is shown as eqn. (5).

a~. = K 1 V , l / z (5)

where K 1 = ~/4--~%,

Equations (2) and (5) are illustrated graphically in Fig. 4. When Vt < Vt', the
ultimate composite stress is governed by the stress of the textile member and the

II0-
100-
CO-

70- .~..~" J
[
3ol--'Ja .... I

0 0.1 02 03 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0,9 1.0

TEXTILE VOLUME FRACTION, V,~
Fig. 4. Optimum composite strength.

textile volume fraction. Vt' is determined by the intersection of eqns. (2) and (5).
When Vt > Vt', the ultimate composite stress is governed by the shear bond forces
and the failure of the composite is due to failure at the textile/rubber interface.
Vt' is considered the optimal textile volume. Further increases in the volume of the
46 T . M . KERSKER, F..1. KOVAC, M. F. DAGUE

textile component will not result in increased composite strength. Raising the
ultimate composite strength (trcu) above the optimal strength (a'¢,) can only be
accomplished if the curve representing eqn. (5) can be shifted upward by a larger
value for K~ (Fig. 5). K~ can be increased by (1) increasing the ultimate shear bond
strength (Tbu) by improving the adhesion between the textile and the rubber, or
(2) increasing the surface area of the textile for a given volume fraction by using a
larger number of smaller cords per unit volume.

~0
~~ I10!I00

80 90
_

50 ......... .J'- 7.>Y~, ~ ~',~

41 - ,(,

ao i !
V' V,' V'
0 I0 ~ ;*h, :'h,) "t,3)
(.1 I !
0 I I I : I I' i lJ I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
TEXTILE VOLUME FRACTION, Vt
Fig. 5 U l t i m a t e c o m p o s i t e strength.

PNEUMATIC TIRE ANALYSIS

An analysis of the anisotropic nature of the tire composite can be made by starting
with the laminate model (Fig. 3). It has been shown that the elastic and shear
moduli of this model are given by eqns. (6), (7) and (8). E is the elastic modulus in
the x and y directions; G is the shear modulus.
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 47

h6 hcEG + 2mh~E¢(sin 4 a + cos 4 a - 2oG sin 2 ~t cos 2 ct)

(6)
hGE6 + 2mh¢Ec(1 - o62) sin4 ~t

E r = ~ EG hcEG + 2mhcE¢(sin 4 a + cos 4 a - 20 o sin 2 ~ cos 2 a)

(7)
h~EG + 2mhcEc(l - oG2) cos4~

G - hG EG 2mh¢
h '2(1 + o~) + -----if- E¢ sin 2 0t cos 2 ~t (8)

The tensile modulus of the model is related to the dimensions of the layers, the
modulus of the laminates, and the textile orientation or cord angle. The modulus
of the textile/rubber composite layers is related to the textile and rubber moduli and
the textile volume fraction by eqn. (3).
The assumptions inherent in this analysis are:
(1) layer model
(2) independent layers; i.e., no mutual deformation
(3) transverse isotropy; i.e. same deformation on all edges
(4) textile stresses are identical to the principal stresses in the textile layer
(5) the relationship between composite stresses and strains are described by
Hooke's law.
In reality a tire behaves in a more complex manner. Thus, the extension of these
models to a final description of the behavior of a tire is limited. However, such an
analysis is valuable in determining directional relationships among the many
variables and has lead to various empirical relationships used in the engineering
of textiles for tires.

PNEUMATIC TIRE PARAMETERS

Fundamental to any discussion of tire composites is the understanding of the basic

functions of a pneumatic tire. These may be summarized:
(1) load carrying capacity
(2) cushioning ability
(3) transmit driving and braking torque
(4) produce cornering force
(5) provide flotation
(6) provide lateral stability
(7) resist abrasion
(8) provide steering response
(9) low rolling resistance
(10) be durable and safe.
48 T.M.KERSKER,F.J. KOVAC,M.F. DAGUE
Three basic types of tires are in use today (Fig. 6). First is the bias angle tire
construction featuring multiple plies of parallel cords placed at opposed angles.
This has been a standard tire construction for years. Second is the radial ply tire.
This design features one or more body plies of parallel cords going radially from
bead to bead with a bias-cord belt restricting the carcass under the tread. The third
design is the bias/belted tire which consists of a bias-ply carcass with a restricting belt.

BIAS RADIAL
i
Fig. 6. Basic tire constructions.
.BIAS/BELTED

~",~ ,s.~I ~
Fig. 7. Tire operation: flexible membrane (bias): R l : inflated radius, R2 = loaded radius.

Analysis of the dynamic behavior of a tire is quite complex. 3 The operation of a

bias tire in service is simply illustrated in Fig. 7.
I f a tire behaved like a steel wheel, the inflated radius, R 1, would be the effective
radius of the tire. However, a pneumatic tire deflects under load. Therefore, the
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 49

effective radius is not R1 but a shorter distance R 2. This loaded radius, R 2, is

determined by an equilibrium between the inflation pressure, load, and tire shape.
Consequently, the footprint or contact area is in compression. This action is called
pantographing. The result, as a bias tire rotates, is a tension-compression flex cycle.
The magnitude of the stress cycle is controlled by the deflection (R1 - R 2 ) .
The desired properties for a textile in a bias tire carcass are:
(1) high strength
(2) high durability
(3) dimensional stability
(4) high dynamic modulus
(5) low heat generation
(6) low stress decay
(7) low growth and creep
(8) high resonance frequency
(9) high specific gravity
(10) no flatspotting.
The operation of a belted tire (radial or bias/belted) can be represented as a
fixed-circumference hoop (Fig. 8). The tire can be visualized as a steel band rolling

Fig. 8. Fixed-circumference h o o p (belted).

on the pavement. Its circumference would be the same whether it is circular,

elliptical, or semi-elliptical in shape. The belt provides an inextensible and incom-
pressible hoop structure which stabilizes or stiffens the tread by minimizing
pantographing in the tread area. This can be visually demonstrated (Fig. 9). On
the right is a standard tire--note the presence of the standing wave and the opening
and closing of the tread grooves. On the left is a bias/belted tire--note the reduction
in tread squirming.
Belts are an efficient way to engineer improved treadwear, traction, crown bruise
resistance, cornering and handling, and road holding properties. In addition, belts
reduce tire running temperature, groove cracking, and noise.
50 T.M. KERSKER, F. J. KOVAC, M. F. DAGUE

Fig. 9. Reduced squirm (a) bias/belted, (b) bias.

Textiles for tire belt applications require a different balance of properties than
textiles for carcass use. Desired properties are:

(1) ultra high dynamic modulus

(2) high stiffness
(3) high strength
(4) low growth and creep
(5) high compression modulus
(6) minimal fatigue requirements.
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 51

Thus each basic tire type requires specific textile physical properties. In addition,
each tire type will optimize to different composite configurations.
A detailed discussion has already been given on the importance of Vt in the tire
composite. In general, the following Vt factors are used in tires:
Bias Radial Bias~Belted

Vt 30-50 % 20-40 % 20-40 %

These volume fractions are based on the textile/rubber composite comprising
the plies of the tire. Rubber in the tread wearing surface is not included.

TEXTILE ENGINEERING

In designing a fabric for a specific tire application, many factors must be con-
sidered.4 One of the primary considerations is the type of tire: passenger, tractor,
truck, off-road, or aircraft. Another, but equally important consideration, is the
performance level required. Six widely different tires are described in Table 1.

TABLE 1
TIRE CONSTRUCTIONS

Tire Service requirement Structure

Type Size Diam. Load Speed Miles Plies Cord
Passenger 8'85-15 29.1 1580 100 30,000 2 1300/3
Tractor 7.5L-15 29.5 1590 20 Years 4 840/2
Truck 7'00-15 29-6 1720 70 40,000 4 1260/2
Race 8.20-15 29"0 1200 210 500 4 1260/2
Off-Road 7"50-15 29.8 4200 5 Years 6 1260/3
Aircraft 30 × 8.8 29"9 21,000 250 -- 10 1260/3

Each of these tires is approximately equal in size (about 30 inches in diameter).

However, the load requirements range from 1200 to 21,000 pounds, the speed
requirements range from 5 to 250 mph, and the mileage requirements range from
500 to 40,000 miles. The textile/rubber structure must reflect these requirements.
Once the service conditions have been established, all available degrees of free-
dom of textile material must be considered. 5 This includes:
(a) a choice of 4 basic fibers (rayon, nylon, polyester, or fiberglass)
(b) a choice of a dozen available deniers
(c) an array of cord constructions (cord size)
(d) many cord twists
(e) a range of cord end counts (cord spacing).
52 T. M. KERSKER, F. J. KOVAC, M. F. DAGUE

The following example illustrates the engineering of a textile for a passenger tire.
The first choice is one of fiber material. The basic fibers will be evaluated for per-
formance/cost considerations based on a Tire Fabric Efficiency (TFE). TFE is a
mathematical expression developed to measure the relative economical potential
of fibers.
T×S
Tire Fabric Efficiency (TFE) = (9)
G × C × ~(r +g)
where
T = tenacity in gpd of a cord which has been constructed to give satisfactory
fatigue performance
S = shrinkage of the cord expressed as final length over original length
G = growth of the cord expressed as final length over original length
C = cost of fabric in dollars/pound
r = rivet (distance between cords) in inches
g = cord size (gauge) in inches.

Now, for a given fiber, a variety of composite configurations are possible.

Figure 10 graphically displays a general relationship between composite strength
(for a given fiber this can be plotted as Vt or lb fabric per tire) and cord spacing
(shown here as ends per inch) for a series of increasing cord sizes. A maximum
and minimum number of ends per inch is specific for each cord size. Outside of
these limits the fabric rivet (distance between cords) will be too high or too low.
This graph points out that a composite can be engineered from any number of
textile constructions.
Based on calculations (from a computer program), the engineer will be given a
choice of potential fabrics varying in cord size, cord twist, cord spacing, gauge,
rivet, and surface area (Fig. 11). Now the problem is one of cord and fabric
mechanics.
All of the fabrics in Fig. 11 have approximately equal calculated strengths.
Each of these constructions, however, will behave differently in the tire. In general,
three-ply cords have better durability. High end count fabrics result in greater
tire plunger strength. Low end count fabrics have more rivet and give better
separation resistance. After extensive laboratory and tire testing, the optimized
fabric in the above example was determined to be 1300/3, 24 epi.
As part of choosing the cord construction, the fabric engineer has to decide upon
the cord twist; i.e., the number of turns per inch when twisting the yarns together.
In general, high cord twist results in higher fatigue resistance and lower strength;
conversely, low cord twist gives lower fatigue resistance but higher strength
(Fig. 12).
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 53

CORD SPACING
(EPI) Iv

Fig. 10. Composite configurations.

CON~'R. EPI RIVET SURFA~

FACTOR AREA

1300/2 34 3060 0.025 0.004 2.67

1000/3 32 3072 0.026 0.005 2.61

1500/'5 24 3080 0000 0.0:51 0.011 2.:54

2000/2 23 3075 0000 0.031 0.012 2.24

1600/3 19 3040 0000 0.0:53 0.020 1.97

2000/3 16 3072 0.059 0.024 I. 96

Fig. 11. Polyester fabric mechanics.

54 T. M. KERSKER, F. J. K O V A C , M. F. D A G U E

Thus, the twist must be optimized. 7 The standard equation for determining
twist is :
Twist Multiplier
Twist = (10)
x/Denier

v(
HIGH LOW

Fig. 12. Twist is the number of turns per inch.

Assume it is desired to calculate twist for an experimental cord using the same
helix angle (twist multiplier) as used with a standard cord. Then the equation is
rewritten:
Twist s x / ~ s
Twistx = x/Denierx (11)

where x = experimental cord

s = standard cord.

More complex twist relationships are possible. It is sometimes desirable, for

example, to maintain the ply twist 25 per cent higher than the cable twist.
A more complex engineering problem is presented in optimizing the number of
plies (layers) in the tire. The concept of large cords/reduced plies is based on the
principle of taking the required fabric for a tire and redesigning it into less plies of
greater strength. For example, the number of plies of a 33.5-33, 32 PR earthmover
tire can range from 26 to 2 depending on the cord size used (Table 2). All of the
constructions in Table 2 are approximately equal for strength. Tire behavior,
however, will vary with each structure.
 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 55

TABLE 2
REDUCED PLY EARTHMOVERTIRE
33"5-33 32 PR

Cord construction No. plies

840/2 26
1,260/2 22
1,260/ 3 16
3,360/2 12
6,720/3 6
15,120/3 4
37,800/3 2

TIRE COMPOSITE INTEGRITY

The integrity of the textile/rubber composite is its ability to maintain its structural
identity. Breakdown of the composite structural identity may be the result of
rupture of the textile component, rupture of the rubber matrix, or failure of the
textile/rubber adhesive bond. Although the rubber matrix is assumed to be non-
load bearing it is an important factor in composite integrity. Thus, the integrity of
the composite is a function of the integrity of the textile, the matrix, and the
textile/matrix bonds as expressed in eqn. (12).
TCI = f(textile integrity), f(matrix integrity),
f(textile/matrix bond integrity). (12)

The integrity of the textile is its ability to carry the load and resist fatigue degra-
dation. The textile integrity, then, is a function of the cord strength, the cord modulus,
the cord size, the cord volume fraction, the cord spacing, the number of plies, the
cord angle, and the cord durability. The integrity of the rubber matrix is a function
of the rubber properties including the tear strength and flex life. The integrity of the
textile/matrix bond depends upon the intrinsic adhesion (including the shear bond
strength and its resistance to thermal effects), the shear modulus of the rubber, and
the interply stresses. This is shown as eqn. (13).
TCI = f(cord strength), f(cord modulus), f(cord size), f(cord volume fraction),
f(cord spacing), f(number of plies), f(cord angle),
f(cord durability), f(matrix tear strength),
f(matrix flex life), f(intrinsic adhesion),
f(matrix shear modulus), f(interply stresses). (13)

A detailed mathematical treatment of eqn. (13) is not within the current state of
the art. Each of the functions shown is complex and interdependent. For further
treatment it is necessary to relate to tire geometry (Fig. 13). 8.9
56 T . M . KERSKER, F. J. KOVAC, M. F. DAGUE

The relationship describing cord angle with respect to location within the tire is
given as eqn. (14).

fPo ( p 2 __ pm 2) sin
v = -- dp (14)
P x/(po2 -- pm2) 2 sin2 ~o -- (p2 _ pm2)2 sin 2

PATH
NEUTRAL

PO

;~.-7 v
/
l
L....... •

PB
I
Fig. 13. Tire geometry.

T h e expression o f the interply shear stress is given as eqn. (15).

pq(p2 _ pm 2) cot ~ COS Ct

/~q/ = p2 sin 2 ~ (15)

where y = axial d i m e n s i o n n o r m a l to the tire centerline f r o m any p o i n t on the tire

contour
Ym = m a x i m u m axial tire d i m e n s i o n

= acute angle f o r m e d by the c o r d a n d a circumferential line at any p o i n t

on the tire c o n t o u r

cto = acute angle at Po with respect to the circumferential centerline

 THE TIRE COMPOSITE 57

p = r a d i u s f r o m axis o f r o t a t i o n to any p o i n t on the tire c o n t o u r

Po = r a d i u s distance f r o m the axis o f r o t a t i o n to the n e u t r a l c o n t o u r at the

centerline

Pm = r a d i u s distance f r o m the axis o f r o t a t i o n to p o i n t on the tire c o n t o u r

where y is m a x i m u m

Pq = the inflation m e a s u r e o f a ply which is a function o f g a n d p.

Thus, the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the m a t h e m a t i c s o f tire integrity involves the solution

o f a c o m p l e x set o f s i m u l t a n e o u s equations. 1o
The general a p p r o a c h to the engineering o f textiles for tires:

(1) begins with the analysis o f the tire as a static, textile-reinforced r u b b e r c o m -

posite
(2) builds a l a m i n a t e d , oriented, structural m o d e l f r o m the e l e m e n t a r y c o m p o s i t e
model
(3) utilizes the c o m p o s i t e m o d e l a n d the l a m i n a t e m o d e l to drive the p r i n c i p a l
relationships existing between the c o m p o n e n t s o f a tire
(4) p e r m i t s the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d y n a m i c m o d e l o f textile b e h a v i o r d u r i n g tire
o p e r a t i o n f r o m an extension o f the c o m p o s i t e m o d e l s in c o n j u n c t i o n with the
m a t h e m a t i c s o f tire dynamics.
A general t r e a t m e n t o f these c o m p l e x interrelationships is being m a d e possible
t h r o u g h i n n o v a t i o n s in c o m p u t e r capabilities and p r o g r a m m i n g sophistication.

REFERENCES

1. F. FRANK and W. HOFFERBERTH,Mechanics of the pneumatic tire, Rubber Chem. Technol.,

40 (1967) 271-322.
2. R. N. DODGE and S. K. CLARK,A comparison of net and continuum theory as applied to
cord-reinforced laminates, University of Michigan Abstract (1968) 931-42.
3. J. F. PURDY, Mathematics Underlying the Design of Pneumatic Tires, Edwards Brothers,
Ann Arbor, 1963. (Available from The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio.)
4. F. J. KOVAC,Tire reinforcing systems, The University of Akron Lecture Series, Akron, 1969.
(Available from The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio.)
5. F. J. KovAc, G. W. RYE and M. F. DAGUE, Merged fibers, 1 & EC Product R & D, 5 (1966)
17-23.
6. L. g. G. TRELOAR,The stress-strain properties of multi-ply cords, J. Textile Inst., Trans.,
56 (1965) T477-88.
7. G. J. STANSFIELD,The geometry of twisted multi-filament structures, Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 9
(1958) 133-9.
8. J. A. DAVISSON,Design and application of commercial type tires, SAE SP-344, Society of
Automotive Engineers, New York, 1969. (Available from The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.,
Akron, Ohio.)
9. V. E. GOUGH, Cord path in tires, Transactions Institute of the Rubber Industry, 40 (1964)
T-20-57.
10. S. D. GEHMAN,New method of integrating important integrals in tire mathematics, private
communication, July 1968.