INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Statistics: The science of collecting, describing, and

interpreting data.

Two areas of statistics:

What is
Descriptive Statistics: collection, presentation, and
Statistics? description of sample data.
Inferential Statistics: making decisions and drawing
conclusions about populations.
 A recent study examined the math and verbal
NAT scores of high school seniors across the
country. Which of the following statements
are descriptive in nature and which are
inferential.
– The mean math NAT score was 492.
– The mean verbal NAT score was 475.
Example – Students in the Public schools scored higher
in math but lower in verbal.
– 80% of all students taking the exam were
headed for college.
– 32% of the students scored above 610 on the
verbal NAT.
– The math NAT scores are higher than they
were 10 years ago.
 Population: A collection, or set, of
individuals or objects or events whose
properties are to be analyzed.
Introduction
to Basic
Terms Two kinds of populations: finite or infinite.

Sample: A subset of the population.

 Variable: A characteristic about each individual
element of a population or sample.
Data (singular): The value of the variable
associated with one element of a population or
sample. This value may be a number, a word, or a
symbol.
Introduction Data (plural): The set of values collected for the
variable from each of the elements belonging to
to Basic the sample.
Terms Experiment: A planned activity whose results
yield a set of data.
Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all
the data of an entire population.
Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the
sample data.
 Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the
average age of faculty. Identify the basic terms in this
situation.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the

college.
A sample is any subset of that population. For example,
we might select 10 faculty members and determine their
age.
Introduction
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
to Basic One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
Terms The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the
ages forming the sample and determining the actual age
of each faculty member in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty
at the college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the
sample.
 Two kinds of variables:
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical: A variable
that categorizes or describes an element of a
population.
Introduction Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and
averaging, are not meaningful for data resulting from a
to Basic qualitative variable.
Terms Quantitative, or Numerical: A variable that quantifies
an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and
averaging, are meaningful for data resulting from a
quantitative variable.
 Example: Identify each of the following examples as
attribute (qualitative) or numerical (quantitative)
variables.

1. The residence hall for each student in a

statistics class.

Introduction 2. The amount of gasoline pumped by the next 10

customers at Petron station.
to Basic 3. The amount of radon in the basement of each
Terms of 25 homes in a new development.
4. The color of the baseball cap worn by each of
20 students.
5. The length of time to complete a mathematics
homework assignment.
6. The state in which each truck is registered
when stopped and inspected at a weigh station.
 Qualitative and quantitative variables may be
further subdivided:

Nominal
Qualitative
Introduction Ordinal
to Basic
Variable
Terms
Discrete
Quantitative
Continuous
 Nominal Variable: A qualitative variable that
categorizes (or describes, or names) an element of a
population.

Ordinal Variable: A qualitative variable that

incorporates an ordered position, or ranking.

Introduction Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable that can

to Basic assume a countable number of values. Intuitively, a
discrete variable can assume values corresponding to
Terms isolated points along a line interval. That is, there is a
gap between any two values.

Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable that can

assume an uncountable number of values. Intuitively,
a continuous variable can assume any value along a
line interval, including every possible value between
any two values.
 Note:
1. In many cases, a discrete and continuous
variable may be distinguished by
determining whether the variables are
related to a count or a measurement.
2. Discrete variables are usually
Introduction associated with counting. If the
to Basic variable cannot be further subdivided, it
Terms is a clue that you are probably dealing
with a discrete variable.
3. Continuous variables are usually
associated with measurements. The
values of discrete variables are only
limited by your ability to measure
them.
Sample
Ordinal Scale

https://www.spss-tutorials.com/measurement-levels/
Sample
of
Interval
Scales
 Sample
ratio scale
question
 OK to
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
compute....
frequency
Yes Yes Yes Yes
distribution.
median and
No Yes Yes Yes
percentiles.

add or subtract. No No Yes Yes

Summary
mean, standard
deviation,
No No Yes Yes
standard error of
the mean.

ratio, or
coefficient of No No No Yes
variation.
Another way
to
summarize

http://my.ilstu.edu/~wjschne/138/Psychology138Lab3.html
 Example: Identify each of the following as
examples of qualitative or numerical variables:
1. The temperature in Barrow, Alaska at 12:00
pm on any given day.
2. The make of automobile driven by each
faculty member.
Introduction
3. Whether or not a 6 volt lantern battery is
to Basic defective.
Terms 4. The weight of a lead pencil.
5. The length of time billed for a long distance
telephone call.
6. The brand of cereal children eat for
breakfast.
7. The type of book taken out of the library by
an adult.
 Example: Identify each of the following as
examples of (1) nominal, (2) ordinal, (3) discrete,
or (4) continuous variables:
1. The length of time until a pain reliever
begins to work.
2. The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
Introduction 3. The number of colors used in a statistics
textbook.
to Basic
4. The brand of refrigerator in a home.
Terms
5. The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
6. The number of files on a computer’s hard
disk.
7. The pH level of the water in a swimming
pool.
8. The number of staples in a stapler.
 – No matter what the response variable: there will
always be variability in the data.

Measure and – One of the primary objectives of statistics:

measuring and characterizing variability.
Variability – Controlling (or reducing) variability in a
manufacturing process: statistical process
control.
 Example: A supplier fills cans of soda marked
12 ounces. How much soda does each can
really contain?

– It is very unlikely any one can contains

exactly 12 ounces of soda.
Measure and – There is variability in any process.
Variability – Some cans contain a little more than 12
ounces, and some cans contain a little less.
– On the average, there are 12 ounces in
each can.
– The supplier hopes there is little variability
in the process, that most cans contain
close to 12 ounces of soda.
 – First problem a statistician faces: how to obtain
the data.
– It is important to obtain good, or representative,
Data data.
Collection – Inferences are made based on statistics obtained
from the data.
– Inferences can only be as good as the data.
 Biased Sampling Method: A sampling
method that produces data which
systematically differs from the sampled
population. An unbiased sampling method
is one that is not biased.

Data Sampling methods that often result in biased

Collection samples:
1. Convenience sample: sample selected
from elements of a population that are
easily accessible.
2. Volunteer sample: sample collected from
those elements of the population which
chose to contribute the needed
information on their own initiative.
 Process of data collection:

1. Define the objectives of the survey or

experiment.
Example: Estimate the average life of an
electronic component.
Data 2. Define the variable and population of interest.
Example: Length of time for anaesthesia to
Collection wear off after surgery.
3. Defining the data-collection and data-
measuring schemes. This includes sampling
procedures, sample size, and the data-
measuring device (questionnaire, scale, ruler,
etc.).
4. Determine the appropriate descriptive or
inferential data-analysis techniques.
 Methods used to collect data:

Experiment: The investigator controls or

modifies the environment and observes the
effect on the variable under study.

Data
Survey: Data are obtained by sampling
Collection some of the population of interest. The
investigator does not modify the
environment.

Census: A 100% survey. Every element of

the population is listed. Seldom used:
difficult and time-consuming to compile,
and expensive.
 Sampling Frame: A list of the elements
belonging to the population from which the
sample will be drawn.

Note: It is important that the sampling frame

be representative of the population.
Data
Collection Sample Design: The process of selecting
sample elements from the sampling frame.

Note: There are many different types of

sample designs. Usually they all fit into two
categories: judgment samples and
probability samples.
 Judgment Samples: Samples that are
selected on the basis of being “typical.”

Items are selected that are representative of

the population. The validity of the results
from a judgment sample reflects the
Data soundness of the collector’s judgment.
Collection
Probability Samples: Samples in which the
elements to be selected are drawn on the
basis of probability. Each element in a
population has a certain probability of being
selected as part of the sample.
 Random Samples: A sample selected in such a
way that every element in the population has a
equal probability of being chosen.
Equivalently, all samples of size n have an
equal chance of being selected. Random
samples are obtained either by sampling with
replacement from a finite population or by
sampling without replacement from an infinite
population.
Data
Collection Note:
1. Inherent in the concept of randomness: the
next result (or occurrence) is not
predictable.
2. Proper procedure for selecting a random
sample: use a random number generator or
a table of random numbers.
 Example: An employer is interested in the time
it takes each employee to commute to work
each morning. A random sample of 35
employees will be selected and their
commuting time will be recorded.
Data
Collection There are 2712 employees.
Each employee is numbered: 0001, 0002,
0003, etc. up to 2712.
Using four-digit random numbers, a sample is
identified: 1315, 0987, 1125, etc.
 Systematic Sample: A sample in which every
kth item of the sampling frame is selected,
starting from the first element which is
randomly selected from the first k elements.

Note: The systematic technique is easy to

execute. However, it has some inherent dangers
Data when the sampling frame is repetitive or cyclical
in nature. In these situations the results may not
Collection approximate a simple random sample.

Stratified Random Sample: A sample obtained

by stratifying the sampling frame and then
selecting a fixed number of items from each of
the strata by means of a simple random
sampling technique.
 Proportional Sample (or Quota Sample): A
sample obtained by stratifying the sampling
frame and then selecting a number of items
in proportion to the size of the strata (or by
quota) from each strata by means of a
simple random sampling technique.
Data
Collection
Cluster Sample: A sample obtained by
stratifying the sampling frame and then
selecting some or all of the items from
some of, but not all, the strata.
 Probability: Properties of the population are
Comparison assumed known. Answer questions about the
of sample based on these properties.

Probability
and Statistics Statistics: Use information in the sample to draw
a conclusion about the population.
 Example: A jar of M&M’s contains 100 candy
pieces, 15 are red. A handful of 10 is selected.

Probability question: What is the probability

Comparison that 3 of the 10 selected are red?
of
Probability Example: A handful of 10 M&M’s is selected
and Statistics from a jar containing 1000 candy pieces. Three
M&M’s in the handful are red.

Statistics question: What is the proportion of

red M&M’s in the entire jar?
 – The electronic technology has had a tremendous
effect on the field of statistics.
Statistics and – Many statistical techniques are repetitive in
nature: computers and calculators are good at
the this.
Technology – Lots of statistical software packages: MINITAB,
SYSTAT, STATA, SAS, Statgraphics, SPSS, and
calculators.
 Remember: Responsible use of
statistical methodology is very
important. The burden is on the user
Statistics and to ensure that the appropriate
the methods are correctly applied and
Technology that accurate conclusions are drawn
and communicated to others.