1.

INTRODUCTION
Water is undoubtedly the most vital element among all the natural resources. In many
developing countries, access to clean and safe water is a crucial issue. More than 6 million
people die because of diarrhea which is caused by polluted water. Due to rapid urbanization
and migration from rural areas, there is a tremendous load on water consumption in all major
cities. Water condition of surface water of most of the highly populated regions have become
highly polluted due to indiscriminate discharge of untreated waste from tannery, textile,
municipal waste into water bodies, etc. One of the problems with treatment of surface water
is the large seasonal variation in ‘Turbidity’.

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual

particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The
measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality. Fluids can contain suspended solid
matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. While some suspended material will be
large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid
sample is left to stand, very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the
sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. These small solid particles cause
the liquid to appear turbid.

Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. Human activities that
disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels
entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. Areas prone to high bank
erosion rates as well as urbanized areas also contribute large amounts of turbidity to nearby
waters, through stormwater pollution from paved surfaces such as roads, bridges and parking
lots. In drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may
develop gastrointestinal diseases. This is especially problematic for immuno-compromised
people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended
solids. The suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the
particles act as shields for the virus and bacteria. Similarly, suspended solids can protect
bacteria from ultraviolet sterilization of water.

The most widely used measurement unit for turbidity is the ‘Formazin Turbidity unit’ (FTU).
ISO refers to its units as FNU (Formazin Nephelometric units). ISO 7027 provides the
method in water quality for the determination of turbidity. The propensity of particles to
scatter a light beam focused on them is now considered a more meaningful measure of
turbidity in water. Turbidity measured this way uses an instrument called a ‘Nephelometer’
with the detector set up to the side of the light beam. More light reaches the detector if there
are lots of small particles scattering the source beam than if there are few. The units of
turbidity from a calibrated Nephelometer are called ‘Nephelometric Turbidity Units’
(NTU). To some extent, how much light reflects for a given amount of particulates is
dependent upon properties of particles like their shape, color and reflectivity. Governments
have set standards on the allowable turbidity in drinking water. The ‘World Health
Organization’ establishes that the turbidity of drinking water should not be more than 5

1
NTU, and should ideally be below 1 NTU. A per Indian standards (IS 10500:2012),
permissible limit of Turbidity is 5 NTU and maximum limit is 10 NTU.

Turbidity is commonly treated using either a settling or filtration process. Depending on the
application, chemical reagents will be dosed into the wastewater stream to increase the
effectiveness of the settling or filtration process. In-situ treatment of turbidity involves the
addition of a reagent, generally a flocculant, evenly dispensed over the surface of the body of
water. The flocs then settle at the bottom of the water body where they remain or are
removed when the water body is drained. There are a number of chemical reagents that are
available for treating turbidity, which include ‘Aluminium Sulfate’(Alum), ‘Ferric chloride’,
‘Gypsum’, ‘Poly-aluminium chloride’ etc.

Turbid water is objectionable primarily because the physical appearance of dirty water is less
appealing than clear sparkling water. The main problem turbidity causes is interference with
disinfection processes. Bacteria, which are usually present in turbid water, can be protected
from chlorine and other disinfectant techniques. The flow rate of a water body plays a big
part in its potential for turbidity. The heavier a rain is, the greater its ability to pick up and
carry sand, silt, clay and organic particles. Fast-moving water can carry more and larger
particles because the force of the water overcomes the tendency of these particles to settle out
of suspension. High velocity water can also stir up bottom sediments that then become
resuspended and increase turbidity even further. Some of the environmental conditions that
cause turbidity include:

a. Erosion due to soil disturbances or lack of ground cover as a result of

construction, mining, logging or wildfires.

b. Urban runoff of debris from developed areas, where the prevalence of

paved surfaces does not allow natural settling of particles to take place from
stormwater before it reaches creeks, streams and rivers.

c. Wastewater that has been cleaned but still carries some residual particles.

d. Decay of living organisms, both plant and animal.

e. Algae, especially when environmental conditions make bodies of water

especially nutrient-rich and trigger algal blooms.

f. Bottom-feeding fish that stir up sediment as they seek out food.

As Turbidity does not directly impose any health risk, it is only considered a secondary water
contaminant. However, cloudy water could indicate the possibility that other pollutants, such
as ‘Cryptosporidium’ and ‘Giardia’ which do pose a health risk, are present.

‘Clarification’ refers to the sequence of operations used to remove suspended solids

(mineral and organic) from the raw water together with a proportion of the dissolved organic
matter (flocculating fraction). Depending on the concentrations of the various contaminants

2
present, there may be the need for increasingly complex operations ranging from simple
filtration with or without reagents. Clarification process is applied when there is a high
degree of turbidity in the water or when solids must be separated from liquids. Clarification
is highly effective at reducing turbidity and removing color, solids and colloidal material
from water and wastewater when used together with chemical feed, sludge treatment and
filtration of clarified elements.

Sedimentation and Decantation are done to get rid of the heavier suspended particles.
Clarification which is the next step consists of 4 distinctive processes namely:

a) Coagulation
b) Flash mixing
c) Flocculation
d) Settling

The variables that affect how these processes are carried out are water velocity, time, and pH.
Sufficient time and velocity are necessary to maximize the probability that particles will
come together. The pH level is an important determinant of how thoroughly colloids are
removed.

a) Coagulation: During this process, as per the conventional method,chemical

coagulants are added to water to destabilize colloidal and finely divided materials and
to cause them to begin aggregating. The most commonly employed metal coagulants
fall into 2 groups – Aluminium-based, such as Aluminium sulfate, Aluminium
chloride and Sodium Aluminate; and Iron-based, such as Ferric sulfate, Ferric
chloride, and Ferric chloride sulfate. Other chemicals sometimes used in the water
treatment process are Magnesium carbonate and Hydrated lime, among others.
Aluminium and Iron coagulants work by forming highly adsorptive multi-charged
polynuclear complexes. The pH of the system can be manipulated to control the
characteristics of the complexes and their effectiveness.
b) Flash mixing: After chemical coagulants are introduced, the water is mixed quickly
and forcefully by the flash mixer so that the chemicals are evenly distributed
throughout the water. This step is very important to create the conditions for efficient,
effective water treatment. Flash mixing must last atleast 30 seconds, or else the
chemicals will not be properly distributed. When water is flash mixed for a longer
period, the mixer blades will tend to chop or shear the aggregating material back into
small particles. Coagulation actually begins during flash mixing as the coagulants
neutralize the electrical charge of the fine particles. This stops the repulsion of like-
charged particles and allows the particles to begin bonding and forming larger
clumps. Coagulation affects the performance of other stages of treatment, favoring
microbiological quality of the final product thereby increasing the lifetime of Filters
and reducing the final cost of treated water.
c) Flocculation: After flash mixing, flocculation begins with a slower gentler mixing
that brings the fine particles produced during the coagulation step into contact with
each other. The flocculation phase usually goes on for 30-45 minutes in a flocculation
basin that may have multiple compartments. Each compartment has a different
3
 mixing speed, and these speeds randomly decrease as water flows from top of the
basin to its bottom. This approach allows increasingly large clumps of matter to form
without being broken apart by the mixing blades. At the end of this process, most of
the turbidity and particulate matter in the water should be formed into a material
called ‘floc’, which consists of relatively large clumps of impurities and bacteria
bound together in clusters of about 0.1 to 3.0 mm in size. A larger floc is more likely
to break apart in the flocculation basin.

The coagulation-flocculation process is necessary in water treatment primarily

because of non-settleable solids, particles too small to be removed effectively by
other treatment processes such as Sedimentation and Filtration. These non-settleable
solids can be changed into larger and heavier settleable solids by physical and
chemical changes brought about by adding and mixing chemical coagulants in raw
water. Colloidal particles consist of particles with an electric charge, usually negative.
This characteristic prevents the collision and aggregation of particles. Addition of
certain chemicals to colloidal suspension can enhance destabilization and segregation
of particles, leading to formation of flocs of considerable dimensions. These flocs can
then be further removed by Sedimentation and Filtration.

In general, Coagulant processing involves 4 steps such as:

a) Bridging mechanism
b) Charge neutralization
c) Double layer compression
d) Sweep floc mechanism

Trivalent coagulants are 50 to 60 times more effective than Bivalent coagulants in

terms of forming flocs. Organic polymers such as polyacrylamides are usually used as
flocculants in addition to metallic salts to improve floc formation.

‘Zeta potential’ is a key indicator of stability of colloidal dispersions. The magnitude

of Zeta potential indicates the degree of electrostatic repulsion between adjacent,
similarly charged particles in a dispersion. ‘Vanderwaals force’ include attraction and
repulsion between atoms, molecules and surfaces as well as other intermolecular
forces.

d) Settling: This process takes place in a ‘Clarifier’ which consists of tanks or

basins which hold water or wastewater for a period sufficient to allow the floc
and other suspended materials to settle to the bottom. This process makes the
water clear by removing all kinds of particles, sediments, oil, natural organic
matter and color. Floc which collects on the bottom of the basin is called
sludge, and is piped to drying lagoons. The purpose of a clarifier is to remove
solids, produce a cleaner effluent and concentrate solids. Concentration of
solids removed from the wastewater reduces the volume of sludge for
dewatering and/or disposal

4
FIG 1: Coagulation Mechanism

FIG 2 : Coagulation Process

5
1.2. Problem Statement
In India, majority of the population still lives in villages and small towns. These
rural/tribal communities do not have access to public water supplies. People living in
these regions obtain their water supply from unprotected sources such as open dug
wells or small streams and ponds which are polluted. The treatment of water in these
areas has a unique problem. Therefore, there is an urgent need for development and
widespread promotion of simple treatment techniques for rural/tribal areas. The
proteins in natural coagulants are considered to act similar to synthetic, positively
charged polymer coagulants of non-plant origin. When added to raw water, proteins
which carry a positive charge bind to the negatively charged particulates that make raw
water turbid. Under proper agitation, these bound particulates grow in size due to
agglomeration thereby forming flocs, which may be left to settle by gravity or be
removed by Filtration.

1.3. Objectives
The major objectives of this study are:

 To reduce the level of Turbidity and thereby indirectly microbial contaminants

from water using locally available natural coagulants.
 To make the water treatment process easier, safe, and environment friendly for
household applications.
 Study of Aloe Vera as Natural Coagulant.
 Study of Banana Peel as Natural Coagulant.
 Comparison between Aloe Vera and Banana Peel.
 Comparative ratio for best result.

1.4. Need
Commonly used chemicals for various treatment units are synthetic organic and
inorganic substances. In most of the cases, these are expensive since they are required
in higher dose and are not cost effective. Many of the chemicals are also associated
with human health and environmental problems. So, there raised a voice to develop
cost-effective, easier, and environmental friendly process of water clarification. The
history of the use of natural coagulants is long. Natural organic polymers have been
used for more than 2000 years in India, Africa, and China as effective coagulants and
coagulant aids at high water turbidities. They may be manufactured from plant seeds,
leaves, and roots.

These natural organic polymers are interesting because, comparative to the use of
synthetic organic polymers containing acrylamide monomers, there is no human health
danger and the cost of these natural coagulants would be less expensive than the
conventional chemicals. Natural coagulants have bright future and are concerned by
many researchers because of their abundant availability, low price, environment
friendly (biodegradable nature), and multi-function capability.

6
 Natural Coagulants contain positively charged proteins which combine with
negatively charged colloids resulting in agglomeration. They are commonly
composed of combination of several macromolecules such as Carbohydrates,
Proteins and Lipids. In many practical cases, Cationic polyelectrolytes are the most
promising flocculants to undermine contaminated particles that are negatively
charged. Electrostatic interaction provides strong adsorptions that neutralize the
particles’ surface and potentially cause charge reversal. Main mechanisms that
govern the coagulation activity are Adsorption and Charge neutralization. Natural
polymers contain numerous charged functional groups residing in their
polysaccharide chain such as -OH, -COOH, and -NH. In many cases, the major
building blocks are the polymers of Polysaccharides and Amino acids. Plant-based
coagulants are ideal for purification of contaminated water in less urbanized areas
as they seem to carry less cost in comparison to the chemical coagulants which are
far more expensive. Coagulants of plant origin are mostly useful when Turbidity is
in the range of low to medium.

1.5. Disadvantages of using chemical coagulants:

 Existence of Aluminium zest in treated water may provoke Neurological and
Pathological diseases.

 With Aluminium salts, there is always a concern about residuals in treated

water. It has strong carcinogenic properties.

 Consumption of water treated with chemical coagulants on a long run may also
lead to Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.

 Cost of imported chemicals can be a serious financial burden for developing

countries.

 Alum, when reacts with natural alkalinity present in water, leads to reduction of
pH and a low efficiency in coagulation of particles in cold water.

 Sludge produced while using chemical coagulants is voluminous and non-

biodegradable after treatment.

 Poor disposal of sludge after clarification leads to increase in cost of treatment.

 Inorganic Coagulants add dissolved solids (salts) to water.

 Aluminium sulfate is effective only over a limited pH range.

 Sodium Aluminate is ineffective in soft waters.

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1.6. Research Methodology:

Different type of test on water sample like:

 pH
 Turbidity
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
 Chemical Oxygen Demand
 Total Suspended Solids
 Total Dissolved Solids

1.7. Expected Outcome:

After performing various test on water sample we expect reduction in

Alkalinity/Acidity of sample, Removal of Turbidity upto 90%, and Neutralization of
pH.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. The use of Moringa Oleifera Seed Powder as Coagulant to

Improve the Quality of Wastewater and Ground Water

2.1.1. Introduction

Water is an important resource for life. Entire living organisms on earth need water for
life.However, water can be problematic if it is not available in the right conditions.
Water is used by human for various purposes, therefore the cleanliness of water
consumed is very important since water is known to affect the health. Today, the
quality of water becomes a major problem that needs serious attention. Good quality
water has become an expensive item, because many water sources has been polluted
by waste coming from the various human activities. This leads to declining quantity of
water sources that could not meet the ever growing need.In the provision of clean
drinking water, besides the quantity and continuity, the quality mustmeet the applied
standards. The ideal water should have some characteristics such as clear, colorless,
tasteless, odorless, phatogen-free, harmful chemical-free and non-corrosive. Water is
also expected not to leave sediment in all distribution organs. This standard was set to
prevent the occurrence and the spread of waterborne diseases.

To achieve this standard, there is one common technique applied in water treatment
process,which is coagulation-flocculation. Coagulation is the process of coagulating
colloidal particles due to the addition of synthetic materials to neutralize charged
particles thus forming a precipitate due to the force of gravity. Coagulant can be

8
synthetic materials such as ferrous sulfate (Fe(SO4)), aluminumsulfate or alum
(Al2(SO4)3), and Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC) (Al2(OH)3Cl3)10.Coagulation is
one of the most common ways to reduce the pollutant contents in the water body that
are present as turbidity, color and organic matters. Coagulation is also used to reduce
the metal ion content in water. Separation of these colloids can be done by the addition
of synthetic coagulant or biocoagulant followed by slow agitation (flocculation) that
causes coagulation of colloidal particles so they can be separated by sedimentation.The
common methods of water purification using synthetic materials such as aluminum
sulfate(alum) and calcium hypochlorite are not efficient, because these materials are
imported and thus make the water cost becomes relatively expensive in most
economically developed countries and is not affordable for most rural population.
Therefore, some people try to get the water source from dams, mining, small streams,
rivers, and lakes. Water from these sources is usually turbid and contaminated with
microorganisms that may cause various diseases.Several findings from previous
research in Postnote (2002) demonstrated the use of syntheticmaterials for water
purification can be severely hazardous to health if something goes wrong in their
treatment during processing . The report considered the high level of aluminum in the
brain is a risk factor causing Alzheimer's disease. Other studies have raised doubt
about the feasibility of inserting aluminum into the environment by the use of
aluminum sulfate as a coagulant continuously in the water treatment process.
However, Davis (2006) found no conclusive evidence about the correlation between
aluminum and Alzheimer's disease .Besides synthetic chemicals, there are natural
ingredients that can be derived from tropicalplants which can be used as coagulants,
including moringa seeds (Moringa oleifera). The use of natural ingredients from local
indigenous plants to clear muddy water is not a new idea . From existing reports, there
were allegations that the powder of Moringa seeds has antimicrobial properties.
Previous research found that Moringa is not toxic and recommended for use as a
coagulant in developing countries. Various studies have been conducted and showed
that moringa seeds are effective as biocoagulant to improve physico-chemical
properties of contaminated water. M. Oleifera functions as coagulant trough adsorption
and neutralization mechanisms . Moringa oleifera is potential as organic pollutant
absorber in simulation solution . M. oleifera is reported able to eliminate the turbidity
and dissolved organic matters of river water . Damayanti et al. (2011) made a
membrane consisted of M. oleifera, PAC and zeolite for palm oil effluent treatment .
Indonesia is rich in biodiversity, and moringa tree can grow well, easy to find and easy
to cultivate in various regions. Therefore it is not difficult to use Moringa seeds as a
natural coagulant or biocoagulant for water clarifying process. The use of natural
coagulants in water treatment process is expected to provide more advantages than the
use of synthetic materials because they are natural and reported as safe to be
consumed. The cost of using natural coagulants will be less expensive than that of
alum. Effectiveness of natural coagulant for water purification will be tested also in the
wastewater treatment process. Therefore, research should be conducted to find out the
effectiveness of moringa seed in improving water quality. Water quality parameters
that need to be investigated are including turbidity, electrical conductivity, pH and
temperature, metal absorbing capability, and ability to decrease microbial content.

9
2.1.2 Methods

Sample Collection
Wastewater samples were taken from a textile industry in Karawang. Wastewater
sampling was conducted in March, April and May 2019, where the company is in
normal production period. Wastewater samples were taken from the equalization basin.
Groundwater samples were taken from a well in Pamulang. Analysis was conducted at
the Research Laboratory, Center for Integrated Laboratory, Syarif Hidayatullah State
Islamic University Jakarta.

Materials used in this study were the test substance (sample) and chemicals.
Wastewater test material was taken from a textile industry in Karawang and ground
water was taken from the Pamulang, Moringa oleifera seeds were taken in March
2019, in Pasawahan, Purwakarta. The chemicals used were Poly Aluminum Chloride
(PAC) brand Kuriflock concentration of 100 mg/L, Single Strength Lactose Broth
(Merck), Double Strength Lactose Broth (Merck), oxygen-alkali iodide azide reagent
Sodium Iodide (NaI) as an oxidant, sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) 0.025 N (Merck),
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 6 N (Merck), manganese sulfate (MnSO4) 4 M (Merck), and
starch indicator. The instruments used were pH meter (Myron L ARH1), digital
thermometer, portable conductometer (Myron L ARH1), portable turbidity meter
(HANNA Instrument), Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer),
magnetic stirrer (Cymarec*2), cuvet, durham tube and glasswares

2.1.3. Results and Discussion

In the wastewater and groundwater treatment process using M. oleifera as coagulant,

theoptimum dose required to treat the wastewater and ground water is different. This
can be seen in Table 1, a dose of 100 mg/L gave the best result for the wastewater as
the treated water showed the lowest value of turbidity, closest pH value to 7, and the
lowest value of conductivity. While the ground water needed 80 mg/L of coagulant.
This showed that the optimum dose of M. oleifera as coagulant was influenced by the
level of the initial turbidity of the water to be processed. The optimum dose to treat
water with initial turbidity around 300 FTU (wastewater) is 100 mg/L or higher. The
lower the initial turbidity, the lower the optimum dose. Excessive coagulant addition
will not cause turbidity todisappear until the lower limit. Determination of optimum
dose can be done by the lab-scale Jar Test method.

Optimum concentration of M. oleifera coagulant to reduce wastewater turbidity was

100 mg/L, while the ground water only need 80 mg/L of Moringa oleifera, which
reduced 97.9% and 97.5% turbidity, respectively. M. oleifera coagulant has better
coagulation capability to reduce water turbidity compared with PAC at concentration
of 100 mg/L that was able to reduce turbidity by 89.6% in wastewater and 89.4% in
ground water.The highest turbidity value in wastewater after coagulation process using
M. oleifera was 6.75 FTU and the lowest turbidity value was 4.913 FTU. Meanwhile,
the highest turbidity value in ground water after coagulation process using M. oleifera
was 5.44 FTU and the lowest was 6 FTU. When M.oleifera concentration exceeded the
optimum dosage, turbidity raised up because all colloids have been neutralized and
precipitated with an optimum dosage, so the excess coagulants will cause turbidity in
water as they did not interact with oppositely charged colloidal particles. Turbidity in
the water is caused by suspended solids, both organic and inorganic

10
substances.Inorganic substances include crack of rock, sand, mud, and dissolved
metals. Organic matters originating from domestic and industrial waste could serve as
good environment for bacteria to grow. Besides microorganisms, algae and plankton
can also cause cloudiness in the water.When the coagulant was added to the sample
and followed by rapid stirring, the resulting cationic protein from M. oleifera was
distributed to all parts of the liquid and then interacted with the negatively charged
particles that caused dispersed turbidity. Such interactions disturb the force that
stabilize the particles, so that it can bind to small particulates to form precipitate. This
process is called moringa seeds give little effect on the degree of acidity and
conductivity. M. oleifera seed solution reacted as positively charged natural polymer
coagulant.

General Discussion
In the wastewater and groundwater treatment process using M. oleifera as coagulant,
the optimum dose required to treat the wastewater and ground water is different. This
can be seen in a dose of 100 mg/L gave the best result for the wastewater as the treated
water showed the lowest value of turbidity, closest pH value to 7, and the lowest value
of conductivity; while the ground water needed 80 mg/L of coagulant. This showed
that the optimum dose of M. oleifera as coagulant was influenced by the level of the
initial turbidity of the water to be processed. The optimum dose to treat water with
initial turbidity around 300 FTU (wastewater) is 100 mg/L or higher. The lower the
initial turbidity, the lower the optimum dose. Excessive coagulant addition will not
cause turbidity disappear until the lower limit. Determination of optimum dose can be
done by the lab-scale Jar Test method. Compared with Indonesian regulation number
KEP-51/MENLH/10/1995 on Standard Quality of Liquid Waste for Industrial
Activities, the result achieved by this research is safe to be use. The standard quality
for pH ranges from 6.0 to 9.0. The pH score after the addition of coagulant were 6.2
and 7.38. The standard quality of BOD is 60 mg/L, while the coagulation process gave
5.2 mg/L and 6.2 mg/L. Maximum levels of Cr, Cd, and Mn permitted in the industrial
waste are 0.5 mg/L, 2 mg/L, and 2 mg L, respectively, whereas the result of using M.
oleifera treatment was undetected. Several scientific studies suggested that Moringa
seeds could serve as coagulant because it contains low molecular weight water soluble
protein . Protein will be positively charged when dissolved in water. Protein will act as
positively charged synthetic materials and can be used as synthetic polymer coagulant.
Therefore, Moringa can be called as a coagulant. Since this coagulant is derived from
plants and without any synthetic process, it is also called natural coagulant or
biocoagulant. The most likely mechanism that occurs in the coagulation process is the
adsorption and neutralization of the voltage or adsorption and bonding between
unstable particles. It is difficult to determine which mechanism that occurs because
both mechanisms may occur simultaneously. But, the most common mechanisms of
coagulation that involves Moringa seeds are the adsorption and voltage neutralization .
When Moringa seeds that have been processed (powder) were poured into the dirty
water, the protein in the seeds will bind the negatively charged particulates that cause
turbidity, such as clay, bacteria, dust, and others. Thus, the particulates are collected
and agglomerated into larger molecules, which will settle to the bottom, then it will be
easy to separate the water and contaminant.

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2.1.4. Conclusion

Moringa oleifera was proven to be able to be used for textile wastewater treatment and
purification of groundwater. M. oleifera can be used in the coagulation process
because it has properties as a natural coagulant. Our result suggested that M. oleifera is
effective at the concentration of 80 to 100 mg/L as a coagulant to treat wastewater
from textile industry and ground water. M. oleifera optimum coagulant dose is also
influenced by the initial state of the sample to be coagulated. The heavier the burden of
pollution, the higher the optimum dose that is needed.

2.2. Removal of total suspended solid by natural coagulant derived

from cassava peel waste

2.2.1. Introduction

The speedy growing of human population worldwide and subsequent explosive

increase in industrial growth and urbanization have steadily driving in growing volume
of domestic and industrial effluent, agricultural waste and urban runoff that finally rest
in the aquatic environment. This situation brings implication that water from either
surface or ground sources are not safe for human consumption without undergoing a
proper treatment regime. Adequate water treatment and disinfection are vital in
eliminating water impurities including turbidity caused by the clay particles, colour
due to decayed organic matter, algae, taste, odour , inorganic toxicants as well as
microbial contaminants. In developing countries, every year approximately 1.2 billion
people do not have access to safe drinking water. Consumption of polluted water
contributed to the death from diarrhea of more than six million people where 2 million
of them are children . The provision of clean water supply nearby for to support
community daily needs will help in decreasing the health incidence with regards to
skin diseases, eye infections as well as worm infections. Many developing countries
need to a high cost for imported chemicals such as aluminiu salts, ferric salts and
synthetic polymers as water treating agents. However, despite those highly effective
chemical coagulants and disinfectants in reducing water turbidity and microbial
contaminants, they are still lacking of important attribute of eco-friendliness that play
an essential role for human health and ecosystem sustainability. The sludge formed
from such treatment poses disposal problems with regards to high aluminium content
and tend to accumulate in the environment after being disposed. Recently,
epidemiological, neuropathological and biochemical studies have assured the positive
relation between prolong consumption of aluminium bearing water and Alzheimer
disease. Meanwhile, organic polymer such as acrylamide was observed to show neuro-
toxicity and carcinogenic effect. Therefore, it is necessary to control the dosage of
chemical coagulants in order to reduce residual chemicals in the treated water that
subsequently brings in negative implication towards receiving bodies. Recently, in
attempt to reduce major shortcomings of using chemical coagulants, many efforts have
been dedicated towards development of coagulants and coagulant aids from natural
materials. Those materials that have been studied varied from animal and plant origin
that includes the most prominent Moringa oleifera seed extracts, cactus mucilage,
potatoram seed extracts, nirmali seed extracts, chitosan, chitin from exoskeleton of

12
crustaceans, plant tannins, algal alginate as well as plants starches. For any natural
materials to be developed into new coagulants or coagulant aids, it should be effective,
renewable, locally and abundantly available, ecofriendly as well as economically
viable. In Malaysia, the habit of composting and waste recycling is not yet a widely
adopted method and ultimately resorting to the easiest disposal method; landfilling.
Close to 1000 million tonnes of agricultural waste are being generated internationally
in a yearly basis and of this, about 1.2 million tonnes are being discarded into landfills
in Malaysia alone. The mishandling of fruit waste could be detrimental to the
environment due to potential leaching into soil and water sources leading to further
pollution . In the production of crackers from cassava, the cassava tuber are usually
peeled off to remove the outer layer that consist of the periderm, thin inner layer of
cortex and some thin portion of the cortex. The peels are normally discarded and
allowed to rot. Since the peels could make up 20-35% of the total weight of the
cassava tuber, the conversion of these by-products into effective coagulant aid driven
by intensive research study would increase their market value and ultimately benefits
the producers. Kongkiattikajorn and Sornvoraweat reported that cassava peels contain
polysaccharides such as starch, pectin and holocellulose. It is well known that pectin,
starch and cellulose containing abundant of carboxyl, hydroxyl and amino groups
which has significant potential for metal sequestering. Additionally, the functional
groups bear effective charge to help alum forming larger flocs in coagulation and
flocculation procees. Our recent knowledge shows there is no literature describes the
efficiency of cassava peel starch to remove TSS in dam water. So this study aimed to
exploit starch from cassava peel waste as coagulant aid for the removal of TSS from
raw water. The present work focuses on the optimization of main factors governing the
process of coagulation-flocculation by natural materials namely pH, coagulant dosage
and settling time.

2.1.2. Materials and method

Raw water sampling and characterization

A total of 4 samples of raw water will be collected once a week in a period of 4 weeks
from raw water inlet tank at Sembrong Barat water treatment plant, Sembrong, Johor,
Malaysia. The water samples were collected in 10L HDPE bottle. All sampling bottles
were acid washed prior to sampling. Sample bottles were fully filled with water
samples to ensure the elimination of air bubbles and organic particulate matter
entrapped in the bottles. The samples were stored in an icebox and transported back to
the lab for water characterization analysis. All samples were stored at 4°C before
further analysis. The water quality of the raw water is summarized in Table 1.

Optimization study using Jar test

Standard jar tests were conducted at room temperature (25±1°C) using conventional 6
paddles flocculator (Velp, Italy). 6 beakers of 1000ml in volume were filled with
1000ml of raw water samples. Adjusment of pH was done using 0.1 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) (Merck) and 0.1 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH)(Merck). Three optimization
studies were conducted consist of i) alum as coagulant; ii) CPS as coagulant; iii)
Combination coagulant of alum-CPS. For combination coagulant experiment, alum as
the primary coagulant were added initially at the start of the rapid mixing phase,
followed by addition of CPS after 30 second. Each study was conducted in three stages
with different working conditions as tabulated Table 2. Other experimental conditions

13
were kept constant ; Rapid mixing (200 rpm for 1 minute; 100 rpm for 2 minutes),
slow mixing (25 rpm for 30 minutes)

Optimization study using Jar test

Standard jar tests were conducted at room temperature (25±1°C) using conventional 6
paddles flocculator (Velp, Italy). 6 beakers of 1000ml in volume were filled with
1000ml of raw water samples. Adjusment of pH was done using 0.1 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) (Merck) and 0.1 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH)(Merck). Three optimization
studies were conducted consist of i) alum as coagulant; ii) CPS as coagulant; iii)
Combination coagulant of alum-CPS. For combination coagulant experiment, alum as
the primary coagulant were added initially at the start of the rapid mixing phase,
followed by addition of CPS after 30 second. Each study was conducted in three stages
with different working conditions . Other experimental conditions were kept constant ;
Rapid mixing (200 rpm for 1 minute; 100rpm for 2 minutes), slow mixing (25 rpm for
30 minutes)

2.1.3. Results and Discussion

Characterization of cassava peel starch (CPS) SEM micrograph at x500 magnification

of native CPS the non-porous characteristic with appearance of numerous starch
granules in smooth and globular shape, whereas EDX spectrum shows characteristic
signal of Na, Ca and Si which attributed to metal binding property . This observation is
in parallel with other studies using cassava peel. Recent work shows 80% of
amylopectin and 20% of amylose are deposited in the starch granule of cassava peel .
A research on unmodified starch-based coagulant evidenced that starch enhances the
sequestering of positive charged metal ions which tends to destabilize the metal and
subsequently forming agglomerates and precipitate. The FTIR spectrum pattern is
depicted The spectrum displays a number of peaks that indicates the functional groups
available on the surface of CPS. The broad peak between 3500-3000 cm- 1 is assigned
to –NH and bounded –OH groups. The band at 2926 cm-1 is regards to stretching
vibration of –CH2 and –CH3 groups. Whereas bending vibration appeared at 1610 cm-
1 corresponds to stretching of carboxylate and carboxyl groups. Band position noted at
1331 cm-1 is indicative of stretching vibration of ionic carboxylic group while deep
band at 1009 cm-1 represents the stretching of carbonyl and bending of hydroxyl
groups. The appearance of amino, hydroxyl and carboxyl group is appreciable since
those groups are referred to be important for flocculation process
Effect of pH The pH of the solution plays a major role behind the process of
coagulation and flocculation by affecting the surface charge of the coagulants and
stabilization of the suspension. It was observed that highest removal of TSS was
achieved at pH 7, pH 2 and pH 9 respectively for alum, CPS and alum-CPS. Same
observation was reported by a study using rice flour where acidic environment if more
favorable for TSS removal . Wongsagonsup described that at acidic environment, lone
electron pair of nitrogen of amino group residing on the surface of starch granular
became protonated and became positively charged meanwhile the carboxyl group
became neutral.

2.1.4. Conclusion

This study demonstrates that an effective coagulant aid can be obtained from cassava
peel waste. The use of unmodified CPS as coagulant aid in the treatment of raw water

14
showed positive result and successfully reduce up to 50% dosage of commercially
used alum. Under recommended working conditions (pH 9, 7.5mg/L : 100 mg/L of
alum : CPS dosage, rapid mixing of 200 rpm for 1 minute; 100 rpm for 2 minutes,
slow mixing of 25 rpm for 30 minutes and 30 minutes settling time), combination of
alum:CPS yielded high removal of TSS up 90.48%. The present study proven the
potential of CPS as promising natural coagulant aid in reducing harmful inorganic
coagulants such as alum in coagulation process for water treatment plants. Further
research could be performed on modification of CPS to challenge the efficiency of this
natural material to the maximum.

2.3. Dragon Fruit Foliage Plant-Based Coagulant for Treatment of

Concentrated Latex Effluent: Comparison of Treatment with Ferric
Sulfate

2.3.1. Introduction:

Malaysian natural rubber industry has become among the most important agriculture-
based industries in this country. Currently, Malaysia is the third largest natural rubber
(NR) producer in the world with total productions of natural rubber in 2011 of 996,210
tonnes for both dry and latex amounted to almost RM 13,278 million . Malaysia rubber
industry’s contribution to national exports fro natural rubber, rubber products, hevea
wood products, and other rubber in 2011 amounted RM40.42 billion equivalent to
5.82% of Malaysia’s export . Meanwhile, world rubber production and consumption in
2011 were 26,089,000 tonnes and 25,850,000 tonnes, respectively . However, the
effluents generated from this industry create a major impact on the natural
environment. It is estimated that in average,20 tonnes of rubber and 410 thousand litres
of effluent per day are produced by rubber factory and some reported 80 million litres
of untreated rubber effluent are discharged daily into streams and rivers from the
rubber processing factories in Malaysia. Untreated latex concentrate effluent comprises
a large quantity of water for washing and cleaning of raw materials, small amount of
uncoagulated latex, and serum (protein, carbohydrate, lipid, carotenoids, and salt).
Highly contaminated with serum contributed to high BOD , therefore this effluent
when discharged into water course will deplete dissolved oxygen present in the water
and eventually affect aquatic life. Biological treatments such as pond technology and
aerobic and anaerobic methods are the most commonly used treatment systems.
However, these treatment systems come with large area requirement, high
maintenance, long retention time, and high emission hydrogen sulde (H2S) which
causes malodour problems associated with treatment of concentrated latex effluent
using pond systems . It is of high time to identify the best coagulant for coagulation
processes in order to ensure the nal discharge is well-treated. Coagulation is an
important process in the treatment of both surface water and industrial wastewater. Its
application includes removal of dissolved chemical species and turbidity via addition
of chemical-based coagulants such as alum (AlCl3), ferric chloride (FeCl3), and
polyaluminium chloride (PAC). While the effectiveness of these chemicals as
coagulants are well-established , there are, nonetheless, disadvantages associated with
the usage of these coagulants such as relatively high procurement costs as well as
detrimental effects on human health and environment. It is therefore desirable that

15
these chemical coagulants are replaced with cost-effective natural coagulants to
counteract the aforementioned disadvantages. To date, a variety of natural substances
such as bone shell extracts, bark resins, and natural mineral soils have been examined
for their coagulation properties . Research on natural coagulants from plant-based
material has been focused on Moringa oleifera for the past two decades but more
researchers are studying application of other natural plant coagulants such as cactus
Latifaria and Opuntia. It is reported that cactus Latifaria has the potential for use as a
natural water treatment coagulant while cactus Opuntia exhibits high turbidity removal
efficiency for sewage and seawater treatment . Opuntia spp. operates predominantly
through a bridging coagulation mechanism and represents a part of point-of-use water
treatment technology for producing portable water in developing communities . A
recent study indicates that Opuntia cus in ica grows in arid and semiarid regions
of Mexico and other countries produces “mucilage” that contains polygalacturonic
acid (biopolymer) with interesting coagulating- occulating capabilities with 65% of
the initial COD being removed at pH 10 (dose of 50 mg/L) .

Dragon fruit foliage was collected from Tanjung Malim smallholder in Perak,
Malaysia. Its thorns were removed and the foliage was subsequently washed, cut, and
dried at 80∘C. It was blended into powder and sieved to a particle size range of 0.45–
1.25 mm.
Preparation of Ferric Sulfate. Ferric sulfate was purchased from chemical company in
Subang, Malaysia, in powder form with approximately 97% purity. Ferric sulphate
solution was prepared by 51.5 g ferric sulfate dissolved in 1000 mL, 5% (v/v) distilled
water solution. solution was well stirred for jas test analysis. Coagulation Jar Test
Experiments. Coagulation experiments using jar test were performed in laboratory with
a Bioblock occulation that comprises six-paddle rotor (24.5 mm × 63.5 mm) for 500
mL high shaped beakers which is in accordance to standards and all tests were
conducted at room temperature. Jar test coagulation experiment using dragon fruit
foliage and ferric sulfate was conducted separately. 500 mL of latex concentrate
effluent was poured into each of the 6 beakers. desired amount of coagulant was added
to the suspension and stirred at rapid mixing (120 rpm) for 1 minute. mixing time and
speed were recorded. speed of stirrer was reduced to slow mixing (30 rpm) for 20
minutes to keep particles uniformly suspended. paddles were then withdrawn and
settling of particles was observed and recorded. mixture was le for 1 hour and then the
supernatant was collected to be used in the determination of the COD, SS, and
turbidity using the standard method. effect of pH was studied in the range of 2–11 and
the effect of dosage was studied in the range from 200 mg/L to 800 mg/L. All analyses
were done in triplicates and pH of wastewater samples was controlled by adding 1.0 M
H2SO4 or 1.0 M NaOH.

2.3.2. Conclusion

Generally, the COD, SS, and turbidity removal percentages for ferric sulfate were
higher than foliage at corresponding effluent pH. However, this was not a true
indication of the relative coagulative effectiveness of the foliage. e lower removal
percentages for foliage were probably due to increased organic load from biological
components of foliage and subsequently contributed to increased BOD and COD
concentrations in the solution media. e highest recorded COD, SS, and turbidity
removal percentages for foliage were observed for effluent pH 10 at 94.7, 88.9, and
99.7%, respectively, which were rather impressive considering the complex chemical

16
nature of the latex effluent. As such, it could be concluded that the foliage showed
tremendous potential as natural coagulant for water treatment purposes. For this study,
since the foliage showed high COD removal percentages and yet could not reduce the
COD concentrations
to less than Standard B limit, it is suggested that it could be used in the pretreatment
stage of Malaysian latex effluent prior to secondary treatment. For future study, it is
recommended that the dragon fruit foliage be used for other wastewater treatments.

2.4. Investigation of Coagulation Activity of Cactus Powder in Water

Treatment

2.4.1. Introduction

Water is an ever-present chemical substance which is very vital in all areas including
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational, and environmental activities. In nature,
water exists in liquid, solid, and gaseous states, and it is a tasteless and odorless
substance in its pure form . Water is a unique substance because it can naturally renew
and clean itself by allowing pollutants to settle out through the process of
sedimentation and flocculation process .However, this natural process is too slow and
difficult whenexcessive quantities of harmful contaminants are adjoined tothe water .
This water, which is not suitable for drinkingpurpose, is called nonpotable water and
the use of such water for drinking purpose leads to illnesses which are a major cause of
death in many countries.Contaminants such as bacteria, viruses, heavy metals,
nitrates, and salt have polluted the given water resources . This is due to inadequate
treatment and disposal of waste from humans and livestock, industrial discharges, and
overuse of limited water resources . The quality of drinking water is determined in
terms of physical, chemical, and biological parameters . The limiting values of these
parameters are recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) . As estimated
by the World Health Organization, up to 80% of all diseases and sicknesses in the
world are caused by inadequate sanitation and polluted water .This estimation reveals
that waterborne diseases contribute to the death of 4 million children in
developingcountries each year . Around 75%of our body is occupied by water. Two-
thirds of the earth is also covered with water . Even if the earth is endowed with water
resources, the availability of clean water is still doubtful . Most urban communities
collect water from a natural water body in the catchment, whether a stream, a river, or
an underground aquifer . The water collected from these sources is not of good quality
for human consumption; it should undergo various water treatment processes to
remove chemicals, organic substances, or organisms that could be harmful to the
human health. In this framework, water is treated to remove foreign impurities like
suspended and colloidal particles, organic matter,microorganisms, and other
substances that are deleteriousto health .These impurities comprise minerals, organic
compounds, and gases that alter the physical, chemical,and biological characteristics of
water.

Coagulant and the Coagulation Process. Coagulation is the process of destabilizing

(reducing the charge) particles, while the coagulant is the material used to accomplish
coagulation . Flocculation is applied on the process of collision of particles to form a

17
bigger size particle which is easy to be removed by a simple technique like
sedimentation or filtration . A coagulant is an umbrella that is used for the treatment of
both surface water and industrial wastewater in the coagulation-flocculation process .
Coagulationflocculation is the most widely practical process for the production of
potablewater aswell as for treating wastewaters. This coagulant may be natural or
chemical in nature. Natural coagulants have been used domestically at household level
for centuries in traditional water treatment in many rural areas. These natural
coagulants are added to the turbid water to remove the turbidity

2.4.2. Methods

The study was conducted in the eastern zone of Tigray around 900 km far from Addis
Ababa which is the capital city of Ethiopia. Mature healthy and fresh leaves of cactus
plant were collected from Adigrat surrounding area.The collected leaves were washed
with distilled water and were put in clean polyethylene plastic bags. The collected
cactus leaves were dried in oven at 70–90∘C temperature range. The dried cactus
material was powdered using mortar and pestle and stored at roomtemperature until
final analysis. Turbid water sample was obtained from Adigrat surrounding villages.
The 10L turbid water sample was fetched and stored in plastic containers prior to
immediate experimentation. as depicted

Fig 3:Coagulation Activity Using Jar Test Apparatus

.
500mL of the turbid water samples was put into each of the 6 one-liter beakers and
physicochemical parameters such as pH, salinity, turbidity, conductivity, dissolved
oxygen (DO), total dissolved solid (TDS), and chlorophyll A were measured using
digital multimeter. Different doses (0.50 g, 1.50 g, 2.50 g, and 3.50 g) of cactus
powder and Alum were added to each of the 6 one-liter beakers simultaneously. The
beaker was exposed in different rotating speeds, which consist of rapid mixing (100
rpm) for 1 min and slow mixing (30 rpm) for 10 min. Then, the beakers were removed
from the jar test apparatus and allowed to settle for 20min. After settling, 20mL of the
sample was taken fromeach beaker. Finally, physicochemical parameters (pH, salinity,
turbidity, conductivity, DO, TDS, and chlorophyll A) were measured and compared
with pretreated and posttreated coagulants.

18
2.4.3. Result and Discussion

3.1.CoagulationActivity of Cactus Powder inWaterTreatment Using Jar Test. Several

chemical coagulants have beenused in the treatment of polluted water such as synthetic
polymer and inorganic and organic coagulants. But these chemical coagulants are
costly and release harmful residues to the environment . So, in order to overcome this
drawback, this study used cactus powder as a natural coagulant. In this study, the
coagulation ability of cactus powder as a natural coagulant on polluted water treatment
was analyzed using jar test and UV-Vis spectroscopy method. It was observed that
cactus powder forms large flocs with impurities in thewater sample which facilitated
settling and resulted in clear supernatant formation. In the treatment of drinking water,
coagulation process is used to destabilize suspended particles and to react with
dissolved organic materials in the raw water. In this study, different parameters such as
conductivity, turbidity, pH, salinity, fluoride, TDS, and DO were determined using the
jar test.

3.2. Effect of Cactus Dosage on Turbidity Removal. The turbidity removal efficiency
of cactus powder was determined by adding different doses of cactus powder, the
percentage removal of turbidity from the turbid water sample was increased from
23.9% to 54% with the increment of cactus powder dosage from 0.50 to 3.50 g. This
increment in removal of turbidity is due to increment of active site of the cactus
powder. Similarly, the percentage removal of turbidity from turbid water by Alum is
increased from 28.46% to 58.2% as the dose of Alum increased from0.50 g to 3.50 g.
A similar result was reported by da Silva et al. (2016): when the dose of Al2(SO4)3
(mL/L) increased from 0 to 15 by 3mL/L interval, the turbidity of the wastewater
decreased from 1200NTU to 4.5NTU. But, interestingly, the percentage removal of
turbidity from turbid water by combination of Alum and cactus power is increased
from33.33% to 58.3% when the dose is increased from0.5 g to 3.50 g.The percentage
removal of turbidity from turbid water by combination of Alumand cactus power is put
in the order of 33.3% at 0.50 g, 38.59% at 1.50 g, 49% at 2.50 g, and 58.3% at 3.50 g.
Cactus powder is a natural coagulant which is effective in the reduction of water
turbidity which is comparable with chitosan’s work and can compete with Alum in the
water treatment process. Thus, the percentages of turbidity removal of Alum and
cactus powder are almost equivalent. But the percentage removal of turbidity from
turbid water was enhanced by combining of cactus powder and Alum as natural-
chemical coagulants. This reduces the cost expense for purchasing chemical coagulant
and reduces the effect of Alum on human beings and environment pollution.
3.3. Effect of Cactus Dosage on pH and Alkalinity of Sample. The initial pH value of
the collected water sample was 7.81. As depicted in Figure 3, the pH values ranged
from7.33 to 7.57 as the cactus dosage increased from0.50 to 3.50g.The pHvalue is 7.33
at 0.50 g, 7.49 at 1.50 g, 7.57 at 2.50 g, and 7.57 at 3.50 g at different doses of cactus
powder. This result implied that even though the dosages of cactus powder were
substantially increased, the final pH values of the water sample were relatively
unaffected as compared to the usage of chemical coagulants (Alum).The use of the
cactus powder as a natural coagulant has no significant variation on pH and alkalinity
of treated water. In a similar way, the pH value is 7.73 at 0.50g, 7.90 at 1.50 g, 7.67 at
2.5 g, and 7.77 at 3.50 g

19
2.4.4. Conclusion

The turbidity removal capability of cactus powder is increased from 23.9% to 54% as
cactus powder dosage increased from 0.50 to 3.50 g. But overdosage and underdosage
of cactus powder are unable to trap the desired turbidity. This implies that an optimum
dose of cactus powder is required to remove the turbidity effectively. It was also
proven that the cactus powder did not have a significant effect on final pH of
turbid water, 7.33 at 0.50 g, 7.49 at 1.50 g, 7.57 at 2.50 g, and 7.57 at 3.50 g, as
compared to chemical coagulants, which is significantly decreased from 6.1 to 4.18 as
the dose of Alum increased from 0.50 g to 3.50 g.The salinity is increased from
0.4‰ to 0.69‰ as the dose of cactus powder increased from 0.50 g to 3.50 g, but it
increased from 0.39‰ to 0.98‰ as the dose of Alum increased from 0.50 g to 3.50 g.
Even though the salinity of the given water sample is increased as the dose of cactus
powder and Alum increased, cactus powder is relatively better than Alum in upholding
of salinity of a given water sample. In conclusion, the combination of Alum and cactus
powder is a good coagulant for turbidity removal, salinity removal, pH and
conductivity upholding, and other physiochemical parameters of water. Hence, it is
better to use the combination of chemical coagulant Alum and natural coagulant cactus
powder during water treatment. This is also effective in terms of cost and
environmentally friendly and coagulation-flocculation activities. In conclusion, the aim
of this work is how to give a hint for people to get uncontaminated drinking water by
cost effective means, particularly the rural people who cannot afford any water
treatment chemicals, without affecting the health of their environment.

2.5. Use of Acorn Leaves as a Natural Coagulant in a DrinkingWater

Treatment Plant

2.5.1. Introduction

Water is a source of life, and in cases of shortage and pollution, it can be a reason for
conflict and a source of illness or even death . The presence of different impurities in
water requires that it be treated to be suitable for specific uses and to improve its
quality and ensure health, hygiene and comfort prior to utilization. Among all the
suitable processes used in drinking water treatment plants, clariflocculation (a
sequence of coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation process) is the one of the most
common. This process is aimed at reducing the concentration of suspended solids (SS)
and non-settling colloidal particles, thus lowering turbidity and improving water
quality. The effectiveness of this process is known to be dependent on the nature of the
particles, the type and dosage of the coagulant and the pH of the water. In aqueous
solutions, the dissociation of surface groups, for example hydroxyl groups (OH),
generates electrical charges on the surface of the colloidal particles. These charges add
an electrostatic barrier around the particles causing electrostatic stabilization
(stabilization based on the presence of surface charges). This stabilizing effect is
described in first approximation by the Deryagin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek (DLVO)
theory. The stability of a colloidal system is determined by the sum of the electrical
repulsion of the charges on the surface and the Van der Waals attraction. It is a
reversible process and simple to implement through modification of the ionic strength
20
(addition of polymers) or the pH of the medium . The electric charge around the
particles is represented by the zeta potential . In the case of steric stabilization, the
particles can be kept at a distance due to the barrier of the organic molecules (e.g.,
surfactants, polymers, oligomers, etc.) absorbed on the surface of the colloidal
particles [12–14]. In several cases, such as in the drinking water treatment process, it is
desirable to destabilize the colloidal particles and promote their flocculation rather
than stabilize them. In general, drinking water treatment plants use mineral coagulants,
such as aluminum sulphate, ferric sulphate, aluminium chloride and ferric chloride, of
which aluminum sulphate is the most widely used . Apart from the relatively high cost
of these mineral-based coagulants, they can be also responsible for detrimental
effects on water quality and on public health as a result of their over-dosage. In
addition, the residual sludge from these chemical coagulants can be toxic.
Polymeric materials can be used as flocculants as well. Such polymers act by forming
a bridge between the colloidal particles, a process that is called bridging flocculatio.
Colloidal particles can flocculate by the bridging mechanism in two ways; the first is
by bridging the particles with one polymeric molecule attached to both particles and
the second is by bridging the particles through an interaction of polymeric chains
attached to different particles. Furthermore, in order to have low-cost, harmless and
environmental friendly surrogate coagulants, in the recent past, several studies have
been carried out by testing different natural organic materials to produce bio-
coagulants that are as high-performing as the chemical ones. Among these organic
materials, cacti , tannins, Aloe vera , Moringa oleifera, chestnuts and
Chitosans have shown promising results. Bio-coagulants have been found to be
reliable to not only decrease water turbidity, but also to remove potential toxic
elements (PTEs) and pathogens from water. The advantages of bio-coagulants are
biodegradability and non-toxicity. In this study, we focused our attention on the
evaluation of the efficiency of a biodegradable natural product used as a bio-coagulant
in the clariflocculation process of raw water. This bio-coagulant was obtained from
acorn leaves, which are abundantly available in Algeria, as well as in many other
countries worldwide. Several Jar Test assays were conducted on real raw water
collected from the drinking water treatment plant located in Mila (Algeria) for the
following two main aims: (i) to test the bio-coagulant performance as powder as well
as in solution extracted from powder singularly with distilled water and NaCl, NaOH
and HCl at concentrations of 0.025, 0.05 and 0.1 M; (ii) to set the optimal
concentration of each solvent to reach the highest turbidity removal efficiency. These
aspects coupled with tests on raw water actually used to produce tap water represent
the novelty of this manuscript.

2.5.2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Analytical Methods

Turbidity was measured using a turbidity meter (HANNA Code: HI 98713, Hanna
instruments, Cluj-Napoca, Romania) and expressed in nephelometric turbidity units
(NTU). The content of organic matter and total alkalinity hardness were determined
according to Standard titrimetric methods. Salinity, electrical conductivity,
temperature, pH and total soluble compounds were measured by a multi-parameter
instrument (Jenway model 3540, Camlab, Cambridge, United Kingdom).

2.2. Raw Water

21
Raw water was collected from the drinking water treatment plant (36_49034.89” N,
6_31011.81” E) located in the city of Mila, Algeria. The main characteristics of this
raw water. According to the results shown in all the parameters accomplish the
Algerian drinking water regulation with the exception of turbidity (13.0 NTU) which is
out of the range, being higher than the threshold value (5 NTU).
2.4. Experiments (Jar Test Assays)
The Jar Test Apparatus (LI-JTA-125, LABARD, Labard Instruments, Bengali, India)
was used to evaluate the performance of the coagulant as powder (AC-powder) and as
extracted agent from the four types of solvent, namely distilled water (AC-H2O),
solution of NaCl (AC-NaCl), solution of NaOH (AC-NaOH) and solution of HCl (AC-
HCl) according to the procedure previously described. To perform the experiments, the
1000 mL beakers were filled with 500 _ 10 mL of raw water and placed in the Jar Test
Apparatus. During the coagulation step, different concentrations of coagulant were
added to each beaker and agitated for 3 min at 160 rpm. During the flocculation step,
the mixing velocity was reduced down to 30 rpm for 20 min. Finally, in the settling
step, all the suspensions in the beakers were left to naturally decant for 30 min. After
that, the supernatant was collected from each beaker to measure the turbidity and other
water quality parameters, such as pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter content
and total alkalinity hardness. All the Jar Test assays were conducted intriplicate. The
results of turbidity are expressed in percentage point of turbidity removal.

2.5.3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Effect of Using of Different Solvents to Extract the Coagulant In this sub-section,
results concerning the effect on the water quality parameters due to the use of the acorn
leaves as powder and as coagulating agent extracted with different solvents are
presented and discussed. Effect of Coagulant Dosage on Turbidity Removal Efficiency
for Different Solvents According to international scientific literature, the active
coagulant agent extracted from leaves is composed of proteins The effect of the
coagulant AC-powder and AC-H2O on the turbidity removal efficiency: The highest
efficiency were 84.77% and 71.6% for AC-H2O and AC-powder, respectively (see
This difference can be explained by considering the higher mobility and accessibility
of liquid agent rather than solid to meet the colloids. The effects of the coagulant
extracted with solutions of NaCl at different concentration (0.25, 0.5 and 1 M) on the
turbidity removal efficiency by varying the coagulant dosage. The turbidity removal
efficiency was found to increase as the NaCl concentration moved from 0.25 M up to
0.5 M. This result is in agreement with previous research and is related to two
phenomena. The first one is known as the “salting-in effect”, in that at higher
concentrations of NaCl, more coagulant agent is extracted from the acorn leaves and
thus dissolved in the extracting solvent solution. Since the coagulan agent is a protein,
when the salt concentration increased, the solubility of the coagulant agent and hence
its concentration in the solution also increased. The second phenomenon is the effect
of salt (i.e., ionic strength) on particle aggregation; in this case, an increase of salt
concentration led to an intense particle aggregation due to the compression of the
double layer. Moreover, over the concentration of 0.5 M of NaCl, the turbidity
removal efficiency decreased. This can be explained by two approaches: The first is
the consequence of the “salting-out effect” whereby the solubility of proteins
decreased with salt concentration. The second is the result of the hydration effect
occurring when the concentration was significantly high (i.e., 1 M NaCl) . The

22
maximum value of removal turbidity efficiency (91.07%) was obtained for the
coagulant agent extracted with a 0.5 M NaCl solution.

2.5.4. Conclusions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a natural coagulant
obtained and/or extracted from acorn leaves to reduce the turbidity of raw water. This
bio-coagulant showed interesting results as powder as much as in solution extracted by
distilled water reaching turbidity removal efficiency of 71.6% and 84.77%,
respectively. In order to optimize the use of this material and enhance its efficiency,
different solvents in solution at different concentrations were used to extract the
coagulating agent from the acorn leaf powder and the results improved remarkably
achieving removal efficiency close to 90% for all extracting solutions. In detail:
91.07%, 85.92% and 92.92% respectively for NaCl (0.5 M), NaOH (0.05 M) and HCl
(0.1 M). Despite the encouraging results obtained with this material to be used
successfully as coagulant in the clariflocculation process, it is relevant to highlight that
a high dosage of this material, possibly occurring when the raw water turbidity is high,
can worsen the quality of water by increasing the organic matter content, even up to
cross the threshold fixed by the national regulation
for drinking water.

23
3. PLANNING
NING SCHEDULE:
SCHEDULE

MONTH

JUNE 19

RESEARCH

JULY 19

LITERATURE REVIEW

AUGUST 19

SELECTION OF TOPIC AND ITS OBJECTIVE

SERYEMBER 19

STUDY ABOUT WORK TO BE DONE

OCTOBER 19

PHASE 1

NOVEMBER 19

DECEMBER 19

JANUARY 19

PERFORMING TESTS

FEBRUARY 19

COMPARATIVE STUDY

MARCH 19

RESULT, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

APRIL 19

BLACKBOOK WORK

24
4. REFERENCE

 The Use Of Moringa Oleifera Seed Powder As Coagulant To Improve The

Quality Of Wastewater And Ground Water.
o By: Hendrawati, Indra Rani Yuliastri, Nurhasni, Eti Rohaeti, Hefni
Effendi, Latifah K Darusman

 Removal Of Total Suspended Solid By Natural Coagulant Derived From

Cassava Peel Waste.
o By: S Mohd-Asharuddin, N Othman, N S Mohd-Zin And H A
Tajarudin

 Dragon Fruit Foliage Plant-Based Coagulant For Treatment Of Concentrated

Latex Effluent: Comparison Of Treatment With Ferric Sulfate.
o By: Juferi Idris, Ayub Md Som, Mohibah Musa, Ku Halim Ku Hamid,
Radah Husen, And Miradatul Najwa Muhd Rodhi.

 Investigation Of Coagulation Activity Of Cactus Powder In Water Treatment.

o By: Hayelom Dargo Beyene, Tessema Derbe Hailegebrial, And Worku
Batu Dirersa

 Use Of Acorn Leaves As A Natural Coagulant In A Drinkingwater Treatment

Plant.
o By: Abderrezzaq Benalia, Kerroum Derbal, Antonio Panico, And
Francesco Pirozzi.

 Application Of Plant Based Coagulants For Waste Water Treatment.

o By:G. Vijayaraghavan, T. Sivakumar, A. Vimal Kumar

 Extraction Of Natural Coagulant From Peanut Seeds For Treatment Of Turbid

Water.
o By: A H Birima1*, H A Hammad2, M N M Desa1, Z C Muda1

 Continuous Electrochemical Reactor Improved By The Addition Of Moringa

Oleífera Lam Extract: Optimization Of Operational Conditions For Blue 5g
Dye Removal Bruna Souza Dos Santos; Eduardo Eyng.
o By: Paulo Rodrigo Stival Bittencourt; Laercio Mantovani Frare;
Éder Lisandro De Moraes Flores; Michelle Budke Costa

 Principles Of Water Quality Control.

o By: Mohajit , Bandung: Itb. Indonesia.

 Moringa Oleifera As Natural Coagulant. Journal Of Wedc Conference.

o By: Sutherland J.P., G.K. Folkard, M.A. Mtawali And W.D. Grant.
1994

25
 Evaluation Of Water Coagulated With Moringa Oleifera Seed Preparations
Using Fish.
o By: Protozoan, Bacterial, Enzyme, And Ames Salmonella Assays.

 Coagulation–Flocculation Process For Pometreatment Using Moringa Oleifera

Seeds Extract.
o By: Bhatia, S., Othman, Z., & Ahmad, A. L. (2007).

 Sorption Potential Of Moringa Oleifera Pods For The Removal Of Organic

Pollutants From Aqueous Solutions.
o By: Akhtar, M., Moosa Hasany, S., Bhanger, M. I., & Iqbal, S. (2007).

 Bioresource Technology Comparison Of Single-Step And Two-Step Purified

Coagulants From Moringa Oleifera Seed For Turbidity And Doc Removal.
o By: Sanchez-Martin, J., Ghebremichael, K., & Beltran-Heredia, J.
(2010)

 The Influenced Of Pac, Zeolite, And Moringa Oleifera As Biofouling Reducer

(Bfr) On Hybrid Membrane Bioreactor Of Palm Oil Mill Effluent
o By: Damayanti, A, Ujang, Z., & Salim, M. R. (2011).

26