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THE ORIGINS AND SOURCES OF DUST PARTICLES, THEIR EFFECTS ON

ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH, AND CONTROL STRATEGIES: A REVIEW

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 Journal of Air Pollution and Health (Spring 2016); 1(2):137-152

Review Article
Available online at http://japh.tums.ac.ir

THE ORIGINS AND SOURCES OF DUST PARTICLES, THEIR

EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH, AND CONTROL
STRATEGIES: A REVIEW

Shahram Nazari1, Majid Kermani2, Mehdi Fazlzadeh3*, Soodabeh Alizadeh-Matboo3, Ahmad Reza Yari1
1
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, Iran
2
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
3
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran

A RT I C L E I N F O R M AT I O N A B S T R A C T:
Article Chronology: Dust storms can cause certain environmental impacts such as reducing solar
Received 24 November 2015 radiations, geochemical and biogeochemical effects, affecting marine primary
Revised 12 January 2016
producers or autotrophs, (thus reducing the disposal of carbon dioxide and
Accepted 14 March 2016
global warming), affecting snow’s Albedo. One reason why dust causes such
Published 31 May 2016
global effects is its transferability range up to 20,000 km. Dust can also
Keywords: negatively affect the respiratory, cardiovascular, cerebral-vascular systems;
dust, control strategies, environment, health,
cause or intensify meningitis, fever, pain, allergies, and viral infections;
origin and source damage the DNA of skin and lung cells. The Sahara and West China are
known as the primary sources of dust worldwide. The most important
methods of dust storm prevention and controling it can be biological, sprays
(water), mechanical, chemical, and engineering. Biological methods are the
best-known ways of preventing dust storms and desertification. This can be
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: achieved by creating vegetation and ecological barriers, such as forest belts.
[email protected] Considering the increasing number and periods of dust storms and dust effects
Tel: (+98 912)7035079
on the environment and human health, this review article aims to determine
Fax: (+98 451)6612004
appropriate strategies to prevent dust occurrence and explain the effects of
dust on health and the environment.

REVIEW in arid areas, reducing air quality and visibility.

Air pollution caused by dust storms has been a When horizontal visibility declines to less than a
major environmental and health problem in recent kilometer, dust storms are created [2]. Due to lack
years. “Suspended particles” refers to solid or of vegetation in the areas prone to dust, the air starts
liquid particles in the air. These particles are the to warm and move up, when these currents reach
primary and main air pollutants, can have diverse winds with high transfer speed, the result may be
sources, and may come in variable sizes [1]. winds circulating downward. These intense winds
Dust storms are natural events that occur mainly cause dust storms near the ground’s surface. Most
Please cite this article as: Nazari Sh, Kermani M, Fazlzadeh M, Alizadeh-Matboo S, Yari AR. The origins and sources of dust
particles, their effects on environment and health and control strategies: A review. Journal of Air Pollution and Health. 2016;
1(2): 137-152.
 138 Sh. Nazari et al., The origins and sources of dust…

often, precipitation is below 50 mm per year in Here, I means is the return radiation measured at
these areas [3]. However, some researchers have a given wavelength and I Calc is the radiation
suggested 100 mm [4]. Most epidemiological calculated at the same wavelength, using a
studies have considered suspended particles of 10 climate model. The difference between the
μm or lower in diameter as indicators of exposure, measured and calculated values ​​of radiation is
as this size includes coarse particles (diameter used as an indicator of the AAI. In this respect,
2.5 to 10 μm) and fine particles (diameter less non-absorbing aerosols (such as sea-salt and
than 2.5 μm) [5, 6]. Coarse particles are derived sulfate particles) are negative AAI values,
from geological materials such as soil and other while the short-wavelength UV-absorbing
hard materials [7]. Particles less than 10 μm may aerosols (e.g. dust) are positive. Clouds possess
damage the lungs, cause dramatic intensification AAI values near zero. Most researchers use
effects on atmospheric chemical reactions, increase the AAI values ​​equal to or bigger than +1 as
the probability of precipitation, increase fogs and an indicator of the occurrence of dust storms.
clouds, reduce visibility and solar radiation, cause In this way, they are able to eliminate dust
track time changes in temperature and biological days and specifically investigate stormy days
rhythms in plant growth, and profoundly change only [15, 16]. This data has now proved that,
the materials in soil [8]. The intensity of these in terms of sources of dust, the Sahara desert
effects depends on the particles concentration, is superior to other dry regions of the world
physical and chemical compositions of particles including the Middle East, Southwest Asia,
and their sizes. Most dust storms occur in spring the Australian Centre, South Africa, and Great
and summer and, less frequently, in autumn and Basin in the USA. Currently, most of the major
winter. During the day, dust storms occur most sources of dust are large areas of internal
often from noon until sunset in different regions of drainage such as, Bodele, Taoudenni, Tarim,
the world [9, 10]. When dust storms occur, strong and Great Salt Lake. Also, the TOMS images
winds begin, dust and sands rise, the air pressure revealed that many of the major sources of dust
immediately increases, and temperature suddenly are located in over-dry areas with an average
drops to approximately to 5 °C [11]. Therefore, precipitation less than 100 mm [4]. More than
devising strategies to prevent this phenomenon 70 percent of dust storms have been associated
seems essential. with African deserts [17, 18]. The Sahara
desert is the largest source of dust in the world.
Formation mechanism and origins of dust It is estimated that the emission volume of dust
storms especially in areas prone to dust is about 1,000 to 3,000 million tons/year [19,
20], with 500 to 1,000 million tons/year [21,
In recent years, a clearer picture of the main
22], the average 700 million coming from the
sources of dust emission on a global scale has
Sahara desert in other words, about half of the
been obtained. Specifically, data from Total Ozone
world’s dust originates from this desert [21,
Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) has provided a
23]. Dust from the Sahara desert is transferred
comprehensive description [12]. Using images
to the south, the Caribbean, Bermuda and
from TOMS, the Absorbing Aerosol Index (AAI)
America [24]. Sahara dust can also spread
is reached [13, 14]. This index utilizes daily data
towards Europe, the Middle East, and even to
from the Nymbus 7 satellite, which records near
distances as far as thousands of kilometers (up
ultraviolet wavelengths (380, 360 and 340 nm)
to 20,000 km) [25]. Table 1 shows the amount
emanated in the space. The AAI is based on the
of dust generated from the Sahara desert and
following formula:
other parts of the world as reported in various
AAI=
AAI=
AAI=
AAI=
100Log
AAI=
100Log
100Log
100Log
100Log
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
[(10[([(10[(10[(
1010
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
) )means
)means
means
) means
)–means
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
ଵଷସ଴௡௠
–(–( ( – (– ( ) )Calc]
)Calc]
Calc]
) Calc] studies.
) Calc]
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠ ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠
ଵଷ଼଴௡௠

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 Journal of Air Pollution and Health (Spring 2016); 1(2):137-152 139

Table 1. Estimate of the amount dust from global resources and Sahara
Annual quantity Annual quantity
Reference
million tons/years, for global scale million tons / year, for source strength of the Sahara
----------- 586–665 [26]
----------- 170 [27]
----------- 130–460 [28]
3000 ----------- [29]
1654 ----------- [30]
1018 479–589 [31]
1921 ----------- [32]
1790 ----------- [32]

The wide range of figures and discrepancies may the Sahara [36], Other study have reported 100
be due to adverse processes of measurement, to 460 million tons/year [37]. Another major
differences of times and locations of the studies source of dust is the Arabian. Arabia (Southern
[33]. On a global scale, the discrepancies can also Oman/Saudi border) has been recognized as one
be traced to the application of different models of the five major sources of severe dust with AI
and factors such as different speeds of the dust > 21. Vaby, a sandy area in Oman, is one of the
disappearance in the air [34]. These factors dust producing areas in the Middle East [35,
have caused difficulties in evaluating Sahara’s 38]. In these areas, the strongest dust storms
contribution to the world’s dust volume. For occur during April, May, June, and July [39,
comparing the relative share of sources in the 40]. Intensification of dust in these months takes
production of dust, the information obtained from place concurrently with increased activity in the
TOMS is very useful. The Aerosol Index (AI) northern Sahara (4) The severe area between the
gained from TOMS shows the higher intensity Saudi-Omani borders, which is a very dry region
of the Sahara regions compared with other major with low vegetation, is fed by the dry bed of the
sources of dust such as deserts in China, Saudi river that originates from Reem Mountains in
Arabia and the Tar. Five important points are Yemen and Oman [41]. Although most of the dust
identified as the major sources of dust in the in the Middle East originates from local areas, a
world, three of which are situated in the Sahara certain mount is from the Sahara [42].
desert (Bode´le´ Depression of Central Sahara
with AI > 30, West Sahara in Mali and Mauritania Studies in the world
with AI > 24 and Eastern Sahara in Libya with AI A considerable amount of research has been
> 15) [35]. Bode´le´ is located in North Africa and conducted and published on various topics
is the major source of dust emissions. Although related to dust. These include the origins, nature,
the area of depression is relatively small, it characteristics, transportation routes, dust
produces about 6 to 18 percent of global dust. compounds, the effects and consequences of dust
One important reason for this is the topographic on towns and villages. The investigation of the
surface of the depression [35]. The second major dust phenomenon in the Middle East using TOMS
source of dust is China, the destructive power data revealed that the greatest dust storms occur
of which is considerable. Zhang et al. (2006) in Iran, Pakistan and over the Arabian contries
estimated that the amount or ratio of the annual during the summer. The onset of these storms
emissions from this source is 800 million tons/ is April and May, and the peak months are June
year, which is comparable to figures related to and July [10, 39]. The background studies carried

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140 Sh. Nazari et al., The origins and sources of dust…

out shows that in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran in this area. However, in East and central Sahara
and China, the occurrence of storms is severely and central Mediterranean, the anti-cyclone flow
impacted by the region’s topography, such that its is more dominant, with an almost high heat and
decrease raises dust storms [15]. A survey of the increased geopotential height [49]. Kutiel and
origins of El Paso hurricanes in Texas between Furman (2003) studied dust storms in North
1932 to 2005 by Novlan et al. (2007) showed that and northeast Africa, and the entire Middle East
the wind started from the heights of New Mexico region. Based on the stations, Iran, Sudan, Iraq,
and, passing the Mexican desert, picked dust and Saudi Arabia and all the countries in the Persian
finally arrived at and affected El Paso [43]. Alles Gulf region fall into the first class, which means
(2010) studied dust storms occurring in China the highest frequency of dust storm occurrences.
and found that the storms were primarily formed The study also shows that the frequency of storms
in the northern cold regions and, traversing the is higher during warm years [9]. Some studies
Gobi desert and raising dust particles, created have measured the number of dust days. Wang
problems [44]. A study of dust storms in (2005) and Natsagdorj et al. (2003) found that
Mongolia showed that these storms occur most 161 to 171 days were dusty days in China [45,
frequently in West Mongolia and are affected by 47]. Nordstrom et al. (2004) counted 47 dusty
the Gobi desert as well as the vast lakes in West days in some regions of Texas, America, during
Mongolia. Morevover, most of these types of a year [50].
storms occur in spring when the weather and soil
are dry [45]. Another pertinent study revealed that Formation mechanism and origins of dust
cyclone activities in northern China could offer storms in Iran, especially in areas prone to dust
explanation for the sand storms in Mongolia. The Iran is located on the arid and semi-arid belt of
pressure gradient between northern China and earth and a vast proportion of its area is dry and
Gobi deserts and sandy areas in South and West devoid of vegetation. In addition, the country is
Mongolia intensify cyclone activities [46]. Wang partly surrounded by deserts in other countries
et al. (2005) studied synoptic characteristics such as Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia,
dust storms formation in North East Asia. They Kuwait, Oman, and the UAE. Moreover, African
believe that a dust storm in this region is always deserts are not at a far distance from the country.
associated with a low-pressure or a cyclone. According to many researchers, most dust storms
The dust system develops when a low-pressure in Iran, especially in western provinces, have
system reaches this area. The amount of dust in planetary nature. Results of many studies indicate
the cyclone’s warm sector achieves its maximum that these storms originate from North Africa,
[47]. Surveying the characteristics of Asian dust and Saudi Arabia and the deserts of Iraq and
transport in Korea, Chun (2001) concluded that Syria. Some researchers propose that the Sudani
strong surface winds, instability on the 1.5 km low-pressure and high-pressure are the causes of
ground level, as well as strong winds from the Iranian dust storms [51]. Dust and air pollution
500 hPa level caused Asian dust transport to the affecting most provinces and even the capital city
Korean Peninsula [48]. Barakan et al. (2008) of Iran is due to high-pressure systems in parts
surveyed surface synoptic patterns of 500 and 700 of southern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia. The
hPa of dust and non-dust periods in the African origin of the dusts in the west and northwest of
desert, demonstrating a significant difference Iran has been Baghdad. This phenomenon is due
in climate variables between these two periods. to the recent drought in southern and central Iraq
During the spring, summer, and autumn of dust as well as the western and northern Saudi Arabia.
years in Western Europe and Northwest Africa, This has caused their pastures and Hurea area
a strong cyclone flow caused transmission of dry and turn into deserts eroded by wind. Drying
extreme cold and decrease of geopotential height

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 Journal of Air Pollution and Health (Spring 2016); 1(2):137-152 141

Hurea in southern Iraq, devegetation in southern ground surface [56]. A study on storms in the sand
and central regions of the country, and advancing plain of Ardakan, Iran, has shown that dynamic
deserts in west and southwestern Iraq is added to low-pressure with cold fronts and vertical air
the range of this natural phenomenon. Of course, flow cause intense atmospheric instability and
Arab countries and the Iraqi government’s create strong sand storms. Another reason for
disregard of desertification should also be taken the occurrence of sand storms is the passing or
into account [52]. approaching of a trough in the west of the region,
leading to intense cold weather rise and the
Studies in Iran increase of the pressure gradient on the ground
Dust concentration in Ahvaz was studied by [57]. A synoptic survey of dust storms during
Shahsavani et al. (2011). It was found that the a ten-year period in the region of Khuzestan
average total suspended particulate and PM10 using ghemoptansial height maps, wind vector,
were 1481.5 and 1072.9 μg/m3, respectively. It and the sea level pressure, showed that in the
was also discovered that such chemical forms warm period, a surface thermal low-pressure,
as NaCl, (NH4)2SO4, KCl, K2SO4, CaCl2, Ca and in the cold period, migratory systems and
(NO3)2, CaSO4 may exist through the TSP [53]. In polar winds, with the trough located in the west
another study it was discovered that the increase of Iran on desert areas, play a pivotal role in the
of these values corresponded to the increase of formation of these storms [58]. Another study
dust days and reduction of precipitation in Iraq. concluded that the origins of the 120-day storms
One intensifying cause of dust in Ahvaz is rise of in Sistan, Iran, from the climatic point of view,
dusty days in Iraq; dry the everglades is between were a low-pressure center in the east of Iran,
the Tigris and Euphrates. One of the major causes and a high-pressure region in northeastern Iran
of desertification in Iraq is the construction of and the Caspian sea [59]. Still, another study
dams by neighboring countries, especially Syria posited that the extreme droughts during the
and Turkey, on the Tigris and the Euphrates [54]. late 1990s and early 2000s have been the cause
Turkey and Syria have recently built 30 dams of dust storms in Sistan, the frequency of which
on these two rivers, causing water shortages in has risen by five times [60]. In the same region,
the two rivers. This has dried Mesopotamian using artificial neural networks, the occurrence
wetlands, creating a desert of ​​500,000 ha. In some of dust storms was predicted, which confirms
cases, dust from Central Africa, especially from other studies in this region [61]. A survey of dust
Sudan, are intensified when flowing with intense storms in Khuzestan from 1995 to 1999 revealed
winds, and passing over the Red sea, join dust that during warm years, orbital convergence of
masses in Saudi Arabia. It is worth mentioning low-pressure systems in Iran and Pakistan from
that part of this dust which is also caused by the east, and the Azores high-pressure system
drought originates from the Khuzestan province, from the west, and consequently the increasing
Iran . Many factors are involved in the formation slope of pressure on Khuzestan create dust in
of storms, but the circulation of the atmosphere Khuzestan and its neighboring provinces. Flow
and land surface conditions are the main reasons of air contaminated with dust from the deserts
[55]. Atmospheric circulation involve Azores of Iraq and Saudi Arabia is considered a key
high-pressure and west wind migratory systems, factor [62]. Dehghanpour (2005) believes that
and the most important sources include deserts the dominance of a subtropical influence during
of Syria, Iran, Jordan, Iraq, North Africa and the warm years that can cause air to move down in the
Arabian Peninsula. In general, the best condition Arabian Peninsula is the reason of the formation
for the occurrence of a dust storm is heating– of dust storms in the west of Iran [63]. The
dynamic systems with inclement conditions on physical composition and chemical analysis of
dusts in western provinces of Iran have also been

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142 Sh. Nazari et al., The origins and sources of dust…

studied. Results showed that many metallic and Land use Regression Model founded that the
non-metallic elements including silica, calcium, annual-mean concentration of PM10 was 98μg/m3
potassium, and some organic elements have been and ranged from 56 to 155μg/m3. In this study
observed in these regions. These researchers also was selected PM10 as Corresponding pollutant.
believe that despite recent rumors, the chemical,
microbial and nuclear contamination rate of Dust impacts
dusts were trivial [64]. By investigating synoptic Dust impacts on the environment
patterns of dust storms for a few storm waves Atmospheric circulation and Earth’s surface
in cold periods, Zolfaghari and et al. (2005) conditions are the main factors causing dust
demonstrated that the landing of the middle level storms [10]. Dust particles can reflect sunlight
of atmosphere and ground cyclones are effective back into space, thus cooling the weather. This
on the transfer of dust from the deserts of Iraq, phenomenon happens directly and indirectly.
Syria and Jordan [56]. Hemmati (1995) associated Dust particles can reflect the sun’s rays through
the occurrence of dust storms in the southwest of cloud formation indirectly. Moreover, mineral
Iran, especially in the plains of Khuzestan, with aerosols from dust can also affect cloud formation,
cyclone systems in northern Iraq and central the characteristics of clouds and precipitation.
parts of the Arabian Peninsula [65]. Lashkari and In other words, they can affect the clouds by
Keykhosravi (2008) studied dust storms in the acting as nuclei Atyken [3, 21]. Levels of sulfur
Khorasan Province. Results revealed that these dioxide in the atmosphere may be influenced by
storms took place due to the increase of pressure physical adsorption or heterogeneous reactions
slope and slope of intense heat between the low- with the particles. In other words, sulfur dioxide
pressure of Southern Khorasan and Afghanistan, may exert a synergistic effect in the presence of
and the high-pressure on the Caspian sea and suspended particles [67]. Other effects of dust can
Turkmenistan. This pressure difference causes be associated with its role in the biogeochemical
intense winds, especially in Southern Khorasan cycles and soil formation [68]. Concurrent with
[66]. Omidvar (2006) studied maps of 500 and a dust phenomenon, concentration of some heavy
850 hPa to discover the formation mechanism metals such as lead is increased by three times
of sand storms in eastern Iran. The researcher [35]. Also, the concentrations of toxic metals
believes that the dynamic low-pressures with cold such as mercury and arsenic will increase [47].
fronts, the vertical flow of air caused the intense The analysis of dust particles indicate that the
atmospheric instability and severe sandy storms concentrations of elements such as aluminum,
in the region [57]. In general, climatologists iron, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, phosphorus,
believe that the movement of subtropical high- and sodium was more than 500 µg/m3 and
pressures toward desert areas, directions of concentrations of elements such as manganese,
winds, and different atmospheric levels are the barium, and vanadium was between 100-500
meain reasons of the transfer of dust from the µg/m3. The concentrations of heavy metals
neighboring countries. They believe that the flow such as zinc, nickel, lead, chromium, and cobalt
of strong over loads picks up large volumes of dust were 1-100 µg/m3 [69]. Dust cycles play an
from the vast deserts in the west and southwest of important role in the transfer of iron to oceans
Asia and carries them up to the top layer of the with nutrients including phosphorus and nitrates.
troposphere. Then, another strong flow transfers However, the excessive concentrations of these
masses of dust to higher widths. When the nutrients, especially nitrates and phosphates,
horizontal flow loses energy at high tropospheric can cause algal growth. Due to destruction of
altitude, the dust falls down [62]. Amini et al. algae, oxygen demand for degradable organisms
(2012) in their study with title Estimating Long- increases so that it leads to infectious or anaerobic
Term Chronic Exposure to PM10 Employing a

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 Journal of Air Pollution and Health (Spring 2016); 1(2):137-152 143

condition. Of course, this phenomenon, termed Channel Islands of California and the East Pacific
eutrophication or aging of river, mostly occurs in [90]. Large amounts of dust from the Sahara is
rivers and stationary lakes [70, 71]. Impacts on transferred to the South and Gulf of Guinea [91].
primary producers, or autotrophs, and ultimately Sahara may also be considered as a major source
impacts on carbon dioxide were consumed by of dust deposition for the Mediterranean and
primary producers in the food chain. With the neighboring countries [92]. Also, dust may be
loss of this important part of the food chain, the transferred from Ukraine to the Czech Republics,
amount of carbon dioxide disposal decreases. Poland, and Germany [24].
This greenhouse gas plays a leading role in
global warming, culminating in the disastrous Dust impacts on human health
melting of polar icebergs [72-75]. Members of Dust storms may affect the human life in a
an international board have proved that dust in variety of ways, one aspect of which is health.
2007 had enormous effect on global climate in Usually air-borne particles range from 0.001-
comparison with 2001 [76, 77]. The substantial 500 µm, the major part of which is composed of
role that dust probably played in the Pleistocene particulate material within the range of 0.1-10 µm.
is influencing on climate change, hence the approximately 40% of particles sized 1-2 µm will
rational of studying and surveying dust storms. remain in the bronchi and air sacs. The particles
For example, it is estimated that during the ice sized between 0.25 to 1 µm are less likely to
age, dust concentration has been at its highest. remain in the respiratory system. Particles tinier
This probably decreased solar radiation and than 0.25 µm will remain longer in the respiratory
overall temperature, forming ice mountains [78, system due to the Brownian motion. Moreover,
79]. Alternatively, with large amounts of dust during a dust phenomenon of 10 h, the average
particles landing on the snow, its Albedo reduced, 1.29 g dust/m3 air, an average person with 10
resulting in the slowdown of melting, and the hours of activity and 17 breaths per minute will
increase of density [78]. In fact, simulation inhale 6.624 g dust [5, 6, 93]. Thus, particle size
showed that the large emissions of dust prevented is important because of its impact on our health
North Asia from being covered in snow. Dust [7]. Dust emissions containing fine particles,
played an important role in the position of and the salts, and chemicals such as herbicides are worth
size of the last plates of dust [80]. It is believed considering, as well. These may cause respiratory
that although dust reduces the Albedo of snow, as well as other critical diseases [94]. These risk
it may significantly affect the retreat rate of ice factors can be either on a continental or a global
plates [81]. It is also claimed that dust may have scale [95-97] and transmit pathogens such as
asymmetrized glacial cycles [82]. Moreover, bacteria and fungi [98]. Desert soil contains 107
several studies show that dust transfer can affect bacteria/g, with a variety of 104 bacteria [93,
the geochemical conditions of the receptive area. 99]. The highest number of fungal spores in
For example, dust from the Sahara desert has dust storms was 106 per m3 in tropical climates.
affected the nature of the Anode soil [83], the They were of 44 genera and 102 species, the
Canary Islands [84], vast areas of Barbados, the most dominant of which was Aspergillus [100].
Bahamas, Florida [85] and Mount Cameroon [86]. However, other researchers’ studies indicated that
Indeed, the long distance dust can travel accounts there are 104 bacteria per gram of soil and one
for its global effects [87]. For instance, dust from million tons of soil is annually transferred into the
Lake Eyre basin, Australia, may accumulate in atmosphere, resulting in 1016 bacteria suspended
the east of the South Pole [88], dust from the in the air. Of course, this estimate does not
Sahara and Asia may be transferred to North include the population of fungi and viruses [101].
America via over the Pacific Ocean [89], and A study conducted at Hiroshima university in
dust storms from North America may enter the

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 144 Sh. Nazari et al., The origins and sources of dust…

Japan separated Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, 106]. Dust storms brought about a Valley Fever
Staphylococcus epidermiditis, and gross bacillus epidemic caused by fungus coccidis immitis in
from dust using PCR method (16S rRNA). There 1998 in the United States [107]. The prevalence
was a striking similarity of 99.7% to 100% with of coccidioidomycosis in southwest U.S. was
soil samples from the Gobi Desert [102]. Another imputed to dust storm activities [108]. Therefore,
study on microbial loads of dust examined dust storms may lead to injuries and death. A study
samples taken from two dust phenomena in the carried out in Taiwan and Korea indicated that for
Palestinian territories. The dominant populations every 10 μg/m3 increase in the concentration of
of fungi included Alternaria, Aspergillus suspended particles smaller than 10 μm (PM10) in
fumigatus, A. Niger, A. thomii, Cladosporium a dust event, the mortality rate increased by one
cladosporioides, Penicillium chrysogenum, and percent [109]. In a study by Khorasani et al. (2002)
P. griseoroseum. Most of these fungi are allergens in Isfahan and Tehran, Iran, in 9% of the days air
causing asthma, eye irritation, asthma and non- pollution was above standard. This indicates that
asthmatic pneumonia. The concentrations of populations in different cities of Iran with air
visible bacteria were nine times a usual day. The pollution are at risk [110]. WHO reported that
total concentration of visible microbes (fungi the contribution of airborne suspended particles
and bacteria together) was 1,200 during the dust to premature deaths is 800,000 annually [111,
events and 233 colonies/m3 during usual days 112]. It was also reported that the annual cost of
[23]. A study on microorganisms in Virginia healthcare for diseases caused by air pollution in
Islands revealed that 25% of the microorganisms Switzerland, Austria, and France was about £30
separated were pathogenic for plants and 10% billion [112]. In another study, the WHO reported
opportunistic to humans [103]. Still, in another that 500,000 people died premature because of
study on the identification of microorganisms exposure to airborne suspended particles [113].
in Mali, samples were collected during the In some cases, the concentration of the particles
occurring of the dust event. Results showed that in the storm is over 6,000 μg/m3 [112]. However,
10% of bacteria were pathogenic to animals, the WHO states that the outdoor 24-h average of
5% pathogenic to plants, and 27% opportunistic PM10 is 50 and the annual average is 20 μg/m3
pathogenic to humans. The different microbial [7]. Based on similar reports, 700 annual deaths
populations of bacteria identified in this study due to acute respiratory infections in children
are due to different sources of dust in these aged four and lower in European countries were
areas. Separated bacteria in Mali included many imputed to PM10 [114]. In another study, it was
species of Bacillus, some of which caused confirmed that with a 100 μg/m3 increase in 24 h
gastrointestinal diseases and septicemia (blood and average concentration of PM10, incidence of
infection) [104]. Some researchers believe that all pneumonia rose by 19% and chronic pulmonary
microorganisms in volumes of dust are destroyed diseases by 27% [115]. Peters (2005) examined
by the ultraviolet radiation (UV) of the sun, lack the relationship between heart diseases and
of nutrients, and drying over multi-day trips. But, suspended particles based on epidemiological
some species of Bacillus bacteria and most fungi records. Results showed a close relationship
can form types with spores, which are resistant to between daily changes in outdoor concentrations
drought, heat, UV, and poor nutrient conditions. of suspended particles and mortality due to
It should be noted that due to differences in cardiovascular diseases, symptom intensification,
the culture medium used and lack of standard hospitalization, premature physiological reactions
methods, the resultant figures are not the same [116]. Wellenius et al. (2006) investigated the
[105]. The WHO declared that the activity of relationship between particulate air pollution
dust storms in downstream areas of the Sahara and admissions of patients with myocardial
caused bacterial meningococcal meningitis [105, infarction in seven U.S. cities. Results showed

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 Journal of Air Pollution and Health (Spring 2016); 1(2):137-152 145

that increased levels of air pollution (higher than reviewed below.

the standard set by the USEPA) raised the number
of patients with myocardial infarction. Moreover, Use of satellite images
it was demonstrated that a rise of 10 μg/m3 in the Satellite images are valuable in determining the
concentration of particles smaller than 10 μm lead origins and transmission routes of dust. Some
to a 10% increase of admissions [117]. A group common satellites are TERRA, Aqua, TOMAS,
of researchers studied 850 school students in the and MODIS. With a wide optical spectrum and
UAE and concluded that the rate of prevalence equipped with modern technologies, MODIS
of asthma was 13.6% and that of allergies was is one of the best meteorological sensors for
73%, hence a positive and direct relationship monitoring weather phenomena. It is particularly
between the prevalence of the conditions and the beneficial in studying dust storms and low-
amount of exposure to dust [118]. The prevalence pressure systems. Sensor MODIS covers all
of asthma was also investigated in the Caribbean Earth, collects data in 36 bands, and possess
Islands from 1973 to 1996 Results revealed that the spatial resolutions of 1,000, 500 and 250 m.
during the period asthma had increased by 17%. The high spatial and spectral resolution of this
[93]. Research in the Republic of Korea on the sensor furnishes enhanced visibility of dust being
effects of Asian dust on skin cells showed that transferred on land and water. This provides the
Asian dust damage skin cells and cause genetic opportunity of analyzing and examining dust
changes in these cells [119]. storm activity in a certain area. Research shows
Chinese researchers tested the effects of Asian that satellite images from TERRA and Aqua
dust samples collected from particles smaller with MODIS sensors serve as optimum satellite
than 2.5 µm (PM2.5) on the lung DNAs of mice data to examine the specifications of dust storms
and macrophage cells. Extracts of these particles (including its strength and direction) [77].
damaged the DNAs [120]. A study on the
prevalence of asthma in children living in the Lagranzhyny model
Aral Sea region indicated the intensifying and not
the initiating role of dust in asthma [5]. Cerebral- In this model, retroviral tracing of dust particles
vasculature impacts, allergies, viral diseases, up to 48 h before the occurrence of the storm can
damage to skin cell DNAs and lungs are other be possible. This model also provides the route
other complications of dust [98]. on both horizontal and vertical axes. Finally, the
output has three isometropia patterns including
Forecast and tracking methods pair, a west wave trough, and high pressure [21].

Because of restrictions on direct sampling from Artificial neural networks

the desert air and the impossibility of direct
sampling from the total suspended particles, it is Artificial neural network models inspired by
not possible to sample particles smaller than 30 biological nerves have recently been utilized
μm. Consequently, indirect detection methods are as a top choice. These models can operate with
preferred to determine the source of dust [121]. minimum variables and output measurements
Generally, for simulating and predicting storms and predictions of considerable accuracy.
different approaches have been adopted. Most Fascination with neural network models is
of these methods are based on extensive studies due to their ability in solving nonlinear, bulky,
and atmospheric measurements. Moreover, using and error-prone problems. Moreover, these
meteorological satellite data and models are very models are capable of solving fuzzy problems
expensive and require an extensive network of and recognizing patterns [123]. The using of
observation stations [36, 122]. Some have been different methods of artificial intelligence in
the prediction of vague nonlinear processes

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146 Sh. Nazari et al., The origins and sources of dust…

has become very common in all scientific regions to find the matching figure [129].
fields. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are
subsumed under artificial intelligence and are Methods of preventing and controlling dust
increasingly taken advantage of in various storms biological methods
sciences such as meteorology and management.
AANs were used by Huang et al. (2006) There are key solutions to overcome dust storms
to predict dust storms in northwest China. such as planting vegetation or forestation, and
They could forecast 71.6 and 68.2 percent of creating ecological barriers such as a forest belt
dust storms [124]. They have satisfactorily [130, 131].
been used for predicting other climatic
variables such as evapotranspiration and other Methods of sprinkler sprays
parameters in the field of water sources and Using water is the most common way to remove,
hydrology [125]. AANs also have the ability to albeit with limited practicality. Certain additives
extract hidden relationships between the input will increase water’s ability to remove dust,
and output of certain models. This structure keeping in mind that additives must be eco-
is composed of many processing elements or friendly. Materials helpful to the environment
neurons, used to solve complex problems. Put can also be used. Afri is an international method
simply, these networks build up experiences of using water to remove dust used in most
of different cases, like a human, and then, countries. Products of this scheme are designed
drawing on them, can learn pattern recognition to help stabilize the level that can significantly
or classification of data. Various types of neural reduce water consumption and other expenses
networks with a range of applications exist. [132].
The most common type is called Multilayer
Perceptron, which comprises three units. An Methods of removing dust using water sprays in
input layer is connected to a hidden layer, and Afri [132].
this layer in turn is connected to the output
1) Dust control of roads using trucks or sprinkler
layer [126]. Researchers usually design neural
diffusers installed along the roads.
networks with one or two hidden layers as
2) Aqueous solutions in the form of mist
neural networks with more hidden layers. After
3) High-pressure systems that combine surfactant
multiplying by the corresponding weights, the
in aqueous solution with dry mist
total inputs of each neuron are applied in a
function called the stimulus function. Based on
Methods of dust sampling and reporting to the
the specific needs of a problem to be solved by
control room for calculating the volume of water
the neural network, it can be linear or nonlinear.
and other additives required [132]
In fact, the stimulus function can estimate the
relationship between input and output nodes 1) Using the dust monitoring method to measure
and the network [127]. Computational models, airborne particle concentration.
which can help in the study of particle emissions 2) Using personal romes to measure dust
for development of this phenomenon, and concentrations. These romes are equipped with
Eulerian transport models are some other ways alarms which go off when full.
of detecting the sources of dust storms [128]. 3) Recording data can help retrieve collection
Studies on tracking dust using the calcium/ and save times, print and present fluctuations in
aluminum ratio proved the reliability of the dust.
approach for tracking the origin is dust. The Using this data, the dust concentration can be
dust ratio of calcium/aluminum is measured obtained and dust can be properly controlled.
and compared with the same ratio in different Also equipment and materials needed and the

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 Journal of Air Pollution and Health (Spring 2016); 1(2):137-152 147

effects of dust on the environment and human dust storms. These studies have shown that dust
health can be recognized. Research has shown storms can wreck havoc on the environment and
that at least 1L H2O2/m2 is required for soil human health. Dust storms enter large amounts
precipitation or dust removal. The simplest way of mineral aerosols into the atmosphere,
to understand the water needed is using a tray causing climate change and biogeochemical
sized 1 m × 1 m × 50 mm. A truck is driven cycling changes. In addition, dust can be travel
through a place where water is sprayed from the over long distances and seriously affect the
tray. The volume of water consumed is measured arrivals. Also, certain diseases may become
and the driver is asked to drive more slowly or prevalent due to dust events. We must have the
faster based on the volume of water sprayed. This ability to identify the origins and qualities of
continues until achieving the ideal speed, which dust. Recognizing the sources and answering
is 1L H2O2/m2 of soil surface. A graph is drawn whether it was human-made or natural can
subsequently. This simple method is to obtain help us manage the situation more efficiently.
the optimum amount of water, and to increase Knowledge of dust periods and how various
the effectiveness and remove considerable dust. periods occur at different times is incumbent
By drawing a graph, water needed for different on us. A dynamic thermal system (thermal
speeds can be estimated low-pressure on the surface and trough in the
West Region) along with unfavorable ground
Mechanical methods conditions pave the way for dust storms.
Mechanical measures include covering sand In actual fact, ground conditions and the
dunes to stabilize them by wheat straw, rice, formation of cyclonic currents, along with
sand, gravel, sawdust, Monte Murylent, leaves, instability and strengthening of the situation
lignin, plant or animal fertilizers. These materials have helped the formation of many dust storms.
are widely used in China. In addition, synthetic The persistence of dust favorable conditions
materials such as polymeric cover (acrylic has caused their recurrence in many countries.
polymer emulsion and polyacrylic acid) and There is evidence that dust storms in some parts
polyethylene are used in some regions of the U.S. of the world have been brought under control.
[131]. Management strategies such as forestation,
planting vegetation, banning vehicles from
Engineering techniques driving on dust-prone areas, and irrigation are
some effective approaches. On the other hand,
In dry areas in China with high population, wire drought, the drying up of lakes, prevention
fences are used in order to protect pastures as a from plants growth (e.g. by means of erecting
means of preventing desertification [131]. dams), and other processes have led to a rise of
dust storms. These factors have also influenced
Chemical methods Iran—the building of unrestrained dams on the
In Iran, oil mulch, a form of oil waste, is used to Tigris and the Euphrates, and upstream rivers
stop movement of sand dunes. In China, chemicals and lakes of dust storms in many provinces of
and plastic mulch is used in dry areas. Chemical Iran. Therefore, with management strategies
methods adversely affect the environment, soil, the number and periods of dust can be reduced
and groundwaters. Oil mulch is effective in and prevented.
stabilizing sands but destroys soil [131].
FINANCIAL SUPPORTS
CONCLUSIONS The authors received no financial supports for
this study.
In recent years many studies have been done on

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 148 Sh. Nazari et al., The origins and sources of dust…

COMPETING INTERESTS 1994:12.

[12] Schwanghart W, Schütt B. Meteorological causes
The authors declare no competing interests. of Harmattan dust in West Africa. Geomorphology.
2008;95(3):412-28.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [13] Herman J, Bhartia P, Torres O, Hsu C, Seftor C, Ce-
larier E. Global distribution of UV‐absorbing aerosols
We thank the Environmental Health Engineering from Nimbus 7/TOMS data. Journal of Geophysical
Center, Statistical Center of Iran and Institute for Research: Atmospheres. 1997;102(D14):16911-22.
[14] Torres O, Bhartia P, Herman J, Ahmad Z, Gleason J.
Environmental Research for providing data. Derivation of aerosol properties from satellite measure-
ments of backscattered ultraviolet radiation: Theoretical
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS basis. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres.
1998;103(D14):17099-110.
Ethical issues (Including plagiarism, Informed [15] Prospero JM, Ginoux P, Torres O, Nicholson SE, Gill
Consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/ TE. Environmental characterization of global sources of
or falsification, double publication and/ or atmospheric soil dust identified with the Nimbus 7 Total
Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aero-
submission, redundancy, etc) have been sol product. Reviews of Gepphysics. 2002;40(1):1002.
completely observed by the authors. [16] Washington R, Todd M, Middleton NJ, Goudie AS.
Dust-storm source areas determined by the total ozone
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