Fundamentals of Eleectronics

C h a p t e r
Fundamentals
6
of Electronics
Prerequisite
Chapter 5 and Computers
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
• Outline some of the developmental history of electronics.
• Describe how an electrical signal can be used to transmit information.
• Define the term pulse width modulation.
• Define the principle of operation of N- and P-type semiconductors.
• Outline the operating principles and applications of diodes.
• Describe the construction and operation of a typical transistor.
• Describe what is meant by the optical spectrum.
• Identify some commonly used optical components used in electronic circuitry.
• Explain what is meant by an integrated circuit and outline its application in on-board vehicle
electronics.
• Define the role of gates in electronic circuits.
• Describe the operating modes of some common gates used in electrical circuits including AND, OR,
and NOT gates.
• Interpret a truth table that defines the outcomes of gates in an electronic circuit.
• Explain why the binary numeric system is used in computer electronics.
• Define the role of an electronic control module in an electronic management system.
• Outline the distinct stages of a computer processing cycle.
• Describe the data retention media used in vehicle ECMs.
• Demonstrate an understanding of input circuits on a vehicle electronic system.
• Describe the operating principles of the VORAD collision warning system.
Key Terms List duty cycle

electronic control module (ECM)
AND gate
electronically erasable programmable read-only
anode
memory (EEPROM)
binary system
electrons
bipolar
fiber optics
bits
Hall effect
bytes
integrated circuits (I/Cs)
cathode
input circuit
central processing unit (CPU)
light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
chopper wheel
NOT gate
Darlington pair
OR gate
data processing
output circuit
doping
151
152----Chapter Six
photonic semiconductors reluctor

potentiometer semiconductors
programmable read-only memory (PROM) thermistors
pulse wheel tone wheel
pulse width (PW) transistor
pulse width modulation (PWM) truth table
random access memory (RAM) zener diode
read-only memory (ROM)
In the previous chapter, basic electrical principles ferent types of semiconductor devices exist, but the
were introduced. We discovered in that chapter that previously mentioned diode and transistor are proba-
electricity is the form of energy that results from bly the most important. Though they are never
charged particles such as electrons or protons repaired, the technician will benefit from having a
being either static (not flowing) or dynamic (flowing) fundamental knowledge of these devices, especially
as current flow in a circuit. Electronics is the branch when troubleshooting.
of electricity that addresses the behavior of flows of The objective of this chapter is to deliver a founda-
electrons through solids, liquids, gasses, and across tion level understanding of electronics. It should be
vacuums. It is probably essential to have a sound recognized that most of the concepts introduced can
understanding of basic electricity before attempting be studied in much greater depth, but this would prob-
to understand basic electronics theory. ably exceed what the average truck technician is
The science of electronics began with the discov- required to know at this time. The terms electronics
ery of the electron by J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) in and electronic engine management are generally used
1897. This discovery quickly resulted in the invention in automotive technology to describe any systems
of the diode (1904), the triode (1907) and, perhaps managed by a computer. In the final portion of this
most importantly, the transistor in 1947 by three Bell chapter, basic computers will be introduced in terms of
Laboratories scientists, Bardeen, Brattain, and their operating principles. The application of electron-
Shockley. A diagram of the world’s first transistor is ics theory will be explored in both Chapters 7 and 8.
shown in Figure 6–1. Diodes and transistors are fun-
damental components in any electronic circuit. They
6.1 USING ELECTRONIC

are defined as solid-state components.
Solid-state devices are the building blocks of
electronic circuits. They are called solid-state SIGNALS
devices because they are manufactured from solid
materials called semiconductors. A number of dif- Electricity can be used to transmit signals or informa-
tion as well as power. An electric doorbell is designed
to deliver a simple electrical signal. If it is functioning
properly, the circuit remains un-energized, that is,
emitter collector inactive, for most of its service life. A visitor signals his
or her presence by mechanically depressing a switch
that closes the electrical circuit and produces an audi-
ble chime. Electronic signals often operate in a some-
what similar manner using on-off signals at high
speeds and of different durations. When an electronic
phosphor bronze wires
circuit is constructed to manage information, low cur-
rent and low voltage circuits are generally used.
germanium semiconductor Electrical signals can be classified as analog or digital.
An analog signal operates on variable voltage values.
A graphic representation of an analog signal is shown
base
in Figure 6–2.
Digital signals operate on specific voltage values,
usually the presence or lack of voltage. Simple elec-
tronic circuits can be designed to transmit relatively
complex data by using digital signals. A digital signal
FIGURE 6–1 Cutaway view of the world’s first produces a square wave, which is shown in diagram
transistor, produced by Bell Laboratories. form in Figure 6–3.
Fundamentals of Electronics and Computers----153
voltage
voltage
0
time
0
time 0
FIGURE 6–4 Varying frequency: The number of

0 pulses per second is measured in hertz.
FIGURE 6–2 Analog signal.
voltage
voltage
ONOFFON OFFONOFF ON OFF ON OFF ON
0
0 time
time
0
0
FIGURE 6–5 Pulse width modulation: Note how
FIGURE 6–3 Square wave digital signal. the on time of the pulses is varied. On time is
referred to as duty cycle.
B
Shop Talk
A square wave is a train of high and low/no voltage Varying duty cycle can also be used to transmit
pulses. Some types of digital sensors use varying information. A square wave of fixed frequency but
square wave frequencies to transmit information. variable duty cycle is achieved by changing the per-
centage of on time. This is known as pulse width
modulation or PWM. This term is used extensively in
A square wave is a train of voltage pulses with digital electronics. If a circuit consisting of a power
specific high and low values. When the high and low source, light bulb, and switch is constructed, the
values do not change from the predetermined spe- switch can be used to “pulse” the on/off time of the
cific values, the elements that may be changed are bulb. This pulsing can be coded into many types of
frequency and duty cycle. Frequency is simply the data such as alpha or numeric values. Pulses are con-
number of pulses per second. It is expressed in hertz trolled, immediate variations in current flow in a circuit.
(from H. R. Hertz, a German physicist). Information In fact, the increase or decrease in current would ide-
can be transmitted by varying the frequency of a sig- ally be instantaneous. If this were so, the pulse could
nal, as in Figure 6–4. be represented graphically as in Figure 6–5.
154----Chapter Six
B
rent flow. Frequency is another element of an elec-
Shop Talk tronic signal. A signal modulated at a frequency of 50
Some computer-controlled devices operate on a fixed Hz completes 50 cycles per second. If voltage is the
frequency but variable pulse width (PW) duration— electrical signal that is being modulated at a fre-
that is, on time versus off time. Percentage of on time quency of 50 Hz, then each second is divided into 50
is referred to as duty cycle. The commonly used segments within which the voltage will be in the on
diesel electronic unit injectors (EUIs) are switched in state for a portion of time. The percentage of on time
this way and it is referred to as pulse width modula- is expressed as duty cycle or pulse width (PW). A 100
tion or PWM. percent duty cycle would indicate the maximum on
time signal. A 0 percent duty cycle would indicate no
signal or maximum off time.
True pulse shaping, however, results in graduated Electronic noise is unwanted pulse or wave form
rise when the circuit is switched to the on state and in interference that can scramble signals. All electrical
graduated fall when the circuit is switched to the off and electronic components produce electromagnetic
state. This is explains why a square wave is often not fields that may generate noise. Note that all electronic
truly square when displayed on a labscope. We call circuits are vulnerable to magnetic and electromag-
the deviation from the “square” appearance ringing. netic field effect. The ringing shown in the actual
Most true square waves usually display some ringing square sine wave in Figure 6–6 is what electronic
when viewed on a scope. Figure 6–6 compares a the- noise can look like in diagram form. When electronic
oretical square sine wave with an actual wave. noise becomes excessive, signals can be corrupted. A
Waves are rhythmic fluctuations in circuit current corrupted signal means that the information intended
or voltage. They are often represented graphically for relay is inaccurate. Most electronic circuits must
and are described by their graphic shapes. Figure be protected against electronic noise. This means
6–7 shows some typical waveforms. they must be shielded from interference from low-level
The term signals is therefore used to describe radiation such as other vehicle electrical systems, high
electrical pulses and wave forms that are spaced or tension electrical wiring, and radar.
shaped to transmit data. The mechanisms and
processes used to shape data signals are called
modulation. In vehicle electronics, the term modula-
tion is more commonly used in reference to digital 6.2 SEMICONDUCTORS
signaling. An example would be the signal that a
diesel engine electronic control module (ECM) uses
to control the solenoid in an electronic unit injector Semiconductors are a group of materials with exactly
(EUI). A PWM signal can be divided into primary mod- 4 electrons in their outer shell. As such, they cannot
ulation, which controls the amount of on time, and be classified either as insulators or conductors.
secondary or sub-modulation, which controls the cur- Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor in
the manufacture of electronic components, but other
substances, such as germanium, are also used. The
first transistor shown in Figure 6–1 earlier in this
SQUARE WAVE
chapter used a germanium semiconductor. Silicon
ACTUAL SQUARE and germanium both have 4 electrons in their
WAVE SHOWN valence shells, but they would “prefer” to have 8.
WITH RINGING This means that semiconductor atoms readily unite
in clusters called crystals, sharing electrons in their
FIGURE 6–6 Diagram of theoretical square sine outer shells. Silicon and germanium can be grown
wave compared with actual square sine wave shown into large crystals by heating the elements to their
with ringing. melting temperature, followed by a period of cooling.
Figure 6–8 shows how electrons in the valence shell
SQUARE WAVE-LOW FREQUENCY are shared in a semiconductor crystal, and Figure
6–9 shows the crystal structure of a crystallized clus-
SQUARE WAVE-HIGH FREQUENCY
ter of germanium atoms.
SINE WAVE-LOW FREQUENCY
Pure silicon and pure germanium are of little use
in electronic components. For a semiconductor to be
SINE WAVE-HIGH FREQUENCY useful it must be doped; that is, have small quantities
of impurities added to it. The doping agents are usu-
FIGURE 6–7 Waveforms. ally phosphorus and boron. The doping intensity will
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Hole
Si Si Si Si B Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
FIGURE 6–8 Semiconductor crystal formation. FIGURE 6–10 P-type semiconductor crystal.
ñ ñ
3 electrons in its outer shell. A boron atom in a crystal-
Ge
lized cluster of silicon atoms will produce a valence
shell with 7 electrons instead of 8. This “vacant” elec-
Shared electron tron opening is known as a hole. The hole makes it
ñ ñ ñ ñ
possible for an electron from a nearby atom to fall into
the hole. In other words, the holes can move, permit-
ñ ñ ting a flow of electrons. Silicon crystals doped with
Ge Ge Ge boron (or other trivalent elements) form P-type (posi-
ñ ñ tively doped) silicon. Figure 6–10 shows the hole cre-
ated by doping a semiconductor crystal with a
trivalent element such as boron.
ñ ñ ñ ñ
A semiconductor crystal can also be produced with
an N or negative electrical characteristic. A phospho-
Covalent bond
Ge rus atom has 5 electrons in its outer shell. It is pen-
tavalent. In the bonding between the semiconductors
ñ ñ
and the doping material there is room for only 8 elec-
Germanium Semiconductor: 4 Electrons In The Outer trons in the center shell. Even when the material is in
Shell–Shown Crystallized With Shared Electrons an electrically neutral state, the extra electron can
move through the crystal. When a silicon crystal is
FIGURE 6–9 A crystallized cluster of germanium manufactured using a doping material with 5 electrons
atoms. in the valence shell it forms N-type (negatively doped)
silicon. The first transistor manufactured used a ger-
manium semiconductor. Because the element germa-
define the electrical behavior of the crystal. After nium is a semiconductor, just like silicon, it also has 4
doping, silicon crystals may be sliced into thin sec- electrons in its valence shell. Figure 6–11 shows a sili-
tions known as wafers. con crystallized cluster doped with arsenic to form an
The type of doping agent used to produce silicon N-type semiconductor.
crystals will define the electrical properties of the crys- Doping a semiconductor crystal always defines its
tals produced. Whereas semiconductors have 4 elec- electrical characteristics. We describe the electrical
trons in their valence, the doping agents have either 3 characteristics of a semiconductor as P type or N
(trivalent) or 5 (pentavalent) electrons in their valence type. In Figure 6–12, germanium is used once again
shells. When a semiconductor crystal is constructed, to show how the element forms a P-type semicon-
the doping agent produces a “bias” in the electrical ductor when doped with arsenic and an N-type
character of the semiconductor crystal produced. For semiconductor when doped with boron. P-type and
instance, a boron atom (common doping element) has N-type semiconductor crystals permit an electrical
156----Chapter Six
– –
Ge
Si Si Si Arsenic atom
Extra
Electron – – – –
– –
Si As Si –
Ge Ge
– –
– – – –
Si Si Si
Excess electrons
Ge
– –
FIGURE 6–11 N-type semiconductor crystal.

Germanium Doped With Arsenic To Form A N-Type
Semiconductor
– –
current to flow in different ways. In the P-type semi-
conductor, current flow is made possible by a deficit Hole
of electrons whereas in the N-type semiconductor, Ge
current flow is made possible by an excess of elec- Boron atom
trons. Whenever a voltage is applied to a semicon- – – –
ductor, electrons will flow towards the positive
terminal and the holes will move towards the nega-
tive terminal. – –
Ge Ge
– –
6.3 DIODES
– – – –
The suffix -ode literally means terminal. For instance,

it is used as the suffix for the words cathode and
anode. The word diode means literally “having two Ge
terminals.” Diodes are constructed of semiconductor – –
materials. A little earlier in this chapter, we discov-
ered how both P-type and N-type semiconductor Germanium Doped With Boron To Form A P-Type
crystals can conduct electricity. The actual resis- Semiconductor
tance of each type is determined by either the pro-
portion of holes or surplus of electrons. When a chip FIGURE 6–12 Doped germanium semiconductor
is manufactured using both P and N-type semicon- crystals of the P and N types.
ductors, electrons will flow in only one direction. The
diode is used in electronic circuitry as a sort of one-
way check valve that will conduct electricity in one The positive terminal (⫹) is called the anode and
direction (forward) and block it in the other (reverse). the negative terminal (⫺) the cathode. As an electri-
When a diode is connected in its proper polarity, that cal one way check valve, diodes will permit current
is, to permit current flow, it is said to be in forward flow only when correctly polarized. For instance,
bias. When it is connected in opposite polarity, that diodes are used in AC generators (alternators) to
is, to block current flow, it is said to be in reverse produce a DC characteristic from AC in a process
bias. In a diagram of a diode, the arrow always known as rectification. They are also used exten-
points in the direction of conventional current flow sively in electronic circuits. Diodes are static circuit
when forward biased (Figure 6–13). elements because they neither gain nor store energy.
+
+
–
–
TYPES OF DIODES
+ –
Anode + –
Cathode
Numerous types of diodes exist, and they play a vari-
(+) +
+
–
–
(–) ety of roles in electronic circuits. The following is a
+ – sample of some of the more common types.
+
+
–
–
Current
flow
+ –
Small Signal Diodes
Small signal diodes are used to transform low cur-
– – – – – –
rent AC to DC (using a rectifier), perform logic data
– – – –
flows, and absorb voltage spikes. Small signal
P N diodes are used to rectify the AC current produced
+ + + + + + by an AC generator’s (alternator’s) stator to the DC
Electrical
+ + + + + load current required by the vehicle electrical system.
Power Rectifier Diodes

+ –
These function in the same manner as small signal
Battery
diodes but are designed to permit much greater cur-
rent flow. They are used in multiples and often
mounted on a heat sink to dissipate excess heat
+ + – –
+ + – –
caused by high current flow.
P N Zener Diodes
+ + – – Electrical
+ + – – load A zener diode (Figure 6–14) functions as a voltage-
sensitive switch. They are named after their inventor
(Clarence Zener in 1934). The zener diode is
– + designed to block reverse bias current, but only up
Battery to a specific voltage value. When this reverse break-
down voltage is attained, it will conduct the reverse
FIGURE 6–13 Diode operation and diodes in for- bias current flow without damage to the semicon-
ward and reverse bias. ductor material. Zener diodes are manufactured from
heavily doped semiconductor crystals. They are used
in electronic voltage regulators and in other automo-
tive electronic circuitry. Zener diodes are rated by
their breakdown or threshold voltage (VZ), and this
can range from 2V to 200V.
Diodes may be destroyed when subjected to volt-
age or current values that exceed their rated capac-
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
ity. Excessive reverse current may cause a diode to All diodes emit electromagnetic radiation when for-
conduct in the wrong direction, and excessive heat ward biased, but diodes manufactured from some
can melt the semiconductor material. The following semiconductors (notably gallium arsenide phos-
abbreviations are used to describe diodes in a cir- phide) emit it at much higher levels. Light-emitting
cuit:
VF = forward voltage IF = forward current

VR = reverse voltage IR = reverse current
Gauge
B
Shop Talk
A diode is simply a one-way electrical check valve.
When it is connected in the correct polarity to allow + –
current flow, it is described as forward biased.
When connected in opposite polarity, that is, to Battery
block current flow, it is described as reverse biased.
FIGURE 6–14 Zener diode.
158----Chapter Six
Lens Anode of amplifying or transforming a signal level. A transis-

tor consists of two P-N junctions. As with the diodes,
LED P and N describe the semiconductors that define the
transistor’s electrical characteristics. That means two
Cathode basic types of transistor exist, NPN and PNP. A ter-
(A) (B) minal connects each of the semiconductor seg-
ments. A transistor’s three terminals are known as
FIGURE 6–15 Light-emitting diode (LED). base, collector, and emitter. To some extent, the
names used to describe the terminals explain their
diodes (LEDs) may be constructed to produce a functions. A small base current is used to control a
variety of colors and are commonly used for digital much larger current flow through the collector and
data displays. For instance, a digital display with 7 emitter. The base can be regarded as a “switch.” The
linear LED bars arranged in a bridged rectangle collector can be regarded as the input and the emit-
could display any single numeric digit by energizing ter as the output of the transistor.
or not energizing each of the 7 LEDs. LED arrange- In electricity, a relay is used to enable a small
ments constructed to display alpha characters are electrical current to control a much larger electrical
only slightly more complex. LEDs convert electrical current. In electronics, a transistor can be used in
current directly into light (photons) and therefore are much the same way, that is, as a pilot relay, to
highly efficient because no heat losses occur. LEDs switch a circuit on or off. However, the transistor is
are already being used as clearance lights in trucks more versatile because it can be used to switch and
and trailers, and OEMs anticipate that their use will amplify. Amplifying means that by varying the
increase significantly over the next few years. They amount of base current, the collector-emitter current
consume a fraction of the power of conventional flow through the transistor can be controlled. An
bulbs and outlast them. Figure 6–15 is a diagram of everyday use of an amplifying transistor is replacing
an LED in schematic form. the variable resistor that controls the brightness of
display lighting. Audio amplifiers in stereo systems
Photo Diodes have used transistors for many years now.
Transistors can be generally grouped into bipolar
All diodes produce some electrical response when
and field effect categories. (These will be explained
subjected to light. A photo diode is designed to
later in this chapter.) Transistors offer many advan-
detect light and therefore has a clear window
tages over the electrical devices they replace, such
through which light can enter. Silicon is the usual
as the now obsolete glass tubes. They are faster,
semiconductor crystal medium used in photo diodes.
much more compact, and have a significantly greater
lifespan. Figure 6–16 shows how transistors are rep-
Summary of Diodes
resented in schematics and how they operate.
The following list summarizes this discussion of
diodes:
B
Shop Talk
• Diodes are 2-terminal devices.
When a transistor is used as an amplifier, a small
• A diode always has an anode (positive terminal)
amount of base current can be used to control a
and a cathode (negative terminal).
larger amount of current flow through the collector
• Diodes act like one-way check valves, allowing
and emitter. Today, we use transistors instead of
current flow in one direction (forward bias) and
series variable resistors to control the variable
blocking it in the other (reverse bias).
brightness on the dash instrument cluster.
• Diodes can be regarded as static circuit ele-
ments in that they neither gain nor store energy.
BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
6.4 TRANSISTORS A bipolar transistor functions very much like a sort of
switched diode. It has 3 terminals known as collec-
tor, emitter, and base. Each terminal is connected to
Transistors are 3-terminal semiconductor chips that semiconductor media in what is known as a silicon
are used extensively in electronic circuits. Unlike sandwich. The sandwich may either be NPN or PNP.
diodes, which are static elements in electronic cir- An NPN sandwich is constructed of a layer of P-type
cuits, transistors are active circuit elements capable semiconductor material sandwiched between two
Looking at the operation of a typical NPN transis-

tor, the base-emitter junction acts as a diode.
Current flows forward into the base and out of the
emitter but cannot flow in the reverse direction. The
collector-base also acts as a sort of diode, but sup-
ply voltage is applied to it in the reverse direction.
However, when the transistor is used as a switch in
the on state, the collector-base junction may
become forward biased. Under normal operation,
current flow through the base-emitter terminals can
be controlled by the current flowing through the base
terminal. In this way, small base currents are used to
control large collector currents. In fact, the amplifica-
tion capability of transistors is typically 100 times
(although it may be much less or much more). This
Collector allows a base current to control a collector current
+ 100 times greater.
Base
Switch Facts About Bipolar Transistor Operation
open
Less than • The base emitter junctions will not conduct until
+ 0.7V Emitter
the forward bias voltage exceeds ⫾0.6V.
• Excessive current flow through a transistor will
Collector cause it to overheat or fail.
+ • Excessive voltage can destroy the semiconduc-
Base tor crystal media.
Switch • A small base current can be used to control a
closed much larger collector current.
+ 0.7V
Emitter
Examples of Bipolar Transistors
Many different types of bipolar transistor exist, but a
couple of note are small signal switching and power
transistors. These two types are used extensively in
– Voltage
vehicle electronic systems. Small signal transistors
NPN
Transistor are used to amplify signals. Some may be designed
to fully gate current flow in their off position and oth-
ers may both amplify and switch. Power transistors
may conduct high current loads and are often
mounted on heat sinks to enable them to dissipate
+ – heat. They are sometimes known as drivers because
Battery they serve as the final or output switch in an elec-
tronic circuit used to control a component such as a
FIGURE 6–16 Transistor operation. solenoid or pilot switch. For instance, the solenoids
in electronic unit injectors (EUIs) and hydraulically
actuated electronic unit injectors (HEUIs) are con-
trolled by power transistors located in injector driver
units built into the electronic control modules
layers of N-type semiconductor. The middle of the (ECMs).
sandwich always acts as a gate capable of controlling
the current flow through all three layers. The base is
fairly thin and has comparatively fewer doping atoms
than that of the semiconductor material on either side
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETS)
of it. They are designed so a small emitter-base cur- FETs are more commonly used than bipolar transis-
rent will ungate the transistor and permit a larger tors largely because they are cheaper to manufac-
emitter-collector current flow. ture. They may be divided into junction -type and
160----Chapter Six
metal-oxide semiconductors. Both types are con- – Collector

trolled by a very small input (base/gate) voltage.
Figure 6–16 shows a typical FET transistor.
Base
Junction FETs (JFETs) Switch

open
Less than Emitter
There are two types of JFETs: N-channel and
– 0.7V
P-channel. The channel behaves as a resistor that
conducts current from the source side to the drain
side. Voltage at the gate will act to increase the chan- – Collector
nel resistance, thereby reducing drain to source cur-
rent flow. This allows the FET to be used either as an Base
amplifier or a switch. When gate voltage is high, high Switch
resistance fields are created, narrowing the channel closed
available for conductivity current to the drain. In fact,
Emitter
if the gate voltage is high enough, the fields created
in the channel can join and completely block current
flow.
Facts About JFETs Drain

+
Gate +2v
You should be aware of a couple of facts regarding Source
–
JFETs: Insulating
layer
• JFET gate-channel resistance is very high, so
the device has almost no effect on external
components connected to the gate. N N
• Almost no current flows in the gate circuit
because the gate-channel resistance is high. Channel
The gate and channel form a “diode,” and as
long as the input signal “reverse biases” this
diode, the gate will show high resistance. P+
substrate
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistors (MOSFETs) FIGURE 6–17 Transistor operating principle and
The MOSFET has become the most important type schematics.
of transistor in microcomputer applications in which
thousands can be photo-infused onto minute silicon
wafers. They are easy to manufacture and consume
fractional amounts of power. because the gate-channel resistance is high, almost
MOSFETs are classified as P-type or N-type. no current is drawn from external circuits.
However, in a MOSFET, there is no direct electrical Figure 6–17 shows the operating principle of a
contact between the gate with the source and the transistor: Note how the device is switched by a volt-
drain. The gate’s aluminum contact is separated by a age applied to the gate.
silicon oxide insulator from the remainder of the tran-
sistor material.
When the gate voltage is positive, electrons are
THYRISTOR
attracted to the region around the insulation in the Thyristors are 3-terminal, solid-state switches. They
P-type semiconductor medium. This produces a are different from transistors in that they are only
path between the source and the drain in the N-type capable of switching. A small current flow through
semiconductor material, permitting current flow. The one of the terminals will switch the thyristor on and
gate voltage will define the resistance of the path or permit a larger current flow between the other two
channel created through the transistor, permitting terminals. Thyristors are switches, so they are either
them to both switch and act as variable resistors. in an on or off condition. They fall into two classifica-
MOSFETs can be switched at very high speeds and, tions depending on whether they switch AC or DC
current. Some thyristors are designed with only two

terminals and they will conduct current when a spe-
cific trigger or breakdown voltage is achieved. 6.5 PHOTONIC
SEMICONDUCTORS
Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) Photonic semiconductors emit and detect light or
SCRs are similar to a bipolar transistor with a fourth photons. A photon is a unit of light energy. Photons
semiconductor layer added. They are used to switch are produced electrically when certain electrons
DC. When the anode of an SCR is made more posi- excited to a higher than normal energy level return to
tive than the cathode, the outer two P-N junctions a more normal level. Photons behave like waves. The
become forward biased: The middle P-N junction is distance between the wave nodes and anti-nodes
reverse biased and will block current flow. A small (wave crests and valleys) is known as wavelength.
gate current, however, will forward-bias the middle Electrons excited to higher energy levels emit pho-
P-N junction, enabling a large current to flow through tons with shorter wavelengths than electrons excited
the thyristor. SCRs will remain on even when the to lower levels. Photons are not necessarily visible
gate current is removed. The on condition will remain and it is perhaps important to note that they may
until the anode-cathode circuit is opened or reversed truly be described as light only when they are visible.
biased. SCRs are used for switching circuits in vehi- All visible light is classified as electromagnetic
cle electronic and ignition systems. Figure 6–18 radiation. The specific wavelength of light rays will
shows a forward direction SCR. define its characteristics. Light wavelengths are
specified in nanometers; that is, billionths of a meter.
DARLINGTON PAIRS
A Darlington pair (named after the inventor Sidney
THE OPTICAL LIGHT SPECTRUM
Darlington) consists of a pair of transistors wired so The optical light spectrum includes ultraviolet, visi-
the emitter of one supplies the base signal to a sec- ble, and infrared radiation. Figure 6–19 shows a
ond, through which a large current flows. The objec- graphic representation of the optical light spectrum.
tive once again is to use a very small current to Photonic semiconductors either emit or can detect
switch a much larger current. This type of application near-infrared radiation frequencies. Near-infrared
is known as amplification. Darlington pairs are used means that the frequency is slightly greater than the
extensively in vehicle computer control systems and visible red end of the visible light spectrum and is
in ignition modules. Figure 6–18 shows a Darlington therefore usually referred to as light. Figure 6–20
pair relationship. shows the full optical light, or electromagnetic, spec-
trum. Note the portion of the spectrum that is classi-
fied as visible light.
Gate
OPTICAL COMPONENTS
+ – Optical components may conduct, refract, or modify
Anode P N P N Cathode
light. In the same way electrical signals can relay
information by modulating duty cycle and frequency,
light waves can be similarly used. The use of optics
in vehicle technology is rapidly increasing. Some of
+ the more common optical components are dis-
cussed in the following sections.
T1
Small
current
Increase Filters
in current
T2 Filters transmit only a narrow band of the spectrum
and block the remainder. They operate much like the
Larger filter lens used in a welding helmet.
current
Reflectors
FIGURE 6–18 A forward direction SCR and a Reflectors reflect a light beam, or at least most of it,
Darlington pair relationship. in much the same way a mirror functions.
162----Chapter Six
ORANGE
YELLOW
VIOLET
GREEN
BLUE
RED
NEAR
INFRARED
300 400 500 600 700 800 NANOMETERS

OPTICAL SPECTRUM WAVELENGTH
FIGURE 6–19 The optical spectrum.
VISIBLE
LIGHT
X-RAYS RADIOWAVES
GAMMA ULTRA
RAYS VIOLET INFRARED
MICROWAVE
1 pm 1 nm 1 µm 1 mm 1m 1 km
WAVELENGTH
pm PICOMETER
nm NANOMETER
µm MICROMETER
mm MILLIMETER
m METER
km KILOMETER
FIGURE 6–20 The electromagnetic spectrum.
Beam Splitters con solar cell may generate up to 0.5V in ideal light
Beam splitters transmit some of the optical wave- conditions (bright sunlight), but output values are
length and reflect back the rest of it. usually lower. Like battery cells, solar cells are nor-
mally arranged in series groups, in which case the
Lenses output voltage would be the sum of cell voltages.
They can also be arranged in parallel, in which case
Lenses bend light waves. They are often used in con- the output current would be the sum of the cell cur-
junction with semiconductor light sources and detec- rents. They are sometimes used as battery chargers
tors. They are often used to collect and focus light onto on vehicles.
a detector.
Optical Fibers
6.6 TESTING
Optical fibers are thin, flexible strands of glass or
plastic that conduct light. The light travels through a
core surrounded by conduit or cladding. Optical SEMICONDUCTORS
fibers are increasingly used to transmit digital data
The technician is seldom required to test an individ-
by pulsing light, and the use of fiber optics is
ual diode or transistor in a vehicle electronic circuit,
expected to grow tenfold in the next decade.
but it is an activity that is often taught in technical
training programs because it increases awareness of
Solar Cells
how electronic systems work and fail. Diodes and
A solar cell consists of a P-N or N-P silicon semicon- transistors are normally tested using an ohmmeter.
ductor junction built onto contact plates. A single sili- The semiconductor to be tested should be isolated
from the circuit. The digital multimeter (DMM) should Transistors

be set to the diode test mode.
Again, the instrument used to bench test a transistor
Diodes is the DMM in ohmmeter mode. The testing of tran-
sistors is covered in a little more detail in Chapter 8,
Diodes should produce a high-resistance reading but this should give you some idea of how to go
with the DMM test leads in the forward bias direction about the procedure. Use Figure 6–23 and Figure
and low resistance when the leads are reversed. 6–24, a DMM, and some transistors to practice on. A
Low-resistance readings both ways indicate a functional transistor should test as follows:
shorted diode. High resistance both ways indicates
an open diode. Figure 6–21 and Figure 6–22 intro-
duce the basic testing of a diode: This is explored in
a little more detail in Chapter 8. DMM
Ω Mode
Digital Multimeter
Ω Mode
Collector
Base
Emitter
P ++ N --
Continuity Indicated
Continuity Indicated FIGURE 6–23 Testing transistor base to collector

continuity.
FIGURE 6–21 Testing a diode in forward bias.
Digital Multimeter
Ω Mode DMM
Ω Mode
Collector
N -- P ++
Base
Emitter
No Continuity
FIGURE 6–24 Testing a transistor for high resis-
FIGURE 6–22 Testing a diode in reverse bias. tance across the emitter-collector junction.
164----Chapter Six
• Continuity between the emitter and base Integrated circuits fall into two general categories.
• Continuity between the base and the collector Analog integrated circuits operate on variable volt-
when tested one way, and high resistance age values. Electronic voltage regulators are a good
when DMM test leads are reversed vehicle example of an analog I/C. Digital integrated
• High resistance in either direction when tested circuits operate on two voltage values only, usually
across the emitter and collector terminals presence of voltage and no voltage. Digital I/Cs are
the basis of most computer hardware including pro-
cessing units, main memory, and data retention
6.7 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS chips. Integrated circuit chips can be fused into a
motherboard (main circuit) or socketed. The latter
(I/Cs) has the advantage of easy removal and replacement.
Integrated circuits or I/Cs consist of resistors, A common chip package used in computer and vehi-
diodes, and transistors arranged in a circuit on a chip cle engine/electronic control modules (ECMs) is the
of silicon (Figure 6–25). The number of electronic dual in-line package (DIP). This package consists of
components that comprise the I/C vary from a hand- a rectangular plastic-enclosed I/C with usually 14 to
ful to hundreds of thousands, depending on the 16 pins arranged evenly on either side. DIPs may be
function of the chip. Integrated circuits have innu- fused (not removable) or socketed to the mother-
merable household, industrial, and automotive appli- board.
cations and are the basis of digital watches,
electronic pulse wipers, and all computer systems.
6.8 GATES AND
TRUTH TABLES
B
Shop Talk
In the process of outlining the operation of transistors in
A chip is an integrated circuit. One chip can be
one of the previous sections, the importance of gates
smaller than a fingernail and contain many thou-
was emphasized. These are the electronically controlled
sands of resistors, diodes, and transistors.
switching mechanisms that manage the operating mode
FIGURE 6–25 Integrated circuit.

of a transistor. Digital integrated circuits are constructed Switch A

by using thousands of gates. In most areas of electron-
ics, gates can be either open or closed: In other words,
in-between states do not exist. Just like the toggle
switch that controls the lights in a room, the switch is
either on or off. The terms used to describe the state of
a gate are on and off. In a circuit, these states are identi- Switch B
fied as presence of voltage or no voltage.
AND Gates
The best way to learn about the operation of gates in FIGURE 6–27 OR gate: Both switches are of the
a digital circuit is to observe the operation of some normally open type.
electromechanical switches in some simple electrical
circuits. In Figure 6–26, a power source is used to
OR Gates
supply a lightbulb in a series circuit. In the circuit, If another circuit is constructed using two normally
there are two pushbutton switches that are in the open electromechanical switches, this time arranged
normally open state. In such a circuit, the lightbulb in parallel, the circuit would appear as in Figure
will only illuminate when both switches are closed. 6–27. This kind of gate is called an OR gate. Both
We call this type of gate circuit an AND gate. switches are of the normally open type: If either one
The operation of the AND gate can be summarized is closed, the gate outcome is on.
by looking at the circuit and coming to some logical A truth table constructed to represent the possible
conclusions. A table that assesses a gated circuit’s outcomes of the OR gate circuit would appear as fol-
operation is often called a truth table. A truth table lows:
applied to the AND gate circuit would read as follows: Switch A Switch B Outcome
Switch A Switch B Outcome
0 0 0
Off Off Off 1 0 1
Off On Off 0 1 1
On Off Off 1 1 1
On On On
NOT or Inverter Gates
A truth table is usually constructed using the digits A NOT gate circuit switch can be constructed by
zero (0) and one (1) because the binary system (out- using a push button switch that is in the normally
lined in detail following this section on gates) is com- closed state. In other words, circuit current flow is
monly used to code data in digital electronics. interrupted when the button is pushed. In the series
Therefore, a truth table that charts the outcomes of circuit shown in Figure 6–28, current will flow until
the same AND switch would appear as follows: the switch opens the circuit.
Switch A Switch B Outcome If a truth table is constructed to graphically repre-
sent the outcomes of a NOT gated circuit, this is
0 0 0 what it would look like:
0 1 0
1 0 0 In Out
1 1 1
0 1
1 0
Switch A Switch B
FIGURE 6–26 AND gate: Both switches are of the FIGURE 6–28 NOT gate: The single switch is of
normally open type. the normally closed type.
166----Chapter Six
Although the examples presented here used

electromechanical switches for ease of understand-
ing, in digital electronics, circuit switching is per-
6.9 BINARY SYSTEM BASICS
formed electronically using diode and transistor
gates. AND, OR, and NOT gates are 3 commonly
The binary system is an arithmetic numeric system
used means of producing an outcome based on the
using two digits and it therefore has a base number
switching status of components in the gate circuit.
of 2. The base number of a numeric system is the
number of digits used in it. The decimal system is
GATES, TRUTH TABLES, therefore a 10-base number system. The binary
AND BASIC DATA PROCESSING numeric system is often used in computer electron-
ics because it directly corresponds to the on or off
Figure 6–29 shows some simple input logic gates and
states of switches and circuits. In computer electron-
the outcomes that can be produced from them. When
ics, the binary system is the primary means of coding
the number of inputs to a logic gate is increased, its
data using the digits 0 and 1 to represent alpha,
outcome processing becomes more complex.
numeric, and any other data. Numeric data is nor-
Gates are normally used in complex networks in
mally represented using the decimal system: Again,
which they are connected by buses, or connection
this is simple coding. The digit 3 is a representation
points, to form a logic circuit. Bits of data can be
of a quantitive value that most of us have been
moved through the logic circuit or highway to pro-
accustomed to decoding since early childhood. If
duce outcomes that evolve from the logical process-
decimal system values were coded into binary val-
ing of inputs. By massing hundreds of thousands of
ues, they would look like this:
logic circuits, the processing of information becomes
possible. A computer works simply by processing Decimal digit Binary digit
input data and generating logical outcomes based
0 0
on the input data. Although it may not be required
1 1
that a vehicle technician understand the precise 2 10
operation of a digital computer, these have become 3 11
so much part of the workplace that it is certainly 4 100
desirable to have some idea of the basics. Computer 5 101
operation is explored in a little more detail later in 6 110
this chapter. 7 111
8 1000
9 1001
A B OUT 10 1010
0 0 0
0 1 0 In digital electronics, a bit is the smallest piece of
AND GATE
1 0 0 data that a computer can manipulate. It is simply the
1 1 1 ability to represent one of two values, either on (1) or
off (0). When groups of bits are arranged in patterns,
A B OUT they are collectively described as follows:
0 0 1
NAND GATE 0 1 1 4 bits = nibble
1 0 1 8 bits = byte
1 1 0
Most digital electronic data is referred to quanti-
A B OUT tively as bytes. Computer systems are capable of pro-
0 0 0 cessing and retaining vast quantities of data: In most
OR GATE 0 1 1 cases, millions (megabytes) and billions (gigabytes) of
1 0 1
1 1 1 bytes are described. A byte is 8 bits of data. It has the
capability of representing up to 256 data possibilities.
A B OUT For instance, if a byte were to be used to code
0 0 1
numeric data, it would appear as follows:
NOR GATE 0 1 0
1 0 0 Decimal digit Binary coded digit
1 1 0
0 0000 0000
FIGURE 6–29 Logic gates and truth tables show- 1 0000 0001
2 0000 0010
ing the switching outcomes.
3 0000 0011
Decimal digit Binary coded digit (0)
4 0000 0100
(1)
5 0000 0101
6 0000 0110
7 0000 0111 (2)
8 0000 1000
(3)
and so on up to 256. Try it. Note that each time a
one/on progresses one column to the left, it doubles FIGURE 6–31 Parallel link: Data transmission time
the value of the column to its right. is greatly reduced.
0000 0001 = 1
0000 0010 = 2
6.10 MICROPROCESSORS
0000 0100 = 4
0000 1000 = 8
0001 0000 = 16
0010 0000 = 32
0100 0000 = 64 A microprocessor is a solid-state chip that contains
1000 0000 = 128 many hundreds of thousands of gates per square
inch. The microcomputer is the operational core of
A number of methods are used to code data. any personal or vehicle computer system. Most high-
Those familiar with some computer basics may be way trucks and, increasingly, bus and off-highway
acquainted with some American Standard Code for equipment, use computers to manage engine and
Information Interchange (ASCII) codes. This coding other onboard system functions. The majority of
system has its own distinct method of coding values highway trucks manufactured in North America since
and would not be compatible with other coding sys- 1994 are “drive by wire” with full authority chassis
tems without some kind of translation. Because on- management. Onboard vehicle computers are
off states can so easily be used to represent data, referred to as engine/electronic control modules
most digital computers and communications use this (ECMs) or electronic/engine control units (ECUs).
technology. It is also used in optical data processing, ECM will be the acronym used in this text except
retention, and communications. Digital signals may when discussing product whose OEM (original
be transmitted in series one bit at a time, which equipment manufacturer) chooses to use the
tends to be slower, or in parallel, which is much acronym ECU. ECMs normally contain a micro-
faster. If the numbers 0 through 3 had to be transmit- processor, data retention media, and often the out-
ted through a serial link, they would be signaled put or switching apparatus. The ECM can be
sequentially, as shown in Figure 6–30. mounted on the component to be managed (a trans-
If the same numbers were to be transmitted mission management ECM is often located on the
through a parallel link, they could be outputted transmission) or, alternatively, inside the vehicle cab.
simultaneously as shown in Figure 6–31, which Increasingly as this technology develops, several
would be much faster. system ECMs can be mastered by a single vehicle
management ECM. An example would be a vehicle
equipped with computerized engine management,
transmission, and ABS/traction control. The three
systems can be mastered by one vehicle manage-
Decimal Number Binary Number ment ECM for synchronized performance.
0 0 0 0 0 Alternatively, each separate system ECM can be
1 0 0 0 1 bussed (electronically connected) to the vehicle man-
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1 agement computer. Some OEMs use the term multi-
plexing to refer to a vehicle management system
using multiple, interconnected ECMs.
0 1 2 3
CAUTION: Static discharge can destroy sensi-

tive computer equipment. Wear a ground strap or
use common sense to avoid damaging computer
FIGURE 6–30 Sequential switching of binary equipment by careless static discharge.
coded numbers through a serial link.
168----Chapter Six
A truck technician must have a basic understanding various ECMs that need to know the vehicle road speed.
of both vehicle and personal computers to interact An example of a command sensor would be the throttle
effectively with today’s technology. This section will position sensor, whose signal is used by the engine and
introduce the essentials of electronic management of transmission electronics. In fact, anything that signals
vehicle systems. Computerized system management input data to an electronic system can be described as
is simply summarized as a set of electronically con- a sensor. This means that sensors may be simple
nected components that enable an information pro- switches that an operator toggles open or closed,
cessing cycle comprising 3 distinct stages: devices that ground or modulate a reference voltage
(V-Ref), or devices that are powered up either by V-Ref
1. Data input or battery voltage (V-Bat). V-Ref is voltage conditioned
2. Data processing by the system ECM. It is almost always 5V. Some com-
3. Outputs ponents used in the input circuit of a vehicle computer
system are discussed in the following sections.
The information processing cycle is shown in dia-
gram form in Figure 6–32. Thermistors
Thermistors precisely measure temperature. There
DATA INPUT are two types. Resistance through a thermistor may
decrease as temperature increases, in which case it
Data is simply raw information. Most of the data that has is known as a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
to be signalled in a truck electronic system ECM comes thermistor. A thermistor in which the resistance
from monitoring sensors and command sensors. An increases as temperature rises is known as a positive
example of a monitoring sensor would be a tailshaft temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor. The ECM
speed sensor that signals road speed information to the receives temperature data from thermistors in the
form of analog voltage values. The coolant tempera-
ture sensor, ambient temperature sensor, and oil
Data Input Data Processing Data Output
temperature sensor are usually thermistors. Figure
6–33 shows a schematic of a thermistor.
FIGURE 6–32 Information processing cycle.
THERMISTOR 5 VREF Current Limiting Resistor

• VREF CONNECTION
• GROUND CONNECTION
2 TERMINALS Reference Voltage
Regulator
Output
Input Conditioners Microcomputer Drivers
Microprocessor
AMP
M M M
Analog E E E
to M M M
Digital
Converter
O O O
R R R
Y Y Y
R
E 100 KΩ
S
I 10 KΩ
S Signal Return Provided Through Processor
T 1 KΩ
A
100 KΩ
N The chart indicates resistance of a thermistor decreases as
C
E
0 KΩ temperature increases. Output of thermistor is not linear.
0° 50° 100° 150° 200°
TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 6–33 NTC-type thermistor. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
Variable Capacitance (Pressure) Sensor signal returned to the system ECM is always less
than V-Ref, so sometimes they can be referred to as
These are supplied with reference voltage and usu-
voltage dividers. As the mechanical device moves,
ally designed to measure pressure values. The
the resistance is altered within the potentiometer.
medium whose pressure is to be measured acts on a
Throttle position sensors (TPSs) are commonly
ceramic disc and moves it either closer to or farther
potentiometers. Figure 6–35 shows a TPS that uses
away from a steel disc. This varies the capacitance
a potentiometer principle of operation.
of the device and therefore the voltage value
returned to the ECM.
Piezo-Resistive Pressure Sensor
Variable capacitance-type sensors are used for oil
pressure sensing, MAP sensing (turbo boost pres- This type of sensor is often used to measure mani-
sure), barometric pressure sensing (BARO), and fuel fold pressure and can be known as a Wheatstone
pressure sensing. Figure 6–34 shows an engine oil bridge sensor. A doped silicon chip is formed in a
pressure sensor that uses a variable capacitance diaphragm shape so it measures 250 microns
electrical operating principle. around its periphery and only 25 microns at its cen-
ter: this means it is about 10 times thinner in the cen-
Potentiometers ter. This permits the silicon diaphragm to flex at the
center when subjected to pressure. A set of sensing
The potentiometer is a three-wire sensor (the wires
resistors is formed around the edge of a vacuum
used are V-Ref, ground, and return signal). The
chamber in which the diaphragm is located so when
potentiometer is designed to vary its resistance in
pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect, the resis-
proportion to mechanical travel. The potentiometer
tance of the sensing resistors changes in proportion
receives a V-Ref or reference voltage from the sys-
to the increase in pressure.
tem ECM. It outputs a voltage signal exactly propor-
tional to the motion of a mechanical device. The
Reference Voltage
Regulator
SIGNAL
VOLTAGE
VREF Input Conditioners Microcomputer Output Drivers
Microprocessor
AMP
Analog M M M
to E E E
Digital M M M
Converter O O O
R R R
Y Y Y
GND
EOP
Variable Capacitance Sensor
FIGURE 6–34 Variable capacitance-type sensor. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
170----Chapter Six
FIGURE 6–35 Potentiometer as used in a throttle position sensor. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine
Corp.)
An electrical signal proportional to pressure is of the pulse width. The camshaft position sensor
obtained by connecting the sensing resistors into a (CPS), timing reference sensor (TRS), and engine
Wheatstone bridge circuit in which a voltage regulator position sensors (EPS) are examples. Figure 6–36
holds a constant DC voltage across the bridge. When shows the signal output of a Hall effect sensor.
there is no pressure acting on the silicon diaphragm,
all the sensing resistance will be equal and the bridge Induction Pulse Generator
will be balanced. When pressure causes the silicon
diaphragm to deflect, the resistance across the sens- A toothed disc known as a reluctor, pulse wheel, or
ing resistors increases, unbalancing the bridge and tone wheel (also commonly known by the slang term
creating a net voltage differential that can be relayed chopper wheel) with evenly spaced teeth or serra-
to the ECM as a signal. tions is rotated through the magnetic field of a per-
manent stationary magnet. As the field builds and
Hall Effect Sensors collapses, AC voltage pulses are generated and
relayed to the ECM. Reluctor-type sensors are used
Hall effect sensors generate a digital signal as tim- variously on modern truck chassis in applications
ing windows or vanes on a rotating disc passed such as ABS wheel speed sensors, vehicle speed
through a magnetic field. The disc is known as a sensors (VSS) located in the transmission tailshaft or
pulse wheel or tone wheel, terms that are both a front wheel, and engine speed sensors. Figure
used to describe the rotating member of the induc- 6–37 shows the operating principle of an induction
tion pulse generator, so care should be taken to pulse generator.
avoid confusion. The frequency and width of the sig-
nal provides the ECM with speed and position data.
Switches
The disc incorporates a narrow window or vane for
relaying position data. Hall effect sensors are used to Switches can either open or close a circuit by tog-
input engine position data for purposes of event tim- gling (driver command) or ground-out (such as a
ing computations such as the beginning and duration radiator coolant level sensor).
FIGURE 6–36 Hall effect sensor. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
puts. The term data processing is used to describe

both the simple and complex processes that take
place within the computer.
CAUTION: Chassis electrical voltage pressure

can destroy vehicle computers and sensors. When
testing vehicle computer circuits, exercise caution
when connecting break-out boxes and T’s. Never
use jumper wires and diagnostic forks across termi-
nals unless the test procedure specifically requires
this.
Probably the most important component in the

FIGURE 6–37 Induction pulse generator. microprocessor is the central processing unit
(Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.) (CPU). The CPU contains a control unit that exe-
cutes program instructions and an arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) to perform numeric calculations and logic
processing such as comparing data. It also clocks
the processing frequency: The higher the frequency,
Data Processing
the faster the processing speed of the computer.
Data processing is the “thinking” function of a com- Most vehicle microprocessors run on voltage values
puter or microprocessor. This thinking function lower than the 12V chassis voltage in much the same
involves receiving inputs, consulting program way that a home computer runs on much lower volt-
instructions and memory, and then generating out- age than household supply voltage. Typically, this is
172----Chapter Six
FIGURE 6–38 Types of ECM input signals. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
5V. It is a function of the ECM to transform the chas- a digital signal to an analog voltage signal. Figure
sis voltage to that required to run the microprocessor 6–39 is a simplified schematic of an ECM showing a
circuit. Additionally, a lower voltage value is required basic processing cycle. The types of memory used in
as reference voltage for the input circuit: Again, this an ECM are explained in a little more detail later on in
is commonly 5V. this chapter.
The role of the CPU is to manage the processing The following summarizes the functions of an
cycle. This requires receiving input data and locating ECM:
it in the processing cycle. The various input devices
discussed previously are shown in Figure 6–38. The • Uses a CPU to clock and manage the process-
CPU also fetches and carries information from the ing cycle
ECM memory compartments and loads this into the • Contains in memory banks the data required to
processing cycle. Random access memory (RAM) manage the system
is data that is electronically retained in the ECM. • Conditions the processor circuit voltage
Only this data can be manipulated by the CPU. Input • Manages reference voltage
data and magnetically retained data in read-only • Converts analog input data to a digital format
memory (ROM), programmable read-only memory using an ADC
(PROM) and electronically erasable programma- • Converts digital outputs to analog voltages
ble read-only memory (EEPROM) are transferred to required to actuate electrical components
RAM for processing. RAM can be called primary
storage or main memory. Because RAM data is elec-
Outputs
tronically retained, it is lost when its electrical power
circuit is shut off. Because many of the signals into The results of processing operations must be con-
the ECM processing cycle are in analog format, verted to action by switching units and actuators. In
these signals have to be converted to digital signals. most (but not all) truck system management ECMs,
The component required to perform this is known as the switching units are integral with the ECM. In an
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The same is ECM managing a typical automatic transmission,
true in reverse when the ECM processing generates clutch actuators or solenoid valves are among the
an outcome to a component that requires an analog primary output devices to be switched. ECM com-
supply. A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) changes mands are converted to an electrical signal that is
Reference Voltage Regulator
Input Switching:
Conditioning Microcomputer Output Drivers
Input
Filters CPU ROM
Signals
Amplifiers
CACHE PROM
Analog to RAM EEPROM

Digital
Converter
Processing Cycle Memory
FIGURE 6–39 The ECM processing cycle.
used to energize clutch solenoids so the outcomes TPS on a Cummins engine to provide the throttle
of the processing cycle are effected by shifting range position data required to manage an Allison WT
ratios. The output circuit of any computing system transmission. The more recent SAE J 1939 standard
simply effects the result of the processing cycle. attempts to incorporate the software and hardware
Output devices on a home computing system would standards covered in J 1587 and J 1708 into one
be the display monitor and the printer. standard. Some current trucks have J 1939 stan-
dards covered.
SAE Hardware and Software Protocols
Among the OEMs of truck and bus engines in the SAE J 1587 Electronic data exchange proto-
United States, there has been a generally higher cols used in data exchange
degree of cooperation in establishing shared elec- between heavy duty, electronically
tronics hardware and software protocols than in the managed systems.
automobile manufacturing segment of the industry. SAE J 1708 Serial communications and hard-
To some extent this cooperation has been orches- ware compatibility protocols
trated by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) between microcomputer systems
and American Trucking Association (ATA). It has in heavy vehicles.
been necessary because most North American SAE J 1939 The set of standards that incorpo-
trucks are engineered by a truck manufacturer using rates both J 1587 and J 1708.
major component subsystems supplied by an assort- Both software and hardware pro-
ment of component OEMs. For instance, a tocols and compatibilities are cov-
Caterpillar engine could be specified to any truck ered by J 1939. J 1939 will be
chassis and be required to electronically interact with updated by simply adding a suffix:
a Fuller AutoSelect transmission and Wabco Separate electronic systems that
ABS/ATC (antilock brake system/automatic traction are J 1939-compatible can share
control). Until recently, separate SAE J standards rather than require duplication of
(surface vehicle recommended practices) controlled common hardware and communi-
the hardware and software protocols that enabled a cate using a common “language.”
174----Chapter Six
Magnetically Electronically
VORAD Vehicle Climate Retained Retained
ECM Management Control
ECM ECM RAM
ROM Main
Memory
PROM CPU
ABS-ATC Engine Transmission NV-RAM

ECM Management Management EEPROM or
ECM ECM KAM
FIGURE 6–40 Multiplexing—communication FIGURE 6–41 ECM data retention: types of mem-
between multiple electronic management systems. ory and the fetch-and-carry role of the CPU.
Multiplexing Random Access Memory (RAM)

When a truck chassis uses multiple electronically man- The amount of data that may be retained in RAM is a
aged circuits, bussing the system ECMs makes sense. primary factor in measuring the computing power of
Bussing the system ECMs avoids duplication of hard- a computer system. It is also known as main mem-
ware and serves to synergize (a synergized system’s ory because the CPU can only manipulate data when
components work in harmony) the operation of each it is retained electronically. At start-up, RAM is elec-
system. For instance, both the engine management tronically loaded with the management operating
and transmission ECMs require accelerator position system instructions and all necessary running data
input to function. Enabling the two ECMs to communi- retained in other data categories (ROM/PROM/
cate with each other would permit them to share input EEPROM).
data and reduce the amount of input circuit hardware. RAM data is electronically retained, which means
The terms used to describe two or more ECMs con- that it is always to some extent volatile (lost when the
nected to operate multiple systems are multiprocess- circuit is not electrically energized). In other words,
ing and multiplexing. Multiplexing will be used in this data storage could be described as temporary—if
text. To connect two ECMs, they must use common the circuit is opened, RAM data is lost. It should be
operating protocols; that is, they must be speaking the noted that most truck ECMs use only fully volatile
same language. Many of the systems manufactured RAM; therefore, when the ignition key circuit is
since 1995 are designed for multiplexing. However, turned off, all RAM data is lost.
when two electronic systems are required to operate However, a second type of RAM is used in some
with each other and their communication and operat- truck and many automobile systems, often those that
ing protocols do not match, an electronic translator have no EEPROM capability. This is nonvolatile RAM
called an interface module is required. Interface mod- (NV-RAM) or keep alive memory (KAM) in which data
ules are often not manufactured by either of the sys- is retained until either the battery is disconnected or
tem OEMs. Figure 6–40 shows how multiplexing is the ECM is reset. The ECM is usually reset by
used in a modern truck integrated electronic system. depressing a computer reset button that temporarily
opens the circuit. Codes and failure strategy (action
sequence) would be written to NV-RAM and retained
until reset.
6.11 DATA RETENTION
IN VEHICLE ECMS Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Data is retained both electronically and magnetically ROM data is magnetically or optically retained and is
in current generation truck and bus ECMs; however, designed ot to be overwritten. It is permanent
optical data retention laser read systems will appear although it can be corrupted (rarely) and, when mag-
in the near future. The data categories discussed in netically retained, it is susceptible to damage when
the following sections are used by contemporary exposed to powerful magnetic fields. Low-level radi-
ECMs (Figure 6–41). ation such as that encountered routinely (from police
radar and high tension electrical wiring while driving is then reprogrammed (altering or rewriting the origi-
on a highway) will not affect any current ECMs. A nal data) from the diskette. Some proprietary
majority of the data retained in the ECM is logged in reader/programmers—manufactured by one OEM for
ROM. The master program for the system manage- use only on their equipment—can act as the inter-
ment is loaded into ROM. Production standardization face link between the vehicle ECM and the main-
is permitted by constructing ROM architecture so it frame, but the procedure is essentially the same.
contains common necessary data for a number of
different systems. For example, identical ROM chips
can be manufactured to run a group of different
6.12 COLLISION WARNING

transmissions in a series. However, to actually make
a transmission operate in a specific drivetrain appli-
cation, the ROM data would require further qualifica- SYSTEMS (CWSs)
tion from data loaded into PROM and EEPROM.
Only one collision warning system is prominent in the
trucking industry at this time, the Eaton VORAD sys-
Programmable ROM (PROM) tem. VORAD is a loose acronym for Vehicle Onboard
PROM is magnetically retained data. It is usually a RADar. This is a collision warning system (CWS) that
chip, a set of chips, or a card socketed into the ECM uses radar technology to sense some specific vehi-
motherboard that can often be removed and cle danger conditions. VORAD is used in trucks to
replaced. PROM’s function is to qualify ROM to a sense straight-ahead closing velocities and proximity
specific chassis application. In the earliest truck as well as blind side proximity. It has been proven to
engine management systems, programming options reduce accident rates and is appealing to fleet oper-
such as idle shutdown time could only be altered by ations with higher than average accident rates
replacing the PROM chip. Customer programmable because it can also reduce insurance payments.
options are written to EEPROM in current systems
where they can be easily altered without changing
any hardware. Some OEMs describe the PROM chip
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
as a personality module, an appropriate description Radar is an electronic system that is used to detect
of its actual function of trimming or fine-tuning the objects at greater distances or under conditions of
ROM data to a specific application. Newer personal- poorer visibility than the human eye can handle. The
ity modules also contain the EEPROM data, word radar comes from the initial letters of RADio
explained in the next section. Detecting And Ranging. Modern radar is capable of
precisely measuring both distance and relative
Electronically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) speed.
The EEPROM data category contains customer data
Doppler Effect
programmable options and proprietary data (pro-
gramming data owned and controlled by the OEM) Christian Doppler (1803–1853) was an Austrian
that can be altered and modified using a variety of physicist who theorized that because the pitch of
tools ranging from a generic reader/programmer to a sound is highest at a sound source and gets pro-
mainframe computer. A generic reader/programmer gressively lower with distance, the same should
such as ProLink 9000 equipped with the correct soft- apply to other waves such as light waves. Change in
ware cartridge can be used to rewrite customer frequency can be used to determine relative speed.
options such as tire rolling radius, governor type (LS For instance, if the light waves produced by a star
or VS), progressive shifting, road speed limit and so were observed to shift toward the red end (lower fre-
on. quency/longer wavelength) of the spectrum (see
Only the owner password is required to access Figure 6–20), the star is becoming more distant
the ECM and make any required changes to cus- from the observer; also, the rate of change in the
tomer data options. frequency can be used to calculate the velocity of
Proprietary data is more complex both in charac- the star. In the case of an observed star accelerating
ter and methods of alteration. It contains data such toward an observer on Earth, the reverse would be
as the fuel map in an engine system. The procedure true: The light wave produced would shift toward
here normally requires accessing a centrally located the violet (higher frequency/shorter wavelength) end
mainframe computer, usually at the OEM central of the spectrum. Again, the velocity of the star can
location, via a modem. The appropriate files are then be calculated by determining the rate of shift.
downloaded, via the phone lines, to a personal com- Doppler effect is used extensively by astronomers
puter (PC) and subsequently to a diskette. The ECM and is the basis of radar systems.
176----Chapter Six
Pulse Radar observed frequency produced by motion described

in the previous section, is used by the processor to
Radar operates by transmitting electromagnetic
determine speed.
waves toward an object and then monitoring the
return wave bounced back by the object. The prop-
erties of the returned wave are then analyzed by a VORAD COLLISION
signal processor and converted to a form usable by DETECTION SYSTEM
the operator or system. For instance, an air traffic
VORAD provides object detection on the front and
controller would have a CRT display that would have
right (blind) side of a truck and may optionally pro-
a map-like image of the area scanned indicating the
vide left (driver) side object detection. The system is
location and velocity of aircraft in the area. The
electronically managed and consists of relatively few
objectives of VORAD are much more simple, so the
components. It must be connected into the vehicle
return signals are simply processed as warning sig-
electrical and electronic system so it can share sen-
nals.
sor signals such as the input from the vehicle road
Pulse radar requires that a transmitter produce
speed sensor (tailshaft sensor). The components
short pulses of microwave energy and that a receiver
used in the VORAD system are shown in Figure
monitor the return signals as they are bounced off
6–42.
objects. Close objects would produce an echo from
the pulse sooner than distant objects. Microwaves
Antenna Assembly (AA)
travel at the speed of light, about 1,000 feet (300
meters) per microsecond, so the delay between the The forward antenna is mounted directly to the cen-
transmission of a pulse and the echo can be used to ter of the bumper and is used to transmit and receive
calculate distance. The Doppler effect, the change in microwave pulses. Transmitted radar signals are
Blind Spot
Display
Wiring Harness
Central
Processing Unit
Antenna
Turn Sensor Assembly
Assembly
Drive
Display Unit
Antenna Blind Spot

Cable Sensor
FIGURE 6–42 VORAD components. (Courtesy of Roadranger Marketing. One great drive train from two great
companies—Eaton and Dana Corporations)
24"
33"
(On Vehicle
24" Centerline)
15"
48"
Blind Spot Sensor Antenna Assembly

Optimal: 30"–36" Above Ground: Optimal: 22"–26" Above Ground:
39"–45" Behind Mirror On Vehicle Centerline (required)
FIGURE 6–43 Antenna and blind spot sensor location. (Courtesy of Roadranger Marketing. One great drive
train from two great companies—Eaton and Dana Corporations)
Turn Sensor Assembly (TSA)

bounced off objects in a straight line path from the
transmitting antenna. Return signals are received by The turn sensor monitors the movement of the steer-
the antenna and the Doppler effect (frequency shift) ing wheel shaft. Because the antenna outputs its
of the transmitted and received signals is calculated. microwave signal in a straight line, during a turn it
This information is then converted to a digital format will sense objects located on the side of the road
and sent to a central processing unit (CPU) that per- such as buildings, billboards, stationary vehicles, and
forms additional processing. so on. The turn sensor unit signals to the ECU that a
The mounting location ensures that the radar turn is being made, and the ECU will disable the
beam is aimed directly in front of the truck. The audible driver warnings for the duration of the turn.
antenna assembly has a range of about 350 feet and The turn sensor consists of a shaft mounted magnet
is capable of monitoring up to 20 vehicles (the 20 that rotates past sensors when the shaft rotates
closest to the front of the truck) in its scanned range. more than 2 to 4 degrees. When the steering wheel
Figure 6–43 shows the location of the antenna on a is turned and the magnet passes across either sen-
typical tractor application. sor, the ECU receives a signal indicating that a turn
is being made. Figure 6–44 shows the turn sensor
Blind Spot Sensors (BSS) assembly components.
The blind spot sensor is a simple motion detector
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
that senses objects in the driver’s blind spot on the
right side of the vehicle. It is mounted not more than It is the CPU that receives VORAD input signals from
3 ft. above road level and about 4 ft. behind the mir- the antenna and the turn and blind spot sensors,
ror assemblies. Blind spot sensor information is sent computes the input data and programmed instruc-
to the ECU, which will output the appropriate driver tions, and switches the system outputs, meaning the
alerts. Figure 6–43 shows the required location of a lighting of appropriate indicator lamps and the
blind spot sensor. sounding of audible driver alerts. The CPU can be
178----Chapter Six
Arrow Centered Turn

on Magnet Sensor
Magnet
Steering
Steering Column
Wheel
Steering
Wheel Wrapping
Tape
Bend Here
if Required Wrapping Tape
(Customer Furnished)
Glue or Adhesive Magnet

(Customer Furnished)
Turn Sensor
Top View
FIGURE 6–44 Steering sensor and magnet mounted on the steering shaft. (Courtesy of Roadranger
Marketing. One great drive train from two great companies—Eaton and Dana Corporations)
located in a number of places on the truck, but is up, speaker volume, the range thresholds of the
most commonly found inside the firewall (under the vehicle alerts, and writing of data to the driver card.
dash) or behind the driver’s seat. The CPU contains The indicator lights are used to signal system power,
a slot for an optional driver’s card. The driver card system failure, three stages of distance alerts, and
has two functions: the detection of stationary or slow-moving objects.
A light sensor on the DDU automatically adjusts
• It can log up to 10 minutes of system data. This the intensity of the display lights. Display light inten-
feature is typically used to reconstruct the sity is greatest in bright sunlight and is dimmed for
events leading up to an accident. night driving. The DDU also contains a small speaker
• It can function as an ID card. It may be pro- used to warn the driver when second or third stage
grammed as personal electronic ID, identifying intervals to impact are detected, or if a vehicle is
the name and employee number of the driver. detected in the blind spot when a left turn is indi-
cated. Figure 6–45 shows the location of the DDU
The CPU has write-to-self memory and a clock. clearly in the driver’s sight line.
This permits VORAD to store trip recorder informa-
tion, crash times, engine idle time, miles traveled, Blind Spot Display (BSD)
average speed, average following time, and dis-
The blind spot display is mounted to the right-side,
tances. Like other electronic driver monitoring
inside-front cab pillar in a close-to-direct sight line
devices, VORAD can play a role in driver education.
from the driver and the right-side mirror. The unit
For instance, truck drivers who are inclined to tail-
contains red and yellow lights that are switched by
gate will be less likely to do so if their driving habits
the ECU, indicating whether or not a vehicle is
are being electronically monitored. Note the location
detected in the blind spot. As with the driver display
of the VORAD ECM in a typical highway tractor.
unit, a light sensor in the blind spot display unit auto-
matically adjusts the light intensity of the display
Driver Display Unit (DDU) lights as light conditions vary.
The DDU is mounted to the top of the dash in a loca- When the blind spot motion sensor detects a vehi-
tion that is both easily visible and reachable by the cle in the blind spot, the red light is illuminated.
driver. The unit houses the controls and indicators When the blind spot is detected to be clear, the yel-
used by VORAD. The DDU controls system power- low lamp is illuminated. When left-side sensors are
emitter will ungate the transistor and permit a

Driver Display Blind Spot
Unit Display much larger emitter-collector current flow.
• Many different types of transistors are used in
vehicle electronic circuits, but their roles are
primarily concerned with switching and amplifi-
cation.
• The optical spectrum includes ultraviolet,
To Blind visible, and infrared radiation.
Spot Sensor
Central
• Optical components conduct, reflect, refract,
Turn Sensor Processing Unit or modify light. Fiber optics are being used
Assembly
Ground Cable
increasingly in vehicle electronics, as are
optical components.
FIGURE 6–45 Location of the VORAD compo- • Integrated circuits consist of resistors, diodes,
nents in a typical truck cab. (Courtesy of Roadranger and transistors arranged in a circuit on a chip of
Marketing. One great drive train from two great com- silicon.
panies—Eaton and Dana Corporations) • A common integrated circuit chip package
used in computer and vehicle electronic sys-
tems is a DIP with either 14 or 16 terminals.
• Many different chips with different functions are
used on a VORAD system, the set-up is identical to
often arranged on a primary circuit board, also
the blind spot display except that blind spot sensors
known as a motherboard.
are used on both sides of the vehicle and display
• Gates are switched controls that channel flows
units are located on both sides of the cab.
of data through electronic circuitry.
• AND, OR, and NOT gates are 3 commonly used
The VORAD Cab
means of producing an outcome based on the
Figure 6–45 shows the location of the VORAD com- switching status of components in the gate circuit.
ponents in a typical truck cab. Note that there are • The binary numeric system is a 2-digit arith-
alternatives to this arrangement, but the location of metic system that is often used in computer
the driver alerts shown here is optimum. electronics because it directly corresponds to
the on or off states of switches and circuits.
• A bit is the smallest piece of data that a com-
SUMMARY puter can manipulate. It has the ability to show
one of two states, either on or off.
• Data can be transmitted electronically by • A byte consists of 8 bits.
means of electrical waveforms. • A byte of data can represent up to 256 pieces
• Semiconductors are by definition elemental of coded data.
materials with 4 electrons in their outer shells. • Almost all current on-highway trucks use com-
• Silicon is the most commonly used semicon- puters to manage the engine and usually other
ductor material. chassis systems as well.
• Semiconductors must be doped to provide • A truck with multiple ECM-managed systems
them with the electrical properties that can may electronically connect them to a vehicle
make them useful as electronic components. management ECM capable of mastering all the
• After doping, semiconductor crystals may be systems.
classified as having N or P electrical properties. • A vehicle ECM information processing cycle
• Diodes are 2-terminal semiconductors that comprises 3 stages: data input, data process-
often function as a sort of electrical one-way ing, and outputs.
check valve. • RAM or main memory is electronically retained
• Zener diodes are commonly used in vehicle and therefore volatile.
electronic systems: They act as a voltage- • The master program for system management is
sensitive switch in a circuit. usually written to ROM.
• Transistors are 3-terminal semiconductor chips. • PROM data is used to qualify the ROM data to
• Transistors can be generally grouped into bipo- a specific chassis application.
lar and field effect types. • Some OEMs describe their PROM component
• Essentially, a transistor is a semiconductor as a personality module.
sandwich with the middle layer acting as a con- • EEPROM gives an ECM a read/write/erase
trol gate. A small current flow through the base- memory component.
180----Chapter Six
• Multiplexing is the term used to describe a sys- 8. Which of the following terms best describes the
tem where two or more ECMs are connected to role of a typical transistor in an electronic circuit?
reduce input hardware and optimize vehicle a. check valve
operation. b. relay
• Input data may be categorized as command c. rectifier
data and system monitoring data. d. filter
9. When testing the operation of a typical transistor,
which of the following should be true?
REVIEW QUESTIONS a. high resistance across the emitter and base
terminals
1. An element classified as a semiconductor would b. continuity across the emitter and collector
have how many electrons in its outer shell? terminals
a. less than 4 c. continuity across the base and emitter
b. 4 terminals
c. more than 4 10. What would be the outcome in an OR gate if one
d. 8 of two switches in the circuit was closed?
2. How many electrons does the element silicon a. off
have in its outer shell? b. on
a. 2 11. How many different data codes could be repre-
b. 4 sented by a byte?
c. 6 a. 2
d. 8 b. 8
3. Which of the following best describes the func- c. 64
tion of a simple diode? d. 256
a. an electronic switch 12. Which of the following transistor terminals
b. an electrical one-way check valve controls output?
c. an electronic amplifying device a. anode
d. an electrical storage device b. emitter
4. The term pulse width modulation refers to c. collector
a. waveforms shaped to transmit data d. base
b. unwanted voltage spikes 13. Which of the following components is typically
c. electronic noise used in a half wave rectifier?
d. rectification of AC to DC a. rheostat
5. To form a P-type semiconductor crystal, the b. transformer
doping agent would be required to have how c. diode
many electrons in its valence shell? d. zener diode
a. 3 14. An N-type semiconductor crystal is doped with
b. 4 a. trivalent element atoms
c. 5 b. pentavalent element atoms
d. 8 c. carbon atoms
6. To form an N-type semiconductor crystal, the d. germanium atoms
doping agent would be required to have how 15. A PWM (pulse width modulated) signal is
many electrons in its valence shell? a. analog
a. 3 b. digital
b. 4 c. either analog or digital
c. 5 d. neither analog or digital
d. 8
16. Which of the following is a 3-terminal device?
7. The positive terminal of a diode is correctly a. zener diode
called a(n) b. transistor
a. electrode c. capacitor
b. cathode d. diode
c. anode
d. emitter
17. The acronym that describes the component that 19. Which of the following memory categories would
executes program instructions is the the master program for system management be
a. CRT written to in a typical truck chassis ECM?
b. RAM a. RAM
c. CPU b. ROM
d. ROM c. PROM
18. Which of the following data retention media is d. EEPROM
electronically retained? 20. Which of the following memory categories would
a. RAM customer data programming be written to from a
b. ROM generic reader/programmer?
c. PROM a. RAM
d. EEPROM b. ROM
c. PROM
d. EEPROM

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C h a p t e r

Key Terms List duty cycle

photonic semiconductors reluctor

6.1 USING ELECTRONIC

FIGURE 6–4 Varying frequency: The number of

FIGURE 6–2 Analog signal.

ONOFFON OFFONOFF ON OFF ON OFF ON

FIGURE 6–11 N-type semiconductor crystal.

The suffix -ode literally means terminal. For instance,

Power Rectifier Diodes

VF = forward voltage IF = forward current

Lens Anode of amplifying or transforming a signal level. A transis-

Looking at the operation of a typical NPN transis-

metal-oxide semiconductors. Both types are con- – Collector

Junction FETs (JFETs) Switch

Facts About JFETs Drain

current. Some thyristors are designed with only two

300 400 500 600 700 800 NANOMETERS

FIGURE 6–19 The optical spectrum.

FIGURE 6–20 The electromagnetic spectrum.

from the circuit. The digital multimeter (DMM) should Transistors

Continuity Indicated FIGURE 6–23 Testing transistor base to collector

FIGURE 6–25 Integrated circuit.

of a transistor. Digital integrated circuits are constructed Switch A

Although the examples presented here used

Decimal digit Binary coded digit (0)

CAUTION: Static discharge can destroy sensi-

THERMISTOR 5 VREF Current Limiting Resistor

VREF Input Conditioners Microcomputer Output Drivers

Variable Capacitance Sensor

puts. The term data processing is used to describe

CAUTION: Chassis electrical voltage pressure

Probably the most important component in the

Reference Voltage Regulator

Analog to RAM EEPROM

FIGURE 6–39 The ECM processing cycle.

ABS-ATC Engine Transmission NV-RAM

Multiplexing Random Access Memory (RAM)

6.12 COLLISION WARNING

Pulse Radar observed frequency produced by motion described

Antenna Blind Spot

Blind Spot Sensor Antenna Assembly

Turn Sensor Assembly (TSA)

Arrow Centered Turn

Glue or Adhesive Magnet

emitter will ungate the transistor and permit a

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