Inspection Handbook Tanz Draft 27-03-07

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
MINISTRY OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA
HANDBOOK FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION
Engineering Division 2006

Bridge Management System for Tanzania Handbook for Bridge Inspection
BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA
(BMST)
HANDBOOK FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION
In cooperation with:
TANROADS Norwegian Public

Tanzania National Roads Agency Roads Administration
Engineering Division Directorate of Public Roads
2006
Handbook for Bridge Inspection
Second Edition, 2006
This Handbook for Bridge Inspection is the property of the Tanzania National Roads agency
(TANROADS) of the United Republic of Tanzania. It may not be used or reproduced by
unauthorised persons without prior permission in writing of the Chief Executive, TANROADS.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Handbook for Bridge Inspection is one of the four handbooks of the Bridge Management
System for Tanzania (BMST). The previous edition has been in use since 1998 under the then
Ministry of Works and by TANROADS since its establishment in 2000.
This second edition has been prepared by a team of six engineers comprising Eng. Ebenezer R.
Mollel, Eng. Issa M. Mlyomi. and Eng.. Julius J. Chambo of the Tanzania National Roads Agency
(TANROADS) and Eng. Otto Kleppe, Eng. Odd Roennestad and Eng. Gunnar Djuve of the
Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA). This edition incorporates experience and ideas
from the users and other stakeholders. The Team is, in this respect grateful to all users and
stakeholders for their valuable remarks and contributions.
The Team is grateful to the Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation (NORAD) for the
financial assistance accorded to TANROADS for the development of the BMST and thus updating of
this Handbook.
We are indebted to far too many people for us to name them individually, but it would be unwise if
we did not place on record our foremost thanks to the TANROADS Management for supporting the
team during the entire exercise of updating this document. The TANROADS Management is headed
by the Chief Executive and incorporates all Directors and Zonal Managers.
The Team would also like to thank all the Regional Managers and their staff who came forward with
additional contributions and comments.
FOREWORD
A good bridge management system is essential in order to protect the lives of the public, their
property and the public’s investment in bridges and to ensure good condition of the road network. It
is, therefore, important that bridge inspection, which is one of its most important parts, is clear and
complete since it indicates the health or condition of the bridge. The condition of a bridge is a
fundamental issue in the life history of the bridge and it must be properly preserved.
Inspection procedures have evolved since the initiation of the Bridge Maintenance Management
System for Tanzania (BMST) by the former Ministry of Works (MoW) in cooperation with the
Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA) with financial assistance from the Norwegian
Agency for Developed Cooperation (NORAD) in 1998.
Thanks to the Bridge Management System for Tanzania a bridge inspection and reporting system has
been formulated. It is anticipated that the system will not only ease the inspection and reporting of
bridge condition, but it will also provide a systematic and uniform approach to bridge inspection
which is among the key aspects of bridge maintenance.
TANROADS is currently implementing the Bridge Management System for Tanzania throughout the
country. Based on the experience gained during implementation of the system, it became necessary
to upgrade the guiding documents for the system. As a result, the current version of the Handbook
for Bridge Inspection has been updated by incorporating recommendations from the users and other
stakeholders. The updating has been done by engineers from TANROADS in co-operation with
engineers from the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.
A uniform reporting system is essential in evaluating correctly and efficiently the condition of all
structures. Furthermore, it will be a valuable aid in determining priorities for maintenance,
replacement and the cost of maintaining the nation’s bridges.
Given the above, the importance of bridge inspection cannot be over emphasised. Without doubt the
success of any bridge maintenance is highly dependent on the inspection, proper keeping and
evaluation of records.
It is understood that with time, situations change. Therefore, everyone concerned with, and
involved in the management of bridges is strongly requested to critically use the handbook
and come forward with any practical suggestions and recommendations which could be
utilised to improve subsequent editions.
F. Y. Addo-Abedi
TANROADS Chief Executive
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TABLE OF CONTENT
1. BRIDGE ELEMENTS .............................................................................................................................. 7
2. MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 CONCRETE ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1. Properties of Concrete:............................................................................................................ 10
2.2.2. Uses of Concrete in Bridges: ................................................................................................... 11
2.3 STEEL ................................................................................................................................................ 12
2.3.1. Properties of Steel:................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.2. Uses of Steel in Bridges: .......................................................................................................... 14
2.4 MASONRY .......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.1. Properties of masonry:............................................................................................................. 15
2.4.2. Uses of masonry in bridges:..................................................................................................... 15
2.5 TIMBER .............................................................................................................................................. 15
2.5.1. Properties of Timber:............................................................................................................... 15
2.5.2. Uses of timber in Bridges:........................................................................................................ 15
3. TYPES OF INSPECTIONS.................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 INFORMAL INSPECTION:..................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.1. Frequency: ............................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.2. Composition:............................................................................................................................ 17
3.1.3. Reporting: ................................................................................................................................ 17
3.2 GENERAL INSPECTION: ...................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.1. Frequency: ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2. Composition:............................................................................................................................ 18
3.2.3. Reporting: ................................................................................................................................ 18
3.3 MAJOR INSPECTION: .......................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.1. Frequency: ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.2. Composition:............................................................................................................................ 19
3.3.3. Reporting: ................................................................................................................................ 19
3.4 SPECIAL INSPECTION: ........................................................................................................................ 19
3.4.1. Composition:............................................................................................................................ 19
3.4.2. Frequency: ............................................................................................................................... 19
3.4.3. Reporting: ................................................................................................................................ 19
4. PLANNING OF INSPECTION ............................................................................................................. 22
4.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................... 22
4.2 THE PLANNING PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITY ............................................................................ 22
4.3 BUDGETING FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION ................................................................................................ 23
4.4 INSPECTION RESOURCES AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ........................................................................ 24
4.4.1. General Requirements of the Inspectors:................................................................................. 24
4.4.2. Inspection Tools:...................................................................................................................... 25
4.4.3. General inspection:.................................................................................................................. 25
4.4.4. Major inspection: ..................................................................................................................... 25
4.4.5. Special inspection: ................................................................................................................... 25
4.4.6. Access and safety equipment:................................................................................................... 25
4.4.7. Safety Requirements:................................................................................................................ 25
4.5 DAMAGE LOCATION PROCEDURES DURING INSPECTION .................................................................... 26
4.5.1. General..................................................................................................................................... 26
4.5.2. Use of Axis as Reference System for Damage Location........................................................... 26
4.5.3. Use of Axis as Reference System on Big Bridges ..................................................................... 27
4.5.4. Location System for Beams ...................................................................................................... 28
4.5.5. Reflected Plan of the Superstructure........................................................................................ 29
4.5.6. Reflected Plan of Columns and Foundations........................................................................... 29
5. DAMAGE EVALUATION GUIDE....................................................................................................... 32
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 32
5.1.1. Development Stages of Damage............................................................................................... 32
5.1.2. Damage Evaluation Fundamentals.......................................................................................... 33
5.1.3. Types of Damage...................................................................................................................... 35
5.1.4. Causes of Damage ................................................................................................................... 35
5.2 DAMAGE TO THE RIVER COURSE ....................................................................................................... 38
5.2.1. Change of River Course ........................................................................................................... 39
5.2.2. Scouring and Erosion............................................................................................................... 41
5.2.3. Silting Up ................................................................................................................................. 43
5.2.4. Excessive Vegetation................................................................................................................ 45
5.2.5. Insufficient Discharge Capacity............................................................................................... 47
5.3 DAMAGE TO PROTECTION FACILITIES ................................................................................................ 50
5.3.1. Wash out of Rip Rap................................................................................................................. 51
5.3.2. Scouring of Protection Facilities ............................................................................................. 53
5.3.3. Movement of Protection Facility.............................................................................................. 55
5.3.4. Defective Parts of Protection Facility...................................................................................... 57
5.4 DAMAGE TO CONCRETE ELEMENTS ................................................................................................... 60
5.4.1. Insufficient cover on concrete elements ................................................................................... 61
5.4.2. Honeycombs ............................................................................................................................. 63
5.4.3. Leakage on Concrete Elements................................................................................................ 65
5.4.4. Carbonation ............................................................................................................................. 67
5.4.5. Debris on Concrete Elements................................................................................................... 69
5.4.6. Corrosion of Reinforcements ................................................................................................... 71
5.4.7. Spalling .................................................................................................................................... 73
5.4.8. Delamination on Concrete Element ......................................................................................... 75
5.4.9. Abrasion on concrete elements ................................................................................................ 77
5.4.10. Deformation on Concrete Elements ......................................................................................... 79
5.4.11. Cracking of Concrete Elements................................................................................................ 82
5.5 DAMAGE TO STEEL ELEMENTS .......................................................................................................... 87
5.5.1. Damage to the Steel Surface Treatment................................................................................... 88
5.5.2. Corrosion on Steel ................................................................................................................... 90
5.5.3. Loose Connections on Steel Elements...................................................................................... 92
5.5.4. Deformation on Steel Elements................................................................................................ 94
5.5.5. Deflection on Steel Elements.................................................................................................... 96
5.5.6. Cracking on Steel Elements ..................................................................................................... 98
5.5.7. Debris on Steel Elements ....................................................................................................... 100
5.6 DAMAGE TO MASONRY ELEMENTS .................................................................................................. 103
5.6.1. Cracks in Masonry Elements ................................................................................................. 104
5.6.2. Bulging on Masonry Elements ............................................................................................... 106
5.6.3. Wearing of Pointing ............................................................................................................... 108
5.6.4. Weathering on Masonry Elements ......................................................................................... 110
5.7 DAMAGE TO TIMBER ELEMENTS ...................................................................................................... 113
5.7.1. Growth Faults ........................................................................................................................ 114
5.7.2. Timber Decay......................................................................................................................... 117
5.7.3. Attack from Insects and Marine Borers ................................................................................. 121
5.7.4. Loose Connections ................................................................................................................. 124
5.7.5. Deformation on Timber Elements .......................................................................................... 126
5.7.6. Movements on Timber Elements ............................................................................................ 128
5.7.7. Cracks on Timber Elements ................................................................................................... 130
5.8 DAMAGE TO THE WEARING COURSE................................................................................................ 133
5.8.1. Cracking on Wearing Course................................................................................................. 134
5.8.2. Ruts on Wearing Course ........................................................................................................ 136
5.8.3. Corrugations on Wearing Course.......................................................................................... 138
5.8.4. Depressions on Wearing Course............................................................................................ 140
5.8.5. Potholes on Wearing Course ................................................................................................. 142
5.8.6. Abrasion on Wearing Course................................................................................................. 144
5.9 DAMAGE TO THE BEARINGS ............................................................................................................. 147
5.9.1. Debris on Bearings ................................................................................................................ 148
5.9.2. Corrosion on Bearings........................................................................................................... 150
5.9.3. Loose Parts on Bearings ........................................................................................................ 152
5.9.4. Excessive shearing ................................................................................................................. 154
5.10 DAMAGE TO THE JOINTS ................................................................................................................. 157
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5.10.1. Blockage on Joints ................................................................................................................. 158

5.10.2. Loose Parts on Joints ............................................................................................................. 160
5.10.3. Ripping on Joints ................................................................................................................... 162
5.10.4. Breaking of Sealant on Joints ................................................................................................ 164
5.11 DAMAGE TO THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 168
5.11.1. Blockage of drainage system.................................................................................................. 169
5.11.2. Corrosion of drain pipes ........................................................................................................ 171
5.11.3. Defective Pipes in Drainage System ...................................................................................... 173
5.12 DAMAGE TO THE BRIDGE APPROACHES ........................................................................................... 178
5.12.1. Kinks Bridge Approaches....................................................................................................... 179
5.12.2. Potholes on the Bridge Approaches....................................................................................... 181
5.12.3. Erosion on the Bridge Approaches ........................................................................................ 183
5.12.4. Vegetation on the Bridge Approaches.................................................................................... 185
5.12.5. Defective or Missing Bridge Signs ......................................................................................... 187
5.12.6. Defective Drain Ditches......................................................................................................... 189
5.12.7. Loss of Camber ...................................................................................................................... 191
5.13 DAMAGE TO THE ATTACHED UTILITIES.......................................................................................... 195
5.13.1. Leakage of Pipes .................................................................................................................... 196
5.13.2. Damaged Supports of Pipes ................................................................................................... 198
5.13.3. Damaged Insulation............................................................................................................... 200
5.13.4. Obstruction of Waterway ....................................................................................................... 202
6. MATERIAL INVESTIGATIONS ....................................................................................................... 205
6.1 VISUAL INSPECTION......................................................................................................................... 205
6.2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST ................................................................................................................. 205
6.2.1. Rebound Hammer Test........................................................................................................... 205
6.2.2. Electromagnetic Cover Measurement.................................................................................... 205
6.2.3. Carbonation Test.................................................................................................................... 205
6.2.4. Corrosion Testing (ECP) ....................................................................................................... 206
6.3 DETAILED MATERIAL INVESTIGATION ............................................................................................. 206
6.4 SURVEYS, MATERIALS TESTS & MONITORING DEVICES .................................................................. 206
6.4.1. General................................................................................................................................... 206
6.5 MEASUREMENTS .............................................................................................................................. 207
6.5.1. Levelling................................................................................................................................. 207
6.5.2. Horizontal Displacement ....................................................................................................... 207
6.5.3. Measuring the Thickness of Wearing Course ........................................................................ 208
6.5.4. Measuring of Ruts .................................................................................................................. 208
6.5.5. Measuring vertical Sag and horizontal bend ......................................................................... 208
6.5.6. Recording Bridge Details....................................................................................................... 209
6.5.7. Measuring of Vertical Clearance........................................................................................... 210
6.6 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR CONCRETE ................................................................................... 210
6.6.1. Locating the Reinforcement and Measuring its Cover........................................................... 210
6.6.2. Measuring the Depth of Carbonation .................................................................................... 211
6.6.3. Measuring Chloride Content.................................................................................................. 212
6.6.4. Corrosion Testing (ECP) ....................................................................................................... 212
6.6.5. Determining the Concrete Quality (Compressive Strength) .................................................. 213
6.6.6. Structural Analysis ................................................................................................................. 213
6.6.7. Inspection of Pre-stressed Tendons ....................................................................................... 214
6.6.8. Cutting open the concrete to assess the reinforcements’ corrosion level .............................. 215
6.7 MATERIALS TESTING FOR STEEL ..................................................................................................... 216
6.7.1. Checking the Torque of Screws.............................................................................................. 216
6.7.2. Checking Rivets and Screws................................................................................................... 216
6.7.3. Checking Welds...................................................................................................................... 216
6.7.4. X-ray Check............................................................................................................................ 216
6.7.5. Ultrasound Check .................................................................................................................. 217
6.7.6. Magnetic Powder Check ........................................................................................................ 217
6.7.7. Fibre Optics ........................................................................................................................... 217
6.7.8. Ultrasound Measurement of Material Thickness ................................................................... 217
6.8 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR TIMBER ........................................................................................ 217
6.8.1. Investigation of the Timber Humidity Level........................................................................... 218
6.8.2. Checking for Fungus and Rot in Timber................................................................................ 218
6.9 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION OF STONE ............................................................................................ 218
6.9.1. Compressive Strength for Stone ............................................................................................. 218
6.10 CHECKING OF THE SURFACE TREATMENT ........................................................................................ 218
6.10.1. Thickness of Surface Coating for Concrete............................................................................ 218
6.10.2. Adhesive Bonding between Surface Coating and Concrete ................................................... 219
6.10.3. Depth of Penetration of Water Repellent ............................................................................... 219
6.10.4. Thickness of Surface Coating of Steel .................................................................................... 219
6.10.5. Adhesive Bonding between Surface Coating and Steel .......................................................... 219
6.10.6. Other Checks for Surface Coating of Steel ............................................................................ 220
6.11 READINGS FROM MONITORING DEVICES .......................................................................................... 220
7. DATA COLLECTION AND REPORTING ....................................................................................... 222
7.1 INSPECTION RECORDS ...................................................................................................................... 222
7.2 INSPECTION FORM ........................................................................................................................... 223
7.2.1. Manually Made Form ............................................................................................................ 223
7.2.2. Inspection Form from Tan-Bridgeman .................................................................................. 226
7.3 INSPECTION PROCEDURE......................................................................................................... 228
7.3.1. On arrival at site .................................................................................................................... 228
7.3.2. Inspection sequence ............................................................................................................... 228
7.3.3. River course ........................................................................................................................... 228
7.3.4. Protection facilities ................................................................................................................ 228
7.3.5. Foundations ........................................................................................................................... 229
7.3.6. Piers ....................................................................................................................................... 229
7.3.7. Abutments............................................................................................................................... 229
7.3.8. Wing walls.............................................................................................................................. 229
7.3.9. Bearings ................................................................................................................................. 229
7.3.10. Beams ..................................................................................................................................... 230
7.3.11. Deck ....................................................................................................................................... 230
7.3.12. Drainage system..................................................................................................................... 230
7.3.13. Joints ...................................................................................................................................... 230
7.3.14. Trusses ................................................................................................................................... 230
7.3.15. Bailey Bridges ........................................................................................................................ 231
7.3.16. Box culverts............................................................................................................................ 231
7.3.17. Pipe culverts........................................................................................................................... 231
7.3.18. Vented drifts ........................................................................................................................... 231
7.3.19. Parapets ................................................................................................................................. 231
7.3.20. Wearing course ...................................................................................................................... 232
7.3.21. Bridge approaches ................................................................................................................. 232
7.3.22. Attached utilities..................................................................................................................... 232
7.4 AT THE END OF INSPECTION ............................................................................................................. 232
7.5 SKETCHES AND DRAWINGS .............................................................................................................. 233
7.6 INSPECTION REPORTS ...................................................................................................................... 233
7.7 INSPECTION CODES ................................................................................................................... 235
7.7.1. Codes for different types of damage....................................................................................... 235
7.7.2. Codes for causes of damage................................................................................................... 238
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Handbook for Bridge Inspection Bridge Management System for Tanzania
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Inspection of bridges is an important step towards proper bridge maintenance. Prior to the introduction
of the Bridge Maintenance Management System for Tanzania (BMST), several bridges in the country
were in the verge of collapsing while many others were in a pathetic condition due to lack of
inspection and hence maintenance. The situation has changed considerably after the development of
the BMST. The implementation of the BMST has facilitated allocation of funds for bridge
maintenance and hence has improved the condition of bridges in the trunk and regional roads
networks.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide uniform guidance in bridge inspection that will result into
protection of the public investment and allow efficient allocation of resources, effectively schedule
maintenance and rehabilitation schemes. The handbook is particularly meant for bridge inspectors but
it can also be used by all those concerned with bridge management.
The handbook begins by reviewing the different elements of a bridge. The most common bridge
construction materials are mentioned including their properties.
Chapter Four explains the types of inspections with emphasis on what the inspector shall do for each
type, how he/she shall do it, how often he/she shall do it, what and how he/she shall report.
The differences between the inspection plan and the inspection programme and how they are prepared
are given in Chapter Five. This chapter also includes the requirements on the inspection resources and
safety control.
Chapter Six explains and gives a list of different types of damage and defects which are linked to the
codes including their causes, degree and consequence with illustrations by photographs. Evaluation of
damage is also explained in order to direct the inspector on how to assess the damage and complete the
inspection form.
Chapter Seven has covered a part on the Materials investigations and their testing methods and
measurement of deformations, crack width and material thickness.
Chapter Eight is on inspection records, it explains the inspection record form, what shall be inspected
or worked out and how the form shall be filled in. The last part of this chapter gives a list of codes to
be used in the computer system.
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1. BRIDGE ELEMENTS
Various bridge elements and their functions were explained in the inventory handbook. In this chapter
the main elements are reviewed in a simplified way.
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2. MATERIALS
2.1 GENERAL
The most common materials used for construction of bridges are concrete, steel, masonry and timber.
These materials have different properties and behaviour when used in bridges. Due to the different
properties, some of the materials are sometimes used together as compound elements in order to obtain
the required combination of properties.
This chapter describes these materials, their properties and their use in bridges. Different methods of
material investigations and measurements are also explained.
2.2 CONCRETE
Concrete is the most widely used material for bridges. It is made from a mixture of coarse aggregates,
fine aggregates or sand, cement and water. Chemical admixtures may sometimes be added into the mix
in order to change the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete or both.
When preparing concrete, the above components are mixed in specific ratios according to the required
strength of the concrete. Common mixes are 1:4:8, 1:3:6, 1:2:4 and 1:11/2:3.
2.2.1. Properties of Concrete:

Concrete has a high strength in compression, but low in tension and shear.
Strong in compression Weak in shear
Weak in tension
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So, when concrete has to carry tension and shear, it needs to be strengthened. To give it more strength,
steel reinforcement or steel pre-stressing is placed inside the concrete. These types of concrete are
respectively known as reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.
2.2.2. Uses of Concrete in Bridges:

Use of mass concrete in bridges is limited to elements designed to carry mainly compressive loads
such as gravity abutments, gravity piers and gravity retaining walls.
Reinforced concrete is used for all elements which carry tension. The reinforcements are normally
fixed on the side which is expected to take tension, but can sometimes be fixed on both sides.
Reinforcements in tension area
Reinforcements on both sides
The reinforcement is protected from different damage by the concrete itself. This is achieved by
providing an adequate cover.
Reinforcements cover
Reinforced concrete is mostly used in slabs, beams, box girders, cantilever piers, cantilever abutments
and box culverts.
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2.3 STEEL
Steel is a highly reliable and widely used construction material for bridges. It is manufactured in
factories and is produced in different shapes and with various strengths. The most common shapes are
as follows:
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I-Section Steel Plate
H-Sections Pipes
Angles Channels
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2.3.1. Properties of Steel:

Steel can be rolled into thin sheets, rods, bars and beams. Steel is strong in compression, tension and
shear. When in use, steel will retain its good properties if properly protected from damage especially
corrosion and fire. Steel is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
2.3.2. Uses of Steel in Bridges:

It is used in beams, parapets, joint cover, reinforcing bars, truss members, bolts and rivets and
bearings. It is also used in the form of wires for the manufacture of gabion boxes and mattresses and
binding wire.
2.4 MASONRY
Masonry is an old construction material but is still used in bridges. Masonry includes bricks, blocks or
stones joined together using sand and cement mortar or any other binder in order to form the required
bridge element.
Brick Masonry Block Masonry
Stone masonry
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2.4.1. Properties of masonry:

The properties of masonry highly depend on the material from which it is made, but in general it is
strong in compression, weak in tension and shear, durable but mostly porous. The properties of
masonry can be worsened if exposed to high temperatures such as those resulting from fire.
2.4.2. Uses of masonry in bridges:

Masonry is used for gravity abutments, gravity piers, retaining walls and parapets.
2.5 TIMBER
Timber is still used in the construction of bridges in Tanzania. Mature trees are normally used for this
purpose. The part of a tree used for bridges is usually the trunk. A tree trunk has three different main
layers. The middle part is the hardest one and is called heartwood. Next to it is a layer which is usually
softer and lighter in colour and is called sapwood. The outer layer is a bark, which is very soft and has
almost no strength. The bark has to be removed because it stays damp and this causes decay. The bark
is also the home for many insects that may damage the timber.
Section through a tree trunk
2.5.1. Properties of Timber:

Timber is nearly as strong in compression as concrete if the compression acts parallel to the grains.
The strength of timber depends on its density when dry. The more dense the dry timber the more
strong it is. Timber, however, is weak in shear and tension if they act perpendicular to the grains.
Timber is very vulnerable to damage by fire.
2.5.2. Uses of timber in Bridges:

Timber is used for the construction of structural bridge elements such as beams, deck, piers and piles;
safety enhancing elements e.g. handrails, guard-rail posts and warning signs; and for protection works
as in the preparation of piled walls.
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3. TYPES OF INSPECTIONS
Inspecting a bridge consists of gathering and recording data about the condition of its various
components by thoroughly checking them.
Bridges start ageing and deteriorating from the day they are built due to the natural weathering of
materials, environment and traffic. Bridge inspection aims at following up this ageing and
deterioration process and recording which components have changed since the last inspection and to
what extent.
In order to determine the condition of a bridge, visual checks and controls combined with the
measurements and material investigations as elaborated in 3.6 and 3.7 above are very important.
Regular inspections of bridges are necessary for the evaluation of the safety, the capacity and
maintenance requirement where this is needed. As a result of inspections, realistic maintenance plans
and programmes can be prepared.
There are four types of inspections which have to be carried out at varying frequencies. These are
Informal Inspection, General Inspection, Major Inspection and Special Inspection. This chapter will
define each type, what they consist of, who is responsible for the execution of each type, how often
they have to be performed and the manner of reporting for each type of inspection.
3.1 INFORMAL INSPECTION:

This type of inspection can be carried out by the following:
Inspectors
Bridge Engineers
Any other staff of the Regional Manager’s Office (RMO)
Members of the public.
3.1.1. Frequency:
• There is no fixed frequency for this type of inspection but it has to be done by the above
mentioned responsible people whenever they pass by or visit the bridge sites.
3.1.2. Composition:
An informal inspection involves observation of any damage, visible defects and obvious
abnormalities to the bridges or around the bridge sites. The above mentioned people have
to be sensitised to be keen observers when they pass over or near bridges and report to the
RMO such abnormalities as impact damage to superstructures, bridge supports or parapets,
flood damage or insecure expansion plates, erosion, scour, change of river course,
formation of islands in the riverbed, any type of obstruction to the bridge approaches by a
broken down vehicle, a fallen tree etc. which may lead to damage to the bridge etc. etc.
The Regional Manager should from time to time remind his staff to be alert and report
anything needing urgent attention in any road structure. The staff members have to be
keener when travelling around especially after rains.
3.1.3. Reporting:
The reporting of this type of inspection is normally verbal but can also sometimes be submitted
in writing. Verbal reports should however be put into writing by the Bridge Engineer for
record purposes.
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3.2 GENERAL INSPECTION:

The purpose of a general inspection is to provide the Bridge Engineer with detailed information about
the condition of each bridge in the region in order to be able to do the following:
Assess maintenance requirements
Determine if a special inspection is required.
This type of inspection can be carried out by Inspectors and Bridge Engineers.
3.2.1. Frequency:
1 It is carried out according to prepared plans and programmes but at least once in a year.
3.2.2. Composition:
This type of inspection consists of visual control and assessment of all bridge elements with no
material investigations. It involves a thorough check of all bridge elements, e.g. approaches, for
potholes and related damage, settlement of the pavement, erosion, excessive vegetation, any
obstructions or missing bridge signs etc. Checking the superstructure from above and from underneath
for damage caused by traffic, cracks, spalling and similar damage, deflections etc. Examine whether
the bearings are functioning well, and for any blockage, rust, change of shape, etc. Check the
substructure for cracks, settlement, bulging, wearing of pointing, under-scouring etc. and waterway for
erosion, scour, widening or narrowing of the river, silting up, obstructions etc.
The inspector should also check whether routine maintenance has been done and if not include it in the
general inspector’s comments. Typical types of routine maintenance works to be checked are the
cleaning of bearings, vegetation control around the bridge, removal of debris from the wearing course,
the opening of drain pipes, removal of debris from the waterways etc.
The seriousness of the damage which is required to be recorded in this form will be based on estimated
extent of damage. The locations of the damage, however, have to be accurately shown.
3.2.3. Reporting:
The condition of bridges is filled in on the Bridge Inspection Form and submitted to the Bridge
Engineer who in turn prepares a summary and submits it to the Regional Manager. This
summary shall be submitted to the Regional Manager not more than two weeks after
completing the inspection.
3.3 MAJOR INSPECTION:
• The objective of this type of inspection is to record the condition of the whole structure
including the river course and to confirm the need and extent of repairs and/or preventive
maintenance, and also to make a rough cost estimate for the remedies.
• The final information in this type of inspection should provide more accurate and
thorough information about the structures than a general inspection.
• A major inspection has to be carried out by the Bridge Engineer assisted by the
Inspectors.
3.3.1. Frequency:
The frequency for carrying out this type of inspection is once in 3 years as an average, but the
time interval between major inspections for particular bridges may differ based on age,
condition, construction materials and importance of the bridge. The different frequencies
have to be fixed by the Bridge Engineer based on the condition of bridges as recorded in
previous inspections.
18
3.3.2. Composition:
A major inspection shall consist of a thorough visual inspection of the entire structure both
above and below water level. The visual inspection may be supplemented by detailed
measurements and material investigations when necessary.
Unlike for a General Inspection, in the Major Inspection measurements of the extent of all
damage such as width and length of cracks, scour depths, extents of deflections,
settlements and loss of a section due to corrosion of steel elements have to be taken in
details.
Material investigations including both destructive and non-destructive tests will also be carried
out on different parts of the bridge as directed by the Bridge Engineer. These may include
but are not limited to a concrete rebound hammer test, covermeter tests, taking concrete
core samples, steel samples where possible, soil samples, stone samples etc. for laboratory
testing.
3.3.3. Reporting:
Reporting of this type of inspection is carried out by completing the Bridge Inspection Forms just as
for a general inspection except that the extent of any damage here is more accurate due to the exact
measurements taken. The Bridge Engineer will then prepare a summary and submit to the Regional
Manager within a period of two weeks after completion of the inspection.
3.4 SPECIAL INSPECTION:

Sometimes, during a general or major inspection, damage can be discovered, the cause of
which is difficult to determine immediately and therefore needs further investigation. In
this case it becomes necessary to carry out a special inspection.
The objective of this type of inspection is to examine more thoroughly unique damage that has
been revealed in previous inspections such as movements and serious deterioration which
leads to doubts about the current capacity of the bridge. Special inspections can also be
carried out as a result of damage due to floods, a serious overloading or serious impact
from traffic.
3.4.1. Composition:
A special inspection consists of visual inspection combined with measurements, material
investigations and determination of the remaining carrying capacity of the bridge.
The types of tests and measurements are similar to those carried out during a major inspection.
As this inspection type is sometimes carried out as an emergency measure, it has to include detailed
proposals for remedial actions, cost estimates and the method for carrying out the maintenance works.
For complicated sites with more unique problems, the services of consultants or organisations with
special competence in certain fields related to the problem may be required.
3.4.2. Frequency:
Due to its nature, this type of inspection has no specific frequency.
3.4.3. Reporting:
The reporting for this type of inspection is done in a similar way to that of the major inspection.
However, in this case, the summary to be submitted to the Regional Manager will be more
comprehensive and shall include an analysis of the current carrying capacity of the bridge, the
19
proposals for maintenance, methods of carrying out the maintenance operations and costs involved in
the operation.
20
21
4. PLANNING OF INSPECTION
4.1 GENERAL
As already mentioned above, there are four types of bridge inspections. The Informal
inspection is a daily type of inspection that cannot be included in the inspection plan. A
Special Inspection depends on the results of other types of inspections, natural events like
floods, artificial incidents e.g. extreme overloading, etc. and can therefore be included in the
inspection plan depending on these factors.
Planning the inspection is generally delegated to the General Inspection and Major Inspection
which have specified frequencies and are not always dependent on other factors. Special
inspections are included in the plan based on the results of these two types of inspection.
However, for future reference any special inspections which will be carried out due to
unforeseen events have to be recorded in the corresponding inspection plan.
4.2 THE PLANNING PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITY
All inspection works that a region expects to carry out in a specific year, shall be planned in
good time before the inspections start in order to ensure an efficient arrangement of the
inspections. The frequencies of the different types of inspections and resources necessary to
carry them out, including consideration of site conditions and safety requirements, shall be
prepared during the planning stage. In Tan-Bridgeman the question of planning bridge
inspections for a specific year and successive years together with giving an overview of
already inspected bridges, is among the important issues which form the Inspection Plan.
The Bridge Engineer in the Region has the overall responsibility for planning and carrying
out the inspections. The following are among his duties:
• To work out inspection plans for different types of inspections.
• To ensure that the inspectors fully understand their duties and responsibilities.
• To ensure that each inspector has access to the necessary equipment, including safety
accessories.
To ensure that prior to an inspection, the inspector is given the necessary documents.
Occasionally, carry out inspections with the inspectors and ensure that the recorded
inspection data is in accordance with the requirements.
Conduct major and special inspections.
A summary of the major findings shall be submitted to the Regional Manager not more than
two weeks after finishing seasonal, general, major and special inspections or when required.
The inspection plan shall provide an overview to the Bridge Engineer and his leaders in the
Region and at Headquarters, on which bridges in a region are to be inspected in the current
year. The inspection plan should be submitted to the RM and TANROADS HQ respectively
before the 1st of November and the 1st of December each year. The plan shall include types
of inspections, cost estimates for individual inspections for each bridge and summarised costs
for all inspections programmed for the following budget year. Based on the approved plan by
TANROADS HQ and the RM, the Bridge Engineer then has to work out the final inspection
plan for his/her region.
22
The frequency of general inspections is every year as a general rule, but on bridges exposed to
floods the frequency of such an inspection may be after every flood. The Bridge Engineer
determines the frequencies. The general inspection shall be abbreviated with letter «G» in the
inspection plan.
The frequency of major inspections is determined to be every 3 years as a general rule, but the
frequency need to be established initially by the Bridge Engineer based on the condition of
the bridge, expected progress of deterioration of the bridge’s condition up to next major
inspection, materials employed and the importance of the bridge. The major inspection shall
be abbreviated with letter «M» in the inspection plan.
A Special Inspection is always determined by another type of inspection and has no fixed
frequency. The abbreviation for special inspection will be the letter «S».
The approved inspection plan for the coming year shall be tailor made to make use of the
available resources such as equipment, labour force, budget etc. in a way that does not exceed
the frequency for each type of inspection. The plan has to show inspections planned to be
carried out monthly and annually.
When inspection data are entered into the computer, the date and year of the inspection
appear under the column for «Date of executed inspection» in the inspection plan.
Each year, before 1st of December, a print out of the inspection plan from each region
approved by the RM has to be forwarded to Headquarters.
The inspection plan contains the following information:
• Region number
• Bridge number and name
• Road name
• Bridge link and chainage
• Month and year of planned inspection
• Month and year of executed inspection
• Costs for planned inspections
• Remarks (Intended as information or instruction to the inspectors)
Planning inspections shall be done well in advance in order to ensure smooth and effective
assessment of bridge conditions. The timing of inspections and resource allocation to suit a
particular type of inspection, including consideration of site condition and safety
requirements, are defined during the planning stage.
4.3 BUDGETING FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION
Before starting budget preparations, the following should be done:

Establish annual number of bridges to be inspected for each type of inspection.
Identify resources and execution time frame.
Determine the following basic rates:
Manpower costs Tshs/hr.
Vehicle hire costs Tshs/km.
Vehicle operation costs Tshs/km.
Night out allowances during field work Tshs/night.
Costs for stationery based on requirement Sum.
Computer maintenance costs. Tshs/year.
23
The budget for the inspection can then be prepared based on, but not limited to, the following
set-up:
Activity Km Hours No. of No. of Total Rate Total
per team bridges annual cost
bridge members per Year man-hours
(man-days)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
General Inspection
Collecting data - # # # # # #
Night out allowance - - # - (#) # #
Entering data into the - # # # # # #
computer - # # # # # #
Filing # - - - - # #
Vehicle hire and operation - - - - - - #
Stationery - - - - - - #
Total for general inspection
Major Inspection
Collecting data - # # # # # #
Night out allowance - - # - (#) # #
Entering data into the - # # # # # #
computer - # # # # # #
Filing # - - - - # #
Vehicle operation - - - - - - #
Stationery - - - - - - #
Total for major inspection
Provision for possible
Special Inspection - - - - - - #
Computer maintenance - - - - - - #
Grand Total for Inspection - - - - - - #
KEY:
# Applicable columns
(#) Applicable columns, using description in brackets only.
- Columns not applicable
The results of column number 8 are obtained by the multiplication of column No. 6 by No. 7 or No. 2
by No. 7 depending on the activity while column No. 6 is obtained by the multiplication of column
Nos. 3, 4 and 5.
Once the budget is ready and has been approved, the inspection action plans and schedules should be
prepared based on the approved budget.
4.4 INSPECTION RESOURCES AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Bridge inspection is a tedious and sometimes cumbersome operation. For it to succeed a team of
devoted inspection staff, enough funding together with an adequate number of tools are necessary. As
a minimum an inspection team should consist of a Team Leader who may be an experienced inspector
or Bridge Engineer, one assistant or labourer and a driver. Additional labourers may be employed
depending on different site conditions.
4.4.1. General Requirements of the Inspectors:

In order to have reliable inspection data, it is very important that the data entered into the
system is as correct as possible. Inspection data is fundamentally based on judgements made
24
by the inspectors, and their quality depends very much on the skills and bridge experience of
the inspectors. Therefore, it is important that the inspectors have specific qualifications such
as accuracy and reliability, and are properly trained in BMST. In addition, an inspector has to
be a careful worker, and he/she must be in good health and responsible (who does not take
unnecessary risks).
The Bridge Engineer in the Region is the overall in charge of staff and the process of carrying
out the inspections. The following are among the necessary qualities of a Bridge Engineer:
• Fast in decision making.
• Ability to control his sub-ordinates.
• Good temper.
• High endurance to site hardships.
• Hardworking.
4.4.2. Inspection Tools:

In order to perform the different types of inspections, different tools and equipment have to be used.
These include non-sophisticated tools which will be termed ordinary and specialised tools for specific
unique jobs which will be used depending on the type of inspection and site conditions. There are
normally no inspection tools and equipment for an informal inspection but for the other types of
inspections, the following tools and equipment need to be made available:
4.4.3. General inspection:

Generally, ordinary tools and equipment are enough for this type of inspection except for a few cases
where site conditions necessitate the use of specialised access tools. The following are the required
tools for a general inspection: A clipboard, printed Bridge Inspection forms, pencils and erasers, water
proof markers, torch, measuring tapes (50m long fibre and 3 or 5m steel), bush knife, spade, hammer,
wire brush, spanners, saw, binoculars, umbrella, a camera, a stapler and any other additional tools that
might be deemed necessary for specific sites.
4.4.4. Major inspection:

The same as for a general inspection plus: Levelling instrument and accessories, ranging rods, straight
edge (2m.), squirt can of creosote or other wood preservatives, folding ruler, vernier calliper,
specialised tools and equipment such as crack measuring gauge, hand drill with bits, concrete cover
measuring instrument, rebound hammer, core drilling machine, and any other additional tools that
might be required in addition.
4.4.5. Special inspection:

For carrying out a special inspection, a special selection of equipment has to be made, but in general
similar tools and equipment as mentioned under major inspections must be made available. In
addition, a Rapid Chloride Test Instrument might be required.
4.4.6. Access and safety equipment:

First aid box, safety helmet, high visibility waistcoat, safety harness, life-jacket, traffic warning signs,
road cones, about 20 m. of light rope, ladders. For complicated sites, special access equipment may be
required. These include an inspection crane and access ladders that can be fixed to the bridge railings.
These pieces of equipment and tools are necessary for all types of inspection except an informal
inspection.
4.4.7. Safety Requirements:

The safety of bridge inspectors and road users during the inspection falls within the responsibility of
the Regional Manager. It is important that he/she ensures that they frequently get appropriate training
in safety procedures and especially when new inspectors have been employed.
25
Possibilities of injury arise mainly from: Traffic on the deck or approaches. A fall from the
superstructure to the river or road below. Attack from insects, reptiles, animals or vegetation around
the bridge.
To try to alleviate these dangers, there should be at least two people when performing an inspection.
One might be the driver, who can also assist when taking measurements.
Always use the safety equipment for yourself and on the road, even on roads with very light traffic.
When inspecting bridges crossing rivers with high speed currents it is important to use a life-jacket
and safety-rope.
It is always important to remember that accidents occur without warning.
Other details about safety precautions are the same as those for the inventory and can easily be
referred to in Chapter 11.2 of the Handbook for Bridge Inventory.
4.5 DAMAGE LOCATION PROCEDURES DURING INSPECTION
4.5.1. General
Location system: It is important that everybody uses the same way to describe where the damage is
located on a bridge and where measurements and material investigations are carried out. Therefore, on
all bridges, a location system shall be established.
The following sections illustrate how such a system can be planned by using axis, the numbering of
beams and the projection of columns, superstructure etc.
In case such a system has been previously established for the bridge, this shall be continued or
integrated in the new system.
4.5.2. Use of Axis as Reference System for Damage Location

Division by axes: All bridges shall be divided into an axis number by each abutment and each
column. The division by axis shall be recorded in Tan-Bridgeman and thereby appear on the
inspection forms.
The main rule is that the division being used on the construction drawings or as built drawings shall be
used.
If no system with regard to axis has been used on the drawings, axis A shall be placed at the abutment
with the lowest chainage in relation to the chainage direction on the road. On the drawings of the
bridge, axis A shall be to the left. As a reference, designations like column axis B, superstructure axis
B-C etc. shall be used.
At the abutments the geographical direction or the closest village shall be used to determine the
direction of axes geographical. The division by axis can with advantage be marked with spray on
larger bridges. However, this must be done with care to avoid a spoiling appearance.
26
A sketch showing Numbering of the Axis
4.5.3. Use of Axis as Reference System on Big Bridges

For arch bridges, truss bridges, suspension bridges and cable stayed bridges there will often be a need
to make a more dense subdivision of axis in the main span than what the division of main axis-system
can give. The location of damage and investigations are done by using textural description in the Tan-
Bridgeman System.
Arch bridges can have columns and/or suspension rods which transfer the loads to the arches. The
numbering recommended being done as shown in the sketch of an Arch Bridge below.
For the nodes in truss bridges the numbering system on the original drawings should be used when
available. If not, the system shown for a Truss Bridge in the sketch below can be used.
The same applies for suspension bridges, which like arch bridges are sectioned by suspension rods in
addition to the axes. The numbering is recommended to be executed as shown in the sketch named as
“Numbering the Axis/Hangars on Suspension Bridges”. The numbering of individual cables when
bundled can be done as shown in the sketches named as “Numbering the Cable Bundles on Suspension
Bridges”.
On cable stayed bridges, it is recommended also to number the anchorage caps of the cables at the
superstructure. Examples are shown in the sketch named as “Division of Axis on Cable Stayed
Bridges”.
For all the bridges the longitudinal load bearing walls may be designated either as right left in relation
to the direction of the axes, upstream/downstream or using the geographical directions.
A sketch showing Numbering of the Axis – Arch Bridges
27
A sketch showing Numbering of the Axis/Nodes on the Truss Bridges
A sketch showing numbering the Cable Bundles on Suspension Bridges
A sketch showing Division of Axis on Cable Stayed Bridges
4.5.4. Location System for Beams

All cross sections shall be sketched looking in the direction of the chainage (normally identical to the
direction of increasing axis- numbering). Designation of where the cross section is taken can for
example be axis 3 + 5 m as indicated in the figure below.
Left hand-side or right hand-side can be used to assign precise location of details of a cross section.
Alternatively, upstream/downstream or geographical directions can be used.
Cross sections of beams shall be assigned using letters, or numbers, marked from left to right.
Cross Section of a Beam Bridge
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4.5.5. Reflected Plan of the Superstructure

In some cases it can be relevant to make a reflected plan of the soffit of the superstructure in order to
locate the defects and testing spots. Examples of reflected plans of a beam bridge and a box girder are
shown below:
Sketch of Folding Out a Beam Bridge
Sketch of Reflected Plan for a Box Girder Bridge
4.5.6. Reflected Plan of Columns and Foundations

For rectangular columns, surface l shall be facing the lowest axis number. The remaining surfaces
shall be numbered against the clockwise direction. The reflected plan shall make it possible to look at
each surface in such a way that sides with jointly corners are naturally tied together. The column is
folded out at the corner between surface l and 4 in a clockwise direction.
29
Sketch on the Numbering of Surfaces and the Folding out of a Rectangular Column
Circular columns are divided according to the

watch as shown in the sketch below named “Sketch
of Reflected Plan of a Circular Column”. The
folding takes place by opening the column at 12
o'clock and then fold to both sides. The folded
column starts with the 12 o'clock spot at the left
hand-side of the plan and finishes with 00 o'clock
to the right.
Sketch of Reflected Plan of a Circular Column
30
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5. DAMAGE EVALUATION GUIDE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Deterioration of a bridge begins immediately after its completion and coming into use, and this is
reflected by damage and defects or their associated signs. Damage to a bridge is caused by external
factors e.g. environment and traffic, while defects are natural faults or imperfections resulting from the
construction process. In either case it is important that the inspector recognises the different types of
damage and defects, their causes, degree and consequences.
This Damage Evaluation Guide consists of a check list of the most common damage to bridges. For
each type of damage its description, causes, method of inspection, degree and consequences are
explained, while photographs are used to illustrate the different levels of its severity. In this respect it
is believed that a uniform approach to assessing damage will be achieved throughout the country and
that nearly the same assessment will be given to the same damage by different inspectors.
All types of damage are assessed based only on different bridge elements. Special knowledge of the
calculation and evaluation of overall bridge adequacy or bridge carrying capacity may, nevertheless,
be required during major and special inspections. This knowledge is not covered in this handbook.
Bridge inspections shall describe the types of damage being recorded to different bridge elements. The
location of the damage must also be described and, if possible, elaborated by sketches and
photographs.
Any damage to be recorded shall be assessed by considering the degree of damage and consequence.
The assessment will be based on the following characters:
5.1.1. Development Stages of Damage

It is usually easy to evaluate a serious damage which has already reduced the carrying capacity or
traffic safety when remedial measures require to be urgently implemented.
On the other hand it is more difficult to evaluate a damage which is still developing. In such instances
it is important to produce a detailed overview of the following circumstances:
How long has it taken for the damage noted to
develop?
How quick is the probability that it will continue
developing in the future?
Observations recorded during previous
inspections will be valuable in relation to
assessing how quickly the damage has been
developing.
In order to assist in assessing the development of
damage measurements and materials testing can
additionally be undertaken. As an example,
levelling can be employed in recording the
development of settlement, whilst measuring the
depth of carbonation and chloride content over a
period can be used in evaluating the risk of
Development of Damage corrosion on the reinforcement in the future.
In addition to practical experience, theoretical
models exist for assessing the rate at which carbonation and chlorides are spreading when it comes to
stating how quickly a specific damage will continue to develop. When evaluating the rate of damage
development, you should particularly note that different kinds of damage take different courses:
32
• No development
• Declining course of development
• Steady pace of development
• Accelerating pace of development
The figure below illustrates these points. The following sub-sections provide more detailed
descriptions of the different courses of development.
An example on “No development” could be spalling of concrete due to traffic impact. This can arise
quite suddenly, yet does not develop any further. The damage is either so immaterial that no action
need be taken or so serious that immediate measures are required. You should, however, realise that
minor damage to concrete and steel due to traffic impact that is not repaired, can in the long run lead to
secondary damage such as corrosion of reinforcement.
The “Declining course of development” can be exemplified by settlement usually develops quickly at
the start and then later begins to decline. Nevertheless one should be aware that settlement can
demonstrate both a steady and an accelerating course of development.
For “Steady pace of development”, rutting can act as an example. Its development will usually be
linear, but an increase in wear and tear must be considered when the ruts become deeper because
traffic impact will be more intense.
Examples on “Accelerating pace of development” are insufficient surface cover/damaged cover,

secondary damage such as reinforcement corrosion or spalling. Since the cover has become carbonised
or infected with chlorides, the corrosion process will start in the reinforcement elements with least
cover with the consequent development of spalling in the area of these steel elements. As the extent of
the carbonisation or the effects of the chlorides penetrate deeper into the concrete so is the rate of
corrosion development, and the corrosion will spread to new reinforcement bars. As a consequence
both corrosion in the reinforcement and delamination of the concrete coverage will demonstrate an
increasing trend.
5.1.2. Damage Evaluation Fundamentals

Degree of Damage:
The Degree of Damage is used to quantify specific damage by indicating the seriousness or severity of
the damage which depends on its extent and when it has to be repaired. Four characters indicate
different levels of damage as outlined below:
1: Minor damage or defects that might not require any remedial action within the next 10 years.
2: Average or slight damage or defects that require remedial action within 3 - 10 years.
3: Serious damage or defects that require remedial action within 1 - 3 years.
4: Critical damage or defects that require immediate remedial action within 0 - 1 year.
The objective of these characters is to let the inspector indicate, the seriousness of the damage
observed, based on his professional judgement, and when they have to be repaired.
Consequence of Damage:
The consequences of damage indicate what it will affect if the damage is not repaired in time. Four
effects have been considered and are abbreviated by letters as follows:
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C: Damage or defect that affects carrying capacity

T: Damage or defect that affects traffic safety
M: Damage or defect that affects maintenance cost
E: Damage or defect that affects environment/aesthetics
These effects are presented in order of importance. Damage that affects carrying capacity will,
therefore, be given higher priority than that affecting traffic safety, maintenance costs or
environment/aesthetics.
Assessment of damage:
The condition of a bridge element is assessed by considering the seriousness and effect of any damage
to it. The assessment therefore, is a combination of the degree and consequence of the damage. This
combination results in the final assessment of the damage as outlined below:
Damage that affects the carrying capacity (C):

C1 = Minor damage/defect that in the long run may present danger to the carrying capacity of the
structure. The damage might not require repair within the coming 10 years.
C2 = Average damage/defect which can reduce the carrying capacity of the structure if no repair is
carried out within the next 3-10 years. The damage must be repaired within 3-10 years.
C3 = Serious damage/defect which can reduce the carrying capacity of the structure if no repair is
carried out within the next 1-3 years. The damage must be repaired within 1-3 years.
C4 = Critical damage which has reduced or is about to reduce the carrying capacity of the structure.
The damage must be repaired immediately or safety precautions have to be taken.
Damage that affects traffic safety (T):

T1 = Minor damage/defect that might in the long run present danger to the traffic safety. The
damage might not require to be repaired within the coming 10 years.
T2 = Average damage/defect which can reduce the traffic safety if no repair is carried out within the
next 3-10 years. The damage must be repaired within 3-10 years.
T3 = Serious damage/defect which can reduce the traffic safety if no repair is carried out within the
next 1-3 years. The damage must be repaired within 1-3 years.
T4 = Critical damage which has reduced or is about to reduce traffic safety. The damage must be
repaired immediately or safety precautions have to be taken.
Damage influencing the maintenance costs (M):

M1 = Minor damage/defect that in the long run, is considered to influence the maintenance costs.
The damage might not require to be repaired within the coming 10 years.
M2 = Average damage/defect that can develop in such a way that repairs will be more
comprehensive, complicated and costly if nothing is done within the next 3-10 years. The
damage must be repaired within 3-10 years.
M3 = Serious damage/defect that can develop in such a way that repairs will be more
34
M4 = Critical damage that can develop in such a way that repairs will be more comprehensive,
complicated and costly if repair to the damage is not carried out immediately.
Damage influencing the environment/aesthetics (E):

E1 = Minor damage/defect that in the long run, is considered to influence the
environment/aesthetics. The damage might not require to be repaired within the coming 10
years.
E2 = Average damage/defect that can develop in such a way that repairs will be more
E3 = Serious damage/defect that can develop in such a way that repairs will be more
E4 = Critical damage that can develop in such a way that repairs will be more comprehensive,
complicated and costly if repair to the damage is not carried out immediately.
5.1.3. Types of Damage

The most common Types of Damage are listed with a brief explanatory text connected to each of
them. A more extensive and detailed description of each type of damage including examples in form
of photos are also given under each bridge element. Each type of damage is given a three-digit code,
where the first digit indicates the material or element to which the damage is referred to, and the
second and third indicates the type of damage. This is done in order to ease the recording of damage in
the data base, and make it possible to scan the data and make statistics. It should be noticed that one
defect may consists of several Types of Damage. (This section has to be amended by Djuve)
5.1.4. Causes of Damage

1 Faulty design
11 Deviation from standards i.e. those in force when the bridge was constructed.
12 Erroneous choice of material Wrong materials selected.
13 Erroneous calculations Improper or wrong calculations.
14 Erroneous design Poor design with regards to maintenance
19 Other faulty design
2 Material defects
21 Poor composition Wrong or improper compositions of materials or incorrect
concrete mix.
22 Inadequate strength Can be like: Poor quality of materials in taking
compression, less tension capacity than expected, less
shear capacity etc..
23 Natural abnormalities Examples: Knots, splits, soft wood etc.
29 Other material defects
3 Faulty construction
35
31 Settlement of scaffolding Vertical movement of scaffolding.
32 Incorrectly placed Reinforcement not located within the limitations of
reinforcement tolerance.
33 Faulty concreting Wrong vibration, to dense reinforcement, etc.
34 Insufficient finishing The surface is not in accordance with requirements.
35 Insufficient curing of concrete Lack of or poor curing leading to cracks, improper quality
etc..
36 Premature loading Loading before concrete has achieved required strength.
37 Wrong choice of material Choice of inadequate material(s) for the purpose
38 Improper installation Not correct installed part of or the entire element.
Examples: Installation of joint(s), bearings etc.
39 Other faulty construction
4 Insufficient maintenance
41 Insufficient cleaning Unsatisfactory cleaned part or parts of a bridge. Remains
of sand, debris etc.
42 Insufficient clearing Ex.: Unsatisfactory cleared vegetation with poor impact
on the structure or the waterway
43 Insufficient removal of debris Debris collected on one or several parts of the bridge or in
the vicinity of the bridge in general
44 Untimely application of Incorrect protection of material
protective measure
45 Inadequate maintenance Maintenance work not carried out
46 Wear and tear Normal wear and tear from traffic or the weather
49 Other insufficient maintenance
5 Environment
51 Chloride attack Salt from sea or other salty source.
52 Sulphate attack Deterioration due to sulphuric acids or materials
53 Carbonation Reaction between the carbon dioxide in the air and the
lime in the building material. Reduction of the concrete's
ability to protect the reinforcement against corrosion.
54 Alkaline reaction Alkalic reaction of materials used in concrete. Leading to
cracks (brownish or black in color)
55 Abrasion Wearing or grinding away of surface material by water or
traffic
56 Biological attack e.g. fungi, maggots etc.
59 Other environmental attack
6 Loading
61 Traffic Damage caused by loads from traffic
62 Earth pressure Damage caused by soil pressure
36
63 Current pressure Damage caused by pressure from flowing water

64 Wind pressure Damage caused by wind pressure.
65 Temperature Damage caused by temperature changes
66 Shrinkage Time dependent effects which can result in cracking
67 Creep Stress / time dependent effects that can result in
deformation
69 Other loading
7 Accidents
71 Impact from traffic Damage &used by vehicles.
72 Impact from vessels Damage caused by vessels when navigable water under
the bridge.
73 Flood Damage caused by flood.
74 Landslide Damage caused by landslide or rockslides
75 Explosion Damage caused by explosion
76 Fire attack Damage caused by fire.
77 Chemical attack Damage caused by chemicals.
78 Impact from floating objects Damage caused by vandalism or burglary
79 Other accidents
8 Exceptional causes of damage

81 Vandalism Damage caused by vandalism
82 Consequential/secondary cause e.g. deformation of the superstructure due to settlement,
of damage discoloration from leaks and moisture, spalling due to
chlorides etc.
89 Other exceptional cause of
damage
9 Other causes
99 Other/unknown cause of
damage
37
5.2 DAMAGE TO THE RIVER COURSE

The river course should be inspected in order to determine whether conditions exist that could cause
damage to the bridge or the area surrounding the bridge. Such conditions might be the changing of the
river course or waterway, scouring of the river bed, erosion of the river bank, silting up, excessive
vegetation and insufficient discharge capacity of the bridge. It should be noted that when a river is
damaged then it may also damage the bridge crossing it.
1 Types of Damage to the river course
101 Change of river course The river has changed its original alignment
102 Scouring and erosion to river Removal of material from the river bed area caused by the
course water flow
103 Silting up Depositing of mud / sand on the river bed
104 Excessive vegetation Vegetation in the river bed and banks that obstructs the
flow of water
105 Insufficient discharge capacity When the bridge waterway is not adequate for proper
passage of water.
109 Other damages to the river Any other damage that is not listed above
course
38
5.2.1. Change of River Course

Description:
When the river flows outside its natural course or when its alignment or profile is altered, it is said to
have changed its course. Such change can be on the upstream side or downstream side of the bridge
but the former is usually the most serious.
Change of river course

Description
When the river flows outside its natural course or when its alignment or profile is altered, it is said to
have changed its course. Such change can be on the upstream side or downstream side of the bridge
but the former is usually the most serious.
Causes:
A river course can change due to erosion of river banks, a sharp bend near a bridge, obstruction or
interference of water flow due to human activities in the river basin. Meandering rivers and rivers with
shallow banks in alluvial or sandy flat terrain are particularly prone to changes in the river course.
Inspection method:
The river course shall be inspected at least over a distance of 50m on both sides of the bridge. In the
case of obvious damage beyond 50m this distance shall be increased to cover such damage. Any bank
erosion; obstruction of water flow by debris, vegetation and remains of old structures; meandering and
cultivation in the river basin shall be noted and reported.
Degree of damage:
Erosion of the river bank or any other change in the river course within a distance of up to 25m from
the bridge must be given a higher degree of damage since such damage may develop very fast and
may affect the stability of the bridge.
Consequences:
River course changes can wash away the approach road and fill behind the abutment. This can lead to
the abutment tilting backwards and finally the whole bridge can collapse. Changing of the river course
will generally affect maintenance costs, but it may also affect carrying capacity in the case of
movement.
Recommended actions:
Remedial measures include clearing of obstacles from the river, river bed and bank protection.
39
Typical Examples: 101 - Change of River Course

This river is changing its course towards the
abutment due to sand excavation near the
bridge
Cause of damage:81.
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Enforce strict laws to
prevent sand digging at bridge sites.
This river is changing its course towards the

abutment due to silting up.
Cause of damage: 45.
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Remove obstacles on the
river bed and carry out river training to
enable other spans to function.
This river has changed its course thus

washing away a big portion of the approach
embankment. In this case both the traffic
and maintenance cost are affected.
Cause of damage:73.
Assessment: T4
Recommendation: Provide protection works
together with removal of obstructions of the
waterway.
In the worst case the approach road can be

washed out. In this example the bridge is not
affected.
Cause of damage:73.
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Reconstruct the approach
embankment and provide protection works
to both sides of the bridge.
40
5.2.2. Scouring and Erosion

Description:
Scouring is the removal and taking away or transportation of material from the river bed by fast
flowing water. When the material is taken away from below the foundation this leads to under-
scouring. Erosion, on the other hand, is the removal of material from the river banks.
Erosion of river bank Original river bed level before scour

Causes:
Scouring and erosion are respectively caused by fast flowing water on river beds and banks especially
on steep and unprotected rivers. River beds and banks comprising fine grained soil are more exposed
to such damage. Scouring can also be caused by the interference of water flow from debris, tree
trunks, remains of old structures or piers and abutments built in the river especially when they are not
parallel to the direction of water flow.
Inspection Method:
Scouring and erosion of river beds and banks can be identified visually. In most cases the original
river bed levels are indicated by marks left on abutments or piers and can be used to measure the
amount of scouring. For major and special inspections, proper levels shall be taken and the river
profile shown on sketches. A benchmark for this purpose shall be established for future reference.
Degree of Damage:
Riverbed scouring can be ranked from minor to critical depending on how deep the river bed has been
lowered from the original level and how far it is from the bridge. However, any signs of scouring near
the bridge foundation shall be considered as critical because these are major causes of bridge failures
and they may develop very fast. For bank erosion, widening of the river course close to the bridge
shall be ranked as critical.
Consequences:
Scouring leads to lowering of river bed levels and under-scouring of foundations which can result in
settlement and tilting of abutments and piers which in turn can lead to large deflections and cracking
of the superstructure. For piled foundations, scouring can result in loss of friction due to removal of
soil around the pile which can lead in settlement and tilting of the pier or abutment. Finally the whole
bridge can collapse. Scouring, therefore, affects the carrying capacity in most cases. Scouring of the
riverbed that is more than 25m away from the bridge will affect maintenance costs.
Erosion of the river banks will normally affect maintenance costs.
Recommended Action:
Under-scouring of foundations can be repaired by under-pinning or grouting and anchoring. These are
normally complemented by river bed protection to prevent further scouring. River training is a
solution for bank erosion.
41
Typical Examples: 102 - Scouring and Erosion

The whole apron is collapsed after lowering
the river bed.
Assessment: M3.
Recommendation: Fill up the collapsed apron
by filling up with appropriate boulders and
reinstate the apron. Provide protection by
filling up the river bank and plant vegetation
to the embankment
Lowering of riverbed level can lead to under-

scouring of foundation
Assessment: C4.
Recommendation: Reconstruct the apron by
filling granular material to be covered by
grouted rip rap.
Lowering of river bed level can lead to under-

scoured culvert apron and exposed bottom
slab
Cause of damage:73.
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Underpinning the apron
Lowering of river bed level can lead to under-

scouring of foundation.
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Reconstruct the apron by
granular material to be covered by gabion
mattress.
42
5.2.3. Silting Up
Description:
Silting up is the opposite process to scouring. It involves the depositing of eroded material from the
river due to reduced water speed. This problem is more pronounced for bridges located on flat terrain
especially when it is close to mountainous area.
The culverts are almost fully silted-up Bridge is silted-up to almost the soffit of the deck
Causes:
Silting up of rivers is caused by sediment from flowing mud and sand during floods. The
sedimentation occurs when the water speed is reduced by obstructions due to insufficient opening of
the bridge, excessive vegetation growth, and presence of debris or when the floods subside.
Inspection Method:
Silting up can be easily detected visually. All bridges susceptible to silting up shall be inspected for
possible obstructions before and during the rains.
Degree of Damage:
The degree of damage depends on the silted up levels compared to the original river bed level and the
available freeboard. Any silting up which result in blockage of the bridge opening is considered as a
critical condition. Generally, this type of damage develops more slowly than scouring and thus it
should be considered less serious. The degree of damage must be chosen in accordance with the rate of
development and the remaining discharge capacity of the bridge.
Consequences:
Silting up raises the river bed level and this can lead to reduced discharge capacity, overflowing over
the banks thus posing a danger of river widening and changing of the waterway. For these reasons the
damage will affect maintenance costs.
Silting up can be rectified by removing debris and vegetation and in the worst case by increasing the
discharge area by raising the superstructure or adding new culverts beside the bridge.
43
Typical Examples: 103 Silting Up

Totally silted up bridge
Cause of damage:45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: De-silt the waterway and
remove obstructions on the river bed.
Partially silted up pipe metal culvert

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Desilt the waterway and
Silted up bridge
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Carry out investigations
on the upstream side of the bridge to check
the reason of siltation. In case there is
deforestation try to make a long term plan of
tree planting on the upstream.
Completely blocked bridge

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4.
Recommendation: Desilt the waterway and

Investigate on the cause for siltation and
plan for long term measures.
44
5.2.4. Excessive Vegetation

Description:
Vegetation growth in the river course prevents scouring; but when it is excessive it can obstruct the
water way. This is why excessive vegetation is considered to be a damage.
Vegetation growth on pier Excessive vegetation on river course
Causes:
Lack of maintenance is the main cause of excessive vegetation.
Inspection method:
The damage can easily be seen visually.
Degree of Damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent of the obstruction and whether the discharge capacity has
been affected.
Consequences:
Excessive vegetation can obstruct the water way thus reducing the discharge capacity of the bridge.
For this reason, the damage will affect maintenance costs.
Recommended Action:
Vegetation control is the recommended action
45
Typical Examples: 104 - Excessive Vegetation

Vegetation growth on a river waterway.
This can obstruct water flow
Cause of damage: 42
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Carry out vegetation
control immediately.
Vegetation growth on both banks might

totally block the river course
Cause of damage: 42
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Carry out immediately
vegetation control
Excessive vegetation growth on river

course may totally block the river.
Cause of damage: 42
Assessment: M4
control immediately.
Vegetation growth on river course and

bridge element may totally block the river
or make uneasy seen damage on bridge
elements.
Cause of damage: 42
Assessment: M4
control .
46
5.2.5. Insufficient Discharge Capacity

Description:
The clearance below the bridge is designed to accommodate or to allow water and debris to flow freely
without obstruction. When the waterway is not enough for water to go through, the bridge is said to
have insufficient discharge capacity. A clearance of about 50 to 100 cm should be a minimum value
between the soffit of the superstructure and the maximum expected flood level to allow for free flow
of any debris. This gap is called the freeboard.
Insufficient discharge capacity caused by accumulation Road section washed away after overtopping due to
of debris on the waterway insufficient capacity of culverts
Causes:
Insufficient discharge capacity is caused by inadequate hydraulic design. It can also be caused by
blocking of the waterway by logs or debris stuck to the bridge opening and also by silting-up of the
river bed.
Inspection Method:
Indications of insufficient discharge capacity include high water marks left on abutments and piers,
debris wedged or stuck beneath the deck and on bearing shelves, information from local people,
overflowing, insufficient freeboard during floods, deposits of debris along the river banks and on trees
upstream. Inspection of important bridges shall be carried out during and immediately after floods.
The highest water marks shall be marked and their levels recorded.
Degree of Damage:
Frequent overflow should be considered as critical damage while flow touching the underside of the
bridge is considered a big damage. Flow below the freeboard can be ranked from minor to average.
Consequences:
When the bridge cannot allow water to pass freely underneath, then the water will accumulate on the
upstream side thereby forming a dam or backwater which will exert very high pressure on the bridge.
This can lead to overflowing and excessive scouring from the downstream side and in the worst case
can be followed by washout of the approach roads or the whole bridge. For this reason the damage
will affect maintenance costs.
Remedial measures depend on the cause of the damage and may include removal of all obstacles
before the rains. Otherwise preventive measures shall include adequate hydraulic design at the design
stage.
47
Typical Examples:105 - Insufficient Discharge Capacity

Water overflow due to insufficient
discharge capacity of the culvert and thus
washed away road embankment leaving the
road closed to traffic.
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Backfill and construct
stone pitching immediately.
Insufficient discharge capacity due to

accumulation of debris on the waterway.
Assessment: M4.
Recommendation: Execute river cleaning
immediately.
Water overflows this bridge every rain

season. It may wash out the bridge or the
approaches.
Cause of damage:11.
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Replace it with a bridge
having a sufficient discharge capacity.
Due to insufficient opening this river has

washed out the approach road and this was
followed by settlement of the abutment.
Cause of damage:11.
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Replace the bridge with a
structure having sufficient discharge
capacity.
48
49
5.3 DAMAGE TO PROTECTION FACILITIES

Protection facilities include rip rap, stone pitching, aprons, piled walls and gabions. Rip rap can be
damaged by being washed away or by settling while stone pitching and aprons can be damaged by
under-scouring. Damage to piled walls depends on the construction material but common damage is
movement. Other damage like corrosion of steel piles and the decay of timber are as explained under
the relevant topics for the particular material. Common damage to gabions includes corrosion,
movement, broken wires and excessive settlement.
1 Types of Damage to Protection Facilities
111 Wash out of rip rap When the stones for rip rap are washed away.
112 Scouring to protection facilities Removal of supporting soil under the protection facility
caused by the water flow.
113 Movement of protection facility Displacement of protection facility horizontally or

vertically
114 Defective parts of protection Part of the protection facility is not working in accordance
facility with expectations
119 Other damages to protection Any other damage to the protection facility not listed here.
facility
50
5.3.1. Wash out of Rip Rap

Description:
Stones for rip rap must be heavy enough to avoid them being washed away. When they are washed
away, the rip rap is said to be damaged.
Washed away rip rap
Causes:
Wrong selection of stone size for rip rap is the main cause of this damage.
Inspection Method:
The damage can easily be observed visually.
Degree of Damage:
Where scouring has resulted from the washing away of rip rap protecting foundations, then the
damage is ranked critical. Otherwise the degree depends on the extent and the importance of the
affected element.
Consequences:
This damage affects the maintenance costs.
Recommended Actions:
Washed away rip rap shall be replaced with the right size of stones.
51
Typical Examples:111 - Wash out of Rip Rap

Washed out rip rap
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: M3.
Recommendation: Replace the
washed out rip rap by the right size of
stones.
Washed out rip rap might later result

to underscour
Cause of damage:45
Assessment: M2.
stones.
Washed rip rap

Cause of damage: 37
Assessment: M3.
stones.
Washed rip rap

Cause of damage:73
Assessment: M4.
stones.
52
5.3.2. Scouring of Protection Facilities

Description:
Scouring is a common type of damage to stone pitching, aprons and gabions and it involves removal
of the supporting soil at the edges followed by cracking, breaking off of the edges, and settlement In
the case of gabions. It should be noted that gabions are very flexible and a lot of settlement due to
under-scouring can occur without affecting their protective ability.
Scoured stone pitching apron leaving the Structure Gabion protection is hanging after being scour
Hanging after removal of the Supporting soil
Causes:
Scouring of a protection facility is caused by lack of cut off walls or due to poor design and
construction.
Inspection method:
Settlement or movement of gabions, cracking of stone pitching and aprons are obvious signs of
scouring. The damage can, therefore, be detected visually.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on how much the facility has been affected and the importance of the
protected element.
Consequence:
Scouring of protection facilities will normally affect the maintenance costs.
Scouring of aprons can be rectified by provision of cut off walls. Otherwise the damaged portion
should be repaired or replaced.
53
Typical Examples: 112 - Scouring Protection Facilities

Under scoured and washed out stone
pitching.
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: M3.
Recommendation: Replace the washed out
stone pitching ensuring appropriate
workmanship.
Under scoured and washed out stone

pitching.
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: M2.
Recommendation: Replace the washed out
stone pitching.
Broken stone pitching apron due to

underscour.
Cause of damage: 14
Assessment: M3.
Recommendation: Repair the damaged
part by using appropriate material.
Broken apron due to underscouring. Due

to the importance of the protected steel
piers, a higher degree of damage is given.
Assessment: M4.
Recommendation: Replace the damaged
part immediately.
54
5.3.3. Movement of Protection Facility

Description:
Movement of protection facilities represents displacement of the facility either horizontally or
vertically. The damage is common for gabion and piled walls.
Movement of gabion protection structure
Causes:
The damage is caused by scouring of the protection facility or by excessive earth pressure behind
them.
Inspection method:
The damage can easily be observed visually by noting loss of verticality or forward inclination and by
observing cracks on the retained fill.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the amount of movement, the size of the affected portion and the
distance from the bridge.
Consequence:
This damage affects mainly the maintenance costs.
The damaged portion should be replaced with sufficient anchorage
55
• Typical Examples: 113 - Movement of Protection Facility

Movement of piled wall, 1.5 km away from
the bridge.
Cause of damage: 62
Assessment: M1.
portion with sufficient anchorage.
Movement of piled wall, including missing

piles. The bank however is still stable.
Cause of damage: 14
Assessment: M3
portion with sufficient anchorage.
Movement of gabion wall.

Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Repair the damaged
portion.
Collapsed gabion retaining wall due to

scouring and excessive earth pressure.
Cause of damage: 62
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Replace the collapsed
gabions by new ones.
56
5.3.4. Defective Parts of Protection Facility

Description:
Defective wires refer to corroded, broken or missing gabion wires.
Broken gabion wire Corroded gabion wire
Causes:
Corrosion of gabion wires is caused by an aggressive environment such as salty water while broken or
missing wires can be caused by vandalism and sometimes by being hit by objects floating on the river.
Inspection method:
The damage can be seen visually.
Degree of damage:
The damage is critical when the stones are misplaced or missing from the gabions, otherwise it can be
ranked from minor to big damage depending on the extent.
Consequences:
Defective wires will normally affect the maintenance costs.
Replacement of the affected area is recommended.
57
Typical Examples: 114 - Defective Parts of Protection Facility

Damaged gabion mattress wire.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Replacement of the
affected area is necessary.
Broken gabion box wire.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
affected area is necessary.
Slightly corroded gabion wire.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2
affected area.
Heavily corroded and broken gabion

wire.
Cause of damage:45.
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Replace the corroded
wires.
58
59
5.4 DAMAGE TO CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Concrete, like other bridge construction material, is prone to damage resulting from external factors
e.g. environment, impact and overloading conditions. Internal factors which may cause damage
include inadequate design and poor construction methods or poor quality of materials. Some types of
this damage can be detected visually while others cannot.
Environmental damage includes corrosion of reinforcements, shrinkage cracks, carbonation, salty or
other chemical attack. Impact damage is due to the collision of traffic with concrete elements while
excessive loading conditions can lead to shear or flexural cracks.
Inadequate design may lead to the provision of insufficient reinforcement, insufficient concrete cover
and poor construction materials, while poor construction methods may lead to honey-combs, porous
concrete or exposed reinforcements.
Generally, it will be noted that most of the problems in concrete are very much interrelated. As an
example poor compaction of concrete will lead to honey-combs and porosity which in turn will result
in exposure of steel, increased depth of carbonation and leaching which will in turn lead to corrosion
of reinforcements and subsequently to spalling of the concrete and increased exposure of
reinforcement steel.
2 Types of Damage to concrete Elements
201 Insufficient cover on concrete Smaller cover than that to which the bridge is designed
elements for
202 Honeycombs Holes on the surface caused by insufficient vibration of
concrete
203 Leakage on concrete elements When liquid penetrates through the element
204 Carbonation Reaction of cement hydrates with carbon dioxide
205 Debris on concrete elements Collection of dirt, vegetation etc. on the bridge element
206 Corrosion on reinforcement Chemical reaction between the surface of reinforcement
and air & water
207 Spalling Bits of the surface concrete falling down.
208 Delamination on concrete elements Separation of concrete layers due to insufficient bond
between them
209 Abrasion on concrete elements Wearing out of the concrete surface
210 Deformation on concrete elements Loss of the original shape
211 Cracks in concrete elements Linear fracture of concrete
212 Missing parts on concrete elements Originally designed part of an element is missing.
213 Settlement of concrete elements

214 Movement of concrete elements
215 Poor quality of concrete Quality of concrete lower than can be accepted.
290 Other damages to the concrete Any other damage that is not listed above.
elements
60
5.4.1. Insufficient cover on concrete elements

Description
Concrete cover is the layer of concrete surrounding the reinforcement on the outer face. It protects the
reinforcement from being corroded. The minimum necessary cover depends on concrete quality and
the type of environment. The cover can loose its protective ability if it is less than originally assumed,
carbonated, contains too much chloride or is damaged in any other way. Insufficient covering leads to
corrosion of the reinforcement
Insufficient Cover on Concrete Elements

Causes
Insufficient cover is caused by poor design, poor detailing and fixing of the reinforcement in the
formwork, insufficient vibration of concrete and surface abrasion.
Inspection method
Insufficient cover cannot be seen visually unless the reinforcements are exposed. It can, however, be
detected by measurement of the concrete cover by using an Electromagnetic Cover Measurement tool.
For a broken concrete surface the depth of cover can be measured directly by using a folding ruler or
similar tool.
Degree of damage
The seriousness of damage depends on the age of the bridge and the influence of the environment,
location of the damaged area and the extent of the affected portion compared to the member being
inspected. Exposed reinforcement may lead to fast development of corrosion and thus it should be
considered as serious damage.
Consequences:
Insufficient cover can lead to early or premature corrosion of reinforcement followed by spalling of
the concrete. The rate of corrosion will depend on the prevailing environment. In this context,
insufficient cover will normally affect maintenance costs.
It is easier and cheaper to carry out preventive maintenance compared to subsequent mechanical
repairs on concrete with extensive corrosion and spalling damage. Preventive maintenance must
therefore be carried out as soon as this type of damage is observed in order to prevent corrosion and
spalling.
61
Typical Examples: 201 - Insufficient cover on concrete elements

Heavily corroded concrete slab reinforcement
due to insufficient cover.
Cause of damage: 32
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Repairs by chiselling and
shortcreting must be carried out as soon as
possible since this problem might result to
reduction of carrying capacity.
Corroded reinforced concrete element due to

insufficient/damaged cover.
Cause of damage: 32
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: Remove damaged
concrete, replace the heavily corroded
reinforcements, and provide a sufficient cover
within 3 years.

insufficient/damaged cover.
Cause of damage:32/51
Assessment: C2
reinforcements and provide a sufficient cover
within 5 years.

insufficient /damaged cover.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M3
reinforcements, and provide a sufficient cover
within 3 years.
62
5.4.2. Honeycombs
Description:
Honeycombs are holes formed in poorly vibrated concrete where course aggregates have been
separated from the mortar or where air is trapped in the concrete. Honeycombs are commonly found in
corners and at construction joints but can also be found on plain surfaces
Honeycombs on reinforced concrete columns Honeycombs on an edge beam
Causes:
Honeycombs are caused by the wrong composition of concrete materials, poor placing and vibrating
of fresh concrete, and by congestion of reinforcing bars.
Inspection Method:
Honeycombs can be easily identified visually.
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness of damage is based on the depth of the honeycomb, the size of the affected area, the
location and the type of environment. Small honeycombs on large construction elements will have a
low degree of damage, say from 1 to 2.
If the reinforcement of a load carrying element is visible, the reinforcement will be exposed to
corrosion. In such cases, the degree of damage must be considered, say from 2 to 4.
Consequences:
Honeycombs can lead to early corrosion of reinforcement, porosity, leaching, leaking and easy
carbonation of concrete to the depth of reinforcement. This damage, therefore, affects maintenance
costs, although carrying capacity can be affected if the damage is to an element carrying compressive
forces.
Preventive measures include proper selection of the constituent materials for concrete, proper placing
and vibration of fresh concrete, and the proper fixing of reinforcement is recommended to prevent this
problem.
For existing bridges honeycombs shall be repaired by removing the poor concrete followed by
plastering or shot-creting
63
Typical Examples for Type of Damage: 202 - Honeycombs

Minor honeycombs on a deck slab
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M1
Recommendation: Remove poor concrete to
be followed by concrete shot-creting.
Moderate honeycombs on a deck slab

Cause of damage:33
Assessment: M2
Large honeycombs with exposed reinforcing

bars on the mid-span of a concrete beam. The
reinforcing bars are not corroded.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C3
Large honeycombs with exposed reinforcing

bars on concrete beams.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M4
64
5.4.3. Leakage on Concrete Elements

Description:
Leakage is the seepage of water through cracks and voids in concrete. The seeping water dissolves
calcium hydroxide and other compounds in the concrete resulting into lime deposits on the surface of
cracks.
Leakage on concrete deck

Causes:
Leakage is caused by porous concrete due to wrong mix design, poor vibration of concrete, poor
curing operation leading to cracks, inadequate drainage from the deck or cracks caused by external
factors.
Inspection Method:
Leakage can easily be identified from the presence of whitish deposits or rust stains on the concrete
surface.
Degree of Damage:
Degree of damage depends on the age of the bridge, extent of leakage, how fast other types of damage
can develop due to the leakage, environmental influence and location.
Consequences:
Leakage can lead to other problems e.g. corrosion, spalling and weakening of concrete. Leakage
affects maintenance costs.
Leakage can be rectified by sealing the deck or the affected area.
65
Typical Examples: 203 - Leakage on Concrete Elements

Leakage through a longitudinal crack.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Rectify the problem by
sealing the deck or the affected area.
Rust stains due to leakage below a deck

slab.
Cause of damage:33
Assessment: M2
Leakage through a construction joint of a

bridge deck.
Cause of damage:33
Assessment: M3
Leakage between cross beam has been

caused by porous concrete and leaky joint
direct above cross-beam.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M2
66
5.4.4. Carbonation
Description:
Carbonation is the reaction of cement hydrates or mortar in the concrete with carbon dioxide from the
air. The result of this reaction is a reduction of the alkalinity in the concrete which provides good
environment for corrosion of steel.
Phenolphthalein applied on a freshly cut drilled Carbonated concrete. The pink-red colour indicates
concrete uncorroborated concrete.
Causes of Damage:
Carbonation of concrete is caused by the porosity of concrete which allows air to pass through.
Insufficient cover, honeycombs, poor compaction and poor quality of concrete can easily allow
passage of air and hence cause carbonation.
Inspection Method:
Carbonation can be detected by the use of phenolphthalein which is sprayed on freshly exposed or cut
concrete surfaces. The depth of carbonated layer is indicated by unchanged colour while un-
carbonated concrete changes to pink-red. This test shall be conducted only during a major or special
inspection.
Degree of Damage:
Degree of damage depends on the depth of the affected concrete and the location. Carbonation on a
load carrying and heavily reinforced element should be given a higher degree of damage than for a
non-load carrying lightly reinforced element.
Consequences:
The main consequence of carbonation is corrosion of reinforcement due reduced alkalinity. This is
followed by spalling, extended corrosion and finally loss of the section. Carbonation, therefore, affects
the maintenance costs.
Preventive measures using good quality concrete, proper vibration and curing of concrete are
recommended. If the carbonation depth is the same or more than the cover of reinforcement, then
removal of carbonated concrete has to be considered. Replacement of carbonated concrete should be
done by shot-creting or plastering. If plastering is used, a good bond must be maintained between the
new concrete and the old one
67
Typical Examples: 204 - Carbonation

Phenolphthalein applied on a spalled concrete.
Pink red colour indicates un-carbonated
concrete. .
Cause of damage: 53
Assessment: M3
sealing the deck or the affected area by shot-
creting.
Phenolphthalein applied on a spalled concrete

and a freshly cut drilled concrete. Pink red
colour indicates un-carbonated concrete.
Cause of damage: 53
Assessment: M3

The unchanged colour shows the depth of
carbonation while the pink red colour
indicates un-carbonated concrete.
Cause of damage:53
Assessment: M3

The unchanged colour shows the depth of
carbonation while the pink red colour
indicates un-carbonated concrete
Cause of damage:53
Assessment: M2
68
5.4.5. Debris on Concrete Elements

Description:
Debris is a collection of dirt and unwanted material on the bridge. It may include soil, mud, grass, tree
leaves, vegetation, animal waste and various organic materials. Debris creates dampness which may
cause deterioration of the affected bridge element and assists fungi growth. If plants grow in the
debris, their roots can damage the structure.
Collection of grass and branches Collection of soil on bridge deck
Causes of Damage:
Debris is brought to the bridge by flooding rivers, wind, storm water, by vehicular and pedestrian
traffic as well as by animals. Wrong design may create difficulty in cleaning some of the bridge
elements.
Inspection Method:
Debris can easily be seen visually. Special attention shall be paid to the bearing shelves, expansion
joints, drain pipes and bottom joints of truss bridges.
Degree of Damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent or amount of debris and whether any other damage has
developed. However, any debris has to be considered critical since it has to be removed as soon as it is
noticed.
Consequences:
Accumulation of debris may lead to other serious damage such as corrosion and spalling. Generally,
debris affects maintenance costs but traffic safety may be affected if the drain pipes are blocked by
debris. Debris may also block the expansion joints which may lead to inadequate movement of the
superstructure leading to the generation of internal stresses thus affecting the carrying capacity.
All debris shall be cleaned from the bridge as soon as spotted. Proper drainage of approach roads will
reduce accumulation of soil on the deck.
69
Typical Examples: 205 - Debris on Concrete Elements

Plants growth on pier and bearing shelf
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: All debris should be
cleaned from the bridge as soon as spotted.
Bird nests under concrete deck.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: All nests should be
cleaned from the bridge deck in order to
avoid accumulation of humid soils that
might affect the reinforced concrete.
Accumulation of debris and water on deck

due to blockage of drain pipes by debris.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
Blockage of the expansion joint by debris,

Movement of superstructure is partially
restricted.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
70
5.4.6. Corrosion of Reinforcements

Description:
Corrosion of reinforcement is a chemical reaction called oxidation and involves the wearing away of
its surface due to the action of air and water. Sometimes air and water can carry chemicals like
chlorides in salt which facilitates corrosion of steel more quickly as is the case for bridges near the
coastal areas. This type of corrosion is named pitting corrosion and is generally very severe because it
develops very fast with few signs. Rust is the product formed by the corrosion process. The rust in
corroded reinforcement is thicker than the original thickness and thus it exerts pressure on the
covering concrete thereby breaking it and exposing the reinforcement.
Corrosion on the reinforcement leading to a reduction Corrosion of reinforcement due to insufficient cover
of the cross section of the bars and poor quality concrete
Causes of Damage:
Corrosion occurs when the reinforcement is exposed to the air due to the breakdown of the protective
environment of the cement paste in concrete. The protective environment can break down due to
carbonation, insufficient cover or cracking while the presence of water and chloride in salty
atmosphere speeds up the process of corrosion.
Inspection Method:
Corrosion of reinforcement can easily be identified visually by observing the presence of rust or stains
on concrete which varies in colour from light to dark brown. All concrete surfaces shall be checked for
signs of corrosion especially below slabs, beams, around drain pipes and at joints. The location and
extent of corroded areas shall be indicated in sketches. Other possible inspection activities may include
measurement of carbonation depth, chloride content of concrete and measurement of the remaining
cross-sectional area of the corroded reinforcement.
Degree of Damage:
The degree of damage depends on the location of the damage, extent and the rate of development. A
light brown colour on the steel surface shall be considered as minor to average damage while the
presence of dark brown rust with scales or flakes shall be considered as big. Heavy rusting with
laminations shall be taken as critical damage. In all cases the size of the affected area shall be
compared to the total size of the member under consideration.
Consequences:
Corrosion of reinforcement on slabs and beams will normally affect carrying capacity or maintenance
costs depending on the extent and location. For abutments, wing walls and other non-bearing elements
corrosion will only affect maintenance costs.
From minor to average corrosion, cleaning or sand blasting of affected area followed by plastering or
short-creting is recommended. For big and critically affected areas which cover more than 40% of the
element, total replacement of the element is recommended depending on its importance.
71
Typical Examples: 206 - Corrosion of Reinforcement

Heavily corroded deck edge beam.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: The edge beam should be
replaced.
Heavily corroded reinforced concrete column.

Cause of damage: 51
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: The column should be
repaired
Heavily corroded slab reinforcement with

completely worn off and exposed reinforcement
bars. The whole slab is affected.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: The bridge deck should be
replaced.
Heavily corroded deck edge beam.

Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: The edge beam should be
replaced.
72
5.4.7. Spalling
Description:
Spalling is the breaking away of portions of concrete.
Spalling at the base of the column, due to inadequate

cover and casting procedures which in turn resulted in Serious spalling on the underside of a beam caused by
corroded reinforcement bars traffic impact below the bridge
Causes:
Spalling may directly be caused by pressure exerted in concrete by the rust from the corrosion of
reinforcing steel. Indirectly it is also caused by or accelerated by insufficient covering of the
reinforcements by the concrete, honeycombs, porosity, salinity or carbonation. It is also caused by the
use of inferior aggregates.
Other causes can be faulty design, overloading or impact damage from traffic.
Inspection method:
Spalling is easily identified from a “hollow sound” which comes out of the affected area when it is
lightly struck by a hammer or steel bar. An oval shaped or roughly circular crack should also indicate
possible spalling area.
Visual inspection shall be supplemented by measurement of the reinforcement covering, carbonation
depth and salinity content during major inspections.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent of the affected area, the location on the element and the
rate of development. Special attention shall be given to elements carrying compression, e.g. piers and
bearing supports which shall be given higher degree of damage. Spalling on coastal areas shall be
considered more seriously because of the salty environment.
Consequences:
The consequence of spalling include exposure of reinforcement which leads to increased corrosion,
loss of surface concrete and even disintegration of a portion of the element under consideration. In
most cases spalling affects maintenance costs but it can also affect the carrying capacity if it occurs on
an area with lapping reinforcement.
For small affected areas patching can reduce the problem. However, for extensive spalling cleaning
and plastering or shotcreting is recommended. For critical damage, static recalculation may be
necessary.
73
Typical Examples: 207 - Spalling

Severely spalled deck kerb.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: The kerb should be
replaced.
Heavily spalled deck kerb.

Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: The kerb should be
repaired.
Critically spalled deck slab.

Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: The deck slab should be
replaced.
Critical spalling of deck slab. More than 90%

is affected.
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: The deck slab should be
replaced.
74
5.4.8. Delamination on Concrete Element

Description:
Delamination is the separation of concrete layers due to insufficient bond between them. A good
example is the separation of the concrete wearing course placed on a concrete slab after it has
hardened or is in the initial stages of spalling. Corrosion of reinforcements can also cause concrete
delamination in the form of spalling.
This chart diagram shows the progression of concrete deterioration due to rebar corrosion leading to delamination
Causes of Damage:
The cause of Delamination can be due to congested reinforcement, wrong composition of concrete
materials, improper repairs, settlement of form-work and overloading which may weaken bond
strength.
Inspection method:
A fully developed Delamination can be seen visually or detected by a “hollow sound” when lightly hit
by a hammer.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent and location. Delamination on load carrying elements
shall be given a higher degree of damage than on non-load carrying elements.
Consequences:
Delamination can lead to other problems such as spalling and corrosion of the reinforcement. This
damage will affect carrying capacity if found on load carrying elements while for non-load carrying
elements it will only affect maintenance costs.
Traffic safety will be affected if the element is above the carriageway since pieces of concrete may fall
on passing traffic.
The affected concrete should be removed using chipping hammers or other tools, and the
reinforcements cleaned before replacing the concrete with a 1:11/2:11/2 mix concrete. The coarse
aggregate in this mix should have a max. size of 10 mm.
75
Typical Examples: 208 - Delamination on Concrete Element

Delamination of concrete layers from
additional cast section of bridge deck
Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M3
concrete followed by shotcreting.
Significant deck bottom delamination

Cause of damage: 51
Assessment: M4
concrete followed by shotcreting.
Delamination of concrete on bridge deck

Cause of damage: 33
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Clean the damaged
area followed by shotcreting.
76
5.4.9. Abrasion on concrete elements

Description:
Abrasion is the wearing out or polishing of the concrete surface. Some aggregates and cement paste
are worn away exposing the surface of the coarse aggregates.
Causes:
Abrasion of the concrete wearing course is caused by vehicle tyres as they pass over the bridge. For
substructure elements abrasion may be caused by sand and other debris carried by the river. Other
causes are attack by chemicals in the river and acidic water both of which dissolve the cement paste in
concrete.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection will reveal the damage. Measuring of the depth of wear will help in evaluating the
extent of the damage. Covermeter tests can also be used to determine the remaining concrete cover.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the depth and extent of the worn out surface. Abrasion that has
caused a wear out of up to 8 mm in depth may be considered as minor. That of 8 mm to 15 mm may be
taken as average, 15 mm to 25 mm big and critical when more than 25 mm in depth.
Consequences:
Traffic on the deck surface may polish the surface making it slippery and thus may result in accidents.
In this way the damage affects traffic safety. Maintenance costs may be affected when the cover of the
reinforcement is appreciably reduced.
Cleaning of the damaged area of the element and resurfacing by short-creting is recommended.
77
Typical Examples: 209 - Abrasion on concrete elements

Abrasion of a concrete pier due to debris and
sand flowing in the river.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M1
Recommendation: Clear obstructions on the
waterway.
Abrasion has resulted into exposure of

reinforcement on a concrete deck.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Clean the damaged area of
the element and resurface by shot-creting if
possible.
Abrasion on a concrete deck and reduction of

concrete cover.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: M2
possible.
Abrasion has resulted into exposure of

reinforcement on a box culvert
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: M3
possible.
78
5.4.10. Deformation on Concrete Elements

Description:
Deformation is the loss of the original shape. It includes deflection, settlement, tilting and sliding.
Deflection is associated with the bending of elements e.g. beams, slabs and piers. Settlement is vertical
sinking of bridge supports, while tilting is rotation of the substructure elements. Sliding is horizontal
movement.
Deformation caused by settlement of foundation Deformation caused by settlement of the

scaffolding during construction
Causes of Damage:
Deflection of concrete elements can be caused by inadequate design and overloading while settlement
of substructure elements can be due to weak soil below the foundations or under-scouring of the
foundations, inadequate design or overloading. Tilting is caused by differential settlement while
sliding can be a result of erosion of filling material in front of abutments, movement of the
embankment, excessive pressure behind abutments due to raised water levels, or due to loss of friction
between the foundations and the supporting soil. Deformation of parapets may be caused by traffic
impact.
Inspection Method:
Deformation can often be detected visually by observing deviations from the original geometry of the
bridge. Any abrupt change of alignment or kinks may indicate some deformation. For major or special
inspections, levelling shall be carried out to determine the extent of deformation.
Degree of Damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent of deformation and the function of the affected element.
Consequences:
Generally, this damage affects the carrying capacity if found on load carrying bridge elements. It
affects traffic safety if found on non load carrying elements like parapets and guard-rails.
Deformation can be rectified by strengthening the affected element.
79
Typical Examples: 210 - Deformation on Concrete Elements

Deflection of a bridge superstructure due to
settlement of pier. The bridge is closed for
vehicular traffic.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Rectify by strengthening
the affected element if possible, otherwise
the structure should be reconstructed.
Widening of joint due to settlement and

tilting of pier. This bridge is closed for
vehicular traffic.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: C4
Tilting of pier due to under scouring.

Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: C4
Settlement and tilting of piers due to under

scouring. This bridge is closed for vehicular
traffic.
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Reconstruction is
necessary.
80
81
5.4.11. Cracking of Concrete Elements
Description:
A crack is a linear fracture in concrete which may extend partially or through the concrete element.
Most concrete elements have cracks due to the nature of concrete. Large cracks are always a problem,
but fine cracks may not be a problem.
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the element and they may extend completely
through the element or partially and also vary in width, length and spacing. For continuous bridges,
pronounced transverse cracks may be noted above or near the top of piers. They may also be noted
around the bottom centres of concrete beams and are called flexural cracks.
Horizontal cracks occur on abutments, piers, walls and are similar in nature to transverse cracks.
Longitudinal cracks are found on deck slab and they run parallel to the road centre line.
Diagonal cracks are typically found on vertical faces of concrete beams near the supports and are
called shear cracks.
Random cracks are interconnected and irregular in pattern. These are shrinkage cracks and are
normally not a serious problem.
Longitudinal crack on slab deck Longitudinal cracks on deck kerb
Causes of Damage:
Cracks can be caused by shrinkage of concrete due to poor materials; poorly vibrated and cured
concrete; insufficient reinforcement mainly in the tension and shear zones due to poor design or
fixing; overloading leading to excessive deflections; restricted movements at the joints due to
blockage; collision by traffic; and deformations such as settlement.
Inspection Method:
The bridge shall first be cleaned in order to reveal all cracks. The deck shall be checked both on top
and bottom, while for beams emphasis shall be given to the mid-spans and the supports. The
substructure elements shall also be checked and emphasis given to the pier caps and bearing supports.
Width, length and if possible depth of important cracks shall be measured and their locations indicated
on sketches. The ends of important cracks shall be marked and dated for monitoring. Patches of mortar
on the cracks can easily indicate whether they are widening or not. If the cracks are considered
serious, frequent inspections should be carried out to monitor the development.
82
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness of cracks depends on their size, location and the prevailing environment which
influences further deterioration.
As a guide, the degree of damage may be decided depending on the crack width as follows:
Crack width less than 0.5 mm : Degree 1
Crack width 0.5 - 1.0 mm : Degree 2
Crack width more than 1.0 mm : Degree 3 - 4.
In an aggressive environment with a possibility of water leakage, the degree of damage should be
considered more seriously.
Consequences:
Cracks will normally appear in concrete elements and with time they can increase in width, length and
depth thus leading to water leakage, corrosion of reinforcements, excessive deformation, and in the
worst case may lead to collapse depending on their location. Cracking of the load carrying elements
may affect their carrying capacity if they are serious while cracking of non load carrying elements like
wing walls affect only maintenance costs. Shrinkage cracks may also affect maintenance costs in the
long run.
Before any crack is repaired its cause must be established first and rectified. The crack can then be
repaired by filling or sealing.
83
Typical Examples: 211 - Cracking in Concrete Elements

A cracked abutment near the bearing
Cause of damage: 12
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Repair the crack
immediately.
Longitudinal crack under a slab bridge.

Note a light brown leakage indicating
corrosion of reinforcement.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Sealing of the crack.
A heavily cracked concrete beam. Crack

width is 3 mm.
Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Repair the crack.
Cracked head wall on .Armco culverts

Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Repair the crack.
84
85
86
5.5 DAMAGE TO STEEL ELEMENTS

Steel elements in bridges include parapets, drain pipes, beams, girders, bearings, piers, piles, truss
members and bracing. These elements can be damaged in several ways but the most common are:
damage to the surface treatment; corrosion; loose connections; deformation which include buckling,
kinks and bends; deflection; cracking and debris.
This chapter will explain the causes and consequences of such damage, how to evaluate them and
possible remedial measures.
Damage to surface treatment is common for elements above the deck including truss members and
parapets but can also be found on all other steel elements including steel pipe culverts.
Loose connections are a problem particularly for truss bridges and plate girders.
Deformation is common for truss bridges and parapet while deflection is mostly found on horizontally
loaded elements, e.g. beams, girders and trusses.
Debris is not damage as such but it is a very common cause of other serious damage like corrosion
3 Types of Damage to Steel Elements
301 Damage to the steel surface Partial or complete removal of coatings, galvanizing etc.
treatment
302 Corrosion on steel Disintegration of the surface through rust
303 Loose connections on steel Looseness of bolts, rivets or any other part of steel
elements element.
304 Deformation on steel elements Loss of original shape or geometry, i.e. buckling, bending,
kinks etc.
305 Deflection on steel elements Sagging of steel elements
306 Cracking on steel elements Linear cracking of steel
307 Debris on steel elements Dirt or any unwanted material on a steel element
308 Missing parts on steel elements Lacing of originally designed member.
390 Other damage to steel elements Any other damage that is not listed above
87
5.5.1. Damage to the Steel Surface Treatment
Description:
Damage of the surface treatment can be partial or complete removal of paint or galvanisation from the
steel surface. Such treatment prevents the steel from corrosion.
Small area of peeling of the top coat The paint coat is worn out and corrosion has started
Causes of Damage:
Surface treatment can be damaged from scratches due to the impact of traffic or abrasion from another
hard material like working tools. This is common for elements above the deck like parapets and truss
elements. Damage to surface treatment is also caused by lack of maintenance and weathering due to
the environment. Early peeling off of surface treatment can also be due to insufficient cleaning of the
surface before painting or galvanising.
Inspection Method:
This damage is easily identified visually by observing scratches and rust on steel elements.
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness of the damage depends on the extent of the affected area compared to the total area of
the element and whether corrosion has started or not. Where signs of corrosion have appeared, the
damage shall be considered critical.
Consequences:
Damage to surface treatment leads to the removal of the surface protection which can cause corrosion
of the steel. For this reason, damage to the surface treatment will affect maintenance costs.
Deterioration of the surface treatment should be rectified by repainting in order to minimise costly
repairs to the corroded element.
88
Typical Examples: 301 Damage to the Steel Surface Treatment

Deteriorated surface treatment of a
bailey bridge.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Repaint the
corroded steel elements of the bridge.

bailey bridge.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2

truss bridge.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2

truss bridge.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
89
5.5.2. Corrosion on Steel

Description:
The most common damage to steel bridges and other steel bridge elements is corrosion. Corrosion of
steel is the wearing away of its surface due to the action of water and air.
Corrosion of steel beam Corrosion of bottom part of arch culvert

Causes of Damage:
Corrosion of steel is caused mainly by a lack of maintenance of the surface treatment and also by an
aggressive environment It is worse near a marine climate with salty condition. Debris and dirt on steel
elements create dampness which may lead to corrosion. Also animal wastes may cause corrosion due
to the chemicals in them. Before corrosion attacks the steel, the paint or galvanising is first damaged.
Inspection Method:
The most significant sign of steel corrosion is the presence of reddish or brown rust which can easily
be observed visually. The inspector shall note the location and the extent of the rusted areas. For steel
beams, a thorough check shall be done at locations where water can penetrate including the upper
flanges, bearing shelves, below joints and drain pipes. For steel trusses, all joints especially on the
bottom chord shall be checked for corrosion and presence of debris. Measurement of the reduction of
the steel cross section shall be carried out during major and special inspections.
Degree of Damage:
A light, loose rust popping out of the paint is considered minor damage. Looser rust with scales or
flakes is considered average damage while heavy rust with laminations indicate a big damage. Heavy
stratified rust with pop outs and perforations is judged as critical damage.
Consequences:
Corrosion of steel may lead to the wearing away of a section and finally the collapse of the element.
The consequence of corrosion depends on the extent and the element under consideration. Surface or
superficial corrosion of load carrying elements will normally affect the maintenance costs, but when
the section is laminated or reduced, then the carrying capacity will be affected. Corrosion of non load
carrying elements will generally affect the maintenance costs.
Remedial actions include cleaning, sandblasting and repainting. For perforated elements it might be
necessary to replace the affected member.
90
Typical Examples: 302 - Corrosion on Steel

Corroded corrugated steel pipe culvert.
Cause of damage: 59
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Clean and repaint the
corroded surface.
Corroded steel pier columns. The columns have

been used only as formwork.
Cause of damage:59
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Clean or sandblast prior
repainting
Light corroded steel beams due to water

leakage.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Clean or sandblast prior
repainting.
Heavily corroded Bailey bridge. Note that the

section is stratified and reduced.
Cause of damage:45
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Replace heavily corroded
sections with new parts.
91
5.5.3. Loose Connections on Steel Elements

Description:
Loose connections refer to un-tight, missing or broken bolts, rivets or pins in steel bridges especially
for steel trusses.
Missing and Loose bolts Missing bolts and nuts
Causes of Damages:
Loose connections can be caused by material defaults, overloading or a traffic collision with the joints.
In some places a bolt can be loosened deliberately or can be left un-tightened during repairs and
inspection. Bolts and rivets can also be broken due to corrosion.
Inspection Method:
Missing or broken bolts are easy to identify visually. Loose connections can be checked by using a
spanner or by placing a finger on one side of the rivet or bolt so that the finger touches both the bolt or
rivet head and the plate; by hitting the other side of the bolt or rivet head with a light hammer, the
movement of a loose or broken bolt or rivet will be felt in the finger. Cracks in the paint or displaced
paint around bolt heads, joints and gusset plates may indicate looseness or slippage in the joints.
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness of a loose connection will depend on the number of missing bolts or rivets and their
location on the bridge. Any loose connection on a load carrying element shall be considered as critical
damage.
Consequences:
When some bolts are broken on a joint, the remaining bolts are over-stressed thus making the joint
weak. Failure of one joint may lead to collapse of the whole bridge. The damage may affect traffic
safety in the case of parapets and carrying capacity for load carrying elements.
All loose connections shall be tightened immediately while missing and broken bolts, rivets or pins
shall be replaced immediately
92
Typical Examples: 303 - Loose Connections on Steel Elements

Loose and missing bolts on a truss joint
Cause of damage:71/82
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Replace the missing
bolts and tighten the loose ones
immediately.
Missing bolts in a truss joint.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C3
bolts and tighten loose connections
immediately.
Missing anchor bolts for handrail

supports.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T4
bolts and tighten loose connections
immediately.
Missing panel pins for a Bailey bridge.

Cause of damage: 38
Assessment: C4
panel pins immediately.
93
5.5.4. Deformation on Steel Elements

Description:
Deformation of steel is the loss of its original shape or geometry. It includes buckling, kinks and
bending due to collision. Buckling is common for axially loaded members in compression such as the
top chord and some of diagonal members of trusses. Bending due to collision is common for parapets
and truss members.
Deformation of a truss bridge members Deformation of Armco culvert
Causes of Damage:
Buckling is caused by excessive compression forces due to overloading, under-design, collision by
traffic or added loading due to failure of an adjacent member. Kinks are sharp bends which are in most
cases a result of excessive buckling or collision impact. Deformation of steel parapets is mostly due to
traffic collision.
Inspection Method:
Deformation of a steel element can easily be seen visually. In most cases buckling will be noted as a
horizontal bending of the top chords in trusses. The amount of deformation can be measured by using
a levelling instrument, a straight edge or a string line and a tape or rule.
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness of this damage depends on the amount of deformation compared to the allowable
limits. Deformation which has caused sharp kinks or cracking is considered critical. Static calculation
can be necessary in order to determine the degree of damage.
Consequence:
Deformation of the load carrying elements affects the carrying capacity while on parapets it affects
traffic safety.
Typical remedies for this problem are strengthening, straightening or replacement of the affected
element.
94
Typical Examples: 304 - Deformation on Steel Elements

Severe buckling of an end truss member on
a truss bridge. Cracks have appeared in the
steelwork
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: C3
members immediately.
Severe buckling of members on a truss

bridge.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: C4
members immediately.
Severe buckling of an end truss member on

a truss bridge. And some bolts are missing.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: C4
truss members and missing bolts
immediately.
Horizontally bent steel beam due to impact

of floating object on the river.
Cause of damage: 78
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Straighten or replace the
affected element immediately.
95
5.5.5. Deflection on Steel Elements

Description:
Deflection is bending or sagging of horizontally loaded elements like beams, girders and trusses.
Deflection of a Bailey bridge

Causes of Damage:
Deflection can be caused by overloading, inadequate design or settlement of supports.
Inspection Method:
Deflection can easily be seen visually. The amount of deflection shall be measured by a levelling
instrument during major and special inspections.
Degree of Damage:
The degree of damage depends on the amount of deflection compared to the allowable limits.
Permanent deflection shall be regarded as critical.
Consequence:
Deflection of load carrying element will affect the carrying capacity.
Strengthening or replacement are the recommended remedial actions.
96
2 Typical Examples: 305 – Deflection on steel elements

Deflection on a steel beam bridge.
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: Underpin the piers by using
cast concrete and jack in place the
superstructure.
Deflection on a Bailey Bridge.

Cause of damage:71
Assessment: C2
Recommendation: Monitor when heavy traffic is
passing and assess the capacity.
97
5.5.6. Cracking on Steel Elements

Description:
A crack in steel is a fracture which may vary from hairline thickness to a width sufficient to transmit
light through the member.
Crack in a wind bracing member of a truss bridge

Causes of Damage:
Cracks in steel can be caused by poor design, material default, overloading with corresponding
excessive deformation, cuts and kinks from traffic collision, notches, poor welding and fatigue which
means frequent loading and unloading.
Inspection Method:
Cracks can easily be observed visually when the bridge has been properly cleaned. Fine cracks will
normally be revealed on the paint. Particular attention shall be paid to cuts, notches, welded parts,
joints, connections and deformed elements. Recording of cracks shall include the element or member
affected location, crack width, length and extent. A sketch will normally be essential.
Degree of Damage:
Transverse cracks in steel shall be considered as critical so long as they are found on load bearing
elements. For non-load bearing elements such as parapets, the seriousness shall be based on crack
width and extent.
Consequence:
Cracks in steel can lead to rupture or breaking off of the element. Cracks in load bearing elements
affect the carrying capacity while those in parapets will affect traffic safety.
Cracks may be repaired by welding, splicing, or complete replacement of the affected element.
However, before any repair is done, the cause of the crack must first be established and rectified
98
Typical Examples: 306 - Cracing on Steel Elements

Cracked metal plate culvert.
Cause of damage: 62/61
Assessment: C2
Recommendation: First establish the cause of
the crack and then repair it by welding,
splicing or remove the affected element.
Cracked steel due to traffic impact.

Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Replace the affected
element.
Severe cracks in the truss end member

following a traffic accident
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Replace the affected
element.
Cracks in the base material surrounding the

rivets
Cause of damage:21
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: First establish the cause of
the crack and then repair it by welding,
splicing or remove the affected element.
99
5.5.7. Debris on Steel Elements

Description:
Debris is not directly a damage but may be a serious cause of other damage. Debris is dirt on bridges
which may include soil, mud, organic matters, animal wastes and fungi. Debris can contain dampness
which can lead to damage of surface treatment and to subsequent corrosion. Debris on bridges may
also lead to the growth of plants and fungi which in turn can cause corrosion especially in the presence
of dampness.
Debris on steel elements
Causes of Damage:
Flooding rivers carry a lot of debris which may become stuck to bridge elements. Often poor design
details make it possible for debris to get shelter in various bridge elements. Poor design can also make
it difficult to remove the debris. Lack of routine maintenance is another main cause of the damage.
Inspection Method:
Debris can easily be seen visually. Particular attention shall be paid to bearing shelves, bottom flanges
of beams, bracing elements under the superstructure, on the deck and truss joints particularly on the
bottom chord.
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness depends on the amount of debris and whether this has triggered off corrosion. In case
corrosion has started, it shall be rated as critical.
Consequence:
The presence of debris will only affect maintenance costs.
Debris shall be removed by properly cleaning the bridge
100
Typical Examples: 307 - Debris on Steel Elements

Buried truss members
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Remove debris by properly
cleaning the bridge
A small plant on a cable anchor of a cable stayed

bridge.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Remove the plant and all
debris from the anchor.
Growth of fungi on a truss joint with signs of

corrosion.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Remove all the debris and the
fungi from the truss joint.
Bird nests below a bridge.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Remove the nests and all
debris on the affected elements.
101
102
5.6 DAMAGE TO MASONRY ELEMENTS

Damage to all three types of masonry is similar and can, therefore, not be classified depending on the
type of masonry.
This chapter will explain the common types of damage that may occur to masonry abutments, piers
retaining walls or parapets, their possible causes, consequences and inspection methods including
evaluation of the damage. This chapter will also give recommendations on some of the possible
remedial options for the damage.
4 Types of Damage to Masonry Elements
401 Cracks in masonry elements Includes all types of cracks.
402 Bulging on masonry elements
403 Wearing of pointing Deterioration of mortar in the joints
404 Weathering on masonry elements

405 Leakage / dampness of masonry Leaks through portion of an element
element
406 Settlement of masonry element. Vertical movement of the element
407 Movement of masonry element When the element has moved from its original position
408 Displaced stones / bricks in Slippage of a stone / portion of the element.

masonry
409 Inadequate cleaning of masonry All kinds of debris, sand etc. on the element.
element
490 Other damages to masonry Any other damage not listed above
103
5.6.1. Cracks in Masonry Elements

Description:
Cracks are linear fractures in a masonry construction. Cracks can be vertical, inclined or horizontal.
Horizontal cracks are normally uniform while vertical and inclined cracks may be “V” shaped
indicating probable settlement of the outer edges of the cracked member, “A“ shaped indicating
probable settlement at the crack location and uniform cracks indicating separation of the two parts.
The following sketches show the three shapes of cracks:
A”V” shaped crack An “A” shaped crack
Causes of Damage:
Normally, cracks occur due to differential settlement of foundations, overloading, excessive impact to
the bridge, high vibrations or earthquakes. Cracks may also occur due to temperature or moisture
changes and these normally run along the mortar joints. Excessive heat either from fire or from direct
sunlight may cause cracks that could lead to the splitting of masonry stones.
Inspection Method:
All masonry bridge elements e.g. parapets, abutments, piers, retaining walls and wing walls should be
checked for cracks. Sketches showing lengths and location of cracks exceeding 1 mm in width should
be prepared for each damaged element. For arch bridges, any long cracks which run through the entire
arch should be recorded by means of sketches.
Degree of Damage:
The seriousness of this damage depends on location, width and length. The inspector has therefore to
consider these factors when assessing this type of damage. However, as a general guide, cracks with
width less than 1 mm may be considered as minor while those of 1 mm to 3 mm may be taken as an
average damage. Those of 3 mm to 5 mm may be counted as a big damage and those of width more
than 5 mm critical.
Consequences:
Any cracks near bearings and cracks on abutments or piers have serious consequences to the structure
as they can affect the carrying capacity of the bridge. Cracks on parapets affect traffic safety while
those on retaining walls and wing walls may affect maintenance costs.
The cause of the cracks should be established and rectified if possible.
Cracks in masonry construction should generally be filled with mortar. However, for cases where the
structure has changed shape, areas of deterioration should be removed and replaced to the original
section.
104
Typical Examples:401 - Cracks in Masonry Elements

A cracked abutment made of plastered stone
masonry at the fixed bearing due to the traffic
impact.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: Establish the cause of the
crack and then repair the crack.
A horizontal crack on a masonry pier. Note

that crack is uniform and runs deep through
the pier.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: C3
A cracked abutment and wing wall. A portion

below is also affected.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: C3
A cracked wing wall.

Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M3
105
5.6.2. Bulging on Masonry Elements

Description:
Bulging is damage where a portion of a structure, especially abutments, retaining walls and barrels of
arch bridges, changes the shape of the structure by projecting out.
Bulging of the abutment

Causes of Damage:
Such damage can be caused by excessively concentrated thrust force from behind the affected bridge
element or may occur due to the use of weak pointing material during construction or deterioration of
the mortar due to age.
Inspection Method:
Visual inspection. The bulging area and extent of bulging should be shown in a sketch. Any horizontal
cracks within or near the damaged portion should be recorded.
Degree of the Damage:
The degree of such damage can be assessed depending on the extent of the affected area and extent to
which it has projected out. Generally, a damaged portion that projects out by up to 3 mm may be
considered as minor and critical if it projects out by more than 15 mm.
Consequences:
Such damage can lead to cracking and at worst to a complete collapse of the structure. They affect the
carrying capacity of the structure if found on abutments or barrels of arch bridges. They affect
maintenance costs if they occur on wing walls and retaining walls.
Any cracks should be filled with mortar and monitored to see if they appear again. Generally, this
damage has to be monitored for some time and if it continues, then the affected area should be
removed and replaced to the original section.
106
Typical Examples: 402 - Bulging on Masonry Elements

A serious bulging of the abutment that has
started to collapse.
Cause of damage: 62
Assessment: C4
damage, repair the place and monitor for
some time and if it continues then the
affected area should be removed and
replaced to the original section.
Bulging of the abutment.

Cause of damage: 62
Assessment: C3
damage, repair the place and monitor for
some time and if it continues then the
affected area should be removed and
replaced to the original section.
107
5.6.3. Wearing of Pointing

Description:
This damage consists of a washing out of the mortar in the joints. It mainly affects the portion of a
structure under the flow of water and sometimes parts which are open to the direct flow of rain water.
Pointing is usually weaker than the masonry units and it deteriorates faster.
Wearing of pointing to the masonry wing wall Wearing of plastering and pointing to the abutment
Causes :
Such damage is mainly caused by use of poor quality mortar, poor workmanship during construction,
lack of maintenance or deterioration of the pointing due to age.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection including determination of the wearing depth.
Degree of damage:
The degree of this damage is determined based on the area covered by the damage and the depth of
wearing compared to the size of the masonry units. Generally, this damage may be considered as
minor if the depth of wearing is less than 1/20th of the thickness of a medium size masonry element
(brick, block or stone), and critical when the depth is more than 1/5th . However, the inspector has to
consider both the extent of the affected area and the depth of wearing in order to conclude the degree
of damage.
Consequences:
In the early stages it will only affect the view of the structure aesthetically, rectification of which will
affect maintenance costs. When the damage is big to critical it may result in other damage to the
structure including cracks, movements or even falling out of the masonry units. In such cases, this
damage has an effect on the carrying capacity if it occurs on abutments or piers. It affects maintenance
costs if on wing walls and retaining walls, and traffic safety if on parapets.
Reapply pointing. This can be quite effective if done when the damage is still in the early stages.
108
Typical Examples: 403 Wearing of pointing

Wearing of plastering and pointing on the
abutment.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Reapply pointing
preferably when the damage is still in its
early stages.
Wearing of pointing on the retaining wall

under the kerb and head walls of the arch
culvert.
Cause of damage:59
Assessment: M3
early stages.
Wearing of pointing on the lower part of the

pier.
Cause of damage: 51
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Reapply pointing and
consider plastering the surface.
Wearing of pointing around the ARMCO

culvert.
Cause of damage: 39
Assessment: M2
early stages.
109
5.6.4. Weathering on Masonry Elements

Description:
This is damage in which the surface of the masonry units degenerates into small particles which are
then washed away by water or wiped out by wind causing loss of section.
Causes:
Such damage can be caused by repeated changes of volume due to temperature changes, fire attack,
rain water or the river flow.
Inspection method:
This damage can be detected by visual inspection where small granules may be seen on the surface of
the masonry or in severe cases the loss of a section can be noticed. For stone masonry, the surface of
the stones on affected elements will have a smooth, rounded look. Deterioration can be checked by
slightly tapping the surface with a hammer and if pieces break off easily, that is an indication of the
critical stage of the damage.
Degree of damage:
This damage is considered to be minor if the loss of a section is not easily noticeable.
It is big when the loss of a section is easily visible and critical if in addition to this obvious loss, on
taping the surface pieces of masonry break off easily.
Consequences:
Weakening of the affected bridge element. If this damage occurs on the abutments or piers, they affect
the bearing capacity of the structure. When found on the wing walls and retaining walls, it affects
maintenance costs.
Recommended action:
Plaster the surface.
110
Typical Examples: Weathering on Masonry Element

Deterioration of stone masonry due to
weathering.
Cause of damage: 59
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Restore the masonry
works.
Weathering of masonry units of the bridge

pier.
Cause of damage: 59
Assessment: M2
early stages.
Deterioration of joint due to weathering.

Cause of damage: 59
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Plaster the surface.
Weathering of pointing around the stone

masonry abutment..
Cause of damage: 39
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Plaster the surface.
111
112
5.7 DAMAGE TO TIMBER ELEMENTS

Damage to timber elements can be caused by changes in moisture content, growth faults, traffic,
insects and environmental conditions. Decay and insect attack are, however, the major problems with
timber elements.
Deterioration of timber bridges can be prevented or greatly reduced by using proper preservative
treatment. However, for existing bridges, it is difficult to tell what preservative treatment has been
used.
In this chapter, description will be given of the different kinds of damage, their causes and
consequences, inspection methods including evaluation of the damage, as well as giving
recommendations on some of their remedial measures.
5 Types of Damage to Timber Elements
501 Growth faults Cup or ring shakes and Knots
502 Timber decay Deterioration of the timber leading to softness.
503 Attack from insects or marine Timber members being eaten by termites, beetles, marine
borers borers etc.
504 Loose connections on timber Looseness of bolts, nails, screws or any other part of steel
elements element.
505 Deformation on timber elements Loss of original shape or geometry, i.e. buckling, bending,
etc.
506 Movements on timber elements When the element has moved from its original position
507 Cracks on timber elements Includes all types of cracks.
508 Missing parts on timber elements Part of originally designed member is missing.
509 Inadequate cleaning of timber All kinds of debris, sand etc. on the element.
element.
510 Fracture of timber element A broken member of the timber element.
590 Other damages to timber Any other damage not listed above
elements
113
5.7.1. Growth Faults

Description:
If timber used in bridge construction is not carefully selected, two of the most common growth faults
may be observed during inspection. These are shakes and knots. Knots and shakes are not damage by
themselves but are sources of weakness and are always worth reporting when observed in bridge
members.
Cup or ring shakes: These are usually internal cracks between two annular rings.
Knots: Knots are roundish or oval portions of timber normally with a darker colour seen
on sawn timber. The following sketches show different types of knots:
Cup or ring shake
Causes:
Cup or ring shakes are formed due to non coherence of the adjacent annular rings.
Knots are caused by branches during the early years of growth. When selecting timber for main
structural members, timber containing knots should be excluded.
Inspection method:
All timber members of the bridge should be thoroughly checked for any knots, shakes or signs of
shakes. Specific attention should be paid to the main carrying members. The damage should be keenly
assessed by checking how far it has affected the section of the member and if there are any signs of
cracks.
Degree of the damage:
The seriousness of growth faults is difficult to estimate. They should be considered as either minor or
critical damage. Growth faults that affect more than half of the section of the member are always
critical.
Consequences:
When growth faults are found in structural members such as beams, piers, or truss members, these
could affect the carrying capacity of the bridge. For members like sleepers, running boards and planks
The damaged members in a critical condition should be removed and replaced with properly selected
good ones. For big damage, they should be monitored and if found to progress, they also should be
replaced.
114
Typical Examples: 501 Growth fault

Dead knots on timber running board.
Some of the running board timber is
cracked.
Cause of damage: 23
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: The damaged members
in a critical condition should be removed
and replaced with properly selected good
ones.
Ring shakes on running board timber.

Cause of damage: 23
Assessment: M3
ones.
Cracked running board timber.

Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: M3
ones.
Arris and margin knots on timber running

board. Some of the running board timber
is cracked.
Cause of damage: 23
Assessment: M2
ones.
115
116
5.7.2. Timber Decay

Description:
The most common types of timber decay are dry and wet rot..
Dry rot:
This is the worst and most common type of timber decay and is called dry rot because the type of
fungus that causes it has the ability to use certain chemicals extracted from damp wood to provide
itself with surplus moisture to attack drier wood.
Wet rot:
Wet rot is timber decay that occurs in timber that is open to excessive wetness but not constantly fully
submerged in water.
Severe attack of a rot decay in a load carrying Wet rot decay of timber beam
element on timber bridge
Causes:
Both dry and wet rot are caused by different types of fungi which are parasite plants without leaves or
flowers. There are many types of fungi which attack timber but the most common are those that cause
dry and wet rot. Since fungi need damp wood to grow in, the main cause of decay is dampness. Lack
of maintenance also causes this damage.
Inspection method:
For dry rot, the appearance of affected timber varies with extent and age of the defect. In the early
stages the fungus throws out small silky threads which develop into a grey network that covers the
timber. If conditions are damp enough, masses like cotton wool may be formed and later develop into
a brown or dark red sponge-like growth called mushrooms.
For wet rot on the other hand, the decay and growth are almost completely internal with very little
external evidence apart from a dark discoloration and some longitudinal surface cracking. In the final
stages of attack the wood becomes very brittle and is easily powdered.
The most vulnerable parts which require attention during inspection are areas which are subject to
prolonged retention of water after the rains, for example where decking planks bear on beams,
between planks, parts in contact with the ground e.g. piles, ends of beams, around splits in the timber
or in areas where timber piers enter the ground. The effect is greater if there are some debris and
vegetation around.
117

The degree of this damage will be determined based on the extent in area and appearance of the
damaged timber member. The following table may act as guide for the appearance:
DRY ROT WET ROT

Minor Signs of silky threads are seen. Since this type of decay attacks internally,
it is difficult to notice at this stage.
Averag When the threads have developed When dark discoloration is noticed on
e into grey network on the timber. timber.
Big When masses like cotton wool When there are both, discoloration and
have been formed. some longitudinal surface cracking.
Critical When mushrooms have appeared. When the timber has become brittle and is
easily powdered.
Consequences:
As a result of fungi attack, timber decays, softens and loses its strength. Such damage will affect load
carrying capacity if it occurs on the main load carrying bridge elements such as beams, piers, piles or
main truss members. It will affect the maintenance costs if found on sleepers, running boards and
parapets.
The damaged timber should be removed and replaced. For prevention of decay all timber should be
preserved before use in bridges.
118
Typical Examples: 502 Timber decay

A minor stage of timber decay where signs
of silky threads are seen.
Cause of damage: 56
Assessment: C1
Recommendation: The damaged timber
should be replaced. For prevention of
decay all timber should be preserved before
use in bridges.
A grey network of fungi is seen on the

timber beams and sleepers.
Cause of damage: 56
Assessment: C2
Recommendation: The fungi on timber
beams should be cleaned. For prevention of
use in bridges.
This is a stage of timber decay where

mushrooms have started to appear.
However, only small portion of the riband
is affected.
Cause of damage: 56
Assessment: T3
use in bridges.
A critical stage of timber decay where the

timber riband has lost its strength
completely and is disintegrating.
Cause of damage: 56
Assessment:T4
use in bridges.
119
120
5.7.3. Attack from Insects and Marine Borers

Description:
Serious damage can be done to timber by insects. The common types of insects that attack timber are
beetles, termites and marine borers.
Beetles:
Beetles attack mainly sapwood but a few other kinds attack even heartwood.
The most damaging stage in the wood destroying beetle’s life-cycle is the larva. Normally, eggs are
laid in cracks or crevices of timber. Eggs develop into larvae and enter the wood leaving holes which
are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They tunnel through the timber for about a year or more
and when fully grown form chambers close to the surface where they become pupae. The pupae
become beetles and eat their way out through the thin outer skin leaving exits which are usually the
first indication of beetle damage. Their exit holes vary from 1 mm. to 8 mm in diameter depending on
the type of beetle. Often, a powdery dust is dislodged from the exit holes.
Termites:
Termites usually cause their damage to timber under the surface. Their damage is therefore not often
visible except for signs of mud which may be seen at points where timber touches the ground.
Termites can only be found on rarely used bridges and may attack any element of the bridge that is
completely free from disturbance.
Marine borers:
Marine borers do not live in fresh water but are destructive to timber used in salty water. They mostly
attack piles, piers and sheet walls. Their attack is severe in areas subject to alternating wetting and
drying like between high and low water levels. Almost any untreated timber is vulnerable to attack by
marine borers but a certain few species are fairly resistant.
Wood gribble and “hour glass” effect it causes on piles Internally bored pile by Teredo shipworm
Causes:
Any damage related to insects attack is caused by lack of adequate treatment of timber before use.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection including a simple material test e.g. spike hammer and drill tests should be carried
out when insect attack is suspected. Special attention should be paid to the vulnerable areas as
mentioned above.
121
Degree of damage:
As the extent of insects attack is not always easy to detect visually, there is no minor, average or big
damage due to insects attack. Therefore, whenever signs of insect attack are detected, a critical stage
has already been reached.
Consequences:
Timber which has been attacked by insects loses a big margin of its strength. If the attacked elements
are the main load carrying bridge elements such as beams, piers, piles or main truss members, it will
directly affect the carrying capacity of the bridge. If the attack is in secondary members e.g. sleepers,
running boards and parapets, it affects the maintenance costs and traffic safety.
Recommended action:
Prevention is the best solution for insect attack. Damaged elements should be replaced immediately.
122
Typical Examples: 503 Attack from insects or marine borers

Timber Beams that have been attacked by
termites.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: The damaged timber should
be replaced. For prevention of insects attack all
timber should be preserved before use in
bridges.
Timber beam that has been slightly attacked by

termites.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C2
be cleaned. For prevention of insects attack all
bridges.
Timber piers that have been attacked by marine

borers.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C4
bridges.
Timber Beams that have been seriously attacked

by termites.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C4
bridges.
123
5.7.4. Loose Connections

Description:
Under normal circumstances, all connections are supposed to be securely fixed. If bolts or pins
become loose in joints, this is to be considered as damage. Protruding nails or fixing spikes on running
boards or cross beams is another form of this type of damage.
Loose connection of timber running boards and ribands

Causes:
Improper fixing of timber members during construction or lack of periodic maintenance are the main
causes. Shrinkage of timber or vibration from traffic can make bolts and nails loose.
Inspection method:
Thorough visual inspection along the running boards and on joints between sleepers and main beams.
Checking of all joints on trusses for insecure connections must be done. Observation when traffic is
passing will help to reveal loose connections.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the type of loose connection. In principle, all loose connections in
load carrying members should be regarded as critical.
Consequences:
Loose connections between main structural elements like beams, piers and trusses may lead to
different bridge members functioning independently which will affect the carrying capacity of the
bridge. Loose connections between sleepers and main beams or running boards and sleepers together
with protruding nails or fixing spikes can affect the traffic safety and maintenance costs.
This damage can be rectified immediately even during inspection by tightening the loose bolts and
hammering in the protruding spikes or nails.
124
Typical Examples: 504 - Loose Connection

Running board with gaps and loose
connections.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
should be replaced. For prevention of decay
all timber should be preserved before use in
bridges.
A missing nut like this one leads to the

connection being loose.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T2
bridges.
The running board with a gap underneath is

loose.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C2
Recommendation: The gap should be closed
and damaged timber should be replaced. For
prevention of decay all timber should be
preserved before use in bridges.
Loose connection of Bailey bridge chess due

to improperly fixed ribands, lack of running
boards and lack of maintenance.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T4
bridges.
125
5.7.5. Deformation on Timber Elements

Description:
Deformation is the tendency of a bridge member or element to change its shape. It can be in the form
of a deflection, horizontal bend or vertical curving which may occur in timber beams, sleepers, piers,
trusses or parapets indicating partial failure. Deformation can also take the form of distortion such as
bowing, springing, twisting, cupping, end splits or surface checks
Bowing: Cupping:
Twisting:
Splits and surface checks:
Springing:
Causes:
The main causes of this type of damage are overloading, traffic impact, floating objects on the river or
defects in timber. Loose connections in joints may sometimes also lead to deformation.
Deformation in the form of distortion is mainly caused by change of moisture content combined with
the faulty sawing of timber logs into beams, sleepers or planks.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection is normally enough for detecting deformation. The inspector should observe if there
is any deformation of the parapets. Deformation of sleepers is easily noticeable because it will form an
uneven surface on the deck. It is advisable to check the damaged elements when traffic is passing in
order to experience the behaviour of the structure under loading.
The degree of damage depends on the magnitude of change of shape.
Consequences:
Reduction of the carrying capacity will be the consequence if the affected members are the main load
carrying ones i.e. beams, trusses or piers. Traffic safety will be affected if the damaged members are
parapets or sleepers.
The cause of the deformation should be established and rectified. Bridge elements with big to critical
damage should be replaced.
Typical Examples: 505 - Deformation on Timber Elements
126
Deformation to the timber deck due to

deflection on the timber beams.
Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Rectify the beams and fix
the displaced deck back into position.
127
5.7.6. Movements on Timber Elements

Description:
Movement is the displacement of a bridge element.
Causes:
Movements can be due to settlement, disconnection of elements from the bridge or any external forces
such as excessive vibrations, earthquakes or traffic impacts.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection. Normally, the covered portions of timber remain with a newer surface than the
exposed ones. If a newer open surface is noticed at joints, this might be an indication that some
movements have occurred.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the amount of movement and the function of the element under
consideration.
Consequences:
As a result of movements, elements of bridges may start carrying loads other than those to which they
were designed for. Consequences vary depending on the type of the affected bridge member and the
load it carries. Movements of main carrying elements i.e. beams, structural members of trusses and
piers affect the carrying capacity of the structure. Movements of sleepers and running boards may
cause a safety threat to traffic.
Identification of the cause of the damage. Rectify the cause and fix the displaced members back into
position. If the displaced members have been distorted or damaged, they have to be replaced.
128
Typical Examples: : 506 - Movements on Timber Elements

The top of the columns have been displaced
11cm due to displacement of abutment and the
superstructure.
Cause of damage: 69
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: Identify the cause of damage,
rectify the cause and fix the displaced members
back into position. If the displaced members
have been distorted or damaged, they have to be
replaced.
129
5.7.7. Cracks on Timber Elements

Description:
There are two types of cracks; longitudinal cracks which run along the grains and transverse cracks
which runs across. Cracks across the grains are critical and may be signs of complete failure of the
member. Cracks may occur in any bridge element.
Longitudinal cracks along timber running boards

Causes:
Longitudinal cracks may occur in timber members due to the constant wetting and drying of the
timber, improper placing or overloading. Transverse cracks are mostly caused by overloading or
movements of the members. Lack of maintenance and damage from traffic collision can be other
Inspection method:
Visual check. All timber members of the bridge should be carefully checked for cracks. Attention
should be given to each main load carrying member starting from one end to the other. The ends of
sleepers and running boards are more susceptible to cracking.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the cause of the cracks. It also depends on the kind of stresses the
damaged member or element is exposed to. In structural members, all major cracks i.e. deep or
through longitudinal cracks and any transverse cracks have to be considered as critical.
Consequences:
Longitudinal cracks separate the grains of the timber members and in so doing weaken the members
while transverse cracks normally indicate failure or its beginning. If cracks occur in main load
carrying members like beams, structural members of trusses, piers or piles, they reduce the carrying
capacity of the bridge. If they occur in sleepers, running boards and parapets, they affect traffic safety.
First, the cause of damage should be established and rectified. If the damage is critical, the affected
members should be strengthened if possible otherwise replaced.
130
Typical Examples: 507 - Cracks on Timber Elements

Crack on a notch of a log timber beam.
Cause of damage: 38
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: The damaged portion
should be monitored and if the damage
progresses the element should be replaced with
properly installed ones.
Crack on a notch of a sawn timber beam.

Cause of damage: 38
Assessment: C3
should be monitored and if the damage
progresses the element should be replaced with
properly installed ones.
Longitudinal cracks along timber running

boards.
Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: The damaged members in a
critical condition should be removed and
replaced with properly selected good ones.
131
132
5.8 DAMAGE TO THE WEARING COURSE

For concrete, timber and steel wearing courses, the types of damage are similar to that for the
respective types of material. For gravel wearing courses e.g. on culverts, refer to damage to the
approaches.
Damage to a bitumen wearing course may be classified as cracking, surface distortion and
disintegration. Abrasion is another form of damage to the bitumen wearing course.
There are several types of cracks. Some are formed within the wearing course itself and some are
imposed on the wearing course from the deck below.
In the class of surface distortion, the bitumen changes shape without disintegrating. Damage such as
ruts, corrugations and depressions fall into this class.
Disintegration is another class of damage to the bitumen wearing course where the bitumen disrupts
and starts loosing its integration. Potholes fall into this class.
In this chapter, explanations will be given for the different types of damage to the bitumen wearing
course classified above.
6 Types of Damage to the Wearing Course
601 Cracking on wearing course Includes all types of cracks.
602 Ruts on wearing course Channelled depressions of the surfacing following the
wheel tracks.
603 Corrugation on wearing course Waves on top of the wearing course due to instability of
materials used.
604 Depression on wearing course Local depression, normally caused by poor quality of
supporting materials.
605 Pothole on wearing course Crazing or irregular shaped, disintegrated areas of the
surfacing.
606 Abrasion on wearing course Caused by traffic normally, and appears as ruts
690 Other damage on wearing course Any other damage not listed above
133
5.8.1. Cracking on Wearing Course

Description:
Cracking of a bitumen wearing course may take various forms. The most common are:
Alligator cracks: These are cracks which are interconnected forming a series of small blocks that
resembles alligator's skin or chicken wire.
Causes:
This form of crack is generally caused by the drying out of the bitumen material or excessive
deflection of the deck.
Reflection cracks: These are cracks in a bitumen wearing course which follow the pattern of cracks
on the deck and thus reflect them.
Lane joint cracks: These are longitudinal cracks which run along the seam between two paving
lanes.
Causes:
They are usually caused by a weak joint between two adjoining bitumen spreads.
Edge cracks: These are longitudinal cracks near the edge of the carriageway.
Causes:
They are usually due to drying out of the bitumen, lack of lateral support or deterioration of the deck.
Shrinkage cracks:These are interconnected cracks that form a series of large blocks due to the
shrinkage of bitumen.
Causes:
Improper mixing of the bitumen during construction.
Slippage cracks: These are crescent shaped cracks.
Causes:
They are caused by the lack of a good bond between the wearing course and the deck underneath. This
can be due to the use of inferior materials or improper construction methods.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection is normally enough for detecting and assessing different types of cracks.
During major and special inspections, measuring the crack widths by crack measuring devices
will give accurate results.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the crack width and the extent of the affected area. The
inspector has to always consider both of these factors when assessing the degree of damage.
However, as a guide; hair line cracks up to crack widths of 2 mm may be judged as minor.
Crack widths of 2 mm to 5 mm are average cracks. Those with 5 mm to 10 mm are big and
more than 10 mm width are critical
Consequences:
If no action is taken to seal the cracks in time, they may give way for water to penetrate the
surface and may cause damage to the deck below. This damage therefore mainly affects
maintenance costs.
However, when the cracks are too big and many, they may affect traffic safety.
For alligator and slippage cracks, the damaged portion should be removed and the surface is resealed.
For reflection, lane joint and edge cracks, the cracks should be filled with liquid asphalt mixed with
sand and the surface is resealed.
In the case of shrinkage cracks, these should be filled with asphalt emulsion slurry followed
by resealing over the entire surface.
134
Typical Examples: 601 - Cracking on Wearing Course

Alligator cracks on a wearing surface.
Cause of damage: 21
Assessment: M4
should be removed and the surface sealed.
An edge crack and other vertical cracks.

Cause of damage: 39
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: The cracks should be
sealed.
These are shrinkage cracks. Note that the

wearing course is no longer shielding the deck
below.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: These should be filled with
asphalt emulsion slurry followed by resealing
over entire surface.
Reflection cracks. Note that the deck slab has

been cracked.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: The cracks should be filled
with liquid asphalt mixed with sand and the
surface is resealed.
135
5.8.2. Ruts on Wearing Course

Description:
Ruts are channelled depressions that may develop on a bitumen wearing course following the wheel
tracks along the bridge. It is one form of surface distortion
Ruts on a Truss Bridge wearing course

Causes:
Normally, ruts occur due to consolidation of the bitumen or lateral movement of the surface under
traffic conditions that can be caused by overweight wheel loads or high temperatures.
Inspection method:
Mainly visual inspection. The extent of the damage can be determined with the help of a straight edge
and a folding ruler.
Degree of damage:
Ruts of a depth up to 5 mm are considered as a minor damage. Those of 5 - 15 mm are average while
those of 15 - 25 mm are big and more than 25 mm in depth are critical.
Consequences:
Generally, this kind of damage is a threat to traffic safety.
Ruts can be repaired by resealing using dense graded asphalt concrete.
136
Typical Examples: 601 Ruts on Wearing Course

Ruts on the Wearing Course.
Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: The ruts should be
resealed with dense graded asphalt concrete.
Ruts on Wearing Course.

Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: T2
monitored and rate of deterioration assessed.

Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: T3

Cause of damage: 61
Assessment: T4
137
5.8.3. Corrugations on Wearing Course

Description:
These are waves across the bitumen wearing course. They may be in the form of crescents or of bumps
that go across the bridge. This is another type of surface distortion.
Corrugations on top of a pipe culvert
Causes:
They are mainly caused by loss of stability in the bitumen.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection is adequate for detecting corrugations. The extent of the damage can be determined
with the help of a straight edge and a folding ruler.
Degree of damage:
Corrugations of depths up to 5 mm are considered as minor damage. Those of 5 - 15 mm are average
while those of 15 - 25 mm are big and more than 25 mm in depth are critical.
Consequences:
This kind of damage directly affects traffic safety. Depending on location, it may sometimes only
affect maintenance costs.
Corrugations can be repaired by removing the damaged bitumen, cutting the edges straight and
vertical then, resealing the surface.
138
Typical Examples: 603 – Corrugation on wearing course

Corrugations on Wearing Course.
Cause of damage: 22
Assessment: T2
Recommendation: The corrugations should
be monitored for their rate of deterioration.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Regravelling and proper
compaction.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T4
Recommendation: Regravelling and proper
compaction.
139
5.8.4. Depressions on Wearing Course

Description:
Depressions are dimples on the wearing course that have neither a particular shape nor alignment.
Causes:
Depressions are mainly caused by localised consolidation of the bitumen. This damage occurs, mostly,
as a result of poor workmanship during construction.
Inspection method:
Mainly visual inspection. The extent of damage can be determined with the help of a straight edge and
a folding ruler.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the depth and the extent of the affected area. As a guide,
depressions of depths up to 5 mm are considered as a minor damage. Those of 5 - 15 mm are average
while those of 15 - 25 mm are big and more than 25 mm in depth are critical.
Consequences:
Generally, this damage is a threat to traffic safety. Depending on the location it may sometimes affect
only maintenance costs.
Depressions can be repaired in a similar way to that for corrugations.
140
Typical Examples: 604 – Depression on wearing course
141
5.8.5. Potholes on Wearing Course

Description:
Potholes are bowl-shaped holes of various sizes on the wearing course.
Potholes on a Truss Bridge wearing course

Causes:
Potholes are formed due to localised failure or excessive cracking.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection: Sometimes measuring the number of holes for each degree of damage may help in
determining the overall degree of the damage.
Degree of damage:
Potholes found on the bridge wearing course are judged more seriously compared to those found on a
road surface e.g. on the bridge approaches. Their degree of damage mainly depends on the depth of the
potholes. The extent of the affected area also has an influence on the degree of damage.
The following table may be used as a guide in determining the degree of damage. However, judgement
depends on other factors such as the rate of deterioration already visible, other effects to the deck due
to the damage and the extent of the damage compared to the total area of the wearing course.
Area
2
Depth (mm) Less than 900 cm 900 cm - 2700 cm2
2
More than 2700 cm2
Less than 13 Minor Average Big
13 - 25 Average Big Critical
More than 25 Big Critical Critical
Consequences:
This damage mainly affects traffic safety. In addition, potholes retain water for prolonged periods that
may cause damage to the deck and therefore, affect maintenance costs.
Potholes should be cut straight and vertical to a rectangular or square shape, cleaned and patched with
hot asphalt.
142
Typical Examples: 605 - Pothole on wearing course

Pothole over a Pipe Arch Bridge
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Pothole
patching.
Small pothole in the wearing

course on a bridge deck.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Cut sharp
edges around the pothole, clean it
and fill in new asphalt.
Remember to compact properly.
0
Small pothole in the wearing
course on a bridge deck at the
joint.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Remove the
old portion of the wearing course
around the damaged area, repair
the deck and fill in new asphalt.
1
Severe potholes in the wearing

course on a bridge deck.
Cause of damage: 83
Assessment: M4
old portion of the wearing course
around the damaged area, repair
the deck and fill in new asphalt.
2
143
5.8.6. Abrasion on Wearing Course

Description:
Abrasion of a bitumen wearing course is the wearing out of the surface changing its texture to a
smooth and slippery condition.
Abrasion on the wearing course of a bridge deck
Causes:
Abrasion of the wearing course is caused by vehicle tyres as they pass over the structure.
Inspection method:
Mainly visual inspection. The extent of the damage can be determined by measuring the depth
of wear with the help of a straight edge and a folding ruler.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the depth, area of worn out surface and the extent of
slipperiness.
Consequences:
This damage is a threat to traffic safety due to the slipperiness that may cause accidents. It
may affect maintenance costs if the deck is affected, particularly the cover to the
reinforcements.
Resealing.
144
Typical Examples: 606 - Abrasion on Wearing Course

Localised abrasion on the bridge wearing
course.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: T2
Recommendation: Resealing.
Abrasion on the bridge wearing course. Note

that at some locations, the chippings have
been worn away completely.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: T2
Recommendation: Resealing
An abrasion that is spread all over the bridge

wearing course.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Resealing.
145
146
5.9 DAMAGE TO THE BEARINGS

Bearings are small but very important elements for the proper functioning of the bridge. Bearings are
provided to transmit the load from the superstructure to the substructure in such a manner that they
allow for certain movements of the superstructure. Such movements may be longitudinal due to
temperature variations, rotational due to deflection of the superstructure and vertical due to the
settlement of piers or abutments.
There are two categories of bearings, namely fixed bearings and expansion or free bearings. It is very
important for the inspector to know which are the fixed and which are expansion bearings in every
bridge during inspection.
Different types of damage to bearings depend on the material used for the bearing. The most common
materials for bearings are steel and rubber.
This chapter will explain different types of damage to both steel and rubber bearings.
Damage may also occur to the bearing seats due to either use of weak material for the seat or provision
of inadequate bearing length. Any damage to the bearing seat or shelf should be considered during
inspection.
7 Types of Damage to the Bearings / Joints
701 Debris on bearings Debris, sand, gravel etc. on the bearing shelf.
702 Corrosion on bearings Disintegration of steel surface through rust.
703 Loose parts on bearings Looseness of bolts, nails, screws or any other part of the
bearing.
704 Excessive shearing on bearings Only visible on neoprene bearings. The indication is
skewness in the vertical front end of the bearing.
705 Missing parts on bearings Part of original design missing.
709 Other damage to bearing Any other damage not listed above
147
5.9.1. Debris on Bearings

Description:
For bearings made of any type of material, the presence of debris on or around the bearings or at any
location within the bearing shelf is unfavourable. Debris is not a damage in itself, but may block the
bearings and prevent them from functioning properly. Debris is also a main cause of corrosion in steel
bearings
Causes:
Debris on the bearing shelf and subsequently on or around the bearings may be caused mainly by poor
design or lack of routine maintenance.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection. For proper assessment, all debris should be removed during inspection. The
inspector should locate which bearings are fixed and which are free if this is not known before the
inspection.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on whether any other damage has resulted. The damage is critical
when the bearing movement is hampered.
Consequences:
Debris retains water for prolonged periods and the dampness causes deterioration of the bearings. If
accumulated for a long time, vegetation may grow and cause further damage to the bridge. This
damage therefore, affects maintenance costs.
Remove the debris immediately and clean the bearings and bearing shelves.
148
Typical Examples: 701 - Debris on Bearings

Accumulation of debris on truss bridge
bearing.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Remove the debris
immediately and clean the bearings and
bearing shelves.
Debris on a truss bridge bearing.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M1
bearing shelves.
Accumulation of soil on a bearing due to

open joint.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M2
debris immediately and clean the
bearings and bearing shelves.
Accumulation of debris on a truss bridge

bearing which has led to serious corrosion
and malfunctioning.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
debris immediately and clean the
bearings and bearing shelves and
paint.
149
5.9.2. Corrosion on Bearings

Description:
Corrosion on bearings with steel parts.
Causes:
The main cause of corrosion to bearings is the presence of debris or seepage of water through joints to
the bearings.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection: The bearings have to be cleaned in order to determine the extent of the corrosion.
Degree of damage:
The degree of corrosion to bearings has to be determined in a similar way to that for other steel
elements.
Consequences:
Apart from normal destruction, excessive corrosion may cause the bearings to completely stop
functioning. This may lead to the formation of stresses within the superstructure which will in turn
affect the carrying capacity. Minor corrosion, which does not affect the functioning of the bearing,
will only affect the maintenance costs.
Rectify the cause of the corrosion, e.g. remove debris if present and seal joints if they allow water to
penetrate and reach the bearings. Then clean the bearings free from corrosion and treat them as for
other steel elements. If the condition is critical, replace the bearings.
150
Typical Examples: 702 - Corrosion on Bearings

Completely worn out bearing due to
corrosion.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: C4
bearing shelves and replace it.
Slightly corrosion of bearing for a suspended

span. The bearing is functioning well.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M2
bearing shelves and paint.
Corroded truss bridge bearing. The rollers in

the box are no longer working.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C4
bearing shelves and replace the rollers or the
whole bearing. Rectify the cause of the
corrosion.
151
5.9.3. Loose Parts on Bearings

Description:
Loose anchor bolts or the absence of other parts of the bearings may lead to improper functioning of
the bearings.
Loose roller bearing’s cover
Causes:
This damage can be due to vandalism, excessive loads, lack of maintenance or other causes.
Inspection method:
Visual check together with examination of the tightness for instance of the nuts.
Degree of damage:
Any loose bolts, missing bolts, nuts or other parts of the bearings should always be judged as critical
and should be tightened or replaced immediately.
Consequences:
Loose bolts may cause movement in the fixed bearings resulting in instability of the superstructure.
This tendency may cause damage to other elements of the substructure thus affecting maintenance
costs. Other loose parts may cause additional stresses to the superstructure and substructure,
consequently affecting the bridge carrying capacity.
Tighten the bolts and replace missing nuts or other parts.
152
Typical Examples: 703 - Loose Parts on Bearing

Loose cover for roller bearings.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: C3
Recommendation: Remove the cover and clean
the bearings and bearing shelves then replace the
cover or the whole bearing.
153
5.9.4. Excessive shearing

Description:
Excess shearing is a longitudinal displacement of the rubber bearings which exceeds the maximum
normal working displacement of 25% of the thickness.
Shearing is more than 25% of T.
Causes:
This damage is mostly caused by improper functioning of the anchoring dowels in the fixed bearings
or unexpected movements of the substructure.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection accompanied by determination of the extent of shearing.
Degree of damage:
For normal functioning of the bearing, shearing is allowed up to a maximum of 25% of the thickness
of the bearing. When this limit is exceeded, the bearing may have been damaged and that is already a
critical situation.
Consequences:
This damage may cause movements of the structure which in turn may cause damage to other bridge
element, thus affecting maintenance costs. On rare occasions, the movements may cause additional
stresses in the superstructure and the substructure. In such an incident, it may affect the carrying
capacity of the structure.
Replace the damaged bearings.
154
Typical Examples: 704 – Excessive shearing on bearings

A rubber bearing with excessive shearing.
Cause of damage: 12
Assessment: C4
Recommendation: Replace the bearing
immediately.
155
156
5.10 DAMAGE TO THE JOINTS

A highly important, but often overlooked element of a bridge superstructure is the deck joint system.
Joints are provided in order to take care of various rotational, longitudinal and transverse movements
of the superstructure due to live loads or thermal expansion and contraction. Joints can be either open
or closed.
In this chapter, different types of damage to both open and closed joints will be explained.
8 Types of Damage to the Joints
711 Blockage on joints Debris, sand, gravel etc. collected in the joint or
movement by the abutment.
712 Loose part(s) of the joint Looseness of bolts, cover plate or any other part of the
joint.
713 Ripping on joints Breaking of edges of open joints
714 Breaking of sealant on joints Cracking and break up of the joint sealant
715 Missing parts on joints Part of original design missing.
719 Other damage to joints Any other damage not listed above
157
5.10.1. Blockage on Joints

Description:
This is an obstruction of movements of joints caused by debris or sand.
Dirt inside a finger plate joint A built-up sand at the end of a joint along the kerb
where the end cover is also missing
Causes:
Blockage of joints is caused by inadequate routine maintenance which leads to accumulation of debris
and sand in the joints.
Inspection method:
During inspection, the inspector should first be sure which are the expansion joints and which are not.
Joints should be inspected from the top and the underside of the deck.
Degree of damage:
Blockage of expansion joints should be considered as always critical.
Consequences:
Blockage of expansion joints hinders the required movements of the superstructure and for big-span
structures can create stresses which may cause cracking of the superstructure and sometimes also the
substructure thereby influencing the carrying capacity of the bridge. For small span bridges, the
damage generally affects the maintenance costs.
Clean the joints.
158
Typical Examples: 711 - Blockage on Joints

Blocked expansion joint.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Clean joints.
Expansion joint completely blocked by sand

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
Expansion joint for a 12m long bridge partially

blocked.
Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M3
Expansion joint completely blocked by sand.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Clean joint.
159
5.10.2. Loose Parts on Joints
Description:
Joint parts like the cover plate is used to prevent debris and sand from entering the joints. However,
for closed joints, the steel cover may sometimes become loose. This can easily be observed when
traffic is passing. Other parts like the steel angels or bolts can be loose.
Causes:
Improper fixing of the plates during construction, deterioration of the joint as a result of age and
impact load from traffic are the main causes of the damage.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection. Observation when traffic is passing helps to reveal the extent of the damage. The
inspector should try to establish the reasons for the looseness.
Degree of damage:
Loose cover plates or other parts always require immediate attention. Therefore such damage must be
rated critical.
Consequences:
Loose cover plates or other parts may lead to further damage to the joint due to frequent slamming of
the joint as vehicles pass over it. Depending on the nature of the damage, it may affect traffic safety or
maintenance costs.
The cause of the looseness should be found, rectified and the loose part(s) must be securely fixed or
replaced.
160
Typical Examples: 711 – Loose Parts of the Joints

Loose cover plate.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Establish the cause of
looseness and make sure that the cover plate is
securely fixed or replaced.
A loose cover plate which has led to ripping.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Loose cover plate.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M1
Part of the joint is missing.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Repair the joint and replace
the missing part.
161
5.10.3. Ripping on Joints

Description:
This is a breaking of the edges of open joints. It normally occurs in joints which are not armoured, or
if the gap for the expansion joint is too small.
Causes:
This damage is caused by the weakness of concrete to shear. So, whenever the joint is not armoured or
when the gap for the expansion joint is too small or is blocked, this damage is likely to occur.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
It can be judged by the inspector’s intuition as minor to big if there is ripping but it does not cause any
bumping when traffic passes over the joint.
It is critical if it causes traffic to bump when passing over the joint.
Consequences:
Ripping of joints can cause traffic to bump onto the deck causing impact to the superstructure. This
damage has an effect on both carrying capacity and traffic safety.
The joint should be armoured.|
162
Typical Examples:713 - Ripping on Joints

Breaking of the edges of the open joint.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: The joint should be
armoured if not or repair the ripping..
163
5.10.4. Breaking of Sealant on Joints

Sometimes, sealed joints crack and break up as shown in the photo below.
Causes:
Lack of a shielding plate or a too large gap can cause such damage, but also the movement of the
supestructure.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
At the stage when there is only a crack along the joint, it may be judged as average. When breaking
has started at different spots, it has to be judged as big and continuous breaking of sealant along the
joint is critical.
Consequences:
Breaking of sealant will allow penetration of water and debris through the joint to the bearings.
Critical damage may lead to ripping and pealing out of the wearing course. The damage will,
therefore, affect the maintenance costs.
Fixing a cover plate or resealing the joint.
164
Typical Examples: 712 - Breaking of Sealant on Joints

The sealant is completely broken.
Cause of damage: 22
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Reseal the joint
Completely broken sealant.

Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Reseal a joint.
This gap is too wide to hold the sealant.

Cause of damage: 37
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Reseal a joint.
165
166
167
5.11 DAMAGE TO THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Apart from being a safety hazard for traffic, trapped or ponded water on the bridge can cause
deterioration of the bridge deck if left for a long time. Drainage on decks in Tanzania is achieved by
the installation of drain pipes or by adopting open drain kerbs. Drainage of approaches is provided by
ditches and gutters.
It should be emphasised that an effective drainage system that carries the water away as quickly as
possible is essential to the proper maintenance of bridges.
8 Types of Damage to the Drainage System
801 Blockage of drainage system The drainage system does not properly allow water to pass
due to being blocked
802 Corrosion of drain pipes Disintegration of pipes through corrosion.
803 Defective pipes in drainage Damaged pipes due to vandalism, floating objects or
system leakage between pipe and concrete.
804 Leakage of drain pipes When water passes not as intended.
809 Other damage on drainage Any other damage not listed above
system
822 Damaged supports of pipes Damaged supports of water pipes, electric cables etc.
823 Damaged insulation Damaged insulation of electric and telephone cables etc.
824 Obstruction of waterway Obstruction by cables, water pipes etc.
system
168
5.11.1. Blockage of drainage system

Description:
Drain pipes may be blocked by debris, and open drain kerbs and gutters can be blocked by sand,
gravel or debris, thus affecting proper drainage
Causes:
Blockage can be caused by inadequate routine maintenance, blockage by resealing or too small drain
pipes.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection. Un-blocking of the drain pipes during inspection is important in order to reveal
whether the drain pipes have been damaged.
Degree of damage:
Blocked drainage system always need immediate action but the degree of damage can be judged
depending on the extent of blockage. A totally blocked drainage system has to be considered as
critical.
Consequences:
Blockage can accelerate the deterioration of the drain pipes. When the drainage system is blocked,
ponds of water will be formed on the deck. These can cause faster deterioration of the deck and
therefore has an influence on maintenance costs. It may also affect traffic safety if the water ponds on
the wearing surface cover the entire width of the structure.
Removal of the blockage and cleaning of the drainage system
169
Typical Examples: 801- Blockage of drainage system

Blocked open drain kerbs.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Removal blockage and
clean drain
Partly blocked drain pipe.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M2
clean drain
Blocked open drain kerbs.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
clean drain
Blocked drain pipe.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M4
clean drain
170
5.11.2. Corrosion of drain pipes

Description:
For pipe drains, corrosion is another possible damage. Corrosion may be accelerated by clogging of
drain pipes due to dampness retained by the clogging debris.
Causes:
Inadequate galvanising or painting before installation or due to clogging for long periods.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
The degree of this damage has to be determined the same way as for corrosion on steel.
Consequences:
Formation of holes through the drain pipes or at worst breaking down of the drain pipes. This can lead
to staining of the beams, piers or abutments. This damage therefore has influence to the maintenance
costs.
If not critical, clean and paint. In case of a critical damage, replace with a properly galvanised pipe.
171
Typical Examples: 802 - Corrosion of drain pipes

Slightly corroded drain pipe.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Replace drain pipe
Seriously corroded drain pipe

Cause of damage:45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Replace drain pipe
172
5.11.3. Defective Pipes in Drainage System

Description:
Drain pipes may be hit by floating objects during floods or may be damaged due to vandalism. They
may also have been designed too short or are leaking for any reason and thus causing some water
stains to the superstructure. All these are termed as defective pipes.
Damaged drain pipe Short design drain pipe
Causes:
Excessive floods, vandalism, improper design or improper installation.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
If the pipe is damaged beyond repair, that is critical, otherwise the degree of damage has to be
estimated based on the extent of the defect.
Consequences:
Defective or missing pipes, breaking and falling down of the drain pipes can lead to increased
maintenance costs.
Replace the critically damaged drain pipes with galvanised ones or PVC pipes.
173
Typical Examples: 803 - Defective Pipes in the Drainage System

Damaged drain pipe
Cause of damage: 82
Assessment: M1
Recommendation: monitoring the damages
Short drain pipe which has affected the

surrounding concrete.
Cause of damage:45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Replace with the longer
drain
A short drain pipe which has caused serious

corrosion on a steel beam.
Cause of damage: 14
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Replace with the longer
drain
A drain pipe damaged by a floating object

Cause of damage: 78
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Repair the drain pipe
174
175
176
177
5.12 DAMAGE TO THE BRIDGE APPROACHES

Bridge approaches are important elements of bridges. They provide access to the bridge and form a
good area for the installation of bridge signs. Certain types of damage to the bridge approaches have
an influence on some of the damage to bridges.
The bridge approaches are normally taken to be on average 100m lengths of the road on either side of
the bridge. This length may change depending on different site conditions.
This chapter will explain different kinds of damage to bridge approaches. For the surface of the
approach roads, only the most common damage and that which really influences on the bridge will be
explained.
8 Types of Damage to the Bridge Approaches
811 Kinks on the bridge approaches Uneven surface on the approaches

812 Potholes on the bridge approaches Bowl shaped holes on the approaches
813 Erosion on the bridge approaches Removal of materials from approaches by rain water
814 Vegetation on the bridge approaches Excessive or absence of vegetation
815 Defective or missing bridge signs Sign damaged or missing.
816 Defective drain ditches Drain ditches are not functioning as intended.
817 Loss of road camber Improper cross fall of the road surface
819 Other damages to the bridge

approaches
178
5.12.1. Kinks Bridge Approaches
Description:
This is a defect where the approach to the bridge has an uneven surface or is lower than the bridge
deck thus causing traffic to impose impact on the bridge as they enter it.
Kink on bridge approaches road Kinks on bridge approaches
Causes:
This damage is caused by improper compaction of the bridge approaches during construction or the
use of unsuitable filling material leading to differential settlement which causes unevenness on the
surface of the approach road. On gravel approaches it can also be caused by the loss of wearing
material from the surface.
Inspection method:
The unevenness of the approaches or the difference in levels between the bridge surface and the
surface of the approaches can be assessed visually or with the aid of levelling instruments when the
extent of the damage is to be accurately determined, especially during major or special inspections.
Degree of damage:
This damage is critical if noticeable impact to the superstructure is experienced when traffic is passing.
A difference in level of less than 15 mm is considered minor while from 15 to 30 mm is average, 30 to
50 mm can be considered as a big damage, and when it is more than 50 mm it should be judged as
critical.
Consequences:
This damage causes excessive vehicle impact to the superstructure when traffic enters the bridge. This
may lead to other damage to the bridge including deflection, loose connections, deformation and
movements. It may also cause formation of additional stresses in the superstructure and substructure,
thus affecting the carrying capacity of the bridge. This damage also affects traffic safety as the driver
might lose control when passing over the bridge at high speed.
For paved road approaches, proper resurfacing can be recommended. For gravel and earth approaches,
grading and proper compaction or resurfacing depending on the degree of damage may be
recommended.
179
Typical Examples: 811 - Kinks on Bridge Approaches

A small kink on the approach road. The
degree of damage is increased due to the
possible high rate of deterioration as this is
on a gravel approach
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T2
Recommendation: Gravel filling
A kink that has already caused some splitting

on the wearing course
Cause of damage:45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Resurfacing the
approached road.
A 100 mm kink on a gravel approach road.

Note the tyre marks avoiding the kink and
dangerously passing
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Gravelling the approaches
A very serious kink on a gravel approach

road.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T4
Recommendation: Gravelling the approaches
180
5.12.2. Potholes on the Bridge Approaches

Description:
These are bowl shaped holes that occur on the road surface of the approaches to the bridge.
Potholes on bridge approaches road

Causes:
This type of damage is caused by deterioration of the road surface due to a prolonged presence of
water on the surface or improper compaction of the road structure during construction. Excessive
cracking may also be a cause of such damage to bitumen surfaces.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection. The depth and area of the potholes may be determined using normal measuring
tools.
The degree of this damage can be estimated mainly from its depth. The area it occupies and the
number of potholes has also to be considered when determining the degree of damage.
The following table may be used as a guide when judging the degree of damage:
Area (cm2)
Depth (cm) Less than 900 900 - 2700 More than 2700
Less than 2.5 Minor Minor Average
2.5 - 5.0 Average Average Big
More than 5.0 Average Big Critical
Consequences:
Generally, such damage affects traffic safety. Sometimes it may lead to damage to the road shoulders
as vehicles try to avoid the potholes. In such a case, it also affects maintenance costs.
The damaged area is cut straight and vertically to a square or rectangular shape and patched.
181
Typical Examples: 812 - Potholes on the Bridge Approaches

Pothole on a Bridge approach
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Pothole patching.
A single pothole on a paved approach road.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T2
Recommendation: Pothole patching.
Many potholes on gravel approach road.

Note the widening of the approach road as
traffic avoids the potholes.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Pothole filling.
Several potholes on paved approach road.

Note severely cracked increasing the
possibility of high rate of deterioration.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T4
Recommendation: Pothole patching
182
5.12.3. Erosion on the Bridge Approaches
Description:
Erosion on the approaches of the bridge can occur to the embankments, to the shoulders of the
approaches and behind wing walls or abutments.
Erosion on the approaches of bridges
Causes:
The main causes of erosion to bridge approaches may be extreme floods, inadequate protection works,
improper drainage of the approaches or complete removal of vegetation on the slopes of the approach
embankments.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent of erosion, the length of the affected road portion and the
rate of development.
However, erosion that extends up to the road shoulders is big and when it extends up to the entire road
or occurs behind the abutments, then it must be considered as critical.
Consequences:
At a critical level this type of damage can lead to a wash-out of the embankments or even abutments.
This damage therefore, affects both maintenance costs and traffic safety.
Restore the eroded portion and apply protection.
183
Typical Examples: 813 - Erosion on the Bridge Approaches

A portion of the approach road has been
severely washed out.
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: T4
Recommendation: Restore & protect eroded
portion
Start of erosion of the approach road.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T1
Recommendation: Shoulder repair
The bridge approach shoulder has been

eroded completely and erosion is now
endangering the carriageway.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
portion
A portion of the approach road has been

severely washed out. In such conditions,
accidents are almost inevitable.
Cause of damage: 73
Assessment: T4
portion
184
5.12.4. Vegetation on the Bridge Approaches

Description:
It is a good idea to have vegetation on the embankment of the approaches in order to reduce soil
erosion but excessive vegetation is not desirable as it reduces sight distance and may prevent access
under the bridge. Complete absence of vegetation is also considered to be damage because the
embankment will then be susceptible to erosion.
Excessive vegetation Missing vegetation
Causes:
Inadequate or improper routine maintenance.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
The degree of this damage can be fully determined based on the inspector’s intuition. However, both
vegetation growth that blocks the required sight distance and an embankment of a bridge approach
without any vegetation at all are critical situations.
Consequences:
Excessive vegetation affects traffic safety due to a reduction in sight distance. Complete absence of
vegetation may lead to erosion of the approaches thus affecting maintenance costs.
Carry out appropriate vegetation control
185
Typical Examples: 814 - Vegetation on the Bridge Approaches

Excessive vegetation around a bridge. Note
the difficulty in recognising the presence of
the bridge.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T4
control
Although good drain ditch has been

provided, vegetation has been completely
removed on the approach to this bridge
making it susceptible to erosion.
Cause of damage: 45 Inadequate
maintenance
Assessment: M4
control

the difficulty in recognising the presence of
the bridge from the far end.
maintenance
Assessment: T4
control

how the bridge has been engulfed by
vegetation.
maintenance
Assessment: T4
control
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5.12.5. Defective or Missing Bridge Signs

Description:
Signs on the approaches are important as they alert the drivers to the presence of a bridge and other
associated information about the bridge. It is a form of damage if they are defective or missing.
Damaged sign Defective sign
Causes:
The main causes of the missing signs are damage due to vehicle impacts, vandalism, wearing out due
to age or when damaged by fire.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
Bridge traffic signs are very important and should always be in good condition. It is therefore critical
whenever there is a defect on a bridge sign or when a traffic sign is missing.
Consequences:
This type of damage is a threat to traffic safety.
Provide or replace the traffic signs.
187
Typical Examples: 815 - Defective or Missing Bridge Signs

A corroded bridge sign in a coastal weather.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T2
Recommendation: Replace sign
A faint bridge sign that has been damaged

by traffic impact.
Cause of damage: 71
Assessment: T3
A traffic sign that is blocked by vegetation

to the extent that it is difficult to understand
its warning.
Cause of damage: 42
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Removal Vegetation
A corroded bridge sign.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
188
5.12.6. Defective Drain Ditches

Description:
Drain ditches to the approaches are important as they provide proper drainage to the approaches thus
protecting them from other damage like erosion. It is a form of damage if the drain ditches are
defective in any way.
Drainage of water over the bridge due to defective drain ditches
Causes:
The main causes of defective drain ditches are damage due to vehicle impacts as a result of accidents,
blockage, under-scouring of the ditches etc.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
If the defect has started impairing the proper functioning of the drain ditches, then that is critical.
Otherwise the degree will depend on the extent of the defect.
Consequences:
This type of damage mainly affects maintenance costs.
Recommended actions
Replace the defected portion.
189
Typical Examples: 816 – Defective Drain Ditches

Defective drain ditches have caused water to
pass over the bridge.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Replace the defected drain
ditches and carry out vegetation control.
Blocked drain ditch by debris.

Cause of damage: 41
Assessment: M2
Recommendation: Replace the defected drain
Blocked drain ditch due to damaged gabion

boxes.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Replace the defected gabion
box.
Unattended drain ditches have caused water to

erode the ditch on the bridge approach.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Restore the defected drain
190
5.12.7. Loss of Camber
Description:
Loss of camber is common to gravel or earth road approaches to the bridge. This is when the proper
slopes of the road are lost, thus preventing appropriate discharge of water to the drain ditches or
embankment slopes.
Loss of camber on the bridge approaches
Causes:
The main cause of loss of camber is lack of periodic maintenance.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection.
Degree of damage:
The degree of damage depends on the extent of the loss of camber, but when water is retained on the
road and has no access to the drain ditches or embankment slopes, then that is critical.
Consequences:
This damage may lead to other damage to the approaches for example erosion and formation of
potholes and thus affects maintenance costs.
Depending on the degree of damage, the approaches may be graded or filled with gravel and
compacted to the original level and camber.
191
Typical Examples: 817 - Loss of Camber

Loss of camber on the bridge approach that
is more severe closer to the bridge. Note the
excessive water on both up and down
streams
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Restore camber by
grading
Loss of camber for the whole of the

approach road.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
grading
Loss of camber for the whole of the

approach road.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
grading
192
193
194
5.13 DAMAGE TO THE ATTACHED UTILITIES

It is a common practice for commercial, industrial and public utilities to use the road right of way and
adjacent areas in order to provide various services. For the bridge engineers, this means that some
utilities will be found on a number of bridges. Common utilities attached to bridges are water pipes,
power cables, telephone lines and sewer pipes. Though these are not parts of bridge elements, they
have to be inspected because when they are damaged they can cause damage to the bridge to which
they are attached.
Leakage of water or sewer pipes can cause erosion around bridge supports or corrosion of steel
elements.
Broken insulation of power cables can lead to electrification of steel parts which can be dangerous for
pedestrians and may also accelerate corrosion.
Utilities attached above the deck can be knocked down by traffic and cause damage to the bridge.
Vandalism will normally damage the utility under consideration but this may also damage the bridge.
Sometimes water and sewer pipes are installed across the river beside the bridge and this may cause
obstruction to the waterway.
8 Types of Damage to the Attached Utilities
822 Damaged supports of pipes Damaged supports of water pipes, electric cables etc.
823 Damaged insulation Damaged insulation of electric and telephone cables etc.
824 Obstruction of waterway Obstruction of waterway by Cables, water pipes etc.
system
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5.13.1. Leakage of Pipes

Description
Leakage of pipes refers to uncontrolled or unwanted spilling of water or sewage from water or
sewer pipes respectively.
Leakage of water pipe resulted in scouring abutment
Causes:
Damage to utility supports depends on the type of material. When founded on the riverbed they may
be damaged by scouring and other river related damage.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection will normally reveal leakage of pipes. Special attention shall be paid to pipe joints
and corroded areas.
Degree of damage
The degree of damage depends on the amount of leakage and the extent of resulting damage to the
affected bridge element.
Consequences:
The leakage liquid may cause corrosion to steel elements and possibly also cause underscouring of the
foundations if it spills onto the soil around them. In this way leakage of pipes will normally affect the
maintenance cost..
For any critical damage, the pipe should be closed immediately and the matter be reported to the
relevant authority for immediate action.
196
Typical Examples: -
Slightly leaking water pipes
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment M1
Recommendation: Contact relevant
authority to repair the pipe
A bent pipe joint may lead to leakage of

the water pipe.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: Removal corrosion
and paint the joint
Leakage of water pipe has led to under-

scouring of abutment
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Water to be closed
immediately and report to the relevant
authority:
Broken water pipe

Cause of damage: 14
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Water to be closed
immediately and report to the relevant
authority
197
5.13.2. Damaged Supports of Pipes

Description:
Normally, utility pipes and lines are suspended or fixed to the bridge by clamps, or they are carried by
separate supports beside the bridge where they have their foundations in the river. When such supports
are damaged, they can in turn cause damage to the utility and finally the bridge may be affected. Such
damage includes corrosion and loose connections of hangers or clamps; scouring, settlements and
impact of supporting columns
Water pipes looses clamps Debris on water pipes results to corrosion

Causes:
Damage to utility supports depends on the type of material. When founded on the riverbed they may
be damaged by scouring and other river related damage.
Inspection method:
Visual inspection will indicate the damage.
Degree of damage
The degree of damage depends on the extent and type of material.
Consequences:
The damage will generally affect maintenance costs.
Repair or replacement of the supports are the recommended actions
198
Typical example: 822 - Damaged Supports of Pipes

Loose water pipe clamp
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Contact the
responsible authority to tight the
clamps
Settlement of a sewer pipe support.

Note that it is no longer supporting the
pipe
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: underpinning the
support
Movement of a water pipe support.

Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: M4
Recommendation: Provision of
appropriate support.
199
5.13.3. Damaged Insulation
Description:
Damaged insulation refers to the wearing out of insulation material for power and telephone cables.
Damaged electrical cable insulation

Causes:
Wearing out of the insulation can be caused by prolonged friction, deterioration or vandalism.
Inspection method:
Damaged insulation can be seen visually. Emphasis shall be put on the supports where friction is
likely to occur.
Degree of damage:
Degree of damage depends on the extent of the damage. A completely worn out piece of insulation
shall be considered as critical.
Consequences:
Damaged insulation may lead to electrification of steel parts which can be dangerous for pedestrians
and also can accelerate corrosion. For this reason the damage will mostly affect traffic safety.
The cable should be replaced.
200
Typical example: 823 - Damaged Insulation

Partially damaged electric cable insulation.
Cause of damage: 45
Assessment: T3
Recommendation: Contact the authority
people for replacement the cable
201
5.13.4. Obstruction of Waterway

Description:
Water and sewer pipes are sometimes installed across the river course by either lying the pipes on the
river bed or by supporting them on columns founded in the river. This type of installation may block
the waterway.
Obstruction waterway by water pipes due to accumulation of debris at the pipes

Causes:Obstruction of the waterway can be due to blocking of water flow by the pipe or support or both
Inspection method:
Accumulation of debris or signs of scouring around the pipes or their supports are clear indications of
obstruction of the waterway.
Degree of damage:
Degree of damage depends on the extent of obstruction and whether other damage to the river course
has developed due to this damage.
Consequences:
Obstruction of the waterway may lead to river bed scouring, bank erosion and insufficient discharge
capacity. The damage will, therefore, affect the maintenance costs.
The cause of the obstruction should be rectified.
202
Typical Damage: 824 - Obstruction of Waterway

A water pipe obstructing water
flow through a box culvert.
Assessment: M3
Recommendation: change the
location of water pipe if possible
to be on top

flow through a box culvert.
Assessment: M2
location of water pipe

flow through an arch culvert.
Assessment: M3
A water pipe and its supports

obstructing water flow through a
bridge.
Cause of damage: 14
Assessment: M4
203
204
6. MATERIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Material investigation is one of the activities to be carried out during major and special inspections. It
involves determination of material properties with respect to their strength and durability which are
important parameters in assessing their adequacy or soundness. Material investigation shall normally
be carried out when the condition of materials is doubtful and cannot be assessed visually. It shall be
the responsibility of the Bridge Engineer to decide the type of investigation required for which type of
inspection.
Generally, material investigation shall include: visual inspection, non-destructive tests and detailed
material testing.
6.1 VISUAL INSPECTION

Material investigation shall begin with a visual inspection which shall indicate problems or
deterioration of material. Visual inspection is, therefore, an essential preliminary to any detailed
material investigation since the observation of features such as deflection, cracking, spalling, rusting,
colour change and settlement will give valuable information regarding condition of material. It will
also assist in deciding the location of further tests and the testing methods.
Prior to any visual inspection the bridge shall be thoroughly cleaned. Soil, debris, vegetation growth
and any other dirt shall be completely removed from the deck, truss joints, bearings and movement
joints. For the substructure, vegetation shall be cleared, but care shall be taken not to impose erosion
of the river bed and banks.
Visual inspection shall be used for all types of inspections.
6.2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST

A visual test shall normally be complemented by a non-destructive test. A non -destructive test is a test
which does not require the removal of a sample and thus does not damage or impair the intended
performance of the element or member under investigation.
Rebound hammer tests, electromagnetic cover measurement and carbonation tests shall be carried out
for major and special inspections depending on the condition and importance of a bridge.
6.2.1. Rebound Hammer Test

A rebound hammer is an instrument used to measure concrete surface hardness. There are different
makes of rebound hammers, but the most common one is the Schmidt hammer. The rebound number
recorded from this tool is converted to concrete strength parameters by using conversion curves.
6.2.2. Electromagnetic Cover Measurement

An electromagnetic cover measurement device can be used to locate and indicate spacing of
reinforcing bars. It can also be used to estimate the concrete cover, and the diameter of the
reinforcements. This expensive device shall only be used during special inspections.
6.2.3. Carbonation Test

Carbonation is the reaction of cement hydrate with carbon dioxide from the air. Under its natural
condition, the cement hydrate in concrete has an alkaline environment which protects reinforcement
from corrosion. This alkalinity is reduced by carbon dioxide and thus facilitates corrosion of steel.
Carbonation test is used to assess the durability of concrete by indicating the depth of carbonation and,
therefore, the likelihood of corrosion of the reinforcement. The test is done using phenolphthalein. The
205
depth of carbonated layer is indicated by unchanged colour while un-carbonated concrete changes to
pink-red when phenolphthalein is sprayed on to a freshly exposed or cut surface of concrete.
Carbonation test should be carried out for seriously affected bridges while salinity test is
recommended for areas with a salty environment.
This test shall be carried out during special inspection.
6.2.4. Corrosion Testing (ECP)

ECP To measure the reinforcement’s electrochemical potential (ECP) and associated electrical
resistance in order to assess the probability of reinforcement corroding a Half Cell Potentiometer is
used. Corrosion of steel is an electrochemical process including anodic (corroding) and cathodic
(passive) areas
6.3 DETAILED MATERIAL INVESTIGATION

Detailed material investigation shall be carried out only during special inspection and shall include
concrete testing, steel testing and subsoil investigation.
For concrete testing, core drill samples shall be taken from the element under investigation and
subsequently tested for compression, chlorides and carbonation depth.
Samples of reinforcing bars shall be tested for tensile strength, ductility and strain measurement.
Where foundation movements have to be investigated, subsoil investigation shall be carried during
special inspection. This shall include sound ramming, standard penetration test, shear testing
permeability and consolidation.
6.4 SURVEYS, MATERIALS TESTS & MONITORING DEVICES
6.4.1. General
It may be necessary to supplement visual checks by surveys, materials testing and provision of
monitoring devices in order determine the extent of damage, its cause, degree and consequences or for
revealing hidden damage.
The scope of these measurements and investigations must be evaluated in every case and will depend
on:
• The type of inspection
• The type of structure
• The type of materials
• Wear caused by the climate
• Visual observations
In order to carry out such measurements and investigations in a focused manner one should have a
clear picture of their need and practical value. For the sake of appearance, this is advisable with regard
to the costs and the possibly destructive measures employed.
Several of the surveys and materials investigations require special procedures and additional quality
assurance. Often special expertise and equipment are also needed. Such is always the case for the
installation of surveillance instruments.
206
6.5 MEASUREMENTS
6.5.1. Levelling
The purpose of this investigation is to measure settlement, movement and deformation and follow up
possible developments.
The need for levelling differs for new and older bridges, which is reflected in the need for levelling
during completion surveys and other types of inspections.
When measurements are taken on a bridge's superstructure, the effects of the vibration caused by
heavy traffic must be taken into consideration. If serious vibrations are experienced, measurements
should be taken during periods of low traffic or while the bridge is closed for this purpose.
For each bridge, levelling should be carried out on all axes and at the middle of each section. Bolts for
making reference marks should be installed on bridges with foundations on weak ground. Normally,
there is no need of taking regular measurements for bridges whose foundations have been founded on
rock; neither are levelling bolts required. A decision must be taken as to whether follow-up is to be
undertaken during the operational phase or not.
Any follow-up inspection in the operational phase stipulated during a completion survey must be
carried out. Levelling must be undertaken in the event of settlement, movement or deformation.
Levelling can be carried out directly on the relevant elements. However, if developments are to be
followed up over a period, then levelling bolts should be installed. The following equipment can then
be necessary:
• Theodolite
• Tripod
• Levelling pole
• Measuring tape
• Blots for reference marks and hammer drill, if necessary.
6.5.2. Horizontal Displacement

The purpose of this is to measure movement, for example of
abutment piers, piers, superstructure etc.
Movement can often be noted in bearings and joint apertures and
can be measured with a folding rule or possibly by using a small
spirit level. Movement in piers can be measured with a plumb
line. The measurement of movement should be taken to record
the temperature effect. If movement has to be followed up over a
period of time, bolts should be installed between which the
measurements are to be taken. In order to determine which parts
Measurement of Displacement are subject to movement, a levelling instrument can be employed.
For the unfixed bearings, their positioning, orientation and any
displacement must be inspected. This is of great importance for
new bridges. The first two points should specifically be checked against the original drawings. The
joint apertures and their associated temperatures should also be recorded.
The need for taking measurements should be assessed in connection with the visual inspection. The
following equipment can be necessary:
• Folding rule
• Spirit level
• Plumb and line
• Thermometer
• Levelling Telescope
207
6.5.3. Measuring the Thickness of Wearing Course

The purpose of this is to measure the thickness of the asphalt wearing surface on the bridge deck to
check whether it meets requirements or not.
The thickness of the wearing surface may vary in a transverse direction for bridges on a bend.
The need for taking measurements should be assessed in connection with the visual inspection. The
following equipment can be necessary:
• Folding rule
• Drill
• Material to refill holes
6.5.4. Measuring of Ruts

The purpose of this is to measure the depth of wear and deformation
in the tracks created by tyres in the wearing surface and should be
carried out when track wear indicates a need for taking
measurements.
Measurements should be made in a minimum of two sections of the
bridge - one with minimal, the other with maximum wear - using a
straightedge.
Measuring Track Wear
The following equipment can be necessary:

• An aluminium straight edge rule
• A measuring wedge
6.5.5. Measuring vertical Sag and horizontal bend

All Bailey/Mabey bridges sag a little at the middle of the span but excessive sag is not desirable. They
may also bend horizontally. Both the sag and bend need to be measured as shown on the following
sketches:
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The relative sag in suspension bridge cables is also necessary in order to check the loads in the
suspension rods.
Measurement of Sag in Suspension bridges
Sag of suspension bridges is measured using cord or possibly piano wire as indicated in the sketch
above. A bob should be hung on the end of the cord; alternatively a spring balance may be used. The
vertical distance between the central suspension rod and the taut cord (the amount of sag) is then
measured. The procedure is repeated for all suspension rods o n both sides of the bridge. The amount
of sag is normally the same over the whole bridge, but can vary somewhat near the towers because of
the distance between the final suspension rod and the tower, and the tension of the braces. It is
important that the bridge is not subject to traffic loads during measuring. Sag should normally be
measured in connection with the construction of the bridge. The need to take these measurements
should be evaluated during the visual inspection.
The following equipment is necessary:
• Cord, possibly piano wire
• Plumb line, possibly a spring balance
• Folding rule
6.5.6. Recording Bridge Details

The purpose of these measurements is to record:
• Missing data concerning elements, element types, size etc.
• Marking a bridge
• Erecting traffic signs
• Bridge drawings (completed drawings)
• Archive/computer system data
For all inspections the inventory data in TanBridgeman should be checked for accuracy. Additional
inspections should be carried out after reconstruction or reinforcement works.

• Trip counter
• Bridge traffic sign and tools for erecting it
• Folding rule
• Measuring tape
• Camera
• Surveying equipment
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6.5.7. Measuring of Vertical Clearance

The purpose of this is to measure the headroom for bridges crossing roads and the clearance under
bridges over water.
A headroom check may become necessary after repaving or other changes to the roadway or, for
example, after a heavy load has used the road. Depending on the bridge's design and the purpose of the
measurements it may be relevant to take maximum and minimum headroom measurements.
The headroom of a new bridge shall be measured at the construction stage.
• Measuring tape
• Telescopic measuring rod
• Surveying equipment
6.6 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR CONCRETE

The following sections provide a description of the materials investigations which can be undertaken
during the inspection of bridges and their concrete elements.
When evaluating the condition of a concrete construction it is important to remember that the different
materials investigations should be viewed in relationship to one another.
Several of the materials investigations carried out on concrete require drilling of holes or chiselling out
the concrete. After taking the samples the holes should be filled with grey paint able single-component
polyurethane grouting or equivalent cement mortar. The holes should be completely filled using a tube
connected to a grouting gun pushed all the way to the bottom of the hole. As the hole fills up the tube
is gradually removed. Holes resulting from Core Drilling or larger Chiselled Cuts Dust and loose
particles should be cleaned out with water after which any remaining water should be dried up. The
mortar to be used for the repair(s) should be mixed to the required consistency and put in the hole(s) to
2-3cm below the surface level. Once the mortar has set the remainder of the hole should be filled with
mortar flush with the surface. Immediately thereafter a layer of thick elastic cement-based coating
should be applied to the surface. Mortar used to repair holes resulting from core drilling or larger
chiselled cuts should satisfy the same requirements for mortar used during repairs of concrete.
6.6.1. Locating the Reinforcement and Measuring its Cover

The purpose of this investigation is to locate the reinforcement and measure its cover.
In the area where the cover is to be measured, the first layer of reinforcement and its direction is
located. If possible the nearest spacing bar should also be located. The cover is to be measured for a
minimum of bars in the first layer of the reinforcement. Measurements are to be taken at a point
halfway between intersecting bars.
It can be relevant to take measurements of the cover in the following situations:
• It is likely that the cover is less than that described, e.g. on the underside of the bridge deck, and
areas with reinforcement guides or half-lap joints.
• Neither reinforcement spacers nor mounting rods have been used.
• Clearly corroding reinforcement with little cover available.
• Large amount of stress due to chloride.
• Places where other materials investigations are being carried out.
The cover of all concrete elements should be checked if this has not been done during the construction
phase. For small bridges such as culverts and single-span simply supported bridges at least ten
measurements of the cover should be taken spread over both the super and substructures. For larger
bridges the scope of testing should be evaluated, but should lie between 5 and 10 measurements per
100 square metres of concrete.
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The cover does not change, and when properly done and reported it is
not necessary to re-measure the cover during the following inspections.
Nevertheless if it is suspected that there is little cover, spot checks
should be conducted. Should these suspicions be confirmed, then the
scope of the inspections can be extended.
Covermeter
The following equipment are necessary:

• Covermeter
• Drawings of the reinforcement, if necessary, Folding rule, Slide calliper, Chalk , Hammer action
drill for use in measurement testing
• Materials and equipment for refilling holes
This is a simple, non-destructive, speedy method which allows one to check large areas in a short time.
The disadvantage is that some cover meters indicate an incorrect cover thickness for closely spaced
reinforcement. Cover meters should therefore be calibrated according to the density of the
reinforcement.
6.6.2. Measuring the Depth of Carbonation

The purpose of this test is to measure the depth of carbonation in concrete in order to assess the risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement or to discover the cause of the damage.
Carbonation will lead to corrosion of the

reinforcement once the carbonation has reached the
reinforcement. Carbonation in concrete progresses
most quickly in a dry climate (inland areas) and/or in
areas that are subject to road traffic or industrial
pollution. Carbonation is not usually a problem in
good quality concrete.
Carbonated Concrete.
Measuring the depth of carbonation can be necessary in the following cases:

• Older girder bridges utilising unstressed reinforcement and closely spaced reinforcement guides
on the underside of the beams.
• Sections with little cover (10-30 mm)
• Sections showing clearly corroded reinforcement
• Sections containing porous or bad quality cement
• When cutting out pieces of concrete or making chloride profiles
Whenever carbonation is suspected as a problem, spot tests should be undertaken over a sufficiently
large area so as to be able to conclude whether carbonation is/is not a problem for the bridge in
question. Should these suspicions be confirmed then the scope of the testing can be enlarged. In
addition measurements should be taken of the cover.
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The method using phenolphthalein is quite simple but requires cutting or drilling of the structure.
When spraying this solution on the fresh exposed concrete surface it will change colour where it is not
carbonated

• l % solution of phenolphthalein, or possibly l gm. phenolphthalein in one litre of mixture
of water (50%) and ethanol(50%).
• Spray bottle
• Folding rule
• Vernier calliper
• Hammer
• Chisel
• Pure water
• Material and equipment for refilling holes
• Core drilling equipment, if necessary
6.6.3. Measuring Chloride Content

The purpose of this investigation is to measure the chloride content of hardened concrete at various
depths so as to evaluate the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement or to uncover the cause of damage.
The penetration of chloride will cause corrosion of the reinforcement when the chloride concentration
exceeds acceptable limits. The limit for critical chloride content, namely a level which can lead to
corrosion of the reinforcement, is assumed to be around 0.06% of the weight of the concrete (0.4% of
the weight of the cement).
The following circumstances have influence on the rapidness of corrosion and must be considered
together with the recorded chloride content:
• The density of the concrete in relationship to the transfer of oxygen (quality of the concrete,
thickness of the cover).
• The electrochemical properties of the concrete (variation in its quality, high moisture content,
possible presence of macro cells).
The most common method is to test the chloride content of dust from a drilled hole in the concrete.
The dust is taken as a mixture of dust from at least three holes with a diameter of 16mm and in
different depths.
There are several methods for analysing the chloride content of the dust.
6.6.4. Corrosion Testing (ECP)

The purpose of this test is to measure the electrochemical potential (ECP) of the reinforcement and
associated resistance in order to assess the probability of corrosion of the reinforcement.
ECP measurements should be taken if latent reinforcement
corrosion is suspected.
The need for such tests during a major inspection will be
initially assessed based on visual observations and the results of
the tests both of the depth of carbonation and the chloride
content. The chloride content, depth of carbonation and cover
should all be measured at the place where the concrete is cut.
Equipment for taking ECP This method is easy to use, non-destructive and relatively quick
Measurements such that large sections can be checked in a short time. It can
provide a satisfactory picture of the condition of the
reinforcement at any given moment. As a result the risk of corrosion can be detected at an early stage
before visible damage becomes obvious. People possessing professional competence should be used
both for site work and the interpretation of the results. The method does not record the rate of the
corrosion process.
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• ECP Equipment:
• Metering electrodes
• Voltmeter
• Cables
• Data recorder (additional)
• Spray bottle for moistening concrete
• Device for measuring the cover
• Clips for making contact with the reinforcement
• Chalk
• Wire brush
6.6.5. Determining the Concrete Quality (Compressive Strength)

The purpose of this investigation is to determine the compressive strength of hardened concrete
Compressive strength can be determined by, amongst other things:
• Pressure testing of drilled out concrete cores
• Rebound hammer
Pressure testing of concrete cores drilled out must be done according to approved standards.
This method produces precise pressure test values for the cores in question, but does require expensive
equipment and is to be considered time consuming. This is a destructive method; one has to take care
during the drilling process so as to avoid damaging the reinforcement. Core drilling in pre-stressed
concrete bridge elements should be carried out only in special situations.
• Core drilling equipment
• Materials and equipment for refilling the holes
• Pressure testing device
Another way to establish the compression strength is using

the rebound hammer. This is an extremely speedy, simple
and cheap method. However, the test results may be
inaccurate because of uncertainty about them since the
values can be obtained only for a concrete surface.
Nevertheless the results can be used to obtain a picture of
how the compressive strength can vary in different
elements.
Rebound hammer The strength level of concrete is rarely lower than that used
as a basis at the design stage. Generally speaking the need
for compressive strength testing does not arise during
routine inspections. Determining compressive strength may be necessary should the load bearing
capacity be too low, and verification of the actual strength can benefit the calculations.
6.6.6. Structural Analysis
The purpose of this task is to determine the structure of the concrete by analysing the results of Plane
Rectifying and/ or of Thin Section Method to discover amongst other things the reason for any
damage, e.g. alkali reactive aggregate.
Concrete structures will be analysed using surface grinding or fine grinding depending on the purpose
of the analysis. Both types of analyses are carried out in a laboratory on drilled out cores.
Concrete Plane Examination
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A concrete core is sawn along its central axis, polished and surface treated. Surface grinding provides
the following information:
• The w/c ratio
• Homogeneity of the binding agent
• Distribution of the aggregate (quality)
• Air content /distance between air bobbles. (durability against frost)
• Cracking
Thin Section Analysis
A piece of fine ground concrete normally measures 40 X 45 mm. and is ground down to a thickness of
20-25 microns. Apart from that obtained from surface grinding, fine grinding provides the following
additional information:
• Carbonation
• Level of hydration (qualitative)
• Type of aggregate
• Chemical reactions such as reaction to alkali
Structural analyses are carried out only when required, e.g. suspected reaction to alkali. Plane
Rectifying and thin section analysis are both good methods for determining concrete quality but are
destructive, costly and time consuming. They should only be considered if the possible damage and its
causes cannot be determined using other methods or when it is
important to know the composition of the concrete. Since only a
small part of a structure is examined, it is vital that representative
drilled cores are taken for analysis and that wide-ranging
conclusions are not drawn from the analysis results.
• Laboratory analysis equipment
Analysis using Thin Section Method
6.6.7. Inspection of Pre-stressed Tendons
The purpose of this investigation is to conduct an inspection of the condition of pretensioned and post-
tensioned cables anchored in concrete. Checking pre-
tensioned cables may be worthwhile if defective injection is
suspected, as this can have very serious consequences for the
load bearing capacity of the bridge.
Checking post-tensioned cables is difficult and should only

be carried out by a specialist company using special
equipment, and then only after consulting the bridge
designers.
Ultrasound, X-rays or a fibre optic endoscope can be used to

Fibre Optic Testing of a Tensionedlocate damage. The use of a fibre optic endoscope requires
Cable holes to be drilled in the cable tubes. One should, therefore,
have a clear understanding of where the cavities and the
damage are located, as drilling incorrectly and damaging a tension cable can have serious
consequences.
A tensioned cable check will be undertaken as required, for example when badly executed injection of
the cable tubes is suspected.
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A good overview of the conditions inside a cable tube can be obtained, but the method is destructive
and the risk of hitting the cable tube or the cavities is high. In addition there is a risk of damaging the
cable itself.
6.6.8. Cutting open the concrete to assess the reinforcements’ corrosion level
The purpose of this investigation is to carry out a visual check of the level of corrosion in the
reinforcement and to record the type of reinforcement and its diameter. This also allows the cover to
be measured.
In most cases it is sufficient for the width of the area to be cut to match the dimensions of the
reinforcement and the cover such that the minimum width equals the cover plus the diameter of the
reinforcement (c + d). Approximately 1/3 to 1/2 of the reinforcement's circumference should be
exposed for at least 0.3 cm.
The degree of rusting in the reinforcement will be assessed using the following international standard
scale:
Level A: No damage. Dull grey coating on the reinforcement element.
Level B: The first small traces of rust can be seen. Assess whether these date from the
bridge's construction period.
Level C: Even distribution of surface rust.
Level D: Severely peeling surface rust as well as clear cross-sectional reduction in size.
Level E: Corrosive pitting.
Cutting open the concrete reveals the actual level of corrosion to the reinforcement and acts as a check
for the results of other materials testing methods. The method is destructive and ought only to be
employed to a very limited extent and when absolutely necessary. It should be noted that the area to be
cut open is not necessarily representative of an entire bridge.
It is usually used to verify when the results of the ECP readings shows possible corrosion, and there is
no visible corrosion. In these cases areas with clear evidence of corrosion should not be cut open.
Cutting operations should be undertaken for consecutive areas measured for potentiality for the
following locations:
• The lowest measure of potentiality
• The middle measure of potentiality
• The highest measure of potentiality
When cutting into concrete to verify ECP measurements the following materials tests should be
undertaken in the order given:
1. ECP measurements (recording the potential and resistance levels)
2. Measuring concrete cover
3. Measuring the chloride content from layers adjusted for the cover measured such that the
chloride level is measured in each of the layers.
4. Cutting operations and evaluating the level of rust and the reduction in the cross-section.
5. Measuring the depth of carbonation
6. Measuring the actual cover to check the covermeter
7. Re-filling Equipment Chloride Penetration
Cutting into concrete can also be carried out in connection with the assessment of the scope of
corrosion to the reinforcement elements. Barriers should also be cut open to assess the reduction in
cross-sectional reduction of the reinforcement. Areas showing visible signs of surface corrosion of the
concrete should be approached in a similar manner. This is especially desirable for barriers/ the results
of corrosion which are found in areas prone to static strain.
• Cutting equipment (chisel hammer)
• Camera
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• Vernier calliper
• Magnifying glass
• Wire brush
• Materials and equipment for refilling holes
6.7 MATERIALS TESTING FOR STEEL

In the following section a description will be given of the possible materials testing to be used for
inspections of bridge elements made of steel.
6.7.1. Checking the Torque of Screws
The purpose of this investigation is to check the stud torque of screws in friction joints. Checking the
torque of screws may be necessary during acceptance inspections if this has not already been carried
out during the construction phase. This check is carried out if there is any suspicion of screws having
lost their original tension.
• Torque wrench
6.7.2. Checking Rivets and Screws
The purpose of this investigation is to check whether rivets and/or screws are loose or have possibly
dropped out of place. Loose screws or rivets can cause cracks to appear
in the surface treatment at the cross-over point between screw/rivet
head and the basic material. By lightly tapping on one side of the rivet
with a hammer while placing one's finger on the opposite side of the
rivet at the cross-over point one can feel whether the rivet is loose.
Checking a Rivet

• Torch
• Hammer
6.7.3. Checking Welds
The purpose of this investigation is to carry out visual check for faults in the welding or whether
damage has occurred to the welding.
If material defects are suspected, X-ray or ultrasound checks should be carried out in addition.
• Torch
• Tool for measuring the width of cracks
6.7.4. X-ray Check
The purpose of this investigation is to check for material defects on welds and other steel elements
using X-ray.
The X-ray film should be used to document the results. The inspection should be undertaken by a
person with the relevant training and the necessary specialist equipment.
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6.7.5. Ultrasound Check
The purpose of this investigation is to ascertain by the use of ultrasound equipment whether there are
material defects in welds, or cracks in screws and rivets.
The measurements should be taken using a test sensor which transmits and receives ultrasound waves
which work on a frequency beyond that of human hearing (approx. 16,000 Hz). The sound waves can
be transmitted into solid materials, but not air. The test sensor should be placed on the surface; the
sound waves are then bounced off the reverse surface of the test area.
The results are recorded via an oscilloscope, and their interpretation places great demands on the
operator. This person should possess the necessary qualifications and experience for recording and
interpreting the results.
X-ray and ultrasound tests complement each other. Ultrasound testing is the preferred method for
checking for faults in bonding materials and certain types of cracks.
These checks should be carried out by companies with properly trained personnel and special
equipment.
6.7.6. Magnetic Powder Check

The purpose of this investigation is to check for the presence of cracks in the steel elements which are
not visible to the naked eye.
The extent of the cracks should be documented by means of drawings or photographs. Both cracks that
cut all the way through the steel and those on the surface are to be drawn as a record. This type of test
does not provide any measurements of the depth of the cracks.
equipment.
6.7.7. Fibre Optics
The purpose of this investigation is to check for the presence of damage, e.g. corrosion or cracks, in
enclosed or not easily accessible steel elements by the use of a fibre-optic equipped endoscope.
equipment.
6.7.8. Ultrasound Measurement of Material Thickness
The purpose of this investigation is to measure the thickness of steel parts when taking measurements
is not possible, for example when only one of the steel surfaces is accessible. This may be the case
with corrugated steel pipes and piles.
The possible results of corrosion on the reverse surface do not reflect ultrasound impulses. The
effective thickness will therefore be measured.
equipment.
6.8 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR TIMBER

This chapter contains information about materials investigations which can be recommended for the
inspection of timber bridges and bridge elements.
217
6.8.1. Investigation of the Timber Humidity Level
The purpose of this investigation is to measure the moisture content of timber elements. The moisture
level recorded will reveal whether there is a danger of the presence of dry rot fungus. This test will,
however, be of use only in special cases and only for load-bearing elements since an already high
moisture level must be taken into account in timber bridges.
• Electric moisture meter
• Measurement electrodes
6.8.2. Checking for Fungus and Rot in Timber
The purpose of this investigation is to analyse timber elements in order to ascertain the type of fungus
which has caused the rot damage. These are worth considering when the test area is large and any
possible replacement of sections could have serious consequences.
Samples should be taken of any fungus visible and these are to be sent to a laboratory which conducts
tests on fungi.
A piece of wood core can also be extracted using a drill to obtain a picture of the cross-section of the
timber element. The core removed should be of the smallest possible diameter so as to avoid
weakening the cross-section. The hole should be re-filled. Samples should be removed with a knife or
other equipment for drilling out core sections. The analyses should be conducted by a specially
equipped laboratory with competent personnel.
6.9 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION OF STONE

In the following section a description is provided of the materials testing which can be used during
inspections of stone bridges and bridge elements.
6.9.1. Compressive Strength for Stone
The purpose of this investigation is to ascertain the compressive strength of stone by pressure testing.
This may be necessary when checking the load bearing capacity of stone bridges.
The compressive strength of stone is ascertained by removing stone cores and subjecting these to
pressure testing. Only stone which is representative and free from cracks and scratches should be used
in core sampling. This method can also be employed to determine the modulus of elasticity of the
stone. These tests should be carried out by suitably qualified people using specialist equipment.
6.10 CHECKING OF THE SURFACE TREATMENT

This subchapter gives a description of the tests which can be carried out when inspecting the surface
coating of concrete, steel or timber.
A skilled Inspector should preferably be employed for special checks of the surface coating of steel,
especially when extensive maintenance work is under consideration.
6.10.1. Thickness of Surface Coating for Concrete
The purpose of this investigation is to check that the thickness of the surface coating of the concrete is
as previously described.
218
The test can be conducted on already cut out sections whose thickness can be directly measured by use
of, for example, an instrument for measuring the width of cracks or a magnifying glass. Alternatively
for concrete a sliver of the surface coating can be tested for thickness.
• Measuring Gauge or a Magnifying Glass
6.10.2. Adhesive Bonding between Surface Coating and Concrete
The check involves mesuring the surface coating's bonding to the

concrete using a stripping instrument.
Surface sections subjected to stripping should be treated with a
new coating.
• Stripping equipment
• Sample beakers
• Core drill
• Quick-setting glue
Adhesive bond measurement • Wire brush or ordinary brush
equipment
6.10.3. Depth of Penetration of Water Repellent
The purpose of this investigation is to measure the depth of the penetration of water repellent
impregnation in concrete.
The depth of penetration is measured by cutting out sample core of a minimum diameter of 60 mm,
cutting them open, drying them at a temperature of 50º - 60º C and using water as an indicator. A test
consists of 3 cores, and the penetration depth is recorded for each of the 6 half cores using a
magnifying glass for cracks.
The following equipment is necessary: Equipment for measuring Bond Strength
• Core drill
• Measuring Gauge
6.10.4. Thickness of Surface Coating of Steel
The purpose of this investigation is to check that the thickness of the dried coating of paint or surface
coating of steel is as previously described.
This inspection can be carried out when there is indication that the surface treatment has deteriorated.
• Electromagnetic thickness gauge
• Feeler gauge for calibration purposes
6.10.5. Adhesive Bonding between Surface Coating and Steel
The purpose of this investigation is to measure the adhesive bonding of the surface coating to the steel
using a stripping instrument.
The method is destructive and should not be used unnecessarily. Surface sections subjected to
stripping should be treated with a new coating.
219

• Stripping instrument
• Round sheets of aluminium
• Magnet
• Quick-setting glue
• Sand paper
• Knife or similar tool
6.10.6. Other Checks for Surface Coating of Steel
In addition to a visual check of the old surface coating for damage, the following checks may be
worthwhile during Special Inspections before undertaking painting as part of the maintenance
programme:
The thickness of the each layer of paint is measured as well as the number of coats and the thickness
of each coat (this presupposes the use of a different colour for each layer).
This provides a measurement of the adhesive bonding to the bottom surface. This technique cannot be
used on thermally applied coatings. This should be checked on old surface coatings and to the
adhesive bonding between old and new surface coatings.
It is advisable to analyse samples of the old surface coating to ascertain its composition with some
certainty.
6.11 READINGS FROM MONITORING DEVICES

Devices can be mounted on a bridge to follow up the development of a situation over a period of time.
This will act as a supplement to visual checks, measurements and materials testing. In some instances
the devices are installed to verify the stress levels to which the bridge is subjected. The following are
representative of the devices which could be used:
• Reference electrodes
• Equipment for measuring the rate of corrosion
• Wind speed detector
• Wave height detector
• Resistant Wire Strain Gauge (on steel)
• Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge (on concrete)
The devices can be read during major or special inspections or at any time if desired.
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221
7. DATA COLLECTION AND REPORTING
7.1 INSPECTION RECORDS

An accurate, complete and up to date condition record of each bridge in the road network is among the
essential requirements of a bridge management system. The records should always be readily available
in a permanent, concise and orderly arrangement for easy access by any interested, authorised person.
Apart from providing an assessment of the damage to each element of the bridge, the inspection
records should also give the structure identification data which will be taken from the inventory data
records.
Further permanent details of the bridge such as geometrical and structural data together with other
bridge documentation can be acquired from the Bridge Inventory data when required.
The inspection records are kept in computers and in files and are normally in the form of Completed
Inspection Forms, any Additional Inspector’s notes, Special Inspection Reports, Photographs and
Sketches.
The inspection forms are of two types; the manual type as shown on page Nos. 213-214 and a tailor -
made one that is produced from the computer for each particular bridge shown on page No. 216. The
main difference between the two is that the manual one contains all possible bridge elements and can
be used for any type of bridge, while the tailor - made one is specific for each bridge. The computer
tailor-made inspection form has only those bridge elements that are applicable for that particular type
of bridge thus saving space. In spite of the difference, both types of the form save the same purpose
and after completion on site, they form part of the bridge inspection records.
In the event of extraordinary damage, where for clarity additional explanation is necessary, the
inspector can include additional page(s) for this purpose. Such additional information is what is
termed Additional Inspector’s notes which also form part of the inspection records.
Records are compiled and stored depending on the type of inspection:
TYPE OF RECORD TYPE OF INSPECTION MEANS OF STORAGE

Completed inspection forms General, Major and Special In files and Computers
Additional Inspectors notes General Inspections In files
Special Inspection Reports Special Inspections & In files and Computers
sometimes Major Inspections
Photographs All types of inspections In files
Sketches All types of inspections In files
Verbal reports Informal inspections In files (after putting in writing)
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the requirements for recording the inspection results both on
site that is mainly the filling of the bridge inspection form, and in the office, that is keeping data in
computers and filing. This includes the recording of damage and its degree of severity and the
consequences if the damage is not rectified in time. In this chapter, explanation will also be given of
the types of reports and procedures for producing the reports.
222
7.2 INSPECTION FORM
7.2.1. Manually Made Form
In order to collect inspection data on site, a bridge inspection form has been worked out. The Bridge
Inspection Form contains Identification data that will be extracted from the Bridge Inventory Data,
and provision for Inspection Data that will be recorded on site.
The main part of the form is the one for recording Inspection data. This has five main columns; the
first shows the name of the bridge element being inspected; the second is for recording the type of
damage; the third column is for assessment while the fourth one is for remarks, and the fifth for any
recommended action.
The column for type of damage will contain observed damage for each element of the bridge. In this
column, a brief description of the damage or defect will be given, mainly just mentioning the type of
damage.
The assessment column is subdivided into 4 smaller sub-columns. On top of each of these sub-
columns, there is a character given in the form of a letter of the alphabet indicating the consequence of
the damage as follows:
C - is when it affects the carrying capacity.
T - is when it affects traffic safety.
M - is when it affects maintenance costs.
E - is when it affects the environment/aesthetics
The inspector is required to investigate the observed damage, decide on its possible consequence, then,
determine its degree and insert his judgement of the degree of that damage in the appropriate column.
This is done by inserting 1, 2, 3, or 4 depending on the judged degree of damage. In so doing, the
inspector will be carrying out damage assessment by completing the combination of the degree and
consequence of damage as explained in chapter 6.0.
The column for remarks will be filled out depending on the type of inspection that is being carried out.
For General Inspections, the extent and location of damage, including any other supplementary
comment related to the particular damage, will be given. In the case of Major or Special Inspections,
possible causes of the damage will be additionally given. Furthermore, information on whether there is
any additional sketch showing details of the damage has to be given in this column.
In the fifth column for recommended action, the inspector has to fill in using one or two words the
proposed remedial measure or any other recommended action according to the assessment.
Provision has been given for the inspector to give any sketches showing extent and location of the
damage if deemed necessary.
At the end of the inspection form, provision has been made for the general comments of the inspector
together with a space for his name, signature and date of inspection. The inspector's general comments
are supposed to give a brief summary of the general condition of the bridge. These comments are
important because they will be used when assembling statistics for the bridges. At the end of this
provision, the inspector has to mark with a “V” whether a special inspection is required for that
particular bridge or not. In case it is necessary to carry out a special inspection, the inspector has to
specify the damage or element requiring special inspection. This can be done in the general inspector’s
comments or additional inspector’s notes
For truss bridges and other unique bridges for which the space provided in the inspection form might
not be enough, extra pages may be used for the additional data. For truss bridges, each truss should be
inspected separately and the damaged element should be indicated on a sketch of the particular truss.
223
224
225
7.2.2. Inspection Form from Tan-Bridgeman

This form printed out from Tan Bridgeman and it simplifies the job as it already contains
Identification data that will be extracted from the Bridge Inventory Data for that specific bridge and
the second part for Inspection Data will be recorded on site. The form may be printed out for Major or
General Inspection depending on the intended type of inspection to be carried out. The forms will vary
in size depending on the type of structure and the number of bridge elements it has.
The main part of the form is the one for recording Inspection data. This has five main columns; the
first shows the name of the bridge element being inspected; the second is for recording the type of
damage; the third column is for assessment, the fourth one is for remarks/cause of damage, the fifth is
for Work Activity Number, the sixth is for the Unit Rate, the seventh is for the Quantity and the ninth
for the Cost.
The form filling procedure is the same as that for the manually made form and a sample of a printed
out form is as follows:
226
227
7.3 INSPECTION PROCEDURE

The aim of an inspection is to obtain information about the bridge’s condition and keep the results in
good storage for future use. The results of an inspection should therefore be recorded in such a way
that this information is understandable to all the parties concerned. Any remarks and sketches must be
clear and detailed enough to enable full and correct interpretation back at the office and at later dates.
It is important to record the condition of each bridge element. In order to ensure that no element is
overlooked, the inspection has to be conducted in a systematic and organised manner. It is, therefore,
advisable to inspect bridges in the same sequence as they were built by starting with the substructure
followed by the superstructure and finally the approaches.
Before Departure for Site:
Before the inspector leaves for a bridge inspection, he/she has to study the historical information of the
bridges to be inspected. The study may include going through as built drawings if available, previous
inspections, maintenance work carried out and the current inventory information. The inspector has to
ensure that adequate inspection forms are available. In case the data has already been entered into the
computer, the tailor-made inspection forms for bridges to be inspected have to be printed out.
7.3.1. On arrival at site
On arrival at site, the inspector shall first of all carry out all necessary safety measures. Then, he/she
has to counter-check the identification data provided to ensure that they correspond to that of the
bridge to be inspected. The counter-checking includes the chainage, the bridge name, bridge type and
the bridge number. This will be much easier if the bridge number has been written on the bridge.
It is advisable for the inspector to confer with local people living near the bridge for any historical
background to any obvious damage as this will help in the assessment.
7.3.2. Inspection sequence
The inspection starts following the construction sequence of the structure as follows:
7.3.3. River course
Inspection of the river course involves a distance of up to 50 metres from the bridge both up and
downstream. Other types of openings under the bridge such as railway lines, roads or valleys are also
to be considered along with the river course.
The opening under the bridge should be checked for adequacy. Any excessive vegetation around the
opening should be recorded.
For openings of overpass-bridges, the beams shall be examined for damage that has been caused by
loads passing under the bridge.
Waterways should be checked for any obstructions e.g. debris, bushes, islands and to see whether
there is a free flow of water. Any changes of river course, silting up or scour should be recorded.
7.3.4. Protection facilities
All protection facilities against scour should be assessed for any damage. The protection facilities may
be in form of stone pitching which will require assessment similar to that for masonry, rip-rap which
has to be checked to ascertain whether all stones are in place or whether some have been carried away
by water. Gabions should be checked to ensure the gabion wires are intact and whether the stones in
the gabion baskets are loose or not. Aprons should be checked for any cracks or under-scouring.
228
7.3.5. Foundations
Foundations are normally covered and cannot be seen. However, the effects of damaged foundations
on the structure can never be hidden. Any movement of the foundation is among the most undesirable
incidents. Foundation movement is easily detectable and is normally a secondary event after either
under-scouring, subsoil failure, water table variations, pile settlement or seepage of water under the
foundations. During inspection, the cause of the foundation movement should be established. For this
it might be necessary to carry out an under-water inspection; for low level rivers, a stick or rod can be
dipped towards the base of the foundations to check for any under-scouring or exposed piles. For deep
water rivers, the services of a diver might be required to complete the inspection under water.
7.3.6. Piers
Inspection of piers includes also their foundations. Since piers are located in river or valley, they are
more exposed to under-scouring compared to abutments. Their footings should, therefore, be
investigated for any indication of scour. Particular attention should be given to piers that have started
to change alignment.
Concrete piers should be checked for cracks, spalling, honeycombs and any other concrete damage.
Masonry piers should be checked for cracks, wearing of pointing, splitting and all other damage
related to masonry.
Timber piers should be checked for insect attack, decay and all other types of damage to timber.
Remarks have to be made if it was not possible to inspect the piers due to the presence of deep water.
7.3.7. Abutments
All abutments should be checked as to whether they have changed position or not. This is to be
compared with previous records, if any, in order to judge whether this is progressive. Change of
alignment or position may be due to unequal settlement, sliding, rotation, under-scouring or excessive
earth thrust behind the abutment wall. Careful attention has to be paid to construction joints
particularly where the wing walls join the abutment wall and at the caps where the superstructure rests.
Concrete abutments should be examined for cracks, spalling, honeycombs and any other concrete
damage. In case of R. C. abutments where spalling has occurred, the partially exposed reinforcement
steel should be inspected to see the extent of deterioration.
Masonry abutments should be checked for cracks, deterioration of pointing, bulging, splitting and for
all other damage related to masonry.
7.3.8. Wing walls
The wing walls should be checked for erosion at their ends. Under-scouring and any movements in the
wing walls should also be checked. Any rotation of the wing walls should be recorded and the possible
cause must be established. Any other damage related to material has to be registered. Particular
attention is to be given to the joints with the abutments where cracks can easily occur.
7.3.9. Bearings
Proper functioning should be verified for all types of bearings. Particular attention is essential for
expansion bearings which should be examined as to whether they are free to allow movements as
required.
Steel bearings shall be checked for corrosion and loose or missing anchor bolts.
Rubber bearings shall be checked for any abnormal change of shape like excessive shearing.
Any structural failure in the bearing seats such as cracks or spalling shall be checked.
229
7.3.10. Beams
Beams are the main load carrying elements and therefore are of great importance to the bridge.
Concrete beams should be checked for any cracks, spalling, honeycombs and all other damage related
to the concrete. The middle parts of the beams are susceptible to cracks due to bending moments while
parts near the supports are vulnerable to shear cracks. Any disintegration of concrete below the
bearings should be checked. When cracks are observed, the location of the cracks should be noted,
marked and dated for future reference.
Steel beams should be checked for corrosion and cracks especially along the upper flanges where
corrosion can be easily overlooked. Areas around bolt or rivet heads and at contact points where
moisture may enter between splices should be thoroughly checked. Weld areas are also weak points
for steel damage. Flanges and webs should be checked for any misalignment and web stiffeners for
evidence of buckling. The beams should be checked for any excessive deflection when heavy traffic is
passing over the bridge. The condition of paint shall also be examined.
Timber beams should be checked for all timber defects and damage. Attention has to be paid to the
areas that are susceptible to retention of water for longer periods for example at the joints. Ends of
beams have to be inspected for any cracks, checks or any other timber damage.
7.3.11. Deck
There are different checks on decks depending on the construction material. Concrete decks should be
checked for the different types of concrete damage. Areas around drain pipes and joints should be
attentively inspected as they are more susceptible to damage.
Steel decks should be checked for corrosion, defective welds and any other damage related to steel.
Drainage of a steel deck is of vital importance and if the drainage is insufficient, it should be reported
during inspection.
Timber decks should be checked for all defects and damage related to timber.
For Bailey bridges, apart from checking the timber or steel deck, the condition of stringers has also to
be assessed when inspecting the deck. Areas of contact with the timber deck are to be examined for
corrosion.
7.3.12. Drainage system
Drain pipes should be checked for any blockage. They should also be checked as to whether they drain
water to other parts of the deck. Corrosion has to be investigated as well. For open kerb drainage
systems, any blockage of the openings should be recorded. Weep holes have to be checked for proper
functioning and all other damage related to the drainage system should be inspected.
7.3.13. Joints
Joints are as important as any other structural part of the bridge. Expansion joints should be checked
for adequate space for thermal movements and as to whether the joints have suffered any blockage.
The under side of the joints should also be examined for any other impending problems. All damage,
however small, should be recorded.
7.3.14. Trusses
Normally, examination of any trusses begins with checking for any vertical or horizontal
misalignment. Any deviations from the normal alignment, apart from those with obvious causes such
as traffic impact, must be fully investigated to determine the cause.
230
Strictly, each of the truss members should be individually checked with no omission whatsoever. Any
change of shape of any member should be recorded. All connections should be checked for any
damage and to see whether they are secure.
For steel trusses, the condition of paint should be recorded. Attention should be given to the areas
around bolt and rivet heads. Rivets and bolts should be checked to see whether they are loose,
deteriorated, sheared or missing.
For timber trusses, all members should be checked for shakes, splits, decay or insect attack. The most
vulnerable parts that require attention are the contact surfaces, around holes for truss bolts and around
steel plates in the case of joints made of steel. All splice joints must be checked for soundness. Any
fire hazards around the truss bridge should be reported.
7.3.15. Bailey Bridges
Bailey bridges are normally temporary structures but they can sometimes be used for as long as ten
years or more. The load carrying capacity of a Bailey bridge highly depends on availability and correct
fixing of all its parts. A thorough investigation of all parts is therefore necessary when carrying out the
inspection of Bailey bridges. Bailey bridges should be checked for obvious damage e.g. impact from
traffic collisions. All panel pins including safety pins should be checked as to whether they are
securely fitted. All reinforcing chords should be checked for their presence and tightness. All transom
clamps or bolts should be checked as to whether they are in position and tight. All bracing bolts should
be checked for their presence and tightness. All sway bracing and vertical bracing should be checked
as to whether they are still in position. The deck including stringers, sleepers, deck bolts and nuts and
running boards should be checked for any damage. Steel decks should be checked for slipperiness.
Corrosion on any element of the Bailey bridge has to be reported.
7.3.16. Box culverts
Box culverts are made of concrete and should be checked for any damage related to that construction
material. The middle part of the two walls and top and bottom slabs of each barrel should be checked
along the box culvert for any flexural failure while shear failure may be checked near the corners of
the barrels.
7.3.17. Pipe culverts
Pipe culverts should be checked for silting, blockage by debris or excessive vegetation, erosion at
inlets and outlets particularly at the ends of the aprons, and any cracks. In the case of steel pipes,
corrosion should also be checked for. Sufficiency of the fill on the culverts should also be checked and
must never be less than 60 cm in depth.
7.3.18. Vented drifts
Vented drifts are susceptible to washouts. Any signs of under-scouring should therefore be reported
immediately for action to be taken as soon as possible. Vented drifts should be checked for cracks and
silting up. Guide posts are very important to vented drifts and it should be reported if they are missing.
7.3.19. Parapets
These parts are susceptible to vehicular impacts. All handrails and handrail supports shall therefore be
checked for any damage from traffic and a more intensive examination should be given to the portions
that have been hit by vehicles.
For concrete handrails, cracks, spalling and other types of concrete deterioration should be examined.
Timber handrails are to be checked for decay, insect attack, deformations and to see whether all
sections are secure. Deterioration of paint or galvanising is of great importance when checking steel
handrails.
231
Any loss of kerb height resulting from resurfacing or sand/gravel deposits on the deck should be
noted. Concrete sidewalks should be checked for any deterioration of concrete. Soundness of timber is
very important for timber sidewalks. The floor planks should be checked for adequate support and
secure attachment to the stringers or sleepers. Steel sidewalks should be checked for corrosion,
slipperiness and to see whether all connections are secure.
7.3.20. Wearing course
Wearing courses cover the whole deck and may hide defects in the deck until they are well advanced.
The wearing course therefore requires to be examined very carefully for its own damage and for
possible damage of the deck that may be reflected by the wearing course. Attention should be given to
the portions where tyres pass over. If wearing courses are covered by sand or gravel deposits, they
should be cleaned before inspection. In cases where cleaning is difficult due to consolidation, this
should be so reported. In any case, no assumptions should be made.
7.3.21. Bridge approaches
The approach road condition should be checked for settlement that causes kinks. Any potholes, cracks,
erosion or damage to the shoulders should be recorded. All bridge signs including warning signs and
restrictions should be examined for defects and damage. The signs should be checked to see that the
object or lettering is clear and does not cause any confusion to road users.
The condition of the bridge approaches should be checked for any additional obstruction like fallen
trees or vehicle debris.. The condition of the vegetation on both sides of the approaches should be
recorded. The proper functioning of the drainage system to the approaches should be checked and any
damage to the drainage system including damage to the drain ditches and loss of camber should be
recorded. Any protection facilities to the embankment have to be assessed as well. The area of the
approaches immediately behind the ballast walls shall also be examined for depressions or any other
damage.
7.3.22. Attached utilities
Although utilities passing near, on or attached to the bridges are not bridge elements, damage to the
utilities can sometimes cause damage to the bridge. It is therefore important for the inspector to
examine all utilities on and close to the bridge and record any damage if found. Leakage of water or of
sewage from pipes, damage to telephone and electric cables and any other damage to the utilities
should be reported.
7.4 AT THE END OF INSPECTION

At the end of the inspection, the inspector must look carefully at the completed inspection form and
satisfy him/her (self) that what has been written is clear and cannot be easily misinterpreted by another
reader. He/she should review his/her sketches to ensure that they are understandable. When the
inspector is fully satisfied that everything in the inspection form is in order, he/she must write his
name, sign and write the date of inspection on the form.
Apart from completion of the inspection form, the inspector has to check in general if there are any
other problems that might require the attention of the bridge engineer or RMO other than that covered
in the inspection form. This may be put in the form of inspector’s additional notes on further page(s)
that have to be attached to the inspection form.
Before departure for another bridge, the inspector should make sure that all inspection equipment
including safety gear has been collected and that nothing has been left behind.
232
7.5 SKETCHES AND DRAWINGS

During inspection, various sketches will be made with the aim of showing different forms of damage
and their location. All longitudinal sections shall be sketched while facing the river with the right hand
pointing in the direction of chainage. The cross sections should be made facing the direction of the
chainage. For truss bridges, the left and right trusses are identified when facing the direction of
chainage. However, each truss shall be sketched while facing it and the sketches should be labelled as
right or left truss.
Cross section
Longitudinal view or section.
Left truss Right truss
Direction of chainage
In case a sketch is made showing damage from below the superstructure, the sketches will be made
also facing the direction of chainage.
For pipe and box culverts the longitudinal section shall be sketched facing the direction of chainage,
while the cross-section shall be sketched facing the river with the right hand pointing in the direction
of chainage.
7.6 INSPECTION REPORTS

The aim of any inspection is to help the administration in making decisions about issues regarding
bridge maintenance. The administration staff is not directly involved in the actual inspection work on
site but have to get accurate information of the condition of bridges. This can be achieved through
reports. Information contained in a report should therefore be sufficient for qualitative and quantitative
analysis.
233
The inspection form, together with any additional notes, sketches and photographs make up the
inspection report. This is a common type of report and can be produced for any type of inspection.
However, for special inspections and sometimes major inspections a special inspection report has to be
prepared giving details of a particular damaged element of a bridge or of particular damage to a
bridge.
For normal bridges, the inspection form has to be completed in such a way that the information
contained is clear and sketches properly drawn. The inspector should always try to make the
information in the form as exhaustive as possible.
For large truss bridges and other unique bridges, the inspection form alone might not be sufficient to
provide enough information for all elements of the bridge. In this case, any extra information may be
recorded on additional pages that should be attached to the inspection form. The additional pages shall
always be read together with the original inspection form. Since the information on the other pages is
additional to that in the inspection form, the additional pages should be pinned together with the
inspection form immediately after completing the inspection of that particular bridge. In addition the
bridge name and number should be written on the top of each additional page for identification
purposes.
The inspection report has to be submitted to the Regional Engineer within two weeks after the
inspection.
234
7.7 INSPECTION CODES
Different codes have been allocated for ease in entering data into the computer. The codes are in
numerical form and are given for both different types and causes of damage that may occur to bridges.
7.7.1. Codes for different types of damage

1 Damage to river course / protection facilities
Damage to river course
101 Change of river course
102 Scouring and erosion of river course
103 Silting up
104 Excessive vegetation
105 Insufficient discharge capacity
109 Other damage to the river course
Damage to protection facilities
111 Wash out
112 Scouring of protection facilities
113 Movement
114 Defective wires
119 Other damage to protection facilities
2 Damage to concrete elements

201 Insufficient cover on concrete elements
202 Honeycombs
203 Leakage onto concrete elements
204 Carbonation
205 Debris on concrete elements
206 Corrosion of reinforcement
207 Spalling
208 Delamination on concrete elements
209 Abrasion on concrete elements
210 Deformation of concrete elements
211 Cracking on concrete elements
212 Missing parts of concrete elements
290 Other damage to the concrete elements
3 Damage to steel elements

301 Damage to steel surface treatment
302 Corrosion of steel
303 Loose connection of steel elements
304 Deformation of steel elements
305 Deflection of steel elements
306 Cracking in steel elements
307 Debris on steel elements
308 Missing parts from steel elements
390 Other damage to steel elements
4 Damage to masonry elements

401 Cracks in masonry elements
235
402 Bulging on masonry elements

403 Wearing of pointing
404 Weathering of masonry elements
490 Other damage to masonry
5 Damage to timber elements

501 Growth faults
502 Timber decay
503 Attack from insects or marine borers
504 Loose connections in timber elements
505 Deformation of timber elements
506 Movements in timber elements
507 Cracks in timber elements
508 Missing parts from timber elements
590 Other damage to timber elements
6 Damage to the bitumen wearing course

601 Cracking of wearing course
602 Ruts on wearing course
603 Corrugations on wearing course
604 Depressions in wearing course
605 Potholes in wearing course
606 Abrasion of wearing course
690 Other damage to wearing course
7 Damage to bearings / joints

Damage to bearings
701 Debris on bearings
702 Corrosion of bearings
703 Loose bolts in bearings
704 Excessive shearing of bearings
705 Missing parts from bearings
709 Other damage to bearings
Damage to joints
711 Blockage of joints
712 Loose cover plates on joints
713 Ripping on joints
714 Breaking of joint sealant
715 Missing parts from joints
719 Other damage to joints
8 Damage to the drainage system / approach roads/attached utilities

Damage to the drainage system
801 Blockage of drainage system
802 Corrosion of drain pipes
803 Defective pipes in drainage system
809 Other damage to drainage system
Damage to the bridge approaches
811 Kinks on the bridge approaches
812 Potholes in the bridge approaches
236
813 Erosion of the bridge approaches

814 Vegetation on the bridge approaches
815 Defective or missing bridge signs
816 Defective drain ditches
817 Loss of road camber
819 Other damage to the bridge approaches
Damage to the attached utilities
821 Leakage from pipes
822 Damaged supports
823 Damaged insulation
824 Obstruction of waterway
825 Traffic impact
829 Other damage to drainage system
999 Other damage to the bridge
237
7.7.2. Codes for causes of damage
The cause of damage is a concept that indicates what originally the source of the damage was. The
different possibilities are described using a two digit numerical code. The codes for causes of damage
are as follows:
1 Faulty design
11 Deviation from standards
12 Erroneous choice of material
13 Erroneous calculations
14 Erroneous design
19 Other faulty design
2 Material defects
21 Poor composition
22 Inadequate strength
23 Natural abnormalities
29 Other material defects
31 Settlement of scaffolding
32 Incorrectly placed reinforcement
33 Faulty concreting
34 Insufficient finishing
35 Insufficient curing of concrete
36 Premature loading
37 Wrong choice of material
38 Improper installation
39 Other faulty construction
4 Insufficient maintenance
41 Insufficient cleaning
42 Insufficient clearing
43 Insufficient removal of debris
44 Untimely application of protective measure
45 Inadequate maintenance
49 Other insufficient maintenance
5 Environment
51 Chloride attack
52 Sulphate attack
53 Carbonation
54 Alkaline reaction
55 Abrasion
56 Biological attack
59 Other environmental attack.
6 Loading
61 Traffic
62 Earth pressure
63 Current pressure
64 Wind pressure
65 Temperature
66 Shrinkage
67 Creep
69 Other loading
238
7 Accidents
71 Impact from traffic
72 Impact from vessels
73 Floods
74 Landslides
75 Explosions
76 Fire attack
77 Chemical attack
78 Impact from floating objects
79 Other accidents
8 Exceptional causes of damage
81 Wear and tear
82 Vandalism
83 Consequential / secondary cause of damage
89 Other exceptional causes of damage
9 Other causes
99 Other / unknown causes of damage.
Book Title: Author:
1. Highway Maintenance Handbook Edited by Ken Atkinson.
2. AASHTO Manual for Bridge Maintenance {1976} AASHTO.
3. Bridge Inspector’s Training Manual 70 U. S. Department of Transportation.
4. Manual for Maintenance Inspection of Bridges (1974) AASHTO.
5. Bridge Inspector’s Handbook RRL
6. Road Maintenance Handbook Vol. 1 United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa.
7. Civil Engineering Materials Edited by N. Jackson.
8. Materials Rick Middleton.
9. Timber Alan Everett.
10. Handbook for Bridge Inventory TANROADS, Tanzania.
239

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THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

MINISTRY OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA

HANDBOOK FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION

Engineering Division 2006

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA

HANDBOOK FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION

TANROADS Norwegian Public

Handbook for Bridge Inspection

Second Edition, 2006

1. BRIDGE ELEMENTS .............................................................................................................................. 7

5.10.1. Blockage on Joints ................................................................................................................. 158

2.2.1. Properties of Concrete:

Strong in compression Weak in shear

2.2.2. Uses of Concrete in Bridges:

Reinforcements in tension area

Reinforcements on both sides

I-Section Steel Plate

2.3.1. Properties of Steel:

2.3.2. Uses of Steel in Bridges:

Brick Masonry Block Masonry

2.4.1. Properties of masonry:

2.4.2. Uses of masonry in bridges:

Section through a tree trunk

2.5.1. Properties of Timber:

2.5.2. Uses of timber in Bridges:

3.1 INFORMAL INSPECTION:

3.2 GENERAL INSPECTION:

3.3 MAJOR INSPECTION:

3.4 SPECIAL INSPECTION:

4.2 THE PLANNING PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITY

4.3 BUDGETING FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION

Before starting budget preparations, the following should be done:

4.4 INSPECTION RESOURCES AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

4.4.1. General Requirements of the Inspectors:

4.4.2. Inspection Tools:

4.4.3. General inspection:

4.4.4. Major inspection:

4.4.5. Special inspection:

4.4.6. Access and safety equipment:

4.4.7. Safety Requirements:

4.5 DAMAGE LOCATION PROCEDURES DURING INSPECTION

4.5.2. Use of Axis as Reference System for Damage Location

A sketch showing Numbering of the Axis

4.5.3. Use of Axis as Reference System on Big Bridges

A sketch showing Numbering of the Axis – Arch Bridges

A sketch showing Numbering of the Axis/Nodes on the Truss Bridges

A sketch showing numbering the Cable Bundles on Suspension Bridges

A sketch showing Division of Axis on Cable Stayed Bridges

4.5.4. Location System for Beams

Cross Section of a Beam Bridge

4.5.5. Reflected Plan of the Superstructure

Sketch of Folding Out a Beam Bridge

Sketch of Reflected Plan for a Box Girder Bridge

4.5.6. Reflected Plan of Columns and Foundations

Circular columns are divided according to the

Sketch of Reflected Plan of a Circular Column

5. DAMAGE EVALUATION GUIDE