Chapter 3

Thermodynamic Processes of Perfect Gases
I. Introduction. 2, Classificatian of Thermodynatnic Processes. 3. Worlcdone During a Non-flow

Process' 4. Apptication of Fiist Law i7 Thermoiynamics to a Non-flaw Process. S.-Heating"and
Expawion of Cases in Nop-flow Processes. 6, Constant Volume Process (otr Isochorie proceis). 7.
.Constant Pressure Process (or Isobaric Process). L Hyperbotic Process. 9. Constant Temperature process
(or Isothermal Process). 10. Adiabatic Process 1or liintropic Process). I L Polytropic Pr*rrr. 12. Rate
of Heat Transfer (Absorption or Rejection) per Unit Volume During a Polytropic process. 13.
Determi.rwtion of Polyffopic Index 14. Free Expension (or Un-resisted Expattsion) Process. 15. General
lnws for Expansion and Conpression. 16. Summary of Formuhe for Heating and Expansion of perfect
Gases in Reversiblb.Non-flow Processes. 17. Flow Procesr"l. la. Apltlication'of Firsi Law of
Thertnodyrnmics to a Steady Flow Process. 19. Worlcbne in a Steady Floi Process. 2b. Workdone
for
Varlous. Stc(l Processes. 2L Throaling Process. 22. Apptication of Steady Flow Energy Eqwtion
\bw
to Engineering Sysums. "'
,
3.l. Introduction
We have already discussed that when a system changes its state from one equilibrium state to
another equilibrium state, then the path of successive states tluough which the system has passed, is
known as a thermodynarnic proce,ss. Strictly speaking, no system is in true equilibrium during the
process because the properties (such as pressure, volume, temperature etc.) arechanging. Howiver,
if the process is assumed to take place sufficiently slowly so that the deviation of the properties at the
intermediate states is infinitesimally small, then every state passed through by the system will be in
equilibrium' Such a process is called quasi-static or reversible process and it is represented by a
continuous curve on the property diagram (i.e. pressure-volume diagram) as shown in Fig. 3.1 (a).
1 (lnitial state)
I
I
o
t-
o Equilibrium states :r
L.
3 o
a
U,
.n o
\.
o
l- &
(L
2
I
I (Final state)
% Volume --...+ Volume €

(a) Itcvcrsiblc l)r()ucss 1/r) lrrcvcrsihlc l)roccss.
Fig. 3.1. Rcvcrsible ind irrcvcrsiblc p()ccss.
If the process takes place in such a manner that the properties at the intermediate states are
not in equilibrium state (except the initial and final state), then the process is said to be non-equilibrium
or irreversible process. This procdss is represented by the broken lines on the property diagram as
shown in Fig. 3.1 (D).
50
Thermodynamic Processes of Peqfect Gases 5l
3.2. Classification of Thermodynamic Processes
All the thermodynamic processes are classified into the following two groups :
l. Non-flow processes, and 2. Flow processes.
The processes occurring in closed systems which do not permit the transfer of mass .-cross
their boundaries, are known as non-flow processes. It may be noted that in a non-flow process, the
energy crosses the system boundary in the'form of heat and work, but there is no mass flow into or
out of the system.
The processes occurring in open systems which permit the transfer of mass to ard frorn the
system, are known as flow processes. It may be noted that in a flow process, the mass enters the system
and leaves after enhancing energy. The flow processes may be steady flow and niin-steady flow
processes. The common examples of steady flow processes are flow through nozzles, turbines
compressors etc. and the common examples of non-steady flow processes are filling or evacuation
of vessels.
3.3. Workdone During a Non-flow Process
Consider a system contained in a frictionless piston and cylinder anangement as shown in Fig.
3.2. As the system expands from its original state 1, it overcomes the external resistance (such as
rotation of the flywheel) which opposes the motion of the piston by
exerting a force through a distance. The variation of the volume and p1
pressure of the system as it expands to final state 2, is drawn on the

I
t
E
pressure-volurne diagram (briefly called p-a diagram) as shown in - q
g,
o 'p
i
Fig. 3.2. r;
o-
Let at any small section (shown shaded), the pressure (p) of Po
I
the system is constant. It A is the cross-sectional area of the piston,
then force on the piston (F = p A) causes the piston to move through
a distance dx. Thus, workdone by the system ,
6W = Fdx = pAdx = pda
...(.do-Adx)
.'. Workdone for non-flow process from state I to state 2,
w,-,= Fig. 3.2. Workdone during a

lu*= ioo,, non-tlow process.
From above, we see that the worlcdone is given by the area under the p-a diagram.
Notes : l. The workdone by the system is taken as posr'trve while the workdone on the system is considered as
negative.
2. *
For an irreversible process, 614z p da,because the path of the process is not represented truely on
the p-zr diagram due to its non-equilibrium states in the process.
3.4. Application of First Law of Thermodynamics to a Non-flow process

We have already discussed in Chapter I (Art. 1.49) that when a system undergoes a change
of state or a thermodynamic process, then both the heat transfer and work transfer takes place. The
net energy transfer is stored within the system and is known as stored or total energy of the system.
Mathematically
Qr-r- Wr-, = dE = Er- E, (,)
where Qr-, = Heat transferred or heat supplied to the system during the process
i.e. from state I to state 2,
Wr-, = Workdone by the system on the surroundine during the process
i.e. from state I to 'state 2,
52 A Text Book of Thermal Engineering
Ez = *Total energy or stored energy of the system at the end of the process
i.e. At state 2, and
9l = Total energy or stored energy ofthe system at the start ofthe process i.e. at state I
,
For a non-flow process. the stored energy is the internal energy only. Thus equation (r) ofthe first
law of thermodynamics, when applied to a non-flow process or a static system, may be written as
Qr-r-Wt-z= dU = IJz-Ur
where dU = Change in internalenergy = Ur- U,
It may be noted that heat and work are not a property of the system, but their diffbrence
(Qr-r- lV,-r) during a process is the numerical equivalent of stored energy. Since the stored energy
is a property, therefore (Qr-"- %_J is also a property.
Example 3.1. When a system is takenfrom the state A to the state B, in Fig. 3.3, along the
path ACB, 80 kl of heat flows into the system and the system does 30 H of work
l. How rnu,ch heat flows into the system along the' path' ADB, 'xf t
the curved path, the workdone on the system is 20 lcl. Does the system fi
absorb or libt€rate fuatt:and how much heat is absorbeid or liberated" t
the heat absorbed iry sfts: procisses AD and DB. .,--- ---.r
VOlUmg
Solution" Given : Oncn = 80 kJ ; IVncs = 30 kJ Fig. 3.3
l. Heat flowing into the system along the path ADB, if workdone (W = I0 H
6es)
Let Qeos = Heat flowing into the system along thepathADB,
Ua = Internal energy atA, and
Un = Internal energy at B.
We know that forpathACB,
I Q4,cn = **(Us - UA) + WA.B

UB-Ua = Qo.t-WA,,= 80-30 = 50kJ
'
We aho know that for pathADB,
Qnos = 1u"-uo)* woo" = 50+ l0 = 60kJ Ans.
(" I%ns= tokJ)
2. IIeat absorbed or liberated
Let Qs-x = Heat absorbed or liberated along the curved path BA.
Since the work is done on the system, therefore

Wn-t=-20kJ ...(Given)
The total energy of a system is the sum of potential energl (PE), kinetic cnergy (KE) and intemal energy
(t4 plus any other form ofthe energy such as chemical energy, electrical energy etc.
** Since internal energy is a point f'uncti<ln, and depends on the initial and tinal states, theretbre d{/ is raken
as (Us - Ua) where as heat and work are path fiurctions.
Thermodynamic Processes of Perfect Gases 53
We know that for the cuived path B-A,
Qr*o = a- t/u) * Ws_n = - (Us - U t)*
(U Wn_o
= - 50 -20 - -70 kJ Ans.

The -ve sign indicates that heat is liberated by the system.
3. Heat absorbed in the processes AD and DB
Let Qoo = Heat absorbed in the process AD,
Qr, = Heat absorbed in the process DB,
UA = InternalenergyatA = 0 . . (Given)
UD = Internal energy at D = 40 kJ . . (Given)
We know that work done along the path ADB,

Woo, = Wo*n*Wn_s
Since the process D-B is a constant volume process, therefore Wo-, = 0. Thus, workdone
during the process A-D,
W o_, = Worr" = l0 kJ
We know that Qo_, = (Un- U o) + I%_p
= (40-0)+10 =50kJ Ans.
Sirnilarly Qo_, = (Us-Ui*Wos = Us-U, ...('.'Wo-r-o)
= 50-40 - l0kJ Ans.
. . (' : U"- U,r = 50 kJ and Uo = 0, therefore Us = 50 kJ)
Example 3,2. Aftuid is confined inaqlinfur,by asprine,loadedfrietionless pistonso that
the pressure in tke fluid i a linear funttin gy iic votuti'1 p' =, i.+'h o)i," rui;er*i;;;;b;;;;
J'luid is g:iven by,the fallowing equaion :
.
t*''S3tff,,J ''''', '::..,.:1i,-..,n .g,r...';i1.,r.,i.il.,".'|

't
il.f-,'l;;i.1..'.;.;.-,::-..1:
t
;, li , .
t
..
t
,.. ., . .
t.
, . ,
:.' , ,
where U is in kl, p inkN/m2 andv inm3,, tytne.gard,ch4nges.fionattinitiattstw of I"T bon O,OS

to a linat stae af 4 bar 0.06 mr , with tw work itlui than tnai db;ni on *"
iXtoin"a inc a*cdon ^t
and magniturle af the iork and heu transfei. ::;' ', ''
Solution. Given:p
=atba;I) =33.5+3 pa ipt = l.7bar=l70kIVm2; ar = 0.03 m3;
pz = 4 bar = 400 kN/m2 I = 0.06 m3
"z
We know that change in internal energy of the fluid,
dU = Uz- Ut = (33.5 + 3 pro2) - (33.5 +3 prar)
= 3(pzaz-prar) = 3 (400x0.06-170x0.03)kJ
= 3(24:5.1) = 56.7kJ
Wealsoknowthat p = a+ba
.'. For the initial state of fluid,
170 = a+bx0.03 . " .(i)
and for the final state of fluid,
400 = a+bx0.06 . .(ii)
Subtracting equation (t) from equation (ri),
400-170 = 0.06b-0.03b or 230 = 0.03 b
b = 7667
Substituting the value of b rn equation (i),
170 = a+7667 x0.03 = a+230
a = -60
We know that work transfer,
az uz
wr_, = Ioo, = [f"+ba)da \'

a, at
l- a'1o'
=
l"'*
b
2 1,,= a\az
,
-u,)+bw)
'l
(0'06\2 - (0'03P
=- 60 (0.06 ,uurf
- 0.03) +tr--rl
,w-v.vJ)
z )
=- 1.8 + 10.35
= 8.55 kJ Ans.
Heat transfer , Qr-z = Wr-r+ dU = 8.55 + 56.7 = 65.25 kJ Ans.
Since both work ftansfer and heat trans fer arepositive, therefore work is done by the fluid and
heat is supplied to the fluid.
3.5. Heating and Expansion of Gases in Non-flow Processes
" The heating and expanding of a gas may be performed in many ways. But the following are
the different non-flow processes (reversible and irreversible) as applied to perfect gas :
l. Reversible rwn-flow processes. These processes are as follows :
(a) Constant volume process (or Isochoric process),
(b) Constant pressure process (or Isobaric process),
(c) Hyperbolic process,
(d) Constant temperature process (or Isothermal process)
(e) Adiabatic process (or Isentropic process), and
A Polytropic process
2. Irreversible nan-fl.ow processes. The free expansion process is an irreversible non-flow
process.
These above mentioned processes are discussed, in detail, in the following pages.
Note: The above mentioned processes are also applicable to the cooling and compression of gases. Cooli4g is
regarded as negative heating, and compression as negative expansion'
3.6. Constant Volume Prdcess (or Isochoric Process)

We have aheady discussed that when a gas is heated at a constant volume, its temperature and
pressure will increase. Since there is no change in its volume, therefore no work is done by the gas.
All the heat supplied to the gas is stored wiJhin the gas in the form of internal energy. It may be noted
that this process is governed by Gay-Lussac law, Now consider mkgof a certain gas being heated at
constant volume from initial state I to a final state 2.
Let P p ul and fl = Pressure, volurne and temperature at the initial state 1 , and
P2,urandT2 = Pressure, volume and temperature at the final state 2.
The process is shown on the prcssure-volume( p-a) andpressure-temperature ( p-I) diagrams

in Fig. 3.4 (a) and (b) respectively.
f
:'
lF
'.h
'a
o
ot;
vz
'1,=
-VOlUme-+ -Tempdralgi€
i
(ct) 1t-u diagrarn. (D p-f diagram.

Fig. 3.4. Constant volume process.
Now let us derive the following relations for the reversible constant volume prccess.
l. P ressure-volume-temperature (p-a-T) relationship
We know that the general gas equation is
PPt Pzaz
Tt - T2
...(i)
Since the gas is heated at constant volume, therefore ar = a2.
Pr Pz
or
p
Constant . . . [From equation (t)J
Tt Tz T
Thus the constant volume process is governed by Gay-Lussac law.
2. Workdone by the g*s
We know that 6lv = pda
On integrating from state 1 to state 2,
2 22
Jow = Io* = pl da
I ll
or wr_, = p (az- ut) - ...(';'ur = ur)
3. Change in internal energy
We know that change in internal energy,
dU = mcadT ...(Joule'slaw)
22
Io, = fficol o,
lt
or Ur- U, = ffi c, (Tz- T)
4. Heat supplied or heat transfer
We know that . 6Q = du+6w
A Text Book of Thermal Engineering
222
Juo = [or*Jow
or Qvz = 1Ur- Ur) + Wr_z
Since W,-, = 0, therefore heat supplied or heat transfer,
Qvz = Ur- U, = tu co(T2- Tt)

This shows that all the heat supplied to the gas is utilised in increasing the internal energy of
the gas.
5. Change in enthalpy
We know that the change in enthalpy,
dH = dU+d(pa)
On integrating from state I to state 2,
222
Iou: Ior*[a(pz,)
or H'-H'='*:'l''."'l::-T)""
.. .( . ptar = mR I, ;and pzaz = rnRTr)
= * (Tz- Tt) (c, + R) = tn cr(72- Tr) ...('.'/;'a' c -c = R)
Note : The change in intemal energy (dU) and the change in enthalpy (dll have the same expression for each
process.
Example 3.3. A certain gas occupies a space of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 2 bar and a
ternperature of 7T C. It is heated ot a constant volume, until the pressure is 7 bar. Determine :
L temperature at the end of the process ; 2. mass of the gas ; 3. change in internal energy ; and
4. change in enthalpy during the process.
Assume cp= 1.005 H/kg K ] cr= 0.712 kilkg K ; and R = 287 J/kg K.
Solution. Given : a r = 0.3 m3 ; p r = 2 bar = 0.2 xl06 N/m2 ; T r = 77o C = 77 + 273 =350 K ;
pz=7 bar =A.7 x 106 N/m2; cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K ico=0.712 kJ/kg K ; R =287 J/kg K
l. Temperature at the end' of the process
Let Tz = Temperature at the end of the process.
We know that YL: *

Tt Tz
m PzTr 0.7 x 106 x 350
-i = --- = o.2xlo6 =1225 (-1225-273=95TC
T) Ans.
Pr
2. Mas,t of'the g,tts
Let trt = Mass of the gas.
We know that p t
ut = mRTl
Thermodynamic Proce.s.teJ of Perfect Gases 57
Ptat 0.2xlffx0.3
m= = 0.597 kg Ans.
Rtt 287 x 350
3. Change ininlernal energy

We know that change in internal energy'
dU=Uz-Ur=mco(Tr-T)
= 0.597 xO.7L2(1225- 350) = 372kJ Ars.
4.-Change in enthalpy
We know that change in enthalPY,
I dH = Hz-Ht = mco(Tr-I1)
t,,_^_
i = 0.597 x I.OOS (1225 - 350) = 525 kJ Am.
3.7. Constant Pressure Frocess (or Isobaric Process)
We have already discussed that when a gas is heated at a constant predsure, its ternperature
and volume will increase. Since there is a change in its volume, therefore the heat supplied to the gas
is utilised to increase the internal energy of the gas and for doing some external work. It may be noted
that this process is governed by Charles' law.
Now consider mkgof acertain gas being heated at a constalt pressure from an initial state I
to a final state 2.
Let pvur and q = Pressure, volume and temperature at the initial state 1, and
Pz'Az and Tz = Pressure, volume and temperature at the final state
2.
The process is shown on the p-a and p-T diagrams in Fig. 3.5 (a) and (b) respectively.
f,,
..'., ' ,,.
,$,"
5
' ' ','"':
f,'-, ',.',,
"
oO.=
(r' .frPr= Pe
I
o Ol
r-.
l-
&,..'',t. (L, ' ',
I l' ,', , i
Ylt,' ,' ' ,. r'Vg'',,,' ?li T.,

. ,,
Volume , ' VOlufig' '..."i-
(ct) p-u diagram. (D p-f diagram.
Now let us derive ,n" pressure process.

"uJ?"1?"t"f;3111ilt'1f,i'Hi3Jffi;"nstant
l. Pressure -volume-temperature ( p-u-T retationship)
pra r = !rr, (r)
Tt Tz
Since the gas is heated at constant pressure, therefore pt= Pz.
[From equation (t)]

or += constant
7= i
Thus. thc constant pressure process is governed by Charles' law.
t. Workdone by the gas i
We know that 6W = p da
58 A Text Book csf 'f hermal Engineering
2 22
Iut Ipao = pl da
I ll
wr_, p (az- ut) - mR (72- T)
...(. Pat = mRf,*dpaz = mRTr)
3.,Change in internai energy
We have discussed in the previous article that the change in internal energy @A is same for
all the processes. Therefore, change in internal energy,
dU = Ur-U, = fficr(72-Tt)
4. Heat suppliied or hteat transferred
We know that 6g = du+6w
222
Juo = Ior+Jow
lll
Q'-z ...(r,)
= Y::,i,'lil;'^ R (rz-r,)
= m (Tz- Tt) (co+ R)
...(. to-r, = R)
The equation (ii) shows that the heat supplied to the gas is urilised in increasing the internal
energy of the gas and for doing so,me external work.
We have discussed in the previous article that the change in enthalpy (dlt) issame for all the
processes. Therefore, change.in enthalpy,
' ,' dH = Hr-Hr = mco(Tr-T)
' We see that change in enthalpy is equal to the heat supplied or heat transferred.
Nor:s. 1. If the gas is cooled at a constant
pressure, then there will be a compression. It is thus obvious that,
during cooling, the temperature and volume will decrease and work is said to be done on the gas. In this case.
Workdoneonthegas, Wv2 = p(or-a2) = mR(Tr-Tz\
'Decrease in intemal energy,
dU = Ur- Uz = m co(T, - Tr)
and heat rejected by the gas, Qt-z = fficp(Tr-Tr)
2. During expansion or heating process, work is done by the gas (i.e. W,-, is + ve) ; internal energy
- of
the gas increases (i.e. dU is +ve ) and heat is supplied to the gas (Le. Qrzis +ve).
- 3. - During compression or cooling process, work is done on the gas (r'.e. t7,-, is -ve) ; intemal energy
of- the gas decreases (i.e. dU is -ve) and heat is rejected by the gas (Le. eeis -ve). -
. Example 3.4. The valucs af, specific heats at canstant pressure Md ar eowtqnt vohNpte for
an ideat gas are'0,,984,1:l/kg' K M,QTA|,*Jrkg K. Find the vaLues of characteristic gas constant (R)
and ratio of specific heats (y) for the gas. If one kg ofthis gas is heated at constant pressure from 2f
C to 20f C, estimate the heat added, ideal workdone and change in internal ,r"igy. Alsoialculate
the pressare andfinal vetumi,, if the iniital uotinte wac 2 mi- ,' ' , , ':
Solution. Given : cp= O.984kJ/kg K i co= O.728kJlkg K ; m = L kg ; T, = 25o C = 25 + 273

= 298 K i Tz= 2OO" C - 20O + 273 = 473 K ; ur = 2 m3
Therntodynantic Processes of perfect Gases
59
The heating of gas at constant pressure is shown in
Fig. 3.6.
Characte ristic gas constant
we know that characteristic gas constant,

R = cp-co= 0.98 1-0.72g
= 0.256 kJ/kg K Ans.
Rqtio of specffic heats
We know that ratio of specific heats,,/
| = co / c, = 0.984 10.728 = 1.35 Ans.
Fig. 3.6
Heat added
We know that heat added during constant pressure

operation,
Qt-z = mcr(T2-T,) = 1x0.984 (473-298) = ti2.2k| Ans.
Workdone
We know that workdone during constant pressure
operation,
Wr_, - p(ur-zrr) = mR(Tz_Tt) ...(. pa = mRT)
= 1 x 0.256 (473 - 299) - 44.g kJ Ans.
Change in internal energl,
*we know that change in internar
ener gy,
dU = Uz-Ut = mc,(72-f,) = tx0.72g(473_.2gg)kJ
= 127.4 kJ Ans.
Pressure and fiiat volume of the gas if the initial volume, Tr
= 2 m3
Let P = pz = Pressure of the gas, and
1
uz = Final volume of the gas.
ut g
i- = ryn* or ,\ =
We know that
.( . Pressure is constant)
"3= T ,, .
arTz 2x473''
j:--
T)n
z = Tl = = J.rt
3.17 rrr
m3 fi.llDr
Ans.
Zgg
We also know that
Ptat = m RT,
mRTl
ttr' =
al = ry = 38 l40N/m2 .(RisrakeninJrkgK)
= u.J6lzl
0.38 Ans.
bar Ans.
14 Dar
.,(.,. I bar =
! .,. l05N/m2)
5'b
lynUelrS;,4;wnht!tlolxastnsaw'nrniaJ0.!.4nf,presgare!,.Sba1ardatemDerat,itp
r'afflg''rr:w'r*rrib#ra**addi$i.------6 :;;;i;;;iii;;Taiiiiiff,tTf;#ifftr#ffi
The change in internal energy may also be obtained
from the relation
Qt-z
60 A Text Book oJ'Therma.l hngineerin g
L the temperature at the end of compression ; 2. work done in compressing the gas ; 3
decrease in internal energy ; and 4. heat given out by the gas.
Assume cp= 1.005 H/kg K icr=0.712 H/kg K; andR= 285 J/kg K
Solution. Given :at=0.14m3 ip= 1.5 bar=0.15 x 106N/m2 lTl = 100'C = 100 +273
= 373 K i a z = O.ll2 t1f i c t= 1.005 kJ/kg K i co = 0.7 l}kJ/kg K ; R = 285 J/kg K

The compression of gas at constant pressure is shown in Fig. 3"7.
L Temperature at the end of compres,sion I

Let Tz = Temperature at the end of compression.
E
I
Ap
a
we know that E
i= i o-
... Tz= 2I ajrylfn I

va
az = 0. 14 =
vt
zgg*K
Volume ----
= 298.4 - 213 = 25.4o C Ans. Fig. 3.7
2. Workdone is compressing the gas

We know that workdone in compressing the gas,
wr-z = p(at-ar) = 0.15 x 106(0.14 -o.ll2) = 42001= 4.2kJ Ans.
3. Decrease in internal energy
First of all, let us find the mass of gas (n) admitted for compression. We know that
PrAt = mRTt
at 0.15 x 106 x 0.14
.'. m:-::PrRrr =
285 x 373
= 0.197 kg Pt * p)
We know that decrease in internal energy,

dU = Ur-U, = ffico(Tt-Tz)
= 0.197 x 0.7 12 (373 -298.4) = 10.46 kJ Ans.
4. Heut given out by the gas
We know that heat given out by the gas,
Qt-, = * tp (Tt *'[)
= 0.i97 x 1.005 (373*298.4) = 14.17 kI Ans.
3.8. tlyperbeilic Process
A process, in which the gas is heated or expanded in such a way
that the product of its pressure and volume (i.e.px a)remains constant,
is callecl a hyperbolic process.
It may be noted that the hyperbolic process is governed by
Boyle's law i.e. pr) = constant. If we plot a graph for pressure and
volume, during the process as shown in Fig.3.8, we shall get a p2
rectangular hyperbola. Hence, this process is terrned as hyperbolic

process. It is merely a theoretical case, and has a liltle importance frorn
the subject point of view. Its practicai application is isothermal process,
'l-votume L
Fig. 3.|i. tlyperholic process.
which is discussed below.
3.9. Constant Temperature Process (orlsothermal Process)

A process, in which the temperature of the working substance remains constant drni.ng its
expansion or compression, is called constant temperature process or isotherrnal process. This will
happen when the working substance remains in a perfect thermal contact with the surroundings, so
that the heat 'sucked in' or 'squeezed out' is compensatedexactly for the work done by the gas or on
the gas respectively. It is thus obvious that in an isothermal process :
l. there is no change in ternperature,
Z.there is no change in internal energy, and
3. there is no change in enthalpy.
Now consider mkgof acutain gas being heated at constant temperature from an initial state
I tofinal state2.
Let F1,u1and?r = Pressure,volumeandtemperatureattheinitialstate I,and
pz,orand 4 = Pressure, volume and temperature at the final state 2.
The process is shown onthe p-u and p-T diagrams in Fig. 3.9 (a) and (b) rcspectively.
f'bt I
tc.o.$rc ': '.. .:,
o I expansion
l;r I
curve (pv =
-
lrl I
I
G-l
Ep
ol l''
-l-. J.a-'-.
,I
,,:' ,::f.,."'' .
:: : J,,.r , .
"
-
'l o' ;,,r-$*.r r,

I
t
,." ,, . . ,', ,Ve '

, ,,11,
Volume "---+
(a) p-a diagram. (D p-f diagram.-.3r
-fgrnperatuie
Fig. 3.9. Constant temperature (Isothermal) process.
Now let us derive the following relations for the reversible constant tEmperature process tr
isothermal process.
I . P r e s s u r e -v o lume - t e mp e ratu r e ( p -a -T ) r e lations hip
PrUr Pzaz
= .. .(i)
\ \
Since the gas is heated at constant temperature, therefo re Tr = Tz.
Ptal = PzUz or Pa = ConstPnt . . . [From equation (r)]
Thus, the constant temperature process or isothermal process is governed by Boylels law.
2. Workdone by the gas
We know that 6try = pda
22
Jow=
ll
[o*
2
or Wr-, = I, * . . .tii)
I
62 AText Book of Thermal Engineering
Since the expansion of the gas is isothermal , i.e. p a= C, therefore
pa = prat or , =o+
Substituting this value of p in equation (ii), we have
o, az
wr-2= I+*
at
= prrrl+
at
= prr,IloB, oJ:',= PtutloBe . . . (iii)

[fr )
The above equation may be expressedin terms of corresponding logarithm to the base 10, i'e.
w,-r= pru,r loge'['t

2.3 rt (*l = 2.3 pr a,tog r ...(iv)
)
where r=?
al
, and is known as expansion ratio.
as follows
. The equation (iv) may also be written
:
We-know that
t
pr ar = Pzaz = m R T
.'.''Workdone, Wr-r= 2.3 mRTl"g f 3I = 2'3 mRTlog r

Ior )
Since pr az = pzaz , therefore ?ar = +
Pz
(pn )
.;. Work done, Wr-, = 2.3A,Pt zt,'I log-\p,| - I
)
Volume at the end of expansion_
Notes : (a) Expansion ratio, | =
Volume at the beginning of expansion
Volume at the beginning of compression
(b) Compression ratio, r =-- Volume at the end of comPression
3. Change in internal energY
dU = Ur-U, = nxc'u(72-Tt)
Since it is a constant temperature process, i.e. T, = Tr,therefore
dU = Ur-U, = 0 or Ut = Uz
4. Heat supplied or heat transferred
We know that heat supplied or heat transferred from state I to state 2,
Qr-, = dU+Wr-, = Wr-z ...('.'dU=0)
This shows that all the heat supplied to thelas is equal to the workdone bv the gas.
5. Change in enthalPY
dH = Hz-Hr= mco(72-{)
Thermodynamic Processes of Perfect Gases 6l
3.9. Constant Temperaturc process (or.Isothermal process)
A process, in which the temperature of the working substance remains constant during its
expansion or compression, is called constant temperature process or isothertnal process.1.msivitt
happen when the working substance remains in a perfect thermal contact with thi
surroundings, so
that the heat 'sucked in' or 'squeezed out' is compensated exactly for the work done
by the gasii on
the gas respectively. It is thus obvious that in an isothermal process :
1. there is no change in temperature,
2. there is no change in internal energy, and
3. there is no change in enthalpy.
Now consider rz kg of a certain gas being heated at constant temperature from an initial state
I to final slate 2.
I-et P1,u1undTr = Pressure, volumeandtemperatureattheinitialstate l,and
pz,arand 4 = Pressure, volume and temperature at the final state 2.
The process is shown on the p-a and p-T diagrams in Fig. 3.9 (a) and (D) respectively.
l'
lo'
o
t
I
lsothermal
'eXpan$fgp,
lPl
t- I
5
b I
I
curve (pv = C)
'H'
EP
l-
---J----
I .I t $,'
o- O. ,.'
I
:-
lPz
I
--|i
I
I
- -
I
I
2
Iol
I
, ,vl v v2,
I.= T2
VOlUme -€ "11temp-ergtgfg *t-r,
{a) p-a diagram. (D p-f diagram.
-
Fig. 3.9. Constant temperature (Isothermal) process.
Now let us derive the following relations for the reversible constant tQrnperature p1rcess
or
isothermal process.
I . P ressure-volume-temperature ( p-a-T) relationship
Pr ar Pzaz
Tt T2 .. .(i)
Since the gas is heatecl at constant temperature, therefo re Tr = Tz.
Ptur = Pzaz 0r p L) :* Constpnt . . . [From equation (r)]
Thus' the constant temperature process or isothennal process is governed
by Boylels law.
2. Workdone by the gas
We know that 6W = p da
On integrating from state I to siate 2,
22
Jow=
ll
Io*
2
^ wr-r= Io*
I
Thermodynamic Proces.ses of Perfect Gases 63
Since it is a constant temperature = Tr, theiefore
proces s, i.e. T,
dH=Hz-Ht=O or Hr=H,
ryafnn!! ?.6: A qryryty of air las a uot*re of 0,a d at a prefwr7 of 5.bar and a
i
tentperature of 8tr;C. It is exiiajrdcd in cyllnQcr wa caw 'tant tenprAire toi ofpregsiurc I [tar.
Determine the annmtatwo*donebylhiairdiring'ii n,',",'" ri .' i'
Solution. Civen: ?r, ='Q.{63' pr=5bar=0.5x tO6lVlm2; *I=8f C; pz=lbar
=0.1 x 106N/m2
First of all, let us find the volume of air at the end of expansion (r'.e. ar). We know that
Prat n_^3
PtAt = PZUZ Or
Pz =.0.5xldx0.{
AZ = = zm"
01
( "10t
and expansion ratio, r = azl ar = 210.4
We know that workdone by the air during expansion,
Wr-z = 2.3 pra, logr = 2.3x0.5x 106x0.4 log 5 J
x 106 x 0.699 = 321 540 J = 321.54 kJ Ans.
= 0.46
Exqnrpte 3.7' 'O.l ml of air at a pres$ure of !:5 bar is expanded isothertnally to 0,5 rn3.
Calculate thefinal pressure afthggasottdh.eatlapplied.duringthepreeess:.., r,,,
Solution.Given:"r = 0.1 m3; pr = l.5bar = 0.l5xtdN/m2 i u2 = 0.5m3
Final pressure of the gas

Let P2 = Final pressure of the gas.
Ii/s kncw that pr Ttl = Fzuz
Ptat 0.15x106x0.1
ao
a
Pz = = = 0.03 x lff N/m2 = 0.3 br Ans.

a2 0.5
Heat rupplied during the process

We know that expansion ratio,
r=url at=0.5/0.1 =5
.'. Workdone during the process,
Wt_z= 2.3prurlogr = 2.3x0.15x 106x0.1log5J
= 0.0345 x 106x0.699 = 24115J = 24.115 kI
We know that in an isothermal process, heat supplied (O,-r)is equal to the.workdone during
the process.
Qt-a = Wrz = 24.115 kJ Ans.

3.10. Adiabatic Process (or Isentropic Process)
A process, in which the working subs0ance neither receives nor gives out heat to its sunound-
ings, during its expansion or compression, is called an**adiafutic process. This will happen when
* Superfluorrs data
** It may be noted that the adiabatic process may be reversible or ineversible. The reversible adiabatic process
or frictionless adiabatic process is known as isentropic process (or constant entropy process). But when
friction is involved in the process, then the adiabatic process is said to be irreversible, in which case the
. entropy does rrot remain constant l.e. the entropy increases (See Chapter 4, Art.4.7).
& A Text Book of Thermal Engineering
the working substance remains thermally insulated, so that no heat enters or leaves it during the
process. It is thus obvious, that in an adiabatic or isentropic process :
l. No heat leaves or enters the gas,
2. The temperature of the gas changes, as the work is done at the cost of internal energy, and
3. The change in internal energy is equal to the work done.
Now consider mkg of a certain gas being heated adiabatically from an initial siate I to a final
state 2.
pr
Vet Py at and Tt = Pressure, volume and tempera- Adiabatic,,
ture at the initial state 1, and

$g,
,!t,1
I
I
expbnsign
.IJ
l 'CU!V€',,,,",
:l
o
Pj arand T, = Pressure, volume and tempera- g
iP' r- :l,r*
'te
-
,, , ,l'
ture at the final state 2.
, ,,,a
,
' ",1' t,
i.
P'i -.?rir!5:r
,... I
The process is shown on the p-a diagram in Fig. 3.10. l
vl v ..v2
Now let us derive the following relations for a reversible Volume 4
adiabatic process.
Fig. 3.10. Adiabatic process.
I . P ressure-volume-tempterature ( p-a-T) relationship
We know that 6Q = 6W+dU (First law of thermodynamics) . . . (t)
Since in an adiabatic process, no heat transfer takes places, therefore

6Q='Q /
.'. 6W+dIl = 0
or pda*mcodT = 0
dT= -pda ...(tt)

ffiC,
We know that pa = mRT

Differentiating this expression, we get
Pda+adP = mRdT
pfu)+adp pda+adp
dT= . . (iii)
mR m (cp - to)
...('.'R = cr-cr)
Equating equations (ii) and (iii),
Y-= Pda+adP
ffi co m (cp- co)
cp--co adp
_ Pda+adP I pda
_1_
ca -pda
c'
? _t = -'1-(*"+)
',o
(c
(a dp ) I P=
\= -[d'"7 ) IC, 1l
--*tf'
dP
.'. yxfu
,TJp =
da
yx-+
dP
ap = 0
Integrating borh sidesl

y log, u + log, p'= Constant or log, pt/ = log, C
pt/ =C or ptf,=pz4=...=C ...(iv)
The equation (iv) may also be expressed in the following forms ;
Pr ( ,r\
pr=[-.1 . . .(v)
From the general gas equation, we know that
PPt Pzaz T1
,, = \ or Pr
T.))
...(vi)
rr=\"i
Equating equations (v) and (vi),
t= (;1 "*,=(;lGI'
. . . (vii)
From equation (iv), we also know that
T)t ( or\i
-.=l-l
az . . (viii)
\P, )
From the general gas equation, we know that
7)t Tt Pt
'+='4
Tt T2 or =
u2 \"; ...(ix)
Equating equations (viii) and (ix),
I
(r)'=+"'; .r t= (x)r "?,= (t1-i.'

y- I
Tt (p')t
\=1")
2. Workdone during adiabatic expansion
"'(x)
We have already discussed that workdone,

6W = pfu
222
Jow=
llr
Iroo ')r wr-z= Ir* ...(xl)
Since adiabatic expansion of the gas follows the law,
par = pr4 or p= '4

at
Substituting this value of p in equation (xi),

zry2
w,-, = Jt,
a^l '+
o, = pt,4 I a-Y da
I
= N\--.^t I-ai '1

-T-
l-tl,o; ,,1,-v1
p raY, vL- Y_- p, aT al
_Y
I -y
pt tr _4 a!z- \ - lr (4 al - \ ) . ..( . p,4 = pr4)
1-y
Pzaz- PJa r
= 1-y
Ptat- Pzaz
- y-l
...(Forexpansion)
lzaz- Prar
- y-l
...(Forcompression)
Notc : The above equation for work done may also be expressed as :
(a) We know that p1o1 =mRT, and praz =mR ?2. Substihrting ttrese values in the equation for
expansion,
wr, =
m R T' - m-RTz - m R
!.Tt:Tz) .. . (Forexpansion)
y-l y-l
rt)
=*R(Tr.. .. . (Forcompression)
y-r
(b) We also know that work done during expansion,
- Prat- lzaz P"l[ t Pzazf

Wr-,
1-l = T-lL' - pratl
-mRr,[ ,-Ye] ...(. pa = mRT)
TL L '- ,,", )
3. Change in internnl energY
dU = Ur- U, = ffi c, (Tz- T)
4. Heat supplied or heat tansferred
We know that head supplied or heat transferred in case of adiabatic process is zero, therefore
Qr-z = o
5. Change in enthalpY
dH=Hz-Hr=mcr(Tr-T)
Example 3'8' : :one litre of hydrogen at f € [email protected]:s61s;half 6f itswlwne.
Find'thlchange in ienperature if' drc gasu itr tlp 'pfltwliw$fo Wor.t faiAiaroien isi I ..+
Solution. Given : ?l = I litrei Tr = 0o C = 0 + 273 =273K;ar=arl2=ll2
= 0.5 litre ;
T= 1.4
Let T2 = Final temperature of the gas.
'=
weknowthat
+,= (;l [T)'-' =
(0.5)0'4 = 0.758
"' Tz = T,10.758 = 273 10.758 = 360.16 K

= 3d).16 -273 = 87.160C Ans.
.',' , ,Exadrplei:1.91",I.1
.i4tiq!fi,y.olqne of 0,lF kg,of,q cenniw gas:wtrs 0,IS ms at e'tetwerarwe
:af
45p;E a*ila 1!ie. stw,af,I aair A.frer edialnlcccimPressiani,wp,bia tn" d, n ts*tvii*to1*4n
_heat\;;a.ne
+t 4:cgwailt.prefsure M the ather at:.a ibnstant iolwrc :.and 5. ChanSe sf niernat
solution. Given : z=0.18 kg ; a, =0.15 m3 i rr = r5oc = li +273 =2gg K ; pr= lbar

= 0.1 x ld N/m2 iaz=0.056nf ; pz= 4 bar = 0.4 x ld N/m2
The p-a diagram is shown in Fig. 3.1 1.
l. Gas constant
Let R = Gasconstant.
We know that
Ptut = m RTI
0.1 x106x0.15
R=Ptat= t", :', ti:',=':'.i, Oi,. '
*Tr 0.18 x 288 r..|ir++t!.r.tt
',..,V.olulrjg
= 289.4 Jlkg K = 0.2894 kJ/kg K Ans. Fig. 3.1I

2. Molecular mass of the gas
We know that rnolecular mass of the gas,
M=
Universalgas constant (Rr) g314
^" Characteristic gas constant (R) ZBg.4
= 28.73 kg Ans.
...('.'R, = 8314 Jkg K, for all gases)
3. Rotio of specific heats
We know that ratio of specific heats,
log
Pz , ( o.4x 106 )
P1 'os I o.t . lot J log 4 0.6020
v- log 2.678 0.4279
'"*[t) '"*[##)
1.407 Ans.
4. Specific heat at a constant volume and constant pressure
Let c, = Spec'ific heat at a constant volume, and
co = Specific heat at a constant pressure.

Weknow that co- co - R or 1.407 co-co = 0.2894,..(... T = colco = 1.407)
co = 0.2894 I 0.407 = 0.7 ll kJ/kg K Ans.
and ,p = 1.407 c, = 1.407 x0"711 = I kJ/kgK Ans.
5. Change in internal energy
First of all, let us find the final temperature (T). We know that
t'4w-l
\ ("tLI ^t
rz [r, ] = = (o'2s)028e = o'57
F)W
Tz = Trl 0.67 = 288 I 0.67 = 430 K
' dU = (lz-Ur = mco(Tr-I1) = 0.18x0.711(430-288)kJ
= l8.l7kJ Ans.
Example 3.10. A system contains O.tS # old
at apressure of 3.8 fur and IStr C. h is
gas
ey-ytded-adjafutically till the pressure fails to I bar. rt g^
then heied at a i p;;"r"
"
till its enthalpy increases by 70 H. Determinz the totarworkdonc. Takc co= I H/kg";;;r*r;
K and c)= 0.zll
kJ/ks K.
Solution. Given i n, = 0.15 m3 ; pr= 3.8 bar = 0.38 x I 06 IrNllm2.t Tr=150oC: 150 + 273
=423Kipz= I bar=0. I x 106N/m2 ;dH =70kJ; cp= I kJlkg K;irco'=S .7l4kJlkg K
In Fig. 3.lz,process l-2 represents adiabatic expansion
of the gas and the process 2-3 represents heating at constant I P1 Adiabatic
pressure.
E
5
o
\,/ expansion
o
o Gonstant
First of all, let us find ttre temperature (T) and volume o
L.
pressure
(az) after the adiabatic expansion. heating
2,=P,
V/e know that adiabatic index, ln
V= col c, =
a
I 10.714 = 1.4
1:-1
...1=
T.
T^z
fa)^l
lo, )
=[Tf =,(38)o2ao=
T Trl
,t
I-^ 1.465 = 423 I 1.465 = 288.7 K
'l
I
( t')tr :
and
;= (x)' = IrrJ e.263)o.7t4= 0.385
uz = a,10.385 = 0.15/ 0.385 = 0.39 m3

Now let us find the temperature (Tr) and volume (ur) after constant pressure heating.
Let m = Mass of gas contained in the system.
We know that gas constant,
R=
"o-
co = | -0.714= 0.286kJ/kgK = 286J/kgK
and ptat = mRT,
m=ft=EH##=o.47kg
We also know that increase in enthalpy (dI1),
70 = tn co (73'- T) = 0.47 x I (T, - 288.? kJ
rr=lh+288.7 =437.6K
Since the heating is at constant pressure, thereforc
uz a3
azTs 0.39x437.6
i=i t-a3=T=-ffi= =0.5em3
We know that work done during adiabatic expansion,
wr_, =
Pr0r - Pzaz
-= 0.38 x 106 x 0.15 - 0.1 x 106 x 0.39
T-1 1.4- |
1
57x103-39x 103
= = 45 000J = 45 kJ
0.4
and workdone during constant pressure heating,
Wr* = p2(ar-ar) = 0.lx106(0.59-0.39) = 20000J = 20kJ

.'. Total work done, W =. Wrz*Wz_t = 45 + V6 = 65 kJ Ans.
Exampte3.ll. a.fia nf oygasat Iabaraadrso cexpand$difraticaw wttitritt pressure
is 4 bar. tt corypreqsed, isothernlaily, n its original volume. rina *"
is,t4elt nnai ternperiur" and
presswre af,the Eas."Also determine the change in'internat energy. Talce
cu - o.gg6 wlks K ; and
co =0.703 H/kg K.
Solution. Given: ar=0.336m3 ipr= l0 bar= l x ldN/m2; Tr l56F C=150+273
=
=423K;p2=4bar=0.4X ldN/m2 io3 = at=0.336 ,1f icr,=0.996kJlkgK ico=O.7}3kJ/kgK
In Fig. 3.13, process 1 -2 represents the adiabatic expan-
sion of the gas and the process 2-3 rcpresents the isothermal 'o'
compression to its original volume.
I
We know tlrat adiabatic index,
f= cnlc, =-0.99610.703 = 1.417 fi-

o-
fiinal temperature of the gas
Let
lo,
T3 = Final temperature of the gas, ancl
'', =,,vg ,, r' ,i ; ,, ',
Tz = Temperature of the gas after adiabatic r,::T.+, VolUmg fa-t
expansion. Fig.3.l3
70
A Text Book of Thermal Engineering
We know that
- -Y:l t.4t7-J
L= [t)r =(to)Tn ={,*'s)02e1 =r31
T2
lor) tt,J
Tz= T.ll.3l = 42311.31 -: 323 K
Since the compression is i sotherrnal from 2 to 3, therefore

T3= Tz = 323K = 50oC Ans.
Final pressure af the gas
Let pz = Final Pressure of the gas'
We know that for a constant volume process 3- 1,

h = Pt
T3 Tr
TtPr
h= r, =_n
323x 1 x 106
= 0.76x 106 N/mz = 7.6bar Ans.
Change in internal energY

First of all,'let us find the mass of the gas (m).
We know that gas consfint,
R = ,p- c, = 0.996 - 0.703 = A"293 kJ/kg K= 293 Jlkg K
We also know that

Ptar = m RT,
1x 106x0.336
m='4t
R 7',
= 293x 423
= 2.7 kg
.'. Change in internal energy,

, d(J = Ur- U, = fficu(\-T) = 2'7 x0'703 (323 -423)w
= - 189.8 kJ Ans.
The negative sign indicates that there is a decrease in internal energy.
, 3 ,gf;i. ,
;A,75 ,m3
of hydrogen_gas is initially at a pressure of I bar and temperature
2g0 K. it ts ianpfc;sed isentropically n 15 bar. Next tt is expanded
-Exqr-nple, at constant temperature to
andthe gas pressure is restored
ori3i*iuoio n-,Ft uity;nert reiic:tion'tatecs place at constantvolume
at the end of,each
i"ii" tr:iii""[candinini, if,pritsure. Find i l. P,r*u'", volwne and temperature
: isothermal expansion ; and 3. Clnnge of internal energy during
Z
"p'"r"i"i -i"itt*U;iliurtng
each process
For hydrogen, R = 4126 J/kg y ; cr= 14'26 H/kg K'
Solution.Given: at=0.75 m3;Pr = l bar=0'l xto6Nlm2 iTt=290KiPz=

15 bar
1,5 x tO6 Nlm2 in3 = Tr = O.ZS m3 ;R - 4126ilklK= 4.126

kJ/kg K i cp= 14'26 kJ/kg K
=
Inp-o diagranl Fig. 3.14, process 1-2 represents isentropic compression, process
as shown in
and process 3-l represents
2-3 represents exiansion at constant temperature (isothermal expansion)
rejection of heat at constant volume.
Thermodynamic Processes of Perfect Gases
7l
I. Pressure, volurne and temperature at the end of each operation
tion l-2,
Pt, U3 and Tq =
index (y). We know thar Fig. 3.14

CIr- Cr= R
co= ctrr- R - 14.26 *4.126= 10. l34kJ/kg K

y- ,o I cr= 14.261 10.134= 1.4O7
We know that for isentropic process t-2,
( ,, lrz
p
1
(a
r)Y = p, (ar)r or
l.4 l'= Pt
a2=
''[3,)' = o7s[*)* = 0.75 x0. 146 = 0.ll m3 Ans.
Pt ut Pzaz
and =
Tl T2
or T2= T, xPzaz l.5xldx0.ll

= 29ox 0.1x106x0.15
Pva,
= 638 K Ans.
Now for isothermal proces s Z-3,
Pzaz = PtAs
uc,
Pt = Or*A = 1.5 x r06.H = A.22 x ld N/mz t Z.2bar Ans.
" t\'; tt' = v1X'

2. Heat added during isothermal expansion
We know that heat added during isothermal expansion 2_3,
prar -
fr:)
Qz-s = 2.3
'L ' logl
"\or)
= 2.3 x1.5 x 106 x 0.n log = 0.38 x 106 x 0.834 r

ts# )
= 0.317 x 106 J = 3 t7 kJ Ans.
72 A Text Book af Thermnl Engineering
3. Change of internal energy during each process
First of all, let us find the mass of hydrogen (m). We know that
ptat = mRT, or m = Prar 0.1 x 106 x 0.75

x 290 =
= 0.063 kg
R T, 4126
We know that change of internal energy during isentropic procesQ,

dU = Uz-Ur = ntc,(Tr-Tt) = 0.063x 10.134 (638-290)W
= 222.18 kJ Ans.
Since in an isothermal process 2-3,thetemperature is constant (Tr=I3),therefore change in
internal energy during isothermal process is zero. Ans.
3.11. Polytropic Process
The polytropic process is also known as the general law for the expansion and compression
ofgases, and is given by therelation :
pan = Constant
where n is a polytropic index, which may have any value from zero to infinity, depending upon tjre
nvrnner, in which the expansion or compression has taken place.
The various equations for polytopic process may be expressed by chairging the index n for
yin the adiabatic process.
Now consider zr kg of a c'ertain gas being heated polytropically from an initial state I to a final
state 2.
I-et py arandT, = Pressure,volume and temperature atthe initial state 1, and
p2, a2and Zz = Pressure,volume and temperature at the final state 2.

The process is shown on th e p-a dragramin Fig. 3 .I 5. {ow let us derive the following relations
for the polytropic process.
l. Pressure-volume-temperature ( p-o-T) relationship
The foilowing relations for the polyhopic process are derived in the similar way as discussed
for adiabatic prccess.
l:: ,
fa
gi
o:
ClI, ,
O,'
l;. .
o-
*.*r !t: tj-:r-r* r-r
Td
, ,,.,, , ,' iVl" t, i ,.' i',t' U2 , :'
,i"'i' i'VoJumg- :'
Fig. 3. 15. Polytropic process.
2. Worlcdone during polytropic expansion

The equations for fte work done during a Bolytropic process may also be expressed by
changing the index n for yin the adiabatic process.
.'. Workdone during a polytropic process from state I to state 2,

r'Wtn Pr Ur - Pzaz m R (Tt - 72)
"t-L =-= n-l n-l
.'. . (For expansion)
Pzaz- Pr ar mR (Tz- T)
= = .. .(Forcompression)
n-l n-l
3. Gttange in internal energy
We know that change in internal energy, .
dU = Ur- U, = ffi co (Tz- Tt)

4. H eat supplied or heat transfer
We know that the heat supplied or heat transferred,
Qt-, = Wr-r+ dU
\
Prat- Pz%
= n_l '*mcr(72-f,)
)
mR(\-Tr)" , <,2.. R R\
= n_| +mx,- (Tz-T) ...['.' *g
o
I
T_r )
mR(r,-r)
[* #]
/l (Y-@-1)-(n-
= mR(Tr-T.rl
l) I
r) (y- r)
I
=mR(r,-rylffi]
=ffi"#
We know that change in enthalpy,
Notes : I . The equations for

^::
r;l:il:; ;':l?;?,
(a) eru=ffixworkdone =ffi",ffi
(D) We know ttrat
Qr*=ffi"ry =#xmco(r1-rr)
(R
"'t"'T-l =
T - l!-
")
= n-L x Change in internal energy
-
'r We know that cr, - ca =R
Divitling throughout by co, we have
h--r = R or y- I RR
co cv
=
1' "'c, = TL
74 AText Book of Therrnal Etryineering
2. The above equations give the amount of heat" which has passed into the gas through the cylinder
walls as the gas expands. It may be noted that this will happen only when n is less than 1. If however, n is greater
than 1, then heat is rcjected by the gas.
3. Similarly, during compression, work done will be negative, i.e. work will be done on the gas.
Morcover, heat will be rejected by the gas. This will happen only when n is less tlran 1.
4. The relation for work done may also be expressed as :
Wru=W
PP,[
'-#,)
(n - l)
-r'-t)
(n-r) |l_' n=
pzaz
- lpt(t ,, - \r, )f
[.o = rn and =r,*!r = ,,-,.|
prar I
Example 3.13. A certain qwntity of air avolume of A.028 mJ at a pressure of L25 bar
has
and 25o C. h is cornpressed to a voltute of 0.M42m3 according to the law pat'! = Constant. Find the
final temperature and work done durtng compression Also determine the reduction in pressure at a
constant volwne required to bing the iir Uait to its original temperature.
Solution. Given : = 0.028 m3 ; pr = 1.25 bar = 0. 125 x ld N/m2 i Tr = 25o C = 25 + 273
"rn
= 298 K ; a"-- O.ffi+2m3 ; = 1.3
The p-a diagram is shown in Fig. 3.16.

Final temperature lpa
gPg
Let Tz = Final temperature. ta
o
E
We know that o-
)"-' lo'
Tr
T2 (;
) =[**J)r3-l
(o.o&+2
vz= vg
Volume
vr
-<>
(0.1 510'r = 0.566 Fig. 3.16
Tz= Tt10.566= 298t0.566 = 526.5K = 526.5-273 = 253.59C Ans.

Workdone during compres s ion
First of all, let us find the final pressure ( n2) at the end of compression. We know that
( o.oo+2 J '
Pta{ = Pzat or + = = = ot)8s
Pz
[t)^ [;r" J
.'. P2 = P t/ 0.085 = 1.25 / 0.095 = 14.7 bar = 1.47 x 106 N/mz
We know that workdone during compression,
wr-r=ry 1.47 x 106 x 0.0042

1.3
- 0"lZSx 106 x 0.028
- 1
gr74;3l9q 8.913 kJ Ans.

= 0.3
Pressure at a constant volume
I-et pr = Pressure at a constant volume required to bring the air back to
its initial temperature, Tr = 298 K.
'fhermodynamic Proce.r.re.T of Pe(ect Gases 75
We know that for a constant volume process 2-3,
Iz = or h = =
T2 \ \ 526rs
Example 3.14. A gasmixture obeying perfect gas *, t),1",*:;*r:;r:;;:"

l,ow
gas mixture is compressed through a compression ratia of 12 according to the law ptsl'25 = Constant,
frominitialconditionsof\.gbarand333 K.Assumingameanmolarspecificheatatconstantvolume
of 2l .l H/kg K, find, per kg of mass, the worlrdone and heat Jloy across the cylinder walk.
For the above gas, determine the value of characteristic gas constant, molar specific heat at
a constant pressure utd ratio of specific heats.
Solution. Given: M =26.7 ;r=arlar=12in=1.25 ipr=9.9 bar= 0.09 xld N/m2;
Tr = 333K',co^ = 2l .l kJ&gK:'m=lkg
The p-u diagram is shown in Fig" 3.17 . I
Workdone per kg of gas
lPz
I
First of all, let us find the initial volume (a't ), final volume E
f
o
(az) and final pressure ( p). Q
E
o-
We know that pt ai = pzai' lp,
I
Pz- ,,[#t) = 0.9 ( lzlr'zs vz vt

_*\/glUme F---+D
Fig.3.t7
20.1 bar = 2"01x 106 l"{/mz
We also know that gas constant,
R-*=W=3n.4JlkgK
mRT, lx3ll.4x333
and PPr = m RTr Of Al = =
0.09 x 106
= 1.15 m3
Pr
"'
az = allIz - l.lstlz = 0.096 m3 "'(' arla, = 12)
We know that workdone

0.09 x 106 x 1. 15 - 2.01x lff x 0.096
wr-r= "'i*' =
1.25 - I
103 500 - 192960
=* 357 840 J= - 357 .84 kJ Ans.
0,25
The negative sign indicates that the work is done on the gas.
Heat flow across the cylinder walls
Let T2 = Final temperature.
\ (,rY-'=["J
( r )r 25 -l
We know that
\=t-J = 0.537
Tz = Tr10.537 = 333 /0.5 37 = 620K

and specific heat at constant volume,

c, = !,w,.1 M = 2l.l126.7 = 0.79 kJ/kg K
.'. Change in internal energy,
dU = Uz-Ut = mco(72- Tr) = 1 x0.79(620 -333) = 2?5.7 kI
We know that heat flow across the cylinder walls,
Qva = Wr-r+dll = -357.84+226.7 = - l3l.l kJ Ans.
T}n,e negative sign indicates that the heat is rejected through the cylinder walls..
C haracteristic gas constant
We kno$.that characteristic gas constant,
- Universal qas constant Ru 8314

"=T;idi;-*. = M= 263
...(. & = 8314J/kgK,forallgases\
= 3ll.4JlkgK = 0.3ll4k[kgK Ans.
Molar speciftc heat at a constant pressure
Let c* = Molar specific heat at a constant pressure.
Weknow that co-c, = R ot co-0.79 = 0'3114
to = 0.3114 +0.79 = 1.1014 kJ/kg K
and cp* = M r, = 26.7 x Ll01 { = 29.4 kJ/kg K Ans.
Ratio of specific hea*
We know that ratio of specific heats,
T = crl c, = 1.1014 1O.79 = 1.394 Ans.
Exampte 3.15. An internal combustion engine has the following diinensions :

biryretc.rof cytinder = 550 wn ; Stroke = 750 mm ; Cowpression ratio = 13.5. At the end of
the s-uaion stroke; the prissui,re is I bar nwJ temperature is 316 K. The compressionfollows the lav,t
'/at''T - C. Deirmine :
t. thc ke end of co^pnrr'ioo : 2: tie wass of the clnrge ; 3. the
pressure and temperature at
work done durins compression ; and 4. the heat rejected during coinprcssion-
,.. t :l '
Solution. . Given : D = 550 mm = 0.55 m; L=750 mm

1ft
=0.75m; arlar= 13.5;pr= l bar=Q.l x lffN/m2 ;Tr=316 (l) ,,' r' ' pr,rJ$ + c
K; n= 1.37i cp=0.996 kJlkg Ki cu=0]07 kJ/kg K lb:r:
6
'Ch ,. ,
In the p-a diagram, as shown in Fig.3.18, point 1 refers Ol

c
L.
to the end of suction stroke and point 2 refers to the end of

ffi
:: i.:r::tl:!t :t::iiir:
compression stroke. l;vt*rr4

I
l. Pressure and temperature at the end of compression EJI,-L'. .' r,.,...,,'.,,V

il-et P2and Tz= Pressure and temperature at the
,,',t,,,'.,
;i
i,.,{-
..,i,',, l.:,:,,,',',,'1,",,"1.;,'-'
'vorum,e.. ;,
l,,;'
end of compression respectively.

Fig. 3. I 8
We know that
Pra{ = Pza{
Pz = Ot
f*l o.l x lff
= u't ru (rr'r
(13.5)1 37
5Y,rr2
"' [4 )
= 3.536x 106 N/m2'= 3.536 bar Ans.
We also know that
Tr= '=[*)"-
T2 (;] = (0.074)0'37 = 0.3816
T2= Tr10.3816 = 316/0.38 15 = 828K Ans.

2. Mass of the charge
l-et m = Mass of the charge.
We know that swept volume, (
ar-az= T"D2xL - frto.sstz0.75 = 0.178m3

'i
ar ( Trl
tr.t
Al- = 0.178 : ...1
T-
13j'-Lr.:r,o
-
(. a2
l
aa ur = 0.178 x 13 .5 I 12.5 = 0.192 m3
and gas constant, R = cp- co = 0.996 - 0.707 = 0.289 kJlkg K = 289 J/kg K
We know that Prar = mRT,
Pr0r 0.1x106x0.192
m= RTt = 289 x 316
= 0.21 kg Ans.
3. Worl<done during compression

We know that workdone during compression,
w
rrt-2-
=mR(To-T) _ 0.21x0.289(828-316) = g4kJ Ans.
n-l 1.37-l
4. Heat rejected during compression
We know that adiabatic index,
n{
= cpl c, = 9'9961 0'7W = t'41
i. Heat rejected during compression,
Qvz = during compression

ffi "Workdone
-
t.4t
= ----:--------
1.37
x 84 = 8.195 kJ Ans.
l.4t - |
nxample !;15. :
0.,2 nl aI iiriare affwcf aA air at I .2 bar utd. ff C is compressed intil its
,nti*urttt"*teratge r"adlndadclwiiainh&i?4efler#,[tsoegn:P.#e.thefi3Utry$tduthts
'18 A Text Book of Thennal Engineering
Solution. Giv en : vt = 0.2 nf i p, = 1.2bar = 0. 12 x 106 N/m2 I Zr = 60o C = 60 + 273 = 333
K i pz = 12 bar = 1.2 x 106 N/m2 ; Tz = 27ff C = 270 + /13 = 543 K ; p, = 2 pz ; cp = l.o7 2kJlkg K ;
R - 294 J/kg K = 0.294 kYkg K.
I i, v
In the p-a diagram, as shown in Fig. 3.lg,process 1-2 repre- |
sents polytropic compression (i.e. according to the general law
$ pz
p an = C) and the process 2-3 represents the constant volume process. fr
4
PVn *C
Macimum temperature &
Let T3 = Mzurimum temperature

I
I
Pl
I
I
Since the process 2-3 is a constant volume process, therefore vz= vg vt

Pz Pt
Tz= T3
Fig. 3.1 9
P2
= T.xh
T"JzPzPz = s43 x2 = 1086 K = 8l3o C Ans.
Change in internal energy

First of all, let us find the mass of the mixture compressed (i.e. m) ard co.
0'l?)<-lo1-f'-o'2
lveknowthar prar = mRT, or m = ++
RT,= 294x33s = 0.z45kg
and co= cp-R = 1.072-0.294 = 0.778kJlkgK .,.(.: cn-co= R)

dU = Ut-Ut = mco(73-ft) = O.245x0.778 (1086-333)kJ
- 143.5 kJ Ans.
Heat transfer during compression process
First of all; let us find the value of polytropic index (n) for the compression process 1-2.
we know that
Tl (p,)"t or n3 ( n\#
,, = s$ = IoJ
Taking log on both sid ES,
l")
r.s[#) = +t"r[#) or ro9o.613 = + rogo r
-0.2125 = +(- l) or n = 1.27

We know that workdone,
*,_r=4#D=W=-56kr
Tihre negativesign shows that the gas is compressed and the work is done on the gas.
We kpow that change in internal energy,
dU = (Uz- U1) = m c,(72- 4) = O.Z+5x0.778 (543 -333) = 40kJ
.'. Fleat transfer during compression process,

Qrz = WFz+ dll = - 56 + 40 = - 16 kJ Ans.
"I\e negative sign indicates that the heat is rejected by the gas.
Exampte 3.17. An oil engine lns avolume of 60 litres anda eompression ratio af 14.2 to I.
At the beginiing of the compression stroke, the pressure gnd temperature are bar and W C I
respectively. At the end of compression, the pressure is 30 ban The qhgrge iq. now heated at constant
pressure until the volume is doubled. Find :
1. The index of compresston ; 2. The temperaiure at tlw end'of'tampression, i. The heat
transfer : and4. The heat received in constunt pressure operation.
Assume co = 0.712 H/kg K and R = 0.293 kl/kg K.
ur=ffili6es = 60x l0-3 m3 ;arlar=l4.2ipr = I bar=0.1x tO6 N/m2;

Solution. Given:
Tr = 80o C = 80 + 773 =353 K ; pz= 30bar = 3 x 106 N/m2 ; at = 2u2i ct)=0.?12 kJ/kg K ;
R = 0.293 kJ/kg K =293llkgK
In Fig. 3.2O,L-2represents thepolytropic compression process and 2-3 represents the constant
pressure heating process.
l. Index of compression Constant pressure
heating
Let n = Index of compression. 3
We know that pr a{ = Pzal

pvn=C
(a, PZ
Pr
[% l tii
3x106 vz vg vt
(r4.2)', =
bffi=30 Volume 4
Taking log on both sides,
Fig. 3.2o
nlog 14.2 = log 30
nx 1.152 = r.477
t" n = 1.^282 Ans.
2. Temperature at the end of compression
I-et Tl = Temperature at the end of compression.
We know that += (;1"'=[#

Tz= Trl0.473 = 353 10.473'=746.3K-473'YC Ans'
"'
3. Heat transfer
Fint of all, let us find the mass of the charge (n) and the ratio of specific heats ($. We know
that
0.1 x106x60x10-3
Pr?r = mRTr or m = '-#
Rrr = 293 x 353 = 0"058 kg
We also know that

cp - cr, = R or cp = cr+R = 0.712+0.293 = 1.005 kykg K
| = crl c, = 1.005 I A'712 = 1'41

80 AText BookofThermal Engineering
We know that heat hansfer,
A y-n..f R(Tr-T) r.4r-r.282 x-

arz=tJt -=-l7T:l -0,058x0.293(353-746.3)
1.282-l
"-t
= A3l22x-23.7 = -7.4 kJ Ans.
\\e negative sign indicates that the heat is rejected.
4. Heat received in consnnt pressure operation
First of all, let us find the t€mperature (?) at the end of constant pressure operation. We know
that, for constant pressure proces s 2-3,
uz aj T atTz 2 rrx746.3
,r= T\ or 13 = = = 1492.6 K
% a2
We know that heat received,
Qz+ = mco(73-72) = 0.058x l.005(1492.6-746.3) = 43.5kJ Ans'
pxrryh 3.,f& , A gystoll':contrhg, A; 15 m3 a1"ah a| 't bar and,ni K:;A: f,el,ersitds adMtic
aiisiilwi tit!::the:prwsrfie falts to''L,M.' filet alr iitthen hewd at
pToiure tilt
'c.o,*''.'1'r$'0 t 1 tt, 'il

-t'
Solution. Given: =0.15 m3;pr =4 bar= 0.4x 106N/m2 iTr=4?3Kipz=lbar

"r
= .0.1 x 106 N/m2 ; dH = 67 kJ ; cp= 1.009 kJlkg K
In the p-adiagram, as shown in Fig. 3.21,L-zrepresents
reversible adiabatic expansion, 2-3 rcpresents heating at con-
stant pressure.
Total workdone i
Let rn = Mass of air,

ji
g
azandTz= Volume and ternperature of air i"
after adiabati, ,*p*sion, ''' i ... ,..' ,.',ffi
iV-,o_lulng.,,.
u3 and Tt = Volume and temperature of air 'r:r'
after heating at constant pressure. Fig. 3.2t

We know that
Prar 0.4x106x0.15
Ptat = mRTr or rn = Rr, = 287 x 423
= 0.494k9
... CfakingR =287J/kg
and pr(a1Y = pz(ar)r or
I
( p,)t
a2= = = 0.4036 m3
''[ rr)
Thermodynamic Processes of Perfect Gases 8l
We know that the workdone during adiabatic expansion l-2,
,!, PrUr-Pzaz 0.4XlffX0. 15-0.1 x 106 x 0.4036 ,

wt-z = y-I =
"r-1 A-l
1.4-l
1
60 000 - 40 310
0.4
= 49 l0o J = 49.1 kJ
Now let us find the workdone during heating at constant pressure.
We know that
Pza? 0. 1x 106x0.4036
Pzuz = mRT, or Tz MR 0.494 x287
= 284.6K
and the increase in enthalpy (dn,
67 = fficp(\-T) = 0.494 x 1.009 (Tt-254.6) = 0.5 (f3 -284.6)
T3= 418.6K
#+284.6=
Since the heating is at constant pressure from 2 to 3, therefore
u" 7)t unTt 0.4036 x 418.6
7J3= , =
tz rj or
;=; f2 2846 = o'59{m3
We know that workdone during constant pressure process 2-3,

wr, = p2(74-ar) = 0.1x 106(0.594-0.4036) = 19040J = 19.04kJ
.'. Total workdone,
Wt-z-z = Wr-z*Wz- = 49'l + 19'04 = 68'14 kJ Ans'
Index of expansion
Let n= Index of expansion.
The process l-2 and2-3 arercplaced by a single polytropic process 1-3 giving thesame work
i.e. 68.14 kJ or 68.14 x 103 J.
We know that workdone during a polytropic process l-3 (Wl-3),
rn3 r I I Ptat
Prar- f J J 0.4 x 106 x 0.15 - 0.1 x 106 x 0.594 600
68.14 x I \,'
n-l n-l n-l
n- | = 600 I 68.14x 103 = 0.0088 or n = 1.0088 Ans.
3.12. Rate of Heat Transfer (Absorption or Rejection) per Unit Volume Durihg a Polytropic
Process
In the previous article, we have seen that heat transfer (absorbed or rejected) during a
polytropic process,
Qr-z =
ffi"*r-,
where W'-, is the work done during polyhopic process.
tt' ig ir' U"small quantity of heat transfer during small change of pressure and volume, then
oQ = 4xpda
.'. Rate of heat transfer per unit volume,
49= r-n
6 TJ"-P
and rate of heat transfer per second,
#=#"fr=ffi"r"#
*h"r"@Oris the swept volume of the piston per second.
Exrm$e '!.19rJ :The.tanigf thet+ryqtsipn punue of a:gas sngine indicqror is found .n be
2 nf tmin, wken the presinre'on this eipaniiqn une is:14 fur, what: ts'&e. qats of hea! transfer per
s'econdatihisinstant? ': ',
"
Solution. Given : n = 1.3 i T = 1.37 ; drildt = 2 m3lmjn = 0.0333 m3ls ; p = 14 bar
= 1.4x106N/m2
We know that the rate of heat transfer per second,
# = fr"r"# = Wx 1.4 x to6xo.o333 = 8820J
= 8.82 kJ Ans.
3.13. Determination of polytropic Index
We know that for apolytropic process,
h4 = p{4
Taking logarithms on both sides,
. logpr+nlogo, = logpr+nlogo,
or nlogvr-n log o, = logpr-logpt
n (logo, - log o2) = loE pz- log pr
"",(?,)= *[,,o)
*lff1
n = _:7i;
"'f4 )
Note : Proceeding in he similar way, we can find out that adiabatic index,
*ffiJ
T = --7;-
' Example320. or^,rrrl)l"l;'),

***ndsuntitittvotwnets5.2timestheinitiatvohnte,
''iteoiArt6wid.* &;nstuta t1.*, initial:iiitAfutprertiiire, aru|obowqd"n fu8:5,bayand I bar,
determtne::l:tfoia/ex.ofeinaltston,2."wo.rkdo4epeTfg3fsaq3rAs,higl,exchAnseperkgof gas
Assumeco=,0./l2kJtkEKaruti;t.'E''i]''i':'.i:..l...]:'..'
Thermodynonxic Proce"rses of Perfect Gases 83
Solution. Given : Tr= 603 K i az= 5 .2 r, i pr - 8.5 bar = 0.85 x 106 N/m2 i pz= I bar
= 0.1 x 106 N/m2 i cr=0.712kJ/kgK ;T = cpl ,r= 1.4

The p-a diagram is shown in Fig. 3.22.
Index expansion 1
I. o.f
fe
o
t
I
We know that inclex of expansion, L

:1
I
I Pvn s'C
g,
o I
.tos ( 0.1 x 106 '\ '9"
(L
,'., I
I
Ios5 . lot ,J
I
1,,
'"*["i) ul ve
log (0.117 6)
= t"g (0.1920
= -- 0.9296
0.7160
= 1.3 Ans. Fig. 3.22
2. Worl<done per kg of gas

First of all, let us find the initial volurne (u1) and final volume (az).
We know that gas constant,
R = cp-co = l.4cr-ca = 0.4 c, = 0.4 x 0.712 = 0.2848 kJ/kg K
= 284.8 J/kg K ...(. cnlc, =T= 1.4)
I x284.8 x 603
and Prar= mRT, or T)t= YY
Pt
=
0.85 x 106
= 0.202nf
...('.'rn = 1kg)
az = 5.2a, = 5.2x0.202 = 1.05 m3
We know that workdone per kg of gas,
wr_,
Pr ur-Pzvz 0.85 x 106 x 0.202* 0.1 x 106 x 1.05
n-l 1.3-1
= 0.222x 106J = 222kJ Ans.
3. Heat exchange per kg of gas
We know that heat exchange per kg of gas,
QF, =
ffix workdonq per kg of gas =+#x222 = 55.5 kJ Ans.
3.14. Free Expansion (or Unresisted Expansion) Process

The free expansion (or unresisted expansion) process is an irreversible non-flow process. A
free expansion occurs when a fluid is allowed to expand suddenly into a vacuum chamber through
an orifice of large dimensions.
Consider two chambers A and B separated by a partition as shown in Fig. 3.23 (a). [,et the
chamber A contains a perfect gas having volume ?rl, pressure p' and temperature I, and the chamber
B is completely evacuated. These chambers are perfectly insulated so that no heat transfer takes place
from or to its surroundings. Now, if the partition is removed, the gas will expand freety and occupy
the whole space as shown in Fig. 3.23 (b). By this, the volume of the gas increases to 02, pressure
decreases to prand the temperaturc may also decre4se to Tr.
84 A Text Book of T'hermal Engineering
Since there is no expansion of the boundary of the system, because it is rigid, therefore no
work is done. Thus, for a free expansion process,
Qvz=0;Wvz=0anddU=0
The following poins may be noted regarding the free expansion of a gas :
1. Since the system is perfectly insulated so that no heat tansfer takes place (i.e. Qr_" = 0),
therefore the expansion of gas may be called as an adiabatic expansion.
2. Since the free expansion of the gas from the equilibrium state I to the equilibrium state 2
takes place suddenly, therefore the intermediate states will not be in equilibrium states, as shown on
the po diagram inFrg.3.23 (c). Thus the process is irreversible and the expansior is, therefore, known
as irreversible adiabatic expansion.
1
E
:'o !-r
L.-,
a) L.t I
E t,,1,
0- l--1
\-z
I
I
!€ VOlUmg €
(a) Before expansion (r) After expansion. (c) p-a diagram.
Fig. 3 ,23. Free expansion.
3. Since there is no resistance to overcome during free expansion process, therefore no work
is done by the system (Le. Wr-r= 0). Thus, the free expansion process is also known as * unresisted
expawion process.
4. According to the first law of thermodynamics,
Qt-z = WF2+dU
Since for the free expansion, Qt-z=0 andWr-r= 0, therefore the change in internal energy,
dU=Uz-Ut=0 on Uz=Ut
In other words, the internal energy of the system, in a free expansion process remains constant.
Thus, the free expansion process is also known as constant intemal energy process.
5. We know that change in internal energy,
dU=mcodT=mco(72-T)
Since dU = 0, therefore dT = 0 or T, = Tp i.e. there is no change in temperature of the
system. In other words, the temperature of the system, in a free expansion process remains constant.
Note : It c4n not be called an isothermal process because in an actual isothermal process, work is done by the
gas during expansion.
6. We know that change in enthalpy,
dH = Hz- Hr = mcrdT
Since dI = 0, therefore dH = 0 or H, = H,. In other words, the enthalpy of the system in a
free expansion process remains constant. Thus the free expansion process may also be called constqnt
enthalpy process.
In the previous non-flow processes discussed, the expansion was against the resistance offbred by the piston
So all the non-flow processes discussed earlier are resisted expansion processes.
3.15. General Laws for Expansion and C0mpression

The general law of expansion or compression of a perfect gas is prl = Constant (Art. 3.1 1). It
gives the relationship between pressure and volume ofa given quantity ofgas. The value ofn depends
upon the nature ofgas, and condition under which the changes (1.e. expansion or compression) take
place. The value of n may be between zero and infinity. But the following values of n are important
from the subject point of view : Starling Point ,,, '
l. When n =0. This means pao = Constant, i.e. p Constant pressure
= Constant. In other words, for the expansion I

or compression of a perfect gas at constant oI
fi
pressure, n = Q. u q,
2. When n=I ; then pa = Constant, i.e. the uo
or compression is isothermat or hv-
o
;;i;:t;:n y>n>1
I
3. When n lies between 1 and n,the expansion or
compression is polytropic, i.e. pa" = Constant.
4. When n = y, the expansion or compression is .4.t!.-**rVOlUmg
-'€>
adiabatic, i.e. paT = Constant. Fig. 3.24. Curves tor virrious values of n.
5. When n = -, the expansion or compression is at constant volume, i.e."zt -- Constant.

Fig.3.?1 shows the curves ofexpansion ofa perfect gas for different values ofn. It is obvious
that greater the value ofn, sleeper tle curve ofexpansion
:1,16. Summary of Formulae fbr Heating and Expansion of Perfect Gases in Reversible
Non-flow processes
The following table shows the summary of formulae for heating and expansion of perfect gases
in reve.rsible non-flow processes :
l.able 3,1. Summary of formulae for heating and expansion of pertcct $ir$es.
s. Type af'reversible p-o-T Workdone Clnnge of Heat supplied Change in

No, non-flow process relation (We) internal energl (Qw) entlnlpy
(dU = Uz- U)
= WpZ+ dU (dH= Hz- H)
I Constant volume P1 P2 0 ffi cr(T2- T) rn cr(Tr- fl) * rr(Tz- T)
or lsochoric (a = Tr Tz
Constant)
(Gay-Lussac Law )
2 Condtant pressure at az p (vz-, t) ffi coV2-T) * tp(Tz- Tr) m co(T, - Tt)

or Isobaric (p = Tr T2 or
Constant) mR (Tr- Tr)
(Charles' Law)
3 Hyperbolic or PPr = Pzuz . (or\ 0 0

C o n s.t a n PPr'"*[; al
temperatutp or
t (Boyle's Law)
'or )
P1
'T[r]
Isothermal (f =
Constant)
m'r,*,[7) mR T
'*'[t]
4 A di abati c or PPt- Pzaz mcr(72- T,) 0 * togz- T)
Isentropic ( par 1- 1
Constant) or
mR (T., - Tz)
y-l
8,6 A T'ext Book o.f Therntal Engineering
5. Polytropic or p
rai = Pzal. P PJ - Pzaz mca(T2- T
r) PPr-Pzat" * t,, (72- T )
General expansion z rrl-l n- | n- |
( pan = Constant) L=[ 2l or * mcr(72- T)
12 lr,,
\ /n-l
I
::T,2
n- I
y-n
Ol' r------ X
r-=lr)-
Tz ltr,
mR(Tr-Tr)
I n- |
3.17. Flow Processes

We have already discussed in Art. 3 .2, that the processes occuring in *open system which
permit the transfer of mass to and from the system, are known as flow processes. In a flow process,
the mass (working substance) enters the system and leaves after doing the work. The flow process
may be classified as
l. Steady flow process, and 2. Unsteady flow process.
In a steady flow process, the following conditions must be satisfied ;
(a) The rate of mass flow at inlet and outlet is same, l.e. the mass flow rate through the system
remains constant.
(b) The rate of heat transfer is constant.
(c) The rate of work ftansfer is constant.
(d) The state of working substance at any point within the system is same at all times.
(e) There is,no chanle in the chemical composition of the system. Thus no chemical energy
is involved.
If any one of these conditions are not satisfied, then the process is said to be non-steady flow
process. In engineering, we are mainly concerned ivith steady flow processes, therefore only these
processes are discussed in the following pages.
3.f E. Application of tr"irst Law of lhermodynamics to a Steady Flow Process

Consider an open system through which the working substance flows at a steady rate, as shown
in Fig. 3.25. The working substance enters the system at section I and leaves the system at section 2.
Fig. 3.25. Steacly llow process.
I-r:t pl = Pressure of the working substance entering the system in N/m2,

Trt = Specific volume of the working substanceentering the systemin m3/kg.
Vr = Velocity of the working substance entering the system in m/s,
ur = Specific internal energy ofthe working substance entering the system
in J/kg,
zr = Height above datum level tbr inlet in metres,
p2,o"7,V",urandZz= Correspondingvaluesfortheworkingsubstanceleavingthesystem.
Sorne authors use thc ternl control \,olurne instcad of open systcm.
Thermodjnamic Proce.r.res of Perfect Gases 87
qr-r= Heat supplied tb the system in Jlkg, and
wr-z = Work delivered by the system in J/kg.
Consider lkg of mass of the working substance.
We know that total energy en0ering the system per kg of the working substance,
er = Intemal energy + *Flow or displacement energy + Kinetic energy
+ Potential energy + Heat supplied
vl
= ut I pr at + + g zt + ar_., (in Jkg)
T
Similarly, total energy leaving the system per kg of the working substance,
vl
€z = uz* pzu,z*i * t zr*wr_, (in J/kg)
Assuming no loss of energy during flow, then according to First Law of Thermodynamics (r'. e.
Law of Conservation of Energy), et = ez.
v,2 V:
.'. ttr* pturt+-; * g \* et*z = uz* pzArz+; * g Zz* w r_z
We know that
ut t pr a,r = hr = Enthalpy of the working substance entering the system in J/kg,
uz+ pza12= hz= Enthalpy of the working substance leaving the system in J/kg.
Thus, the above expression may be written as
V?
hr* Z *gzr*evz
V}
= hr+7+gzz**t_z .. .(i)
or hr+ker+pet+4tq = hr+l<nr+per*wt_z
It may be noted that all the terms in equaiton (d) represent the energy flow per unit mass of the
working substance (i.e. in J/kg). When the equation (i) is multiplied through by the mass of the
working substance (z) in kg/s, then all the terms will represent the energy flow per unit time (i.e. in
J/s).
Thus the equation (f) may also be written as
rn
*(ht+;*8zt
\L
* Q t-r)= * (r.+ * I zz* w,-r) (rt)
Theflow or displacement energy is the energy required to flow or move the working substance against its
pressure. It is also known uflow work.
For example, let the working substance with pressurepr (in N/m2) flows through areaAr (in m'; and moues
through a disianie xy (in metres).
.'. Energy or work required to flow the working substance,
FE = Force x f)istmce = (ptA,) x1 = p, o, (in joules)
where T)t = Volume of the working substance in m3.
For I kg mass of the working substance,
| = a,tt = Specitic volume of the working

u substance in m3/kg.
FE - pta.,t (in J/kg)
88 AText Book of Thermal Engineering
Both the equations (t) and 0i) are known as.steadyflow en?gy equations.
Notes : 1. In a steady flow, the mass flow rate (n) of the working substance entering and leaving the system
is given by
m=or't
a,t =!^u^ (in kgs)
*
This equation is known as equation of contiruity.
2. The steady flow energy equation (i), for unit mass flow may be written as
vi Yt' )
Qrz-w'a= @z- hr)+(
[t-; )*"22-sz)
= @- hr) + (lez- krr) + (eez- pe)
In differential form, this expression is written as
6q-6, = dh+d(ke)+d@e)
3. Inthermodynamics,theeffectofgravityisgenerallyneglected,thereforeequation(iii)maybewritten
ils
Qr-z-wr+= eh-h,)+(+ +) ...(iv)

lf V, = Vr,tlrcn equation (lv) reduces to
4pz-wr+=hz-ht ...(v)
4. In a non-flow process, the flow or displacement energy at inlet and outlet is zero, i.e., p ta, = 0 and
Pza"2= 0. Therefore hz = tk and h, = ur.
Thus the equation (v) may be written as qtl-wF2 = uz-ilt; which is same as for non-flow
process,
Example 321.
A steady ftow thermodynatnic system receives fluid at the rate of 6 kglmin
with an miail pressure of 2 bar, uslocitv JSA1Ns, tttpntsl et!.eW,SM kl, ftg' ana denstty Zf ks/nf .
The fluid leaves the systemwith afinal pressure of 8 bar, vebcity 200 m/s, internal energy 800 kJ/kg
aridensity 5 kg/m3.- If ftuid receives AO Wng oY tt"ot during passing through the system and rtses
through 60'metres, determine the wor'kdone during the process.
Solution.Given: m=6k?hrlin= 0.1 kg/s ip1=2bar= d.2 x t06N/m2; Vr:150 mls;
ur = 800kJlkg; pr=zltrgnf i pz=8bar=0.8x106N/m2; vz=?-}}mls; ur=800kJ/kg;
Pz = 5 kgtm3 i er-z= 80 kJ/kg | 4= ffi m
Consider I kg of mass flow.

We know that initial flow energy
= pta,t = ptlpr = O.2xl6l27 = 7407Jkg = 7.4O7kJftg
'' '('; a,t = l/Pr)
andfinalflowenergy = Pza,z= PzlPz= 08x106/5 = 160x103J/kg = l60kykg
.'. Initial enthalpy,
ht = url Pta,t = 800 + 7 '4A7 = 807'407 kJ/kg
and final enthalpy, hz = uz* Pzo,z = 800 + 160 = 960 kJ/kg
Initial kinetic energy,

kr, - (v)zn = 05q42 - 11250 Jlkg = 11.25 kJ/kg
Finalkineticenergy, ker= (Vr)zt2 = 120012t2 = 20000J/kg = 2}kJkg

Initialpotentialenergy, per= BZr = 0 ...('.'Zr =0)
Finalpotentialenergy, pez= Bh = 9.81x60 = 588.6Jlkg = 0.5886kJ/kg
We know that the steady flow energy equation for unit mass flow is
ht +.fu , + pel + qt_2 = hr+ lcer+ pe2+ w F2
era- wr-2 = (h2- h) + (kez- ker) + ( ne2- ner)
= (960 - 807.40? + (20 - 11 .25) + (0.5886 - 0)

= 161.9316 kJ/kg
- wr-z= 16l.9316 - Qvz= 161.9316 - 80 = 81.9316 kJ/kg
or wtl= -81.9316x0.1 = -8.19316kJ/s Ans.. (': m= 0.lkg/s)

The - ve sign indicates that ttre work is done on the system.
3.L9. Workdone in a Steady Flow Process
We know that the steady flow equation for unit mass flow, in the differential form, is
- 6w = dh + d. (ke) + d (pe) 6q .. .(i)
Wealsoknowthat h = u+pas=u+pa . . . ('.'For unit mass, TJs - a)
Differentiating this expression,

dh = du+d(pa) = du*pda+adp .. .(ii)
T
id
:la-
3
I:'
ua
a
o
]D
6
E o
}t
$,
I {'
' .,,, ,, VO|U ,,.
, ,',"V.olu-n9,
' , 1
(c) Non-flow process. (b) Steady flow process.
Fig.3.26. Workdone in a sieady flow process.
According'to First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system, we know that

& = du+pdo
Now the eAuatil (ii) may be written as
46 = 6q+a dp
Substituting this value of dhinequation (l), we have
k-6, = 164+o dp)+d(kz)+d(pe)
-.6re= adp+d(kc)+d(pe) ...(iii)
If the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible li.e. d (ke) = 0 and d ( pe) = 01,
then equation (iii) may be written as
\
-6rry = udp or, 6w = -adp
222
On integrating, Iur=-Jvdp or wvz= -lrap ...(iv)
rll
Thus in a steady flow process, the workdone (w,-r) is - !,

apinstead ot I p dain a non-flow
ll
process. Fi9.3.26 shows the difference between workdone in a non-flow and steady flow processes.
Note : The -ve sign in equation (iv) make.s the integral positive during expansion process. In other words,
I
- J a dp is a positive quantity and represents the workdone by the system.
f-lO. Wo*aone for Various Steady trlow Processes

The various steady flow prqcesses, like non-flow processes, are as follows :
1. Constant volume p(rcess, 2. Constant pressure process, 3. Constant temperature process,

4. Adiabatic process, and 5. Polytropic process.
We shall now derive the expressions for workdone during these processes, as discussed below.
The suffixes l,2 represents the initial and final conditions respectively.
l, Constant volunu process
22
wt-z = -loor= -aloo = -a(pz-p) = a(pr-pz)
2. Constant pressure process

22
t?
wt-z= -lodp - -uldp = o(pr-p) = Q .. .(': pr=p2=Constant)
l,l
3. Consnnt temperature process
Since the temperaturc is constant, therefore for a perfect gas,
pa = ptUt = pz?z = Constant
PJlt
or P=
p
We know that workdone
222,
wt-z = -i,*= -lryt dp= - prari,+
= - pr at UoB, pz* log" prJ = Pr ut [log , Pr -log, P2l
= prarL'Be El = 2.3 pru, [n )

-' rlcg-\r,)
[t; )-{
L'r pro, log [. )
= ptartog,,(*l = 2.3 o'
["t ): \ )
( Pr ur)
t
Prar = Pzaz "' h =4)
Thermodynamic Proce.r.re.s of Perfect Gases 9l
4. Adiabatic process
We know that for an adiabatic process,
paY = h4 = pz4 = Constant
( p,l"n
or a=''[i)
2z/\l/Y
wt-z = _l,oo= _[,,[?j dp
= -utpyirtr^{dp= -ntpl,r[ +]'

' L-t*'J,
= -T,,ptn'L ^.-x-a,plfrlF ,71
#],=
_ y t- -. _ -.\
= (P1a,-P2a,)
ti
5. Polytropic process
We know that for apolytropic process,
pzf = h4= pz4= Constant
.'. Workdone , w
F2 = h ( p, a, - prar) . . . (Substituting y= z, for polyfiopic process)
3.21. Throttling Process
Fig. 3.27 . Throttling prccess.
, The throttling process is an irreversible steady flow expansion process in which a perfect gas
i6 expanded through an orifice of minute dimensions such as a narow throat or a slighfly opened
valve as shown in Fig. 3.27.Due to the fall in pressure during exlmnsion, the gas should come out
with a large velocity, but due to high frictional resistance between the gas and the walls of the aperture,
there is no considerable change in velocity. The kinetic energy ofthe gas is converted into heat which
is utilised in warrning the gas to its initial temperature. Since no heat is supplied or rejected during
the throttlinga*": and alio no work is done, therefore
Qr2= 0 and wF2= 0

92 AText BookofThermalEngineering
We know that steady flow energy equation for unit mass flow is
hr*i
v? + gzt + 7vz = hr*t
v?
+ gzz+ wFz
Since there is no considerable change in velocity and the inlet and outlet are at the same level,
therefore Vt = Vz and z, = 3r. Now the steady flow energy equation is written as
4=4 "'(' Qpz=o and w'z-o)

Thus, the throttling process is a constant enthalpy process. We have discussed in Art. 3.14,
that in a free expansion process, the enthalpy also remains constant. But the difference between the
throttling p(rcess and the free expansion process is thqt in the former case, the.gas leaves with
negligible velocity where as in the latter case, the gas leaves with a large velocity.
The throttling p(rcess was investigated by Joule an{ Thompson during an experiment known
as Joule Thompson porous plug experiment, as shown in Fig. 3.28 (a).
-t
b
ol-
€5G
L-
o
CL
E
o
F
I
Pressure (p) --*
i* J Jqlu[r:.'lhomps{}n [rr]rt}ilq plug rx1lerinlent. - ifi) t lunst,lrttt enttt;rlpy r:t}rvfi
Fig. 3.28
In this experiment, a sfeam of gas at pressure pl and temperature T, is forced continuously

through one side of the porous plug, as shown in Fig . 3.28 (a). The gas comes out from the other side
of the porous plug at a pressure p2 and temperature T,The whole apparatus is completely insulated
so that no heat transfer takes place. In the similar way as discussed above, the enthplpy of gas before
and after the process, remains consiant, i.e. h, = hr.
If the pressure pl and temperature T, is kept constant and the pressure on the downsbeam of
the porous plug is varied to p2,p3,P4,P5 etc., then the graph between the pressures and the
corresponding temperatures Tz, T3, 74, fs erc. will be a curve of constant enthalpy, as shown in Fig.
3.28 (b) because hr-= h2 - h3 = hn = htetc'
The slope of a constant enthalpy line is called,/oule Thompson cofficient and is denoted by
p whose value is given by
/ar \
u=
[.t;J'
The value of Joule Thompson coefficient (p) at a particular state may be positive, ztlro or
negative. For a perfect gas, the value of p is zero.
.r":} -4ppiirntion of Steady l,'low blnergy llrlrration to Hngirrccring livstcnls
The application of steady flcw energy equation to some of the engineering systems such as
boilers, condensers, nozzles. diffusers, compressors and turbines are discussed below :
1. $,rllirr'. A boiler, as showninl.'ig.3.29, is a device which supplies heatto water andgenerates
steam. In this system, there is no change in kinetic and potential energies.
Also there is no workdone by the system. In other words,
(kez- ke) = 0, = 0 and wvz = 0
We know
mass flow is
et_z- rut_z = (hz- hr) + (kez- ktr) + (pez- pe)

Thus, for a boiler, the steady flow energy equation is ,,
written as
Qvz
* hz- hl
This shows that the heat supplied to the system in a
bciler increases the enthalpy of the system,
2. Condenser. A condenser, as shown in Fig. 3.30. is a device used to condense steam in case
of steam power plants using water as the cooling medium, whereas in refrigeration systems, it is used
to condense refrigerant vapour using air as the cooling medium. For such a system, there is no change
in kinetic and potential energies. Also there is
no workdone by the system. In other words, ' ""
(kez-ke) =0; (pez*Fer)=0 ffi ::rrt:':r r1:il
and Wr,a
t-z = 0
We know that the steacty flow energy ',"

equation for a unit mass flow is, r.i
Qvz* wt-z = &z* h) 'i

'.i
+ (ker* ku r) + (pez* per) t*.
I
Thus, fclr a conclen$er, the steacly flow "
energy equetion becorxes
Fig. 3.30. Condenser.
--'
Qt-.2 = hr- h, crr Qvz = h, - h,
The -ve sign with {1-, is taken because the heat is lost by the coolant while passing through
the condenser.
3. Evaporator' The evaporator, as shown in Fig. 3.3 I , is a device used in refrigeration systems
.
in which the liquid refrigerant passes, receives heat and leaves as vapour refrigeiant. For such a
system, the change in kinetic and potential energies is negligible. Also there is no workdone by the
system. In other words,
(kez- ke) = 0, (pez- per) = 0 l'

'it.
and wt_z = 0 f:,
,l'
l'
We know that the steady flow energy equa- '1
t
",
tion for a unit mass flow is 1:,

.'V.aP,'olr
,r/-\- l, l' ,_ ,_,r _., " r, I I
re;fri$Offit
Qr-z- w r-2 = @?- h) .;.1 ,\!;/. :r.hr: F,:F.- -,f ,T
F iT '!..:= ? i+.a
+ (ker- ktr) + ( pez- pe) Fig. 3.31 . Evaporator.
Thus, for an evaporator, the steady flow energy equation becomes,

Qt-z = hr- h,
Note : The process occuring in an evaporator is ttre reverse of that of a condenser.
94 AText Book of Thermal Engineering,
4. Nozzle. Anozzle, as shown in Fig. 3.32, is a device which increases the velocity or kinetic
energy of the working substance at the expense of its pressure drop. The nozzle is insulated so that
no heatenters orleaves the system (i.e. 41_2 = 0).In otherwords, theflow through nozzles is considered
adiabatic. Further, the system does not deliver any work i.e. wr-, = 0 and there is no change in
potential energy, i.e. (per- pe) =0.
We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit mass flow is
er-z- wr-z = (hz- ht) + (ker- ket) + ( per- per) = 0

Thus, for a nozzla the steady flow energy
equation becomes
0 = (hz- hr) + (kez- ke1)
*-t"l"r't"t*'r'i
V:V? .
or ,-; = hr-h,
This shows that the increase in kinetic
will result in decrease in enthalpy. If the
energy
process is reversed, it is obvious that the decrease
*'*, r..'*$nJ
in kinetic energy will result in increine of en-
thalpy. Such a system is known as dffiser.
Fig. 3 .32. Convergent-divergent nozzle.
From the above expression, we have
v:-v? = 2(hr-hr) v: = v?*2(hr-hr)

Vz=W
If the initial velocity Vr (also known as velocity of approach) is very small as compared to
outlet velocity V, then V, may be neglected.
aa Vz= ,fm;h)
Note : If At = Cross-sectional area of the nozzle at inlet,
V | = Velocity of the fluid entering the nozzle,
a.,t = Specific volume of'the fluid at inlet,

Ar,Vranda,, = Corresponding values at outlet'
.'. Eor continuous steady flow, mass flow rate,
*-A'v'
Art
-A'v' Ar2
5.Turbine. Aturbine, as shown a device which converts energy of the working

in Fig.3.33, is
substance (gas or steam) into work in the turbine. The turbine is insulated so that there is no transfer
of heat (i.e. qr_z= 0). In other words, the flow through a turbine is considered adiabatic.
we know that the steadv flow energv equation for a unit mast
flow is lfiffi,H:
evz- wt-2 = (hz- hr) + (kez- ktr) + ( pez- Pe) Y,l .Q
Thus, for a turbine, the steady flow energy equation becomes
- wt,-z = &z- hr) + (kez- krr) + ( pez- Pet)

;i''.rr,.i' -GASiO.f gaffi '69l
In in kinetic and potential energies are
case the changes
negligible [i. e. (ker-'krr) = 0 and (pez- Per) = 0.1, then the above Fig. 3.33. Turbine.
expression is written as
'['he"
rmodynamic P roce.s.re.r of P e rfect Ca,s e s 95
-wt_z = hr-hr. or wF2 = hr-h,

This shows that the work is done by the system due to decrease in enthalpy of the working
substance.
6. Rotary- compressor. A rotary compressor, as shown in Fig. 3.34, is a device which
compresses air and supplies the same at moderate pressure and in large quantities. The rotary
compressor is insulated so that no heat transfer takes place (i.e. qrz= 0). In other words, the flow
through a rotary compressor is adiabatic.
We know that the steady flow energy equation for a unit Air out
mass flow is F _@_l 1r 1
I
evz- wr_2 = (hz- hr) + (kez- krr) + ( pez- pe) I

I
Thus, for a rotary compressor, the steady flow energy wr-z

equation becomeso
(- wvz) = (hz- hr) + (ktz- ker) + ( pez- pe)
The - ve sign is used because the work is done on the
system. In case the changes in kinetic and potential energies
are negligible [i.e.ker- ke, = 0 and ( pez- pel) = 0], thenthe ttig. 3.34" Rotary compressor.
above expression is written as
. wr-2 = 4-h,
This shows that the work is done due to increase in enthalpy.
7. Reciprocating compressor. A reciprocating compressor, as shown in Fig. 3.35, is a device
which compresses air and supplies the same at a considerable higher pressure and in small quantities.
The reciprocating compressor is considered as a steady flow system provided it includes thl receiver
----l
^ ii-------
whichreducesthefluctuationofflowconsiderably.
()
We know that the steady flow energy equa- Aii 6he
_
i@r out
tion for a unit mass flow is
Recelver
Qvz- w r-,z = (hz- hr) + (kez- ke)
+(pez-pe) Reclprocailng
compressor
Since in 'a reciprocating compressor, the
changes in kinetic and potential energies are negli-
gible, therefore (ker- krr) = 0 and ( pez- per) = 0 Itig, i.35. Reciproerating compr{-rssor.
Thus, for a reciprocating compressor, the steady flow energy equation becomes
-Qvz-?r;z) = hz-h, or wt-2= Qrzrlnr-hr)

The - ve sign to ep2andwr-is used because the heat is rejected and the wrirk is done on the
system.
Example 3.22. A gas expands through an ideally, insulated noule fottowing a reversible
polytropic law p at 2 = C.T'here is no change in potential energy but the pressure dropsfi.om2O bar
to 2 bar and specific volume increases from 0.05 m3 to 0.3 m3. ITthe entrance velocity is 80 nr/s,
determine the exit velocity.
solution. Given : *n = 1.2 i p, = 29 bar = 2x 106 N/m2 i p2= Zbar = 0.2 x 106 N/m2 ;
z-t,r, = 0.05 m3 i7)r2=0.3 m3; % = 80m/s
S u pe rf luou s claftr
96 AText BookofThermal Engineering
Let Vz = Exit velocitY in m/s'
\ + ker + pe | + qr1 = ht+ ker+ pez+ w F2

Since the nozzleis insulated so that no heat transfer takes place, therefotl et-z= 0. Also there
is no workdone during expansion of gas through the nozzle (i,e. wr-, = 0) and there is no change in
potential energy (i.e. pe, = pez). Thus the steady flow energy equation is written as
h, + ke, = hr+ ke,
V? V:
ur* pturr*; = uz* Pzarz+7
or ptast-
+ = pzr,r*# .. ( " For an insulated nozzle, ur'= ur)
2xtdxo.os.ry = 0.2x106x 0.3++

v?
103 200 = 60 000 +;
V: = 2 (r03 200 - 60 000) = 86 400
or V2 = 294 m/s Ans'

Exnmple 323. The yelocity qnd entbalpy.,gf fluid gt the inl,e! of a cerain nozzle are 50 nds
orta ZA00 k lii reispecWety. fn" at tlu exii'ot noate X ZAW flhg. The nozzle is horizorual
"nttwtpy l
and iwubted-so that no luot trrn6", t^k"s pkce fiim ii. Find ; velacity if the fluid at exit of the
nozale : 2, nwss.flaw rate, tf the a,rea,ag inlet,of rwate is 0.8 #
ana tni specffic volumi is 0.185
dn7 ; 3. ertt area of the naute,'if the specific volume at thc ertt of noule'is 0.495 mr/kg.
^d
Solution. Given : Vr = 50 m/s ; hr=2800kJ/kg = 2800 x t03 /kg i hz=26}0kJtkg
=2ffi0xl03ykg i ep2=o; Ar=0.09m2; u.r, = 0.185rn3/kg; ap=o.495m3lkg
l. Velocity of fluid at exit of rcule
Let Vz = Velocity of fluid at exit of nozzle.
We know that the steady flow energy e{uation for a unit mass flow is
hr+ lcc, + pet+ qta = hz* ker+ per* wrn
Since the nozzle is insulated so that no heat transfer takes place, therefore epz= 0. Also there
is no workdone,i.e. wr_r=0. Neglectin$ the potential energy at inlet and outlet of thenozzle because
of at same level from datum, the steady flow energy equation is written as
hr+ ke, = hr+ ke, or ker- ke, = h, - h,
... 5_y?
z t = hr-h, or vl-v? = z(ht-hz)
and vz=W= (50)2 +2(2800x 103 - 2600 x 103)
= = 634.4 m/s Ans.

2. Mass flow rate
Let m = Mass flow rate in kg/s
A,v, o'9?I-to
We know that m= = 0.185 = z4.3kg/s Ans.
a
st
3. Exit area of nozzle
Let" Az = Exit area of nozzle in m2.
we know that * = !rv, !!!*.

afl or s"" = Vz -
vl.3-2<.0..495
634.4
= 0.019 m2 Ans.
Example 3.24. In an air compressor, airflows stedily a the rate of I5 kg per minute. The
air enters the compressor at 5 nds with a pressure of I bar qtd a specific volume of 0.5 nf ng. n
leaves the compressor at 7.5 m/s with a pressure of i bar and a speciftc-volume o70.15 m3ng.hhe
interaal enersv af thb'air leaving th,e compressor is 165 WhB giati tWii"t if tne air eniering.
The cooling watqr in tke eoqtlprestorjax.lcets ebsqrbsi heatfram ttx,qir et the rate of IZS Hh. Fini :
l: power re1ait ,;ta:drtie'fu:tonprersor i M Z. ratin of the inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe
Solution. Given : m= lfkg/min = 0.25 kg/s i Vr= S6ls ;pr = I bar= 0.1 x ld N/m2 ;
3"r=0.5d/kgtVz=7.511{sipz=7bar=0.7x106N/m2;orr=0.15-,lkg; uz-ur=165kJ/kg
= 165 x td fftg i er-z = 125 kJ/s - 125/m = 12510.25= 500 kJ/kg = 500 x lO3 J/kg
L Power required to drive the compressor
Let wFz = Work required to drive the compressor in J/kg.

We know that flow energy at inlet
= Prust = 0.1 x 106 x 0.5 = 50 x 103 J/kg

Flow energy at outlet = pzo,z = 0.7 x lff x 0.15 = 105 x 103 Ykg
Kinetic energy at inlet,
ke, = (Vr)212 = 5212 = lZ.5 Ukg
and kinetic energy at outlet,
kez = (v)2t2 = (7.r2n = 28J ltkg

ur * ptur, + ke, * per - evz = uz* pzarr+ ker+ pe2- wFz
In this expression, q,-, andwr-rare taken - ye, because heatis rejected by the air and work
is done on the wr. Neglecting the potential energy, the steady flow energy equation may be written
as
wr_z- evz = (uz- u) + ( prarz- prarr) + $er- ke1)
wt-z-500x 101 = 165 x 103+(105 x 103-50x ld) +Q8.1 - 12.5)
= ZZ0 x 103 J/kg

. . . fNeglecting (kez- ker), as it is very small as compared to other terms]
wr-z = 720 x 103 J/xg

.'. Power required to drive the compressor

= rnxwLz= 0.25x720x103ys = 80x l03J/s
= lg0 kJ/s = 180 kW Ans. , . . ('.' 1 kJ/s = lkW)
2. Ratio of the intet pipe diameter to outlet pipe diarneter
Let Dt = Inlet PiPe diameternand

Dz = Outlet PiPe diameter '
A*
.t'r! \vt
weknowrhat Trr = u,z Az W
or += V,xu,,
f to,t, =ffior3=w= 7.5 x 0.5

5 x 0.15
= 2.236 Ans.
f tn,t,
Examnle 3;25. a,gas turbine, the. gases flow,at tie' rae ef 5 kg/s, The goses enter the
trn
turbrne a pre s s ure 7 bar wilh a ve taciry t ZO,r* arA Unq a a 41y1s1ye 2 by.r ith.: "!::? ?:0
i i
,r,tt. fnit, ,"iine is insuilated. I! t!1 enthatm of the gas at intel.is 900 kilkg and at outlet 600 H/kg'
determine the capacity of the turbine.
Solution. Given : m=5kglsi pr=1 bu =0.7x ldNlm2 ; Vr=l2Omls; Pz='2bar
t03l/kg
= o.2xtO6Nlm2 iVz=2S0mls;hr=900kJ/kg=900x l03Vkg ihz=6ookJ/kg=000x
we know that the steady flow energy equation.for a unit mass flow is
h, + kc, + pe | + qF2 = hr+ ker+ Per* wt-z
Since the turbine is insulated so that no heat transfer takes place, therefore Qr-z = O
Neglecting the potential energy at inlet and outlet, the steady flow energy equation becomes
hr+ke, = hz+ker*wr-z
( v? v,' '\
^--
wt-2 = @r-hr)+(ker-ke) = (\-hr)-l'|.. 2 2
)
, (eoo x ro3 - 600 x 103) .[ ry ry]
= 300 x 103 -24.05 x 103 = 275.95 x td rn<g
.'. Clapacity of the turbine
5 x 1 o3 r/s
= i,,i;; ;: 1::: : .*' ;' ::"']

EXERCISES
1. One kg of air is heated in a closed vessel, i.e., at a constant volume from a pressure of
2 bar to 5
of 300 K, determine the change in intemal enetgY'co= 0-'712 k]tg-K
bar. If the initial temperahrre the air is
lAns. 320.4 kJl
'
2. Avolumeof 0.5m3of gasatapressureof l0barand200nCisexpandedinacylinderto l.2m3al
ariount of work done by the gas and the increase in intemal energy. Assume
a constant pressure. Calculate the
Jn = 1.005114 f wtdc,=0'712 kJ/kg K. [Ans' 700 kJ ; 1697'35 kJl
3. A piston cylinder containing air expands at h constant pressure of 150 kPa from a temperature of
2g5 K to a temperature of SSO f . fn" mais of air is 0.05 kg. Find the heat Eansfer, work fiansfer and the change
Thermodynamic Processes of Pefect Gases 99
in internal energy during the process. Take cp= I kJ/kg K and R=0.287 kJ/kg K.
lAns. 13.25 kJ ; 3.8 kJ ; 9.45 Ul
4.
One kg of air at a temperature of 4On C is compressed isothermally from a pressure of I .5 bar to 6
bar. Determine the heat rejected by the air during the process of compression. For air, cz = 1.005 kJ/kg K and
ca= 0.712 kJ/kg K. [Ans. 124.2kJl
S. An ideal gas at 30n C and I bar is compressed adiabatically from 5 m3 to I m3. Find the temperature,
pressure and the work done. Take T = I .4. [Ans. 3040 C ; 9.5 bar ; 1.125 kJ]
6.
A 0.568 m3 capacity insulated vessel.of oxygen at the pressure of 13.6 bar is stirred by internal
paddle until the pressure becomes 2l bar. Find out the heat tansferred and the work input.
Take co - 0.658 kJ/kg K, and R=260 J/kg K. [Ans. zeto ; 1063.8 kJ/kg]
7 .One kg of a gas expands reversibly and adiabatically. Is temperature during the process falls from
5l5 K to 3g0 K, while the volume is doubled. The gas does 92 kJ of work in this process. Find : The value ofl
c, and ca ; and 2. The molecular mass of the gas. [Ans. 1.0326 kJ/kg K,0.736 kJ/kg K ; 28.03]
8.A gas initially at 14.4 bar and 360o C is expanded isothermally to a pressure of 2.24ba.It is then
cooled at constant volume till the pressure falls to 1.02 bar. Finally an adiabatic compression brings the gas back
to the initial stage. The mass of the gas is 0.23 kg and c, = I kJ/kg K. Draw the p-o diagram and determine :
I . the value of the adiabatic index of compression ; and 2. the change of internal energy of the gas during the
adiabatic process. [Ans. 1,423 ; 55.8 kJ (decfease)]
g.
A cylinder contains 0.084 m3 of hydrogen at 1.05 bar and l8n C. It is compressed adiabatically to
14 bar and then expanded isothermally to the original volume of 0.084 m3. The characteristic constant for
hydrogen is 4200 J/kg K and its specific heat at constant pressure is 14.28 kJ/kg K.
Determine the final prcssure of the gas and the amount of heat which must be added to the gas
during isothermal expansion. Also calculate the heat which must be abstracted from the gas after expansion in '
order to reduce it to its initial state of pressure. fAns. 2.25 bar ; 34.5 kJ ; 24 .l 4 kJ I
16. A quantity of gas is compressed accordingto pot'2s =Constant. The initial temperature and pressure
of the gas is l5n C and I bar respectively. Find the work done in compressing I kg of air at 3 bar and the heat
rejected through the walls of the cylinder. T = I .4 for air. [Ans. 82.65 kJ ; 103.3 kJ]
1 1. A quantity of air has a volume of 56 .5 litres and a pressure of 7 .03 bar. It is expanded in a cylinder
to a pressure of 1.05 bar. Compute the workdone if the expansion is l. hyperbolic,2. adiabatic, and 3.
p rJt'' = C. Take 1 = 1.4. tAns.75.4 kl ;42.5 kJ ; 55 kJl
12. L4 m3 of a gas at a prcssure of l.?5 bu is compressed to a volume of 0.28 m3. The final pressure
is 7 bar. Assuming the compression to be pdlytropic, calculate the heat tansfer and change in intemal energy.
Assume ^{ = 1"4. [Ans. 252.54 kJ (rejected) ;49 kJ (decrease)J
. 13. An ideal gas of molecular mass 30 and specific heat ratio 1.38 is compressed according to the law
p xrr.25 = constant, from a pressure of I bar and l5o C to a pressure of l6 bar. Calculate the temperature at the end
of compression, the heat received or rejected and workdone by the gas during the process. Assume I kg mass of
the gas. Use only calculated values of cp and ca. '
[Ans. 228.7o C ; 81 kJ (rejected) ;236"78 kJ]
14. A cylinder contains 0. I l3 m3 of air at I bar and 90n C. The air is compressed to a volume of 0.028
l
m3, the final pressure being 5.8 bar. Determine : mass of the air in the cylinder,2. value of index (n) for the
compression process, 3. increase in internal energy, and 4. heat received or rejected by air during compression.
If, after the above process, the air is cooled at a constant pressure to its original temperahre of 90o C,
further work of compression required.
fi nd ths. I
= 1.4 and ft = 287 lkg K.
lAns. 0. I 08 kg ; 1.26 ; 12.3 kI ; 6.62 kl (rejected) ; 4.9 12 H)
15. An intemai combustion engine cylinder has a diameter 240 mm and length of the snoke 400 mm.
The clearance volume is one-fourth of the swept volume. The pressure at the beginning of expansftin snnke,is
I 6 bar and the expansion followS the \aw pat'3 = Constant. Determine : l. the pressure at the end of expansion
sffoke, Md 2. the work done during the expansion. [Ans. I .974 bar ; 9.2 H)
16. The intemal energy and equation of state of a closed gas system, are given by
t/ = (188.4+ 1.256t) kJ/kg; andpa = 600I
where f is the temperature in t and Tin Kelvin. p is the pressure in bar and o is the specific volume in m3
If the temperature of 2 kg of gas is raised from l00o C to 200 C at l. constant pressure, and
2. according to the law p ul'2 = constant ; find out the heat flow, work flow and change in intemal energy of the
system. [Ans 25l.2kl ;371.2kJ; 600 kJ,348.8 kJ]
17. Gas at I .5 bar and 295 K in a closed vessel is compressed to I 0 bar. Its temperature then becomes
455 K. If the compression follows the law pun = C, find the value of n. [Ans. 1.3]
lE. One kg of fluid enters the steady flow apparatus at a pressure of 6 bar, velocity 16 m/s and specific
volume 0.4 m3lkg. The inlet is 30 m above the ground level. The fluid leaves the apparatus at a pressure of I bar,
velocity 775 rnts; and specific volume 0.6 m3/kg. The outlet is at the ground level. The total heat loss between
the inlet and outlet is l0 kJ/kg of fluid. If 140 kJ/tg of work is done by the system, find the change in specific
internal energy and indicate whether this is a increase or decrease. [Ans. 7 .4 kllkg (decrease)l
19. Air at the rate of 12 kg/min flows steadily through anazzle. The pressure and temperature of air at
theinletto the rrczzle we2}bar and 390 K respectively. The pressure of air at the exit of nozzle is 5 bar. Assuming
adiabatic flow with initial velocity of 100 m/s, determine the exit velocity and the inlet and exit areas.
Take cp* 1 .005 kJ/kg K and T= 1.4, for air. [Ans. 516.4 m/s ; I l2 mrn2, 58 mmz]
20. An air compressor draws air at I bar and 20' C and discharges into a line having an inside diameter
of l0 mm. The average air velocity in the line at a point close to the discharge is 7.5 m/s and the discharge
pressure is 3 bar. Assuming that compression takes place adiabatically, determine the power required to drive
the compressor. The velocity of air entering the compressor has negligible velocity. Take cn = 1.005 kJ/kg K ;
R=287 J/kg K and T* 1.4, [Ans. 0.1665 kW]
21. Air is expanded reversibly and adiabatically in a turbine from 3,5 bar and 260" C to I bar. f'he turbine
is insulated and the inlet velocity is negligible. The exit velocity is 150 m/s. Find the work output of the turbine
per unit mass of air flow. Take for air, cp = 1.005 kJ&g K, and y= 1.4. [Ans. 15 5 kJ/kg]
QUESTTONS
1. What do you understand by a 'thermoclynamic process' ? Distinguish between reversible
and irreversible process.
2. Explain the difference between non-flow process and a flow process. Derive the equation
for workdone during a non-flow process.
3. What is an isothermal process ? Derive an expression for the workdone during an
isothermal process.
4. Explain the adiabatic process. Derive an expression for the workdone during the adiabatic
expansion of an ideal gas.
5. What is polytropic process ? How does it differ from an adiabatic process.
6. Prove that the heat absorbed or rejected during a polytropic process i* H x work done,
Y-l
where yis the ratio of specific heat and n is the polytropic index.
7. Explain what is meant try "polytropic" operation. Starting from the fundamental, show
that during a polytropic compression, according to the law pd = Constant, the rate of heat rejection
per unit change in volume is given * xr, wfrere yis the ratio of specific heat and p is the
[ffi )
pressure at a particular point (a mean pressure during the process) at which heat rejection is
considered.
8.Explain free expansion process. What is the difference between throttling process and a
free expansion process ?
9. What are the assumptions for a steady flow process ? Write the general energy equation
for a steady flow system.
10. Write down the simplified steady flow..energy equation for a unit mass flow &r (a)
condenser ; (b) compressor; and (c) turbine.
11. Apply steady flow energy equation to anozzle and derive an equation for velocity at exit.
Thermodynamic Proce.r.re.r of Perfect Gases r0l
OBJECTTVETYPEQUESTTONS .
l. When a gas is heated at constant volume,

(a) its temperature will increase
(b) its pressure will increase
(c) both temperature and pressure will increase
(d) neither temperature nor pressure will increase
2. The heating of a gas at constant pressure is governed by
(a) Boyle's law (D)Charles' law (c) Gay-Lussac law (d) Joule's law
3. A process, in which the gas'is heated or expanded in such a way that the product of its
pressure and volume remains constant,,is called
(a) isothermal process (b) isobaric process
(c) adiabatic process (d) polytropic process
4. The hyperbolic process is governed by
(a) Boyle's law (b)Charles' law (c) Gay-Lussac law (d) Joule's law
5. The heating of gas at constant ...........is governed by Boyle's law.
(c) volume (b) pressure (c) temperature
6. In an isothermal process,
(a) internal energy increases
(b) internal enprgy decreases
(c) there is no change in internal energy
(d) internal energy first decreases and then increases
7. The expansion ratio (r) is the ratio of
(a) Ja. a^
@)-7 (r)ot
+ o2
@)":"
a2 al al u2
where ul = Volume at thebeginning of expansion, and

?z = Volume at theend of expansion.
8. When the expansion or compression of the gas takes places according to the law
pa n = C, then the process is known as
(a) isothermal process (b) isobaric process
(c) adiabatic process (d) polytropic process
9. An adiabatic process is one in which
(a) no heat enters or leaves the gas
(b) the temperature of ltre gas changes
(c) the change in internal energy is equal to the workdone
(dl all ofthe above
10. The general law of expansion or compression is po n = C. The process is said to be
hyperbolic, if n is equal to
(a) o (,b) t (c) y (d) *
l1: If the value of n = 0 inthe general law pan = C, then the process is called
(a) isochoric process (b) isobaric'process
(c) isothermal process (a) isentropic process
t02 A Text Book of Thermal Engineering
12. The workdone in a free expansion process is

(a) zero (b) minimum (c) mzurimum (d) positive
1,3. In a steady flow process,
(a) the mass flow rate is constant (b) the heat transfer rate is constant
(c) the work transfer rate is constant (A an of the above
14. The workdone in steady flow process is given by
222
f")lpda (b)-looo t')Jadp @-[Pap
I lll
15. The throttling process is a
(a) non-flow process (b) steady flow process
(c) non-steady flow process
ANSWERS
,.lu.ft-),
.:]::.1::.lll]:]].:]l
"5ffi
,
t'o
t'i- t$i(b)

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Thermodynamic Processes of Perfect Gases

I. Introduction. 2, Classificatian of Thermodynatnic Processes. 3. Worlcdone During a Non-flow

% Volume --...+ Volume €

pressure of the system as it expands to final state 2, is drawn on the

w,-,= Fig. 3.2. Workdone during a

3.4. Application of First Law of Thermodynamics to a Non-flow process

I Q4,cn = **(Us - UA) + WA.B

Since the work is done on the system, therefore

= - 50 -20 - -70 kJ Ans.

UD = Internal energy at D = 40 kJ . . (Given)

We know that work done along the path ADB,

t*''S3tff,,J ''''', '::..,.:1i,-..,n .g,r...';i1.,r.,i.il.,".'|

where U is in kl, p inkN/m2 andv inm3,, tytne.gard,ch4nges.fionattinitiattstw of I"T bon O,OS

wr_, = Ioo, = [f"+ba)da \'

3.6. Constant Volume Prdcess (or Isochoric Process)

The process is shown on the prcssure-volume( p-a) andpressure-temperature ( p-I) diagrams

(ct) 1t-u diagrarn. (D p-f diagram.

Qvz = Ur- U, = tu co(T2- Tt)

= * (Tz- Tt) (c, + R) = tn cr(72- Tr) ...('.'/;'a' c -c = R)

We know that YL: *

3. Change ininlernal energy

Ylt,' ,' ' ,. r'Vg'',,,' ?li T.,

(ct) p-u diagram. (D p-f diagram.

Now let us derive ,n" pressure process.

Since the gas is heated at constant pressure, therefore pt= Pz.

[From equation (t)]

Solution. Given : cp= O.984kJ/kg K i co= O.728kJlkg K ; m = L kg ; T, = 25o C = 25 + 273

we know that characteristic gas constant,

We know that heat added during constant pressure

= 373 K i a z = O.ll2 t1f i c t= 1.005 kJ/kg K i co = 0.7 l}kJ/kg K ; R = 285 J/kg K

L Temperature at the end of compres,sion I

... Tz= 2I ajrylfn I

2. Workdone is compressing the gas

We know that decrease in internal energy,

rectangular hyperbola. Hence, this process is terrned as hyperbolic

3.9. Constant Temperature Process (orlsothermal Process)

'l o' ;,,r-$*.r r,

,." ,, . . ,', ,Ve '

Ptal = PzUz or Pa = ConstPnt . . . [From equation (r)]

Since the expansion of the gas is isothermal , i.e. p a= C, therefore

= prr,IloB, oJ:',= PtutloBe . . . (iii)

w,-r= pru,r loge'['t

.'.''Workdone, Wr-r= 2.3 mRTl"g f 3I = 2'3 mRTlog r

Final pressure of the gas

Pz = = = 0.03 x lff N/m2 = 0.3 br Ans.

Heat rupplied during the process

Qt-a = Wrz = 24.115 kJ Ans.

ture at the initial state 1, and

We know that 6Q = 6W+dU (First law of thermodynamics) . . . (t)

Since in an adiabatic process, no heat transfer takes places, therefore

dT= -pda ...(tt)

We know that pa = mRT

Integrating borh sidesl

From the general gas equation, we know that

From equation (iv), we also know that

(r)'=+"'; .r t= (x)r "?,= (t1-i.'

We have already discussed that workdone,

Since adiabatic expansion of the gas follows the law,

Example 3.14. A gasmixture obeying perfect gas , t),1",:;*r:;r:;;:"