a)Frequency Selective Channel

When we receive radio signal , the different spectral components fluctuates in unequal manner then this

type of fading of signal occurs in case of frequency selective channel.

B )Frequency Flat Fading Channel

When we receive radio signals in which all spectral components fluctuates in the same proportions

simultaneously. This type of fading of signal occurs in case of frequency flat fading channel.

c) Channel coherence time

n communications systems, a communication channel may change with time. Coherence time is

the time duration over which the channel impulse response is considered to be not varying.

Such channel variation is much more significant in wireless communications systems, due to

Doppler effects

d)Doppler spread of the channel

Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of the

mobile radio channel, and is defined as the range of frequencies over which the

received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.

e) Doppler shift

When a body that is emitting radiation has a non-zero radial velocity relative to an observer, the

wavelength of the emission will be shortened or lengthened, depending upon whether the body is

moving towards or away from an observer. This change in observed wavelength, or frequency, is

known as the Doppler shift.

oherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the

channel can be considered "flat", or in other words the approximate maximum bandwidth

or frequency interval over which two frequencies of a signal are likely to experience comparable

or correlated amplitude fading. If the multipath time delay spread equals D seconds, then the

coherence bandwidth  in rad/s is given approximately by the equation:

path to path.

2) Describe lognormal shadowing vs. free space path loss

Log distance path loss model is an extension to the Friis free space model. It is used to predict

the propagation loss for a wide range of environments, whereas, the Friis free space model is

restricted to unobstructed clear path between the transmitter and the receiver. The model

encompasses random shadowing effects due to signal blockage by hills, trees, buildings etc. It is

also referred as log normal shadowing model.

Free space path loss model :_ he free-space path loss (FSPL) is the attenuation of radio energy

between the feed points of two antennas that results from the combination of the receiving

antenna's capture area plus the obstacle free, line-of-sight path through free space (usually air).

3 what is db ? and show the relation ship and conversion between

Mw and dbm

Watt and dbm

Answer Decibel (dB) and dB relative to a milliwatt (dBm) represent two different but related concepts.
A dB is a shorthand way to express the ratio of two values. As a unit for the strength of a signal, dB

expresses the ratio between two power levels. To be exact, dB = log (P1/P2).

Using the decibel allows us to contrast greatly differing power levels (a common predicament in radio

link design) with a simple two- or three-digit number instead of a more burdensome nine- or 10-digit one.

For instance, instead of characterizing the difference in two power levels as 1,000,000,000 to 1, it's much

simpler to use the decibel representation as 10*log (1,000,000,000/1), or 90 dB. The same goes for very

small numbers: The ratio of 0.000000001 to 1 can be characterized as -90 dB. This makes keeping track

of signal levels much simpler.

The unit dBm denotes an absolute power level measured in decibels and referenced to 1 milliwatt (mW).

To convert from absolute power "P" (in watts) to dBm, use the formula dBm = 10*log (P/1 mW). This

equation looks almost the same as that for the dB. However, now the power level "P" has been referenced

to 1 mW. It turns out that in the practical radio world, 1 mW is a convenient reference point from which

to measure power.

Use dB when expressing the ratio between two power values. Use dBm when expressing an absolute

value of powe

B watt and dbm

= The unit dBm denotes an absolute power level measured in decibels and referenced to 1 milliwatt

(mW). To convert from absolute power "P" (in watts) to dBm, use the formula dBm = 10*log (P/1 mW

Q4Problem: Consider an indoor wireless LAN with fc = 900 MHz, cells of radius 10 m, and nondirectional

antennas. • Under the free‐space path loss model, what transmit power is required at the access point

such that all terminals within the cell receive a minimum power of 10 μW? • How does this power

change if the system frequency is 5 GHz?

answer
Describe the following terminology supported with example

Time diversity

Time Diversity is used in digital communication systems to combat that the transmissions

channel may suffer from error bursts due to time-varying channel conditions. ... Time

diversity implies that the same data is transmitted multiple times, or a redundant error correcting

code is added.

Frequency diversity requency Diversity. :- allows the transmission of the same message signal

at different carrier frequencies. ... Instead, the signal is spread over a large bandwidth, so parts

of the signal are conveyed by different frequency components.

C ) receiver diversity:-, diversity receivers are often used to improve reception of RF signals.

A diversity receiver utilizes two separate, independent antenna systems. The receiver looks at

the signal coming in from the each antenna, and determines which one is the stronger.

D) Multiuser diversity
Q7 EXAMPLE 4.1: Consider a wireless channel where power falloff with distance follows the

formula Pr(d ) = Pt(d0/d )3 for d0 = 10 m. Assume the channel has bandwidth B = 30 kHz and

AWGN with noise PSD N0/2, where N0 = 10−9 W/Hz. For a transmit power of 1 W, find the

capacity of this channel for a transmit–receive distance of 100 m and 1 km.

Solution: The received SNR is γ = Pr(d )/N0B = .13 /(10−9 ·30 ·103) = 33 = 15 dB for d = 100 m

and γ = .013 /(10−9 · 30 · 103) = .033 = −15 dB

for d = 1000 m. The corresponding capacities are C = B log2(1+ γ ) = 30000 log2(1+ 33) = 152.6

kbps

for d = 100 m and C = 30000 log2(1 + .033) = 1.4 kbps for d = 1000 m. Note the significant

decrease in capacity at greater distances due to the path-loss

exponent of 3, which greatly reduces received power as distance increases

q 8 Shannon–Hartley theorem tells the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted over a

communications channel of a specified bandwidth in the presence of noise. It is an application of

the noisy-channel coding theorem to the archetypal case of a continuous-time analog communications

channel subject to Gaussian noise. The theorem establishes Shannon's channel capacity for such a

communication link, a bound on the maximum amount of error-free information per time unit that can

be transmitted with a specified bandwidth in the presence of the noise interference, assuming that the

signal power is bounded, and that the Gaussian noise process is characterized by a known power or

power spectral density. 

Shannon's Theorem gives an upper bound to the capacity of a link, in bits per second

(bps), as a function of the available bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio of the link.

The Theorem can be stated as:

C = B * log2(1+ S/N)

where C is the achievable channel capacity, B is the bandwidth of the line, S is the

average signal power and N is the average noise power.

The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in decibels (dB) given by the

formula:

10 * log10(S/N)

so for example a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 is commonly expressed as

10 * log10(1000) = 30 dB.

Examples

Here are two examples of the use of Shannon's Theorem.

Modem

For a typical telephone line with a signal-to-noise ratio of 30dB and an audio

bandwidth of 3kHz, we get a maximum data rate of:

C = 3000 * log2(1001)

which is a little less than 30 kbps.

For a satellite TV channel with a signal-to noise ratio of 20 dB and a video bandwidth

of 10MHz, we get a maximum data rate of:

C=10000000 * log2(101)

which is about 66 Mbps.

Q9 ) for a channel with Doppler spread Bd =80HZ what time separation is

required in sample of the received signal such that the sample are

approximately independent

Coherence time of the channels is TC ≈1/Bd= 1 ̷ 80 so sample spaced is 12.5 ms apart are

approximately uncorrelated