Direct Proof: Transition To Higher Mathematics
Direct Proof: Transition To Higher Mathematics
Direct Proof: Transition To Higher Mathematics
MAT231
Fall 2014
1 Overview of Proof
2 Theorems
3 Definitions
4 Direct Proof
5 Using Cases
6 Proof Exercises
One thing that high-school and college students often say they appreciate
about mathematics is that “answers are either right or wrong.”
One thing that high-school and college students often say they appreciate
about mathematics is that “answers are either right or wrong.”
While this isn’t always true, it is the case that a large part of mathematics
is focused on knowing if something is always true, sometimes true, or never
true. This knowledge is without ambiguity—we can know it for certain.
Mathematical proofs are often written in a formal style, but that is not
required. Proofs can come in many different forms, but mathematicians
writing proofs often strive for conciseness and clarity...
Mathematical proofs are often written in a formal style, but that is not
required. Proofs can come in many different forms, but mathematicians
writing proofs often strive for conciseness and clarity...
Definition
A theorem is a statement that is true and has been proved to be true.
Our text uses the term proposition to mean a statement which is true,
but not important enough to be called a theorem. (In other contexts, a
proposition can merely be a statement which is either true or false; at least
until it is proved true).
Our starting points will be definitions and axioms (also called postulates).
Definition
An integer n is odd if n = 2a + 1 for some integer a ∈ Z.
Definition
Two integers have the same parity if they are both even or they are both
odd. Otherwise they have opposite parity.
Definition
Let S be a set of numbers. S is closed under addition if the sum of any
two elements in S is a member of S.
Similar definitions exist for closure under subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
N is closed under what operations?
Definition
Let S be a set of numbers. S is closed under addition if the sum of any
two elements in S is a member of S.
Similar definitions exist for closure under subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
N is closed under what operations? addition and multiplication, but
not subtraction or division.
Z is closed under what operations?
Definition
Let S be a set of numbers. S is closed under addition if the sum of any
two elements in S is a member of S.
Similar definitions exist for closure under subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
N is closed under what operations? addition and multiplication, but
not subtraction or division.
Z is closed under what operations? addition, subtraction, and
multiplication, but not division.
Q is closed under what operations?
Definition
Let S be a set of numbers. S is closed under addition if the sum of any
two elements in S is a member of S.
Similar definitions exist for closure under subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
N is closed under what operations? addition and multiplication, but
not subtraction or division.
Z is closed under what operations? addition, subtraction, and
multiplication, but not division.
Q is closed under what operations? all four, if we disallow division by
zero.
R is closed under what operations?
Definition
Let S be a set of numbers. S is closed under addition if the sum of any
two elements in S is a member of S.
Similar definitions exist for closure under subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
N is closed under what operations? addition and multiplication, but
not subtraction or division.
Z is closed under what operations? addition, subtraction, and
multiplication, but not division.
Q is closed under what operations? all four, if we disallow division by
zero.
R is closed under what operations? all four, if we disallow division by
zero.
Example
Finding the set of divisors of 10 means finding every a such that a|10. The
set is {a : a|10} = {−10, −5, −2, −1, 1, 2, 5, 10}.
Definition
A natural number n is prime if it has exactly two positive divisors, 1 and
n. An integer m is composite if it factors as n = ab where a, b > 1.
Note:
1 is not prime because it has only one divisor, itself.
2 is the only even prime number.
56 = 20 · 2 + 16
Definition
The greatest common divisor (GCD) of integers a and b, denoted
gcd(a, b), is the largest integer that divides both a and b. The least
common multiple (LCM) of non-zero integers a and b, denoted lcm(a, b),
is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of both a and b.
While the GCD of a and b is relative easy to find if the prime factorizations
of both a and b are available. If not, one can use the Euclidean Algorithm.
Proof.
Suppose d divides both a and b. Then d divides bq and also divides
a − bq = r . Thus, d divides both b and r .
Now suppose that d divides b and r . Then d also divides bq + r = a and
so d divides both a and b.
Since every divisor of a and b is also a divisor of b and r and vice versa,
the sets of divisors for these two pairs are identical and the must share the
same greatest value. Therefore gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r ).
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
38 = 22 · 1 + 16
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
38 = 22 · 1 + 16
22 = 16 · 1 + 6
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
38 = 22 · 1 + 16
22 = 16 · 1 + 6
16 = 6 · 2 + 4
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
38 = 22 · 1 + 16
22 = 16 · 1 + 6
16 = 6 · 2 + 4
6 = 4 · 1 + 2
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
38 = 22 · 1 + 16
22 = 16 · 1 + 6
16 = 6 · 2 + 4
6 = 4 · 1 + 2
4 = 2 · 2 + 0
Lets use the Euclidean Algorithm to find gcd(38, 22). The colors show how
the numbers move from one line to the next based on the lemma we just
proved.
a = b · q + r
38 = 22 · 1 + 16
22 = 16 · 1 + 6
16 = 6 · 2 + 4
6 = 4 · 1 + 2
4 = 2 · 2 + 0
The last non-zero remainder 2 is the GCD of both 2 and 4. By our lemma
it is also the GCD of 4 and 6, and of 6 and 16, etc., all the way back to
our original pair 38 and 22.
If P, then Q
Some hints:
Be sure you are convinced the proposition you are trying to prove
seems true. Try some examples and look for patterns you can exploit.
Be sure you know what the conclusion should be. Think of proofs as
like doing a problem where you know what the answer should be –
you are trying to work toward it. In a very real sense you’re trying to
build a bridge from the hypothesis to the conclusion.
Proposition
The sum of an even integer and an odd integer is odd.
Proof.
Suppose a is an even integer and b is an odd integer. Then, by our
definitions of even and odd numbers, we know that integers m and n exist
so that a = 2m and b = 2n + 1. Then
Proposition
Suppose a, b, c ∈ Z. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proposition
Suppose a, b, c ∈ Z. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Our strategy will be to work forward from the hypothesis and work
backward from the conclusion, trying to link the ends of the argument
together.
We start with a|b and b|c. This means that b = am and c = bn for
some m, n ∈ Z.
Working backward from a|c, we have that c = ak for some k ∈ Z.
Proposition
Suppose a, b, c ∈ Z. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proposition
Suppose a, b, c ∈ Z. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proof.
Let a, b, c ∈ Z. If a|b and b|c then by the definition of divisibility there are
integers m and n for which b = am and c = bn. In this case
c = bn = (am)n = a(mn) = ak
Proposition
For any integer n, n2 + n is even.
Proposition
For any integer n, n2 + n is even.
Proof.
Suppose n ∈ Z.
Case 1. If n is even we can write n = 2q for some q ∈ Z. In this case
n2 + n = 4q 2 + 2q = 2(2q 2 + q) which, by definition, is even.
Case 2. If n is odd then n = 2q + 1 for some q ∈ Z. Now
n2 + n = (4q 2 + 4q + 1) + (2q + 1) = 2(2q 2 + 3q + 1) which
is also even.
We find that n2 + 2 is even when n is even and when n is odd. Therefore
n2 + n must be even for any integer n.
Proof.
Let n ∈ Z be given. By the Division Algorithm we can write n = 3q + r for
some q, r ∈ Z with 0 ≤ r < 3. If r = 0 then 3|n, so we consider the other
two cases, r = 1 and r = 2.
Case 1. Suppose r = 1 so n = 3q + 1, which is not divisible by 3.
However, n2 + 2 = 9q 2 + 6q + 3 = 3(3q 2 + 2q + 1), so
n2 + 2 is divisible by 3.
Case 2. Now suppose r = 2 so n = 3q + 2. As before, this is not
divisible by 3. On the other hand, 3 does divide n2 + 2 since
n2 + 2 = 9q 2 + 12q + 4 + 2 = 3(3q 2 + 4q + 1).
Reviewing these cases, we see that whenever 3 - n, we find 3|(n2 + 2),
completing the proof.
MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Direct Proof Fall 2014 23 / 24
Proof Exercises