CHAPTER 2

INSTALLATION AND WIRING SYSTEM

2.1. Wiring System

All interior wiring should be attached to interior surfaces of the building and
not concealed within wall cavities, ceilings, or attic spaces. In insulated buildings,
surface mounting eliminates the need to make holes in the continuous vapour barrier,
thus reducing the migration of moisture into wall or the risk of rodent damage and
facilities inspection and repair. Electrical wiring is a process of connecting cables and
wires to the rated devices such as fuse, sockets lights, fans, etc. to the main
distribution board is a specific structure to the utility pole for continues power supply.
Wiring is subject to safety standards for design and installation.
Electrical wiring is an electrical installation of cabling and associated devices
such as switches, distribution boards, sockets, and light fitting in a structure.
Associated circuit protection, control and distribution devices within a building’s
wiring system are subject to voltage, current and functional specifications. Wiring is
the method of drawing or laying wires or cables and connecting accessories and
fitting for the purpose of distributing electrical power to the various points or
requirement from the main.
Wiring can be done using two methods which are;
 Joint box system or Tee system
 Loop-in system

2.1.1. Joint Box or Tee System

In this wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints. These joints
are made in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints cutouts. This
method of wiring doesn’t consume too much cable size. This wiring does not require
too much cable it is therefore cheaper. It is of course but the money can be saved from
buying cables will be used in buying joint box, thus equation is balanced. This method
is suitable for temporary installations and it is cheap.
 6

In this method though there is a saving in the quantity of wire or cable

required but the same is offset by the extra cost of joint boxes. The other disadvantage
of T-connections is that the number of T-connection made in a wiring system results
in weakness if not property made. Now-a-days the use this system is limited to
temporary installations only as cost is low.

From main distribution board

P

Lamp L1 Lamp L2

Switch S1 Switch S2

Figure 2.1. Joint Box or Tee System

2.1.2. Loop-in or Looping System

This wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other appliances are
connected in parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled individually.
When a connection is required at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by
bringing it directly to the terminal and then carrying it forward again to the next point
to be fed.
The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops
from one point to another until the last on the circuit is reached. The phase or line
conductors are looped either in switchboard or box and neutrals are looped either in
switchboard or from light or fan. Line or phase should never be looped from or fan.
Advantages of Loop-in method of wiring are;
 It does not required joint boxes and so money is saved.
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 In loop-in systems, no joint is concealed beneath floors or in roof spaces.

 Fault location is made easy as the points are made only at outlines so that
they are accessible.
Disadvantages of loop-in method of wiring are;
 Length of wire or cables required is more and voltage drop and copper
losses are therefore more.
 Looping-in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.

From main distribution box

P

Lamp L1 Lamp L2

Switch S1 Switch S2

Figure 2.2. Loop-in or Looping System

2.2. Types of Wiring Method

According to requirement and suitability, wiring can be classified into indoor
wire and outdoor wire. Wiring carried out inside the premises is knows as indoor
wiring and done outside the premises is known as outdoor wiring. Indoor wiring is
residential-office and outdoor wiring is flood light wiring. Another method of
classification of wiring is concealed wiring and open or exposed wiring. In concealed
wiring about 90 percent wiring accessories are inside the wall or floor but in exposed
or open wiring, most of the wiring accessories are seen outside.
According to the method of connection adopted in a wiring system wiring can
also be classified into tee system of connection and loop back system of connection.
In the loop back system, the connection leads taken from the controlling devices
which are incoming terminals to the next point. Generally for wiring of residential
 8

buildings and office buildings, loop back systems of connection are adopted. Wiring
systems may be classified as permanent wiring and temporary wiring.
Another classification of wiring system is of industrial wiring and non-
industrial wiring. Wiring of residential buildings, hostels, office buildings, multi
storage building come under non industrial wiring, generating station wiring etc, and
come under industrial wiring.
Types of wiring system are;
 Cleat wiring
 Wooden casing and capping
 Tough rubber sheathed wiring (CTS or TRS) or Batten wiring
 Lead Sheath or Metal Sheathed Wiring and
 Conduit Wiring.
Features of these systems of wiring are given below.
Table 2.1. Comparison of Industrial and Non-industrial Wiring System [52Hae]

Non-industrial Industrial
− Cleated system. − Base conductors run in insulator in metal
ducts.
− Wooden casing and capping. − Vulcanized India Rubber (VIR) or
PVC insulator cables in ducts.
− Cable Type Sheathed (CTS), − Paper insulated metal sheathed armored
Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS), cables laid in ground or supported on
or Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). centenary wire.
− Metal sheath system. − Burried directly in ground.
− Metal or non-metal conduit − Mineral insulated cables.
system.
− Wiring with metal raceway. − Overhead bus bards with plug unit.
− Wiring with bus bars into ducts of sheet
metal.

2.2.1. Cleated System

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The nature of this wiring system is temporary and it is mainly used for
temporary shelters and farmhouses. In this system, cables are supported and gripped
between porcelain or seasoned teak wood cleats 6 mm above the wall or ceiling. The
cleats are made of two halves base or bottom and top.
The base is grooved to accommodate the cable on it and on top in the axial
direction. Shades are proved to fix the cleats on wooden plugs fitted in the wall with
cement at regular intervals. The distance between cleats should not be less than 30 cm
and not more than 60 cm.
If the cleat interval is increased there is a possibility that the wire will touch
the wall. The cleats are named as two ways, three ways, four ways… etc. according to
the number of grooves provided in the base for stretching out the wire. Two way
cleats can accommodate two wires; three ways cleats can accommodate three wires
and so on. For normal supply of 250 volts, the cables should be placed 2.5 cm apart
center-to-center for a branch load of single core cables and 4 cm for sub-mains and
service connections.
The cables recommending for this type of wiring are VIR cables; PVC
unsheathed, braided or unbraided, with earthing for further protection. The advantages
of cleated system are less cost easy to work. The disadvantages of cleated system are
not suitable for damp and wet area, shabby appearance, little safety, and least
mechanical protection.
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Use of wall tube, wires are drawn from one room into the other through partition wall.

Cleat With Two Groves Cleat With Three Groves

Figure 2.3. Cleat wiring system

2.2.2. Wooden Casing and Capping System
This is one of the earliest systems of wiring and even now a day in cases of
wiring in residential and office buildings. This system is highly suitable for low
voltage insulation. VIR or PVC insulated wires are placed in the grooves of the
wooden cases. The casing consists of “V” shaped grooves, usually two in number.
The wires are laid in such away that wires of opposite polarity are laid in
different grooves.
The casing is covered by means of a rectangular strip of the same width as that
of the casing. This is known as “capping”. The capping is fitted to the casing with the
help of screws of 12.7 mm length.
The casing and capping should be made of seasoned teak wood or any other
approved wood. All sides of the casing should be planned with a smooth finish and
varnished. This system is not to be used in damp places. The sizes of the casing or
capping depend upon the number and sizes of cables to be accommodated.
The advantages of wooden casing and capping system are as follow.
 `Low quality wire can be used because no wire is seen outside.
 No atmospheric influences on the wire, and
 It gives good and neat appearance.
 The disadvantages of wooden casing and capping system are as follow.
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 Wood is very inflammable and there is a risk of fire.

 Wood is not damp-proof so it is not used in damp and wet areas.
 White ants attack the wood casing and wet capping, and
 Wire replacement is difficult

Figure 2.4. Wooden casing and Capping System

2.2.3. Tough Rubber Sheathed Wiring (TRS or CTS) or Batten Wiring
It is suitable for low voltage installation. It is no suitable where the wiring is
exposed to sun or rain. It is suitable where acids and alkalis are likely to be present
(such as chemical factories).
This system may be used in the above motioned conditions provided he wires
are properly sheathed and well protected against moisture and dampness. This system
is commonly used for all ordinary residential wiring and non-residential installation; it
is cheap and can be quickly installed.
The cables are laid on seasoned teak work batten perfectly straight and well
varnished (on all four sides) of thickness not less than 10 mm.The wires are fixed on
the varnished batten with small nails before lying down.
The link clips should be fixed on the varnished batten win small nails before
laying down. The link clips should be fixed at an interval of 10cm in the case of
horizontal run and 15 cm in the case of vertical run on the batten.
The battens are fixed to the wall or ceiling by means of gutties or wooden
plugs with countersunk head wood screws. The wood screws should be fixed on the
batten an interval not exceeding 75 cm.
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The width of the batten depends upon the number and sizes of the cables to be
carried on it .The minimum width of the batten is 13 mm for two wires. The batten
sizes should suit the total width of the cables laid on it.

Table 2.2 Standard Size Battens and the Number of Wire [91Ste]
Number of wires
Size of batten Size of wiring clip
that can be held
13 mm×13 mm 2 32 mm
19 mm×13 mm 3 37 mm
25 mm×13 mm 4 42 mm
32 mm×13 mm 5 or 6 50 mm
37 mm×13 mm 7 -
42 mm×13 mm 8 2 clips of different types are used
50 mm×13 mm 9 2 clips of different types are used
56 mm×13 mm 10 2 clips of different types are used
62 mm×13 mm 11 or 12 2 clips of different types are used
In domestic wiring, the battens normally used are 13, 19, 25, 32, 38, 44 and 50
mm wide.
A batten 13 mm wide should carry two wires, 19 mm wide should carry three
wires, and 25 mm wide should carry four wires and so on.
The advantages of tough rubber sheathed wiring (TRS or CTS) or batten
wiring are as follow.
 Replacement of wiring is easy.
 Neat wiring
 Moderate cost
The disadvantages of tough rubber sheathed wiring (TRS or CTS) or batten
wiring are as follow.
 Not suitable for damp areas.
 Mechanical protection is poor.
Cannot is used where corrosive acids and alkalis are formed.
 13

Batten

Cable

Clip

Figure 2.5. TRS or CTRS Wiring System

2.2.4. Lead Sheath or Metal Sheathed Wiring

The conductors having insulated covering of VIR are covered with an outer
sheath of lead or its alloy. The maximum thickness of lead covering thus, formed,
may not exceed 1 or 1.5 mm. This metal sheath provides toughness and gives
protection to the cable against mechanical injury, dampness and atmospheric
corrosion. Hence metal sheathed or lead sheathed cables may be used on places
exposed to sun, rain, and other damp conditions provided no joint is exposed.
This system of wiring is similar to that of TRS or CTS sheathed wiring system
except that the cable to be used in this case is lead or metal sheathed. The lead
sheathed cables should be run on well seasoned and straight teak wood batten of 10
mm finished thickness. The cables are fixed by means of link clips which should not
be more than 10 cm apart on vertical run and 15 cm on horizontal run as in TRS
wiring. The width of the wooden batten may vary in accordance with the number of
wires it may have to carry. The system of fixing a batten on walls has already been
discussed in TRS wiring system. The cable conduit pipe while passing through the
walls or the ceiling. The conduit should be properly laid so that the cables enter them
straight, without bending.
The advantages lead sheath or metal sheathed wiring are as follow.
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 Neat, tidy and long lasting.

 Mechanical protection is very high.
 Damp-proof; can be used in sun, rain and other damp conditions.
 Specially suited for textile mills.
The disadvantages lead sheath or metal sheathed wiring are as follow.
 Not suitable for corrosive atmosphere.
 Because of costly wire, installation cost is more.

Lead-sheathed electrical Wiring

Figure 2.6. Lead Sheathed Wiring System

2.2.5. Conduit Wiring
Conduit wiring can be categorized into Metal conduit wiring and Non-metal
conduit wiring. All conduit pipes should be of approved heavy gauge, solid and drawn
or lead welded, finished with galvanized or strove enameled (black enameled)
surface. All conduit accessories such as bend, elbow tee and junction box capping
(two way, three way, four way inspection box) shall be of threaded type and under no
circumstances should pin type or clamp type accessories be used. This system is
suitable for low and medium voltage wiring installation. V.I.R or P.V.C cables are run
in metal pipes known as conduits which provide good mechanical protection to the
insulation of the cable and reduce the risk of fire.
Metal conduit wiring is mechanically and electrically sound. This type of
wiring is mainly used in workshops, dams, etc. Conduits are fixed at an interval if 75
cm with the help of screws on gut ties in cement plaster in non-metal conduit wiring
instead of metal conduit, rigid PVC conduits and its accessories are used. This type of
 15

wiring can also be used in residential building, hostel building and office building
wiring.
The advantages of metal conduit wiring are as follow.
 Good mechanical and electrical protection.
 Provides leakage path for leaking currents.
 Fire-proof
The disadvantages of metal conduit wiring are as follow.
 High cost.
The advantages of non- metal conduit wiring are as follow.
 Light in weight, anti-corrosive.
 Easy to install.
 Can be buried in cement concrete.
 No maintenance
 Can be joined with paste.
The disadvantages of non-metal conduit wiring are;
 Mechanical strength is low.
 Earth wire should be run through the conduit.
 Not fire-proof.

Figure 2.7. Conduit Wiring System

2.3. Choice of Wiring System

In deciding the type of wiring system for a particular installation, many factors
have to be taken into consideration; amongst these are:
 16

 Whether the wiring is to be installed during the construction of a building,

in a completed building, or as an extension of an existing system
 Capital outlay required
 Planned duration of installation
 Whether damp or other adverse conditions are likely to exist
 Type of building
 Usage of building
 Likelihood of alterations and extensions being frequently required.

2.4. Introduction to Lighting Systems

Lighting is provided in industries, commercial buildings, indoor and outdoor
for providing comfortable working environment. The primary objective is provided
that the required lighting effect for the lowest installed load i.e. highest lighting at
lowest power consumption.
Light is the prime factor in the human life as all activities of human beings
ultimately depend upon the light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial light
is made. Artificial lighting is produced electrically, on account of its cleanliness. Ease
of control, reliability, steady output, as well as its low cost, is playing an increasingly
important part in modern everyday life. Apart from its aesthetic and decorative
aspects, good lighting has a strictly utilitarian value in increasing production, reducing
workers fatigue, protecting their health, eyes and nervous system, and reducing
accidents.
Lighting-actually, electric lighting-has existed for just over 120 years.
Lighting dominates our world and it is inconceivable to image what life was like
without abundant light. Life would be dominated by seasonal and diurnal availability
of daylight. Most of our night-time activities would be impossible. Developments in
lighting technology have produced a range of design tools that can lead to improved
and energy efficient lighting.
The first and most important purpose of lighting system is safety. It is good
lighting practice to prevent any glare effect. It should be established what type of
lighting system is most suitable for the rooms to be illuminated, or what combination
of light sources and fitting best satisfies the specific requirements. The planning and
calculation of a lighting installation must be based on these requirements. Efficient
 17

lighting not only makes the space visible but by its qualities accentuates its character
and thus becomes an integral part of the interior. In shops, restaurants, and factories it
can be functional. Direct light is characterized by strong shadows, an image rich in
contrasts and very plastic effect. Good application of directed light can assist
perception. By means of direct light, shadows and glow come into being and make the
contours and shapes of objects clearly visible and easily recognizable.

2.5. Methods for Lighting Calculation

A number of methods have been employed for lighting calculations, among
which may be mentioned:
 Watts per square meter method.
 Lumen or light flux method.
 Point to point inverse-square law method.

2.5.1. Watts per Square Meter Method

This is principally a “rule of thumb” method, very handy for rough calculation
or checking. It consists in making an allowance of watts per square meter of area to be
illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption of an average
figure of overall efficiency of the system [83Jam].
2.5.2. Lumen or Light Flux Method
This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are such as
to produce an approximate uniform illumination over the working plane or where an
average value is required. From the size of lamp or lamps employed and from their
efficiency total lumens outputs are determined.
Multiplying the total lumens output from the source by coefficient of
utilization, the lumens received on the working plane are determined. If the lamps and
surroundings are not perfectly clean, then in determination of lumens received on
working plane, the depreciation factor or maintenance factor should be included
[83Jam].

[ Lumens received ¿] ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
 18

2.5.3. Point to Point or Inverse Square Law Method

This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to on or more
sources of light is required, the candle power of the sources in the particular direction
under consideration being known. If a polar curve of lamp and its reflector giving
candle powers of the lamp in different directions is known, the illumination at any
point within the rang of the lamp can be calculated from the inverse square law. If two
and more than two lamps are illuminating the same working plane, the illumination
due to each can be calculated and added. This method is not much used because of its
complicated and cumbersome applications. It is employed only in some special
problems, such as flood lighting, yard lighting, etc [83Jam].

2.6. Illumination
Illumination differs from light very much though generally these terms are
used more or less synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination
is the result of that light on surfaces on which it falls. Thus, illumination makes the
surface look more or less bright with a certain colour and it is this brightness and
colour which the eye sees and interprets as something useful, or pleasant or otherwise.
Light may be produced by passing electric current through filaments as in the
incandescent lamps, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable
gases as in neon and other gas tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to
fluorescence excited by radiation arising from the passage of electric current through
mercury vapour. Some bodies reflect light in some measure, and when illuminated
from an original source they become secondary sources of light.
As a measurement of quantity use is generally made of concept illumination,
expressed in lux units measured at the working surface. For the sake of uniformity in
excuting the projects, recommendations for the required illumination are essential and
are in fact generally applied. Presented in the form of table, they state clearly what
illumination is required in a given situation.
When using the table it should be remembered that the visual organs is
designed by nature to perceive at illumination values arising out of natural day light.
These usually vary from several thousand lux to maximum of 100,000 lux. Moreover,
indoors the visual organ is relatively severely tested; smaller objects must be
perceived over longer periods of time than are required out of doors.
 19

The visual acuity of the human being increases as the level of illumination
rises; as the latter increases it becomes possible to see smaller objects and perceive
large ones with less effort. It is not until a level of 10,000 to 20,000 lux has been
reached that visual acuity attains its maximum and the visual organ functions under
the most favorable conditions and with the least effort.
For technical and, economic reasons it is however impossible to obtain such
high values, so that the human being must in practice be content with less. Still less
feasible is it to make recommendations which apply internationally as different levels
of development obtaining in the various countries make coordination difficult.
Nevertheless, the person planning an installation is obliged to compromise between
what is medically desirable and what is technically and economically feasible. Table
2.2 mainly indicates the importance of values of illuminance. Here factors like the
size of the details, luminance and colour contracts play their part, or it may be a
question of moving or stationary work. The classification of the eye tasks in factories,
offices and schools, for instance, is based on this.
Setting the limits makes it possible to take into consideration, not only the type
of work, but also other factors such as:
 The duration of the work in artificial light;
 The question of day or night work;
 The quality requirements the product must satisfy;
 The varying light requirements of the difference users, for instance,
according to age.

Table 2.3. Values of Illuminance [52Wil]

Type of Works Standard Service Illuminance (lux)

 20

Corridors, passageways 100

Gifts(passenger) 150
Stairs 150
Escalators 150
External covered ways 30
Entrances
Entrance halls, lobbies, waiting rooms 500
Enquiry desks 200
Gatehouses 150
Rest rooms 150
Schools
Assembly halls general 300
Platform and stage 300
Teaching spaces general 300
General where also used for further 500
Education
Chalkboard 500
Diesel generator rooms 200
Battery rooms
Lecture theatres general 300
Chalkboard 500
Demonstration benches 500
Needlework rooms 500
Art rooms 500
Laboratories 500
Workshops 300
Dining spaces 150
Gymnasia 300
Music practice rooms 300

2.7. Characteristics of the Illumination

It is not just the lighting source which determines the character of the
illumination; walls and ceilings contribute their share too by reflection, which consists
mostly of diffuse light. The greater this contribution, the less directional the light will
be. The illumination system and the reflection from the ceiling and walls are decisive.
 21

Directed light is characterized by strong shadows, an image rich is contrasts

and very plastic effect. By means of directed light, shadows and glow come into being
and make contours and shapes of objects clearly visible and easily recognizable.
Shadows are characterized by depth (that is to say darkness) and hardness.
It is not just the lighting source which determines the character of the
illumination; walls and ceiling contribute their share too by reflection, which consists
mostly of diffuse light. The illumination system and the reflection from ceiling and
walls are decisive.
For most application, lighting must be tolerably diffuse with directional
lighting as a complementary source. The direction of incidence of complementary
directional lighting determines the location of shadows and lights. This should be
given sufficient attention because the wrong directional incidence cause either direct
or indirect glare on the object of vision [52Wil].

2.8. Illuminance
Illuminance is the density or quantity of light falling (incident) on a surface.
The more lumens landing on a surface, the higher the illuminance. The unit of
illuminance is expressed in foot-candle or lux. A foot-candle (fc) is defined as one
lumen uniformly distributed over an area of one square foot. A lux is defined as one
lumen uniformly distributed over one square meter. Illuminance is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the light source and the surface.
Illumination in exterior or interior lighting has extensive application in
residential buildings, commercial complexes, shops, cinemas, street lighting, railway
yards, aerodromes, factories, libraries, museums, amusement parks, operation
theatres, and football fields.
Good illumination must have the following qualities.
 Clear perception without glare,
 Adequate luminance,
 Economy,
 Aesthetics and beautiful appearance.
 22

Illumination is broadly categorized into interior lighting and exterior lighting.

Although the same lighting fundamentals apply to both, their applications are
different for several reasons.
 Minimal reflected component is included in exterior lighting design
 The night sky is dark often resulting in high contrast
 Exterior lighting is often designed for a variety of persons and / or tasks,
 The viewing of vertical, or perhaps oblique surfaces, is often of primary
importance in exterior lighting.
 Quite often, especially in sports lighting, the object being viewed is
moving rapidly.
 The issues of light trespass and light pollution are of concern. Light
trespass is unwanted light from luminaries on adjacent property. It
manifests itself as increased ambient illumination or distracting glare.
Light pollution is the sky glow produced by outdoor lighting, caused by
reflected light from the ground and structures and from direct upward light
from luminaries with improper cutoff.
Lighting is very important in modern life and good lighting has several
advantages, some of which include the following:
 Clear visual perception of objects and surroundings,
 Increased efficiency, better appearance, reduced accidents,
 Better utilization of time by not depending on direct sunlight (which is
usually available for limited hours),
 High reliability, and
 Reduction of eye strain and better health of the community.

2.9. Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS)

A transfer switch is an electrical switch that reconnects electric power source
from its primary source to a standby source. Switches may be manually or
automatically operated. An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is often installed where
a backup generator is located, so that the generator may provide temporary electrical
power if the utility source fails.
An ATS not only safely switches-in the backup generator as a temporary
source of electric power; it also commands the backup generator to start, based on
 23

certain conditions it continuously monitors on the primary feed. The transfer switch
isolates the backup generator from the electric utility, when the generator is on and is
providing temporary power. The control capability of a transfer switch may be
manual only, or a combination of automatic and manual. The switch transition mode
of a transfer switch may be Open Transition (OT) (the usual type), or Closed
Transition (CT).
When utility power returns for a set time, the transfer switch will transfer back
to utility power and command the generator to turn off, after another specified amount
of "cool down" time with no load on the generator. A transfer switch can be set up to
provide power to only critical circuits or entire electrical (sub) panels. Some transfer
switches allow for load shedding or prioritization of optional circuits, such as heating
and cooling equipment. More complex emergency switchgear used in large backup
generator installations permits soft loading, allowing load to be smoothly transferred
from the utility to the generators, and back; such installations are useful for reducing
peak load demand from a utility.

2.10. The Stand-by Unit (Generator)

The stand-by generator set is commonly used to supply emergency power to
most of the power consumers where the mains supply is unstable. For best
performance of the system, we must put into consideration the type of generator,
engine type, its cooling system and fuel, the load capacity and the operating
environment. Whatever cooling system is used to cool the generator, it is
recommended that the heated air be channeled outside through an exhaust pipe while
provision should be made to bring in fresh air so that the generating room, where the
generator is installed, can be kept from becoming excessively hot, as this might cause
damage to the engine of the generating set. Worldwide Power Products has both new
and used industrial generators for emergency back-up and continuous use.
Furthermore, the lubrication of the set is much important; the recommended lubricant
should be used in order to maintain smooth and prolonged life span of the set by
reducing wear and tear of the engine and other parts due to friction. Finally, it is
important to determine the correct rating of the mechanical engine to drive a given
generator so that it has the minimum capacity necessary to supply the selected load.
2.11. Earthing System
 24

The meaning of the term earthing or grounding is to connect the electrical

equipment to the general mass of earth by wire of negligible resistance. This brings
the body of the electrical equipment to zero potential and thus will avoid the shock to
the operator. The neutral of the supply system is also solidly earthed to ensure its
potential equal to zero. According to Indian Electrical Rules, “the earthed or
connected with earth means connected with the general mass of the earth in such
manners as to ensure at all-time an immediate discharge of energy without danger”.
The neutral conductor of a 3-phase four wire system and the middle conductor
of a two phase 3-wire system shall be earthed by not less than two separate and
distinct connections with earth both at the generating station and at the substation. It
may also be earthed at one or more points along the distribution system or service line
in addition to any connection with earth which may be at the consumer’s premise.
All metallic coverings containing electric supply wires, metallic apparatus
such as iron cold switches, distribution fuse boards, down rod fan, water-tight
switches etc. should be earthed. In addition to running earth conductor, the main
switch board at consumers premise should be earthed with an earth electrode.
Refrigerator, energy meters, electric heaters, press etc. should be earthed.
The earth resistance is dependent upon many factors as detailed below and as
such its value can vary:
 Material of electrodes and earth wire
 Size of electrode and earth wire
 Temperature at the soil
 Moisture of the soil
 Depth of which it is embedded
 Quality of coal and charcoal in the earth electrode pit.
Maximum value beyond which the earth electrode resistance should not be
increased in 5 ohms. However for better performance at power house and substation
its value should be 0.5 ohm and 1ohm respectively. Water is poured in the earth pit
containing electrode to improve the resistance.