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JOURNAL OF COMPUTING, VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1, DECEMBER 2009, ISSN: 2151-9617 26
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Modeling and Application of Series Elastic

Actuators for Force Control Multi Legged

Robots

Arumugom.S, Muthuraman.S, Ponselvan.V

Abstract— Series Elastic Actuators provide many benefits in force control of robots in unconstrained environments. These benefits
good force control bandwidth. Series Elastic Actuators employ
include high force fidelity, extremely low impedance, low friction, and
a novel mechanical design architecture which goes against the common machine design principal of “stiffer is better”. A compliant

element is placed between the gear train and driven load to intentionally reduce the stiffness of the actuator. A position sensor
measures the deflection, and the force output is accurately calculated using Hooke’s Law (F=Kx). A control loop then servos the
actuator to the desired output force. The resulting actuator has inherent
shock tolerance, high force fidelity and extremely low
impedance. These characteristics are desirable in many applications including legged robots, exoskeletons for human performance

amplification, robotic arms, haptic interfaces, and adaptive suspensions. We describe several variations of Series Elastic Actuators
that have been developed using both electric and hydraulic components.

Index Terms— Series Elastic Actuators, legged robots, force control.

-------------- --------------

1. INTRODUCTION perfect force source. These limitations include
I n traditional manufacturing operations, robots

perform tedious and repetitious tasks with great
impedance, stiction, and bandwidth. An actuator’s
impedance is the additional force created at the
speed and precision. In this setting, where the output by load motion. Impedance is a function of the
environment is controlled and the tasks are frequency of the load motion, typically increasing
repetitious, position controlled robots which trace with frequency of load motion. An easily
predefine joint trajectories are optimal. However, in backdriveable system is considered to have low
highly unstructured environments, where little is impedance. Stiction describes the phenomenon of
known of the environment, force controlled robots stick‐slip friction, which is present in most devices
that can comply to the surroundings are desirable. where mechanical components are in sliding contact.
This is the case for legged robots walking over rough Stiction must be overcome by a breakaway force,
terrain, robotic arms interacting with people, which limits the smallest force the actuator can
wearable performance‐enhancing exoskeletons, output. The bandwidth of an actuator is the
haptic interfaces, and other robotic applications. frequency up to which forces can be accurately
commanded. Bandwidth is affected by saturation of
An ideal force‐controllable actuator would be a power elements, mechanical stiffness, and control
perfect force source, outputting exactly the system gain among other things. In a perfect force
commanded force independent of load movement. In source, impedance is zero (completely back drivable),
the real world, all force‐controllable actuators will stiction is zero, and bandwidth is infinite. Muscle has
have limitations that result in deviations from a extremely low impedance and stiction and moderate
bandwidth and is the currently best known actuation
technology that approaches a perfect force source.

————————————————
Present day actuator technologies have
• Arumugom.S is with the Department of Electrical Engg., Udaya School of
Engineering, Tamilnadu, India. characteristics that have severely limited their use in
• Muthuraman.S is with the Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Sun College of force‐controlled applications. A geared electric motor
Engg. and Tech., Tamilnadu,India.
• Ponselvan.V is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Udaya has a high reflected‐inertia, a lot of stiction, and is
School of Engineering, Tamilnadu, India. difficult to back drive. Hydraulic systems have high
© 2009 Journal of Computing

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seal friction and are often nearly impossible to back infinite in some types of non‐backdriveable gear
drive. By adding Series Elasticity to these reductions with large reduction factors. Such a
conventional systems, a force‐controllable actuator system would result in extremely poor force fidelity.
with low impedance, low friction, and good Since the reflected inertia seen at the output of the
bandwidth will result. Below we describe other state‐ actuator increases by the square of the gear ratio, the
of‐the‐art methods for force‐controllable actuators. actuator’s impedance also becomes extremely large.
Then we describe Series Elastic Actuators in Given these performance characteristics, servomotors
some detail. Finally, we describe some typical with gear reductions relying on current control are
applications for Series Elastic Actuators, highlighting unsuitable for use in applications requiring high
some previous legged robots and exoskeletons that quality force controlled actuators. Significant
were enabled with Series Elastic Actuators. improvements can be made to geared actuators by
using cable drive transmission in lieu of conventional
2. STATE-OF-THE-ARTFORCE gear reductions. Geared actuators have non‐linear,
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES non‐continuous dynamics such as stiction and
backlash that are hard to model and thus hard to
Traditional technologies for force control include compensate for. Cable drive transmissions, on the
current control with direct drive actuation, current other hand, have low stiction and low backlash. Their
control with a geared actuator, current control with dynamics are fairly linear and easy to model.
low‐friction cable drive transmissions, load cells with Dynamic models of the drive train can then be used
force feedback, and fluid pressure control. In a direct in the force controller to help mask the effects of
drive actuator, a high quality servomotor is directly actuator inertia and viscous friction. However, cable
connected to the load and the torque output is drives require large pulleys in order to get a
accurately controlled using the relation between significant transmission ratio. In many applications,
motor torque and motor current. However, space is too limited to accommodate these large
servomotors operate inefficiently at the low speeds pulley systems.
and high torques required in most robotic
applications. To compensate for their small torques, To mitigate the effects of friction and inertia
direct drive servomotors are selected with a power introduced in conventional geared actuators, as
rating much higher than the actual useful power described above, a load cell and a feedback control
output. This practice results in an ungainly and algorithm can be used. The load cell measures the
expensive design. While direct drive actuators are a force imparted on the load by the actuator. The
good approximation of a perfect force source, they feedback controller calculates the error between the
are typically too large and heavy for robots that must measured force and the desired force and applies the
support the weight of their actuators. Their use is appropriate current to the motor to correct any
therefore limited to applications where the actuator discrepancies. The active force sensing and closed
can be placed in a non‐moving base of the robot. loop control work together to decrease the effects of
friction and inertia, thereby attaining a higher force
Alternately, smaller and lighter servomotors can fidelity and lower impedance than with current
be used in low speed/high torque applications if a control alone. However, the load cell method has
gear reduction is used to reduce the speed and several shortcomings. First, a stiff load cell can
increase the torque of the motor output. The present stability problems.
reduction allows the motor to operate in its sweet
spot (high speed/low torque), while providing the Consider the case of a stiff load cell between a
low speed/high torque output characteristics linear actuator and rigid load. Even a slight linear
desirable in most robotic applications. Current movement will generate extremely large force
control can then be applied to the geared actuator to readings on the load cell. A high‐gain feedback
control force output. A gear reduction has the major controller would quickly pull the actuator away from
drawbacks of introducing significant friction and of the load, causing the force to drop rapidly. The result
increasing the reflected inertia at the output of the would be chatter between the actuator and the load.
gearbox. In fact, friction can become essentially To avoid chatter and maintain stability, the closed
loop control gains must be kept very low. The result the load. A control system servos the motor to reduce
is a sluggish control system that is unable to respond the difference between the desired force and the
to small forces. Thus, the effects of friction and inertia measured force signal. The motor can be electrical,
cannot be completely masked with the closed loop hydraulic, pneumatic, or other traditional servo
control system. In addition, shock loads can easily system.
damage the actuator system if a stiff load cell is
employed. Both the load cell and gear reduction are Similar to the load cell method, Series Elastic
susceptible to frequent and expensive damage. While Actuators use active force sensing and closed loop
electric actuators can control force by controlling control to diminish the effects of friction and inertia.
current, pneumatic and hydraulic systems can control By measuring the compression of the compliant
force by controlling pressure. In both cases, seal element, the force on the load can be calculated using
friction can significantly hamper the ability to Hooke’s Law. A feedback controller calculates the
produce small forces. error between the actual force and the desired force,
Pneumatic systems also suffer from low power applying appropriate current to the motor to correct
density and are difficult to position control. any force errors.
Hydraulic systems generally have high impedance
due to both seal friction and large fluidic inertia. In contrast to the load cell method, Series
Fluidic muscles or McKibben Muscles are pneumatic Elasticity introduces significant compliance between
actuators that deform an elastomeric tube to create a the actuator’s output and the load, allowing for
contracting force. While fluidic muscles do not have greatly increased control gains. Consider, as above,
any sliding seals and therefore can reliably produce the case of a compliant spring between a linear
small forces, they are generally not a good choice for actuator and rigid load. A moderate linear movement
force control applications due to their nonlinear will generate a very small force reading. Thus, closed
response, hysteresis, and small stroke to length ratio. loop control gains can be very high while still
insuring the absence of chatter and presence of
3. SERIES ELASTIC ACTUATORS stability. Increased control gains greatly reduce
impedance (increase back‐driveability) and reduce
Series Elastic Actuators have low impedance and the effects of stiction to give the actuators clean force
friction, and thus can achieve high quality force output. Because high impedance and high stiction
control. They therefore are well suited for robots in components are tolerable, the cost and weight can be
unstructured environments. In Series Elastic reduced by allowing the use of smaller, low precision
Actuators, stiff load cells (which are delicate, actuator components and replacing expensive load
expensive, and induce chatter) are replaced with a cells with simple springs and position transducers
significantly compliant elastic element (which is (encoders, potentiometers). These improvements can
robust, inexpensive, and stable). Figure 1 shows the be realized in both electric and hydraulic actuation
architecture of Series Elastic Actuators. Note that domains.
Series Elastic Actuators are topologically similar to
any motion actuator with a load sensor and closed Compared to an actuator with a stiff load cell, Series
loop control system. Elastic Actuators have the following benefits:

1. The actuators exhibit lower output impedance and
back‐driveability, even in hydraulic systems. The
dynamic effects of the motor inertia and gear train
friction (or fluidic inertia and seal friction) are nearly
invisible at the output. In traditional systems, the
actuator dynamics often dominate the mechanism
dynamics, making it difficult to accomplish tasks that
require high force fidelity.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a Series Elastic 2. Shock tolerance is greatly improved by the spring
Actuator. A spring is placed between the motor and placed in series between the drive train and the load.
3. The force transmission fidelity (or smoothness) of train subassembly and an output carriage
the gear reduction or piston is no longer critical, subassembly. The
allowing inexpensive gear reduction to be used.
Gears typically transmit position with much higher
fidelity than force. The series elasticity serves as a
transducer between gear reduction output position
and load force, greatly increasing the fidelity of force
control.
4. The motor’s required force fidelity is drastically

reduced, allowing inexpensive motors to be used. It is
the motor shaft’s position, not its output torque that
is responsible for the generation of load force. As a

result, motors with large torque ripple can be used. output carriage subassembly is shown in an exploded
5. Force control stability is improved, even in view apart from the drive train subassembly in
intermittent contact with hard surfaces. Chatter is Figure 3. When assembled, the output carriage
eliminated since a relatively large spring deflection is subassembly, a rigid structure, is coupled to the drive
required to exert a small force. train subassembly through the die compression
springs. Spring retaining plates firmly sandwich the
6. Energy can be stored and released in the elastic die springs and ball nut flange. Guide rails pass
element, potentially improving efficiency in through bushings in the ball nut flange, forcing the
harmonic applications. Animals commonly utilize the ball nut into linear motion when the ball screw spins.
elasticity of tendons to store energy in one part of a The guide rails also pass through bushings in the
locomotive cycle and release it in another, with the spring retaining plates, forcing the entire output
muscle doing much less work overall than would carriage subassembly to follow the linear motion of
otherwise be required. Series Elastic Actuators may the ball nut.
allow the same effect to happen in robots,
exoskeletons, or other applications, thereby During operation, the servomotor directly drives the
extending their range. ball screw, converting rotary motion to linear motion
of the ball nut. When the motor rotates, the ball nut
7. The actuator has lower passive impedance at high moves fore or aft on the ball screw depending on the
frequencies. Traditional actuators have impedance direction of motor rotation. The ball nut flange
that resembles a large inertia (the motor’s rotor pushes on two (of four) die compression springs. In
inertia multiplied by the square of the gear ratio) at turn, the two ‘active’ die compression springs push
high frequencies. A Series Elastic Actuator looks like on the corresponding spring retaining plate. Spring
a spring at high frequencies, which is much more retaining plates are rigidly attached to output
forgiving of collisions and other unexpected plungers, which are directly connected to the load
interactions. clevis. Thus, rotary motion of the motor is converted
to linear motion of a ball nut which pushes on die
Robotics, Inc. has developed two compression springs that transmit forces to the load.
commercially available electro‐magnetic linear Series The force on the load is calculated by measuring the
Elastic Actuators (Figure 2). These actuators are being compression of the die springs with a linear
used in robot arms, legged robots, exoskeletons, and potentiometer spanning the spring retaining plates.
industrial applications. Due to the simplicity of Figure 4 shows the actuator applying zero force,
design, custom Series Elastic Actuators can also be +300lbs, and ‐300 lbs. A proportional‐derivative (PD)
easily developed and retrofitted on legacy systems. control loop is used to control the actual force on the
load.
From a macro level, the actuator can be
considered to consist of two subassemblies: a drive
which is limited by residual stiction, is approximately
one pound.
We are currently developing hydraulic Series
Elastic Actuators for an Army sponsored SBIR to
build a gas powered, hydraulically driven
quadrupedal robot. These actuators are similar in
operation to the electrical Series Elastic Actuators
except that a hydraulic cylinder replaces the motor In Table 1 the Series Elastic Actuators are
and ball screw. Hydraulics have impressive power to compared with traditional actuation methods. Series
weight compared to electric motors. However, they Elasticity improves the force fidelity of gear motors
are often more difficult to use in applications and hydraulics so they are comparable to direct drive
requiring good force control, such as legged robots, motors without sacrificing high force/torque
due to their poor backdrivability. By implementing capabilities. They are lighter than direct drive motors
Series Elastic Actuators with hydraulic cylinders, the in high force applications since they can use an
result is an excellent force generator. Figure 5 shows optimal gear reduction. Position controllability
an exploded view of a hydraulic Series Elastic remains good as a position servo can be implemented
Actuator that can produce 1300 lbs of force and on top of the force control servo. Some bandwidth is
achieve a force‐control bandwidth of 50 Hz. lost in that process. However, we have found that the
achievable position control bandwidth of Series
Elastic Actuators is still higher than that of
muscle.The specification of each actuator can be seen
below in Table 2.
If either the electric or the hydraulic

Table 2: Specifications of four Series Elastic
actuators employed a rigid load cell in place of the
Actuators. Versions SEA‐23‐23 and SEA‐12‐25 have
series elastic element, they would have high output
brushless DC motors. Versions HyEA‐75‐32 and
impedance and high friction, and thus be poor force
HyEA‐50‐31 have hydraulic cylinders. The weight
sources. However, with Series Elasticity, the actuators
measurement does not include motor amplifiers or
are very force sensitive and can achieve high
energy source for the electric actuators nor hydraulic
bandwidth at moderate force amplitudes and have
pumps, accumulators, or energy sources for the
low output impedance. The lowest resolvable force,
hydraulic actuators. For the hydraulic actuators, the
continuous and intermittent specifications are and legs that swing passively. Similarly, natural
identical as we assume that the hydraulic power dynamics can be exploited in the control of bipedal
circuit can provide adequate power and fluid cooling. walking robots: the swing‐leg can swing freely once
In many applications, particularly legged robots, the started; a kneecap can be used to prevent the leg from
power limit will be due to those components. inverting; and a compliant ankle can be used to
naturally transfer the center of pressure along the
foot and help in toe off. Each of these mechanisms
helps make control easier to achieve and results in
motion that is smooth and natural looking.

In order to exploit passive dynamics in a
robot, the actuators must present extremely low
impedance and friction to the system. Unfortunately,
with traditional actuation systems such as hydraulics
and highly geared motors, the output impedance and
inertia are high. In contrast, Series Elastic Actuators
present extremely low impedance and low friction
and thus may be used in robots that exploit their
4. APPLICATIONS natural dynamics. Like a multi‐legged table, a multi‐
legged robot may present an indeterminate, over
4.1. Legged Robots constrained system with regards to the ground
reaction forces on each foot. One of the legs of the
Actuators with muscle‐like properties could table may be off the ground, allowing for rocking of
allow legged robots to achieve performance the table. Similarly, in a multi‐legged robot that uses
approaching that of their biological counterparts. rigid position control, the legs may produce
Some of the beneficial properties of muscle include its conflicting forces on the body, causing foot slippage
low impedance, high force‐fidelity, low friction, and and large internal forces. Series Elastic Actuators can
good bandwidth. Series Elastic Actuators share these prevent these problems by providing for accurately
beneficial properties with muscle and thus are well distributed forces among the feet of the robot, which
suited for legged robots. These high quality force‐ can be independent of the position of the feet. The
controllable actuators allow the control system to high force fidelity of a Series Elastic Actuator
exploit the natural dynamics of the robot, to provides for stability and prevents slippage, giving
distribute forces among the legs, and to provide an the robot a sure footing.
active suspension that is robust to rough terrain.
Series Elastic Actuators provide for an
Most airplanes are designed to have wings effective active suspension system due to their high‐
so that they glide stably, requiring only a simple force fidelity and low impedance. Active suspensions
power source and simple control to fly; early can be used to arbitrarily orient and isolate payloads
locomotives used fly‐ball governors, a mechanical and can impart restoring forces to a robot’s center of
feedback device, to help maintain constant speed; mass, allowing for dynamic balancing. These active
satellites and rifle bullets spin to stabilize their suspension behaviors are not possible when
trajectory. These machines were designed so that operating a purely position‐controlled robot in an
their natural dynamics allow minimal control effort. unknown environment. For this reason, robots that
Animals have evolved similar mechanisms that follow rigid trajectories have trouble walking over
exploit natural dynamics. Birds have wings that rough terrain because they cannot conform to the
allow for stable gliding. Fish have hydro‐dynamically terrain or apply restoring forces dynamically to the
stable shapes and are neutrally buoyant. robot. In contrast, Series Elastic Actuators may be
used to control the net interaction forces between the
Running animals have springy legs. And robot and the ground, providing an active suspension
walking animals have joint limits, compliant ankles,
system independent of the position of the feet or the Series Elastic Actuators are a good choice for

roughness of the terrain. approximating perfect transparency in these devices
because of their low impedance. Yobotics has used
M2 and Spring Flamingo (Figure 6), two Series Elastic Actuators in the development of a
bipedal walking robot developed at the MIT Artificial powered exoskeleton (Figure 7) that improves
Intelligence Lab by Yobotics co‐founders, used Series strength and endurance of the operator.
Elastic Actuators to push the envelope of walking
robotics. M2 has 12 active degrees of freedom and 4.3. Robotic Arms
Spring Flamingo has 6, each employing an electric
Series Elastic Actuator. When robotic arms must operate in
uncertain environments, especially when interacting
with people, Series Elastic force control can improve
performance and safety. By imposing maximum force
limits in the joints, operators can work within the
workspace of a powerful robot with an added
measure of safety. If an operator contacts any point
on the robot, a fault will be registered very quickly.
Traditional robots would require excessive load
sensors throughout the arm to operate safely in an
unstructured environment. The inherent shock
tolerance of Series Elastic Actuators also allows the
robot to crash with minimal or no damage.

Figure 6: Spring Flamingo (left) and M2 (CAD
rendering at right), two bipedal walking robots that
employ Series Elastic Actuators. Spring Flamingo is a
planar, 6 degree‐of‐freedom biped, while M2 is a 3D,
12 degree‐of‐freedom biped.

4.2. Performance Amplifying Exoskeletons and
Haptic Interfaces

Series Elastic Actuators, with their low

impedance and high force fidelity, are ideal for
Figure 7: The RoboKnee, an exoskeleton for
exoskeletons, haptic interfaces, and other wearable
enhancing human strength and endurance. CAD
robots. In these applications, the device should not
rendering (left) shows the knee brace and electric
inhibit the natural fluidic motions of the user. An
Series Elastic Actuator.
exoskeleton should supply assistive forces to the

joints during power‐intensive activities (such as knee
Performance can be greatly improved using
extension when climbing stairs, or carrying heavy
force control in situations where it is better for the
loads) without inhibiting motion of the user during
physical constraints of the environment to dictate the
low‐power activities (such as leg swing and foot
motion of the robot as opposed to a preprogrammed
placement). A haptic interface should provide force
trajectory. Peg‐in‐hole type problems are a classic
feedback when touching virtual surfaces or
example of this. Instead of precisely locating a work
performing physical actions, but should provide no
piece or using a vision system feedback to mate two
impedance to motion when moving in free space.
parts, a robot with Series Elastic Actuators could do
Ideally, these devices would be perfectly transparent,
what people do and simply push down and
creating the feeling that the device is not even there.
randomly move the peg around in the vicinity of the REFERENCES
hole until it drops in. Series Elasticity also provides
an advantage in assembly operations that require a [1] Pratt G and Williamson M, ‘Series Elastic Actuators’.
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Figure 8: CAD model of Agile Robotic Arm with 6 Mr.S.Arumugom M.E., Electrical Engineering Degree holder, He
force controlled degrees of freedom. has passed M.E. Power systems in first class with distinction.
He has teaching and industrial experience of about nine years.
5 CONCLUSIONS He is currently working as Asst. Professor in Udaya School of
Engineering, Tamilnadu, India.
Series Elastic Actuators’ ability to closely
approximate a pure force source allows them to Mr.S.Muthuraman is working as Assistant Professor in Dept. of
better integrate into many robotic applications, Mechanical Engineering for Sun College of Engineering and
including legged robots, human‐in‐the‐loop systems, Technology. He has passed M.E with First class Distinction. He
haptic interfaces, and robotic arms. This technology is has Teaching and Industrial Experience of about nine Years.
independent of actuation method and has been
proven in both electric and hydraulic applications. Mr.V.Ponselvan M.E., Electrical Engineering Degree holder, He
This cross‐platform suitability allows Series Elastic has passed M.E. Applied Electronics in first class. He has
Actuator technology to be readily integrated into new teaching and industrial experience of about three years. He is
machines as well as retrofitted into legacy equipment. currently working as Lecturer in Udaya School of Engineering.

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JOURNAL OF COMPUTING, VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1, DECEMBER 2009, ISSN: 2151-9617 26

I n traditional manufacturing operations, robots

© 2009 Journal of Computing

4. The motor’s required force fidelity is drastically

If either the electric or the hydraulic

system independent of the position of the feet or the Series Elastic Actuators are a good choice for

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