Cultured meat

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of alternative terms for "alt meat": in vitro meat,
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Lecture The Meat Revolution at the World Economic
Forum by Mark Post of the University of Maastricht
Forum by Mark Post of the University of Maastricht
about in vitro meat

Cultured meat is meat produced by in vitro

cell culture of animal cells, instead of from
slaughtered animals.[1] It is a form of
cellular agriculture.

Cultured meat is produced using many of

the same tissue engineering techniques
traditionally used in regenerative
medicine.[2] The concept of cultured meat
was popularized by Jason Matheny in the
early 2000s after co-authoring a seminal
paper[3] on cultured meat production and
creating New Harvest, the world's first non-
profit organization dedicated to supporting
in vitro meat research.[4]

In 2013, Mark Post, a professor at

Maastricht University, was the first to
showcase a proof-of-concept for cultured
meat by creating the first burger patty
grown directly from cells. Since then,
several cultured meat prototypes have
gained media attention: however, because
of limited dedicated research activities,
cultured meat has not yet been
commercialized, although Mosa Meat has
already started building the first plant for
the production of cultured meat. Mosa
Meat, the company co-founded by Dr. Post,
has indicated that they may bring cultured
meat to the market by 2021.[5] Because
cultured meat is not yet commercially
available, it has yet to be seen whether
consumers will accept cultured meat as
meat.[6]
The production process still has much
room for improvement, but it has
advanced under various companies.[7] Its
applications lead it to have several
prospective health, environmental, cultural,
and economic considerations in
comparison to conventional meat.[8]

Nomenclature
Besides cultured meat, the terms
slaughter-free meat,[9] in vitro meat, vat-
grown,[10] lab-grown meat,[11] cell-based
meat,[12] clean meat,[13] cultivated meat[14]
and synthetic meat[15] have all been used
by various outlets to describe the product.

Between 2016 and 2019, clean meat

gained traction as the term preferred by
some journalists, advocates, and
organizations that support the technology.
The Good Food Institute (GFI) coined the
term in 2016,[16] and in late 2018 published
research which claimed that "clean" better
reflected the production and benefits of
the meat[17][18] and surpassed "cultured"
and "in vitro" in media mentions and
Google searches.[19] Despite this, some
industry stakeholders felt that the term
unnecessarily alienated conventional meat
producers, continuing to prefer cell-based
meat as a neutral alternative.[20][21]

In September 2019, GFI announced new

research which found that the term
cultivated meat is sufficiently descriptive
and differentiating, possesses a high
degree of neutrality, and ranks highly for
consumer appeal.[14][22]
History

20th century …

The theoretical possibility of growing meat

in an industrial setting has long captured
the public imagination. Winston Churchill
suggested in 1931: "We shall escape the
absurdity of growing a whole chicken in
order to eat the breast or wing, by growing
these parts separately under a suitable
medium."[23]
In vitro cultivation of muscular fibers was
performed as early as 1971 by Russell
Ross. Indeed, the abstract was

Smooth muscle derived from the

inner media and intima of
immature guinea pig aorta were
grown for up to 8 weeks in cell
culture. The cells maintained the
morphology of smooth muscle
at all phases of their growth in
culture. After growing to
confluency, they grew in
multiple overlapping layers. By
week 4 in culture, microfibrils
(110 A) appeared within the
spaces between the layers of
cells. Basement membrane-like
material also appeared adjacent
to the cells. Analysis of the
microfibrils showed that they
have an amino acid composition
similar to that of the
microfibrillar protein of the
intact elastic fiber. These
investigations coupled with the
radioautographic observations
of the ability of aortic smooth
muscle to synthesize and secrete
extracellular proteins
demonstrate that this cell is a
connective tissue synthetic
cell.[24]
In 1998 Jon F. Vein of the United States
filed for, and ultimately secured, a patent
(US 6,835,390 B1) for the production of
tissue engineered meat for human
consumption, wherein muscle and fat cells
would be grown in an integrated fashion to
create food products such as beef, poultry
and fish.[25]

Early 21st century …

In 2001, dermatologist Wiete Westerhof

from the University of Amsterdam, medical
doctor Willem van Eelen, and businessman
Willem van Kooten announced that they
had filed for a worldwide patent on a
process to produce cultured meat.[26] In
the process, a matrix of collagen is seeded
with muscle cells, which are then bathed in
a nutritious solution and induced to
divide.[27] Scientists in Amsterdam study
the culture medium, while the University of
Utrecht studies the proliferation of muscle
cells, and the Eindhoven University of
Technology is researching bioreactors.[28]
NASA has been conducting experiments
since 2001, originally producing cultured
meat from turkey cells.[29][30] The
technology to produce cultured meat in
space would allow long-term astronauts to
grow meat without sacrificing travel
storage.[31]

In 2002, the NSR/Touro Applied

BioScience Research Consortium was able
to grow a fish filet-like product from
goldfish cells.[32][33][34]
In 2003, Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr of the
Tissue Culture and Art Project and Harvard
Medical School exhibited in Nantes a
"steak" a few centimetres wide, grown
from frog stem cells, which was cooked
and eaten.[35]

The first peer-reviewed journal article

published on the subject of laboratory-
grown meat appeared in a 2005 issue of
Tissue Engineering.[36]

In 2008, PETA offered a $1 million prize to

the first company to bring lab-grown
chicken meat to consumers by 2012.[37]
The contestant was required to complete
two tasks before receiving the prize:
"Produce a cultured chicken meat product
that was indistinguishable from real
chicken," and "Produce the product in large
enough quantities to be competitively sold
in at least 10 states." The contest was
extended until 4 March 2014. Since 2008
when the challenge was first announced,
researchers around the world have made
significant headway into the production of
cultured meat. The deadline eventually
expired without a winner, however the
publicity around the topic brought cultured
meat further into the eyes of scientists.[38]

The Dutch government has put $4 million

into experiments regarding cultured
meat.[29] The In Vitro Meat Consortium, a
group formed by international researchers
interested in the technology, held the first
international conference on the production
of cultured meat, hosted by the Food
Research Institute of Norway in April 2008,
to discuss commercial
possibilities.[32]Time magazine declared
cultured meat production to be one of the
50 breakthrough ideas of 2009.[39] In
November 2009, scientists from the
Netherlands announced they had
managed to grow meat in the laboratory
using the cells from a live pig.[40]

As of 2012, 30 laboratories from around

the world have announced that they are
working on cultured meat research.[41]

The first cultured beef burger patty,

created by Dr. Mark Post at Maastricht
University, was eaten at a demonstration
for the press in London in August 2013.[42]
It was made from over 20,000 thin strands
of muscle tissue.[43] This burger cost Dr.
Post over $300,000 to make and over 2
years to produce.[44] Two other companies
have also begun to culture meat; Memphis
Meats in the US and SuperMeat in
Israel.[45]

A report from July 2019 states that the

price of making a cultured meat burger is
expected to drop to $10 by 2021. Several
companies have invested research in
recent years into the development of
cultured meat, such as Mosa Meat and
Biotech Foods. The first cultured meat
burger from Mosa Meats was produced in
2013 and cost $280,000.[46]

First public trial …

Hanni Rützler tastes the world's first cultured

hamburger 5 August 2013
hamburger, 5 August 2013.

On 5 August 2013, the world's first lab-

grown burger was cooked and eaten at a
news conference in London. Scientists
from Maastricht University in the
Netherlands, led by professor Mark Post,
had taken stem cells from a cow and
grown them into strips of muscle which
they then combined to make a burger. The
burger was cooked by chef Richard
McGeown of Couch's Great House
Restaurant, Polperro, Cornwall, and tasted
by critics Hanni Rützler, a food researcher
from the Future Food Studio and Josh
Schonwald.[42] Rützler stated,

There is really a bite to it, there

is quite some flavour with the
browning. I know there is no fat
in it so I didn't really know how
juicy it would be, but there is
quite some intense taste; it's
close to meat, it's not that juicy,
but the consistency is perfect.
 This is meat to me... It's really
something to bite on and I think
the look is quite similar.[47]

Rützler added that even in a blind trial she

would have taken the product for meat
rather than a soya copy.[47]

Tissue for the London demonstration was

cultivated in May 2013, using about 20,000
thin strips of cultured muscle tissue.
Funding of around €250,000 came from an
anonymous donor later revealed to be
Sergey Brin.[48] Post remarked that "there's
no reason why it can't be cheaper...If we
can reduce the global herd a millionfold,
then I'm happy".[49]

Industry development … It's just a

matter of
Since Dr. Post successfully time before
produced the first cultured this is gonna
meat burger in 2013, a happen, I'm
variety of startups and absolutely

organizations dedicated to convinced of

that. In our
developing or advancing
case, I
cultured meat have been estimate the

founded. In 2015, time to be

about
Maastricht University
3 years
hosted the first
before we
International Conference
are ready to
on Cultured Meat.[51] As enter the
the field has grown, market on a
nonprofit organizations small scale,
such as New Harvest[52] about
5 years to
and The Good Food
enter the
Institute[53] have begun
market on a
hosting annual
larger scale,
conferences to convene and if you'd
industry leaders, scientists, ask me:

investors, and potential "When will

[cultured
collaborators from parallel
meat] be in
industries. As of 2019,
the
over two dozen startups
supermarket
working on cultured meat around the
have been founded.[54] corner?"
That'll be
Memphis Meats, a Silicon closer to 10
Valley startup founded by than to
a cardiologist, launched a 5 years, I
video in February 2016 think.

showcasing its cultured

beef meatball.[55][56][57] In – Peter

March 2017, it showcased Verstrate,

Mosa Meat
chicken tenders and duck
(2018)[50](1:06:15)
a l'orange, the first cultured
poultry-based foods
shown to the public.[58][59][60]

An Israeli company, SuperMeat, ran a viral

crowdfunding campaign in 2016 for its
work on cultured chicken.[61][62][63][64][65][66]

Finless Foods, a San Francisco-based

company aimed at cultured fish, was
founded in June 2016. In March 2017 it
commenced laboratory operations and
progressed quickly. Director Mike Selden
said in July 2017 to expect bringing
cultured fish products on the market within
two years (by the end of 2019).[67]

In March 2018, JUST, Inc. (in 2011 founded

as Hampton Creek in San Francisco)
claimed to be able to present a consumer
product from cultured meat by the end of
2018. According to CEO Josh Tetrick the
technology is already there, and now it is
merely a matter of applying it. JUST has
about 130 employees and a research
department of 55 scientists, where lab
meat from poultry, pork and beef is being
developed. They would have already
solved the problem of feeding the stem
cells with only plant resources. JUST
receives sponsoring from Chinese
billionaire Li Ka-shing, Yahoo! co-founder
Jerry Yang and according to Tetrick also
from Heineken International amongst
others.[68]
The Dutch startup Meatable , consisting of
Krijn de Nood, Daan Luining, Ruud Out,
Roger Pederson, Mark Kotter and Gordana
Apic among others, reported in September
2018 it had succeeded in growing meat
using pluripotent stem cells from animals'
umbilical cords. Although such cells are
reportedly difficult to work with, Meatable
claimed to be able to direct them to
behave using their proprietary technique in
order to become muscle cells or fat cells
as needed. The major advantage is that
this technique bypasses fetal bovine
serum, meaning that no animal has to be
killed in order to produce meat.[69] That
month, it was estimated there were about
30 cultured meat startups across the
world. A Dutch House of Representatives
Commission meeting discussed the
importance and necessity of governmental
support for researching, developing and
introducing cultured meat in society,
speaking to representatives of three
universities, three startups and four civil
interest groups on 26 September 2018.[50]
In August 2019, five startups announced
the formation of the Alliance for Meat,
Poultry & Seafood Innovation (AMPS
Innovation), a coalition seeking to work
with government regulators to create a
pathway to market for cultured meat and
seafood.[70] The founding members
include JUST, Inc., Memphis Meats,
Finless Foods, BlueNalu, and Fork &
Goode.[71]

Production
There are three stages in the production of
cultured meat: selection of starter cells,
treatment of growth medium, and
scaffolding.[72][73][7]

Starter cells …

Myoblasts are one precursor to muscle cells, and their

fibers are shown in yellow and nuclei shown in blue.
The initial stage of growing cultured meat
is to collect cells that have a rapid rate of
proliferation (high cell reproduction rate).
Such cells include embryonic stem cells,
adult stem cells, myosatellite cells, or
myoblasts. Stem cells proliferate the
quickest, but have not yet begun
development towards a specific kind of
cell, which creates the challenge of
splitting the cells and directing them to
grow a certain way. Fully developed
muscle cells are ideal in the aspect that
they have already finished development as
a muscle, but proliferate hardly at all.
Therefore, cells such as myosatellite and
myoblast cells are often used as they still
proliferate at an acceptable rate, but also
sufficiently differentiate from other types
of cells.[3]

Growth medium …

The cells are then treated by applying a

solution that promotes tissue growth,
which is known as a growth medium.
These mediums should contain the
necessary nutrients and appropriate
quantity of growth factors. They are then
placed in a culture medium, in a bio-
reactor, which is able to supply the cells
with the energetic requirements they
need.[7]

Scaffold …

Muscle tissue is developed from the growth medium

and organized in a three-dimensional structure by the
scaffold for end product.

To culture three-dimensional meat, the

cells are grown on a scaffold, which is a
component that directs its structure and
order. The ideal scaffold is edible so the
meat does not have to be removed, and
periodically moves to stretch the
developing muscle, thereby simulating the
animal body during normal development.
Additionally the scaffold must maintain
flexibility in order to not detach from the
developing myotubes (early muscle
fibers). Scaffold must also allow
vascularization (creation of blood vessels)
in order for normal development of muscle
tissue.[7][74]

Heme Proteins …

In October 2019 MDPI published an article

entitled Extracellular Heme Proteins
Influence Bovine Myosatellite Cell
Proliferation and the Color of Cell-Based
Meat[75] that claimed that skeletal muscle-
tissue engineering can be applied to
produce cell-based meat for human
consumption. Myoglobin was reported to
have increased the proliferation and
metabolic activity of bovine muscle
satellite cells. The addition of either
myoglobin or hemoglobin was reported to
change of color of the product to more
closly resemble traditional beef.

Additive manufacturing …
An Israeli company MeaTech proposes to
use a 3D printing techniques to improve
the texture of cultured meat to more
resemble the natural product.[76]

Other considerations …

Scaffold-based production techniques can

only be appropriately used in boneless or
ground meats (processed). The end result
of this process would be meats such as
hamburgers or sausages. In order to
create more structured meats, for example
steak, muscle tissue must be structured in
directed and self-organized means or by
proliferation of muscle tissue already
existing. Additionally, the presence of
gravitational, magnetic, fluid flow, and
mechanical stress fields has an effect on
the proliferation rates of the muscle cells.
Processes of tension such as stretching
and relaxing increased differentiation into
muscle cells.[74]
The first cultured hamburger, ready to be fried on 5
August 2013.

Once this process has been started, it

would be theoretically possible to continue
producing meat indefinitely without
introducing new cells from a living
organism.[77] It has been claimed that,
conditions being ideal, two months of
cultured meat production could deliver up
to 50,000 tons of meat from ten pork
muscle cells.[78]

In cultured meat production, a preservative

such as sodium benzoate is used to
protect the growing meat from bacteria
and yeast and other fungi. Collagen
powder, xanthan gum, mannitol and
cochineal could be used in different ways
during the process.[79]

The price of cultured meat at retail outlets

like grocery stores and supermarkets may
decrease to levels that middle-class
consumers consider to be "inexpensive"
due to technological advancements.[80]

Research challenges
The science for cultured meat is an
outgrowth of the field of biotechnology
known as tissue engineering.[81] The
technology is simultaneously being
developed along with other uses for tissue
engineering such as helping those with
muscular dystrophy and, similarly, growing
transplant organs.[29][82] There are several
obstacles to overcome if it has any chance
of succeeding; at the moment, the most
notable ones are scale and cost.[29][32]

Proliferation of muscle cells: Although it

is not very difficult to make stem cells
divide, for meat production it is
necessary that they divide at a quick
pace, producing the solid meat.[82] This
requirement has some overlap with the
medical branch of tissue engineering.
Culture medium: Proliferating cells need
a food source to grow and develop. The
growth medium should be a well-
balanced mixture of ingredients and
growth factors. Scientists have already
identified possible growth media for
turkey,[83] fish,[84] sheep[85] and pig[86]
muscle cells. Depending on the motives
of the researchers, the growth medium
has additional requirements.
Commercial: The growth medium
should be inexpensive to produce. A
plant-based medium may be less
expensive than fetal bovine
serum.[82]
Animal welfare: The growth
medium should be devoid of animal
sources (except for the initial
"mining" of the original stem
cells).[82]
Non-Allergenic: While plant-based
growth media are "more realistic,"
will be cheaper, and will reduce the
possibility of infectious agents,
there is also the possibility that
plant-based growth media may
cause allergic reactions in some
consumers.[87]
Bioreactors: Nutrients and oxygen need
to be delivered close to each growing
cell, on the scale of millimeters. In
animals this job is handled by blood
vessels. A bioreactor should emulate
this function in an efficient manner. The
usual approach is to create a sponge-
like matrix in which the cells can grow
and perfuse it with the growth medium.
However, this approach is unlikely
scalable as the shear stress due to
perfusion flow can potentially damage
the cells.[88] The current bioreactor-
 related research for large-scale cultured
meat production is focused on
suspension culture in low-shear stirred
tank[89] or air-lift reactors.[88]

Additionally, there is no dedicated

scientific research discipline for cellular
agriculture and its development. The past
research undertaken into cellular
agriculture were isolated from each other,
and they did not receive significant
academic interest. Although it currently
exists, long-term strategies are not
sufficiently funded for development and
severely lack a sufficient amount of
researchers.[8]

Differences from
conventional meat

The first cultured hamburger being fried on 5 August

2013.
Health …

Large-scale production of cultured meat

may or may not require artificial growth
hormones to be added to the culture for
meat production.[81][90]

Researchers have suggested that omega-3

fatty acids could be added to cultured
meat as a health bonus.[29] In a similar
way, the omega-3 fatty acid content of
conventional meat can also be increased
by altering what the animals are fed.[91] An
issue of Time magazine has suggested
that the cell-cultured process may also
decrease exposure of the meat to bacteria
and disease.[32]

Due to the strictly controlled and

predictable environment, cultured meat
production has been compared to vertical
farming, and some of its proponents have
predicted that it will have similar benefits
in terms of reducing exposure to
dangerous chemicals like pesticides and
fungicides, severe injuries, and wildlife.[92]
Concern in regards to developing antibiotic
resistance due to the use of antibiotics in
livestock, and livestock-derived meat
serving as a major source of disease
outbreaks (including bird flu, anthrax,
swine flu, and listeriosis), and long-term
processed meat consumption being
associated with increased heart disease,
digestive tract cancer, and type 2 diabetes
currently plague livestock-based meat. In
regards to cultured meat, strict
environmental controls and tissue
monitoring can prevent infection of meat
cultures from the outset, and any potential
infection can be detected before shipment
to consumers.[93]

In addition to the prevention and lack of

diseases, and lack of the use of antibiotics
or any other chemical substances,
cultured meat can also leverage numerous
biotechnology advancements, including
increased nutrient fortification,
individually-customized cellular and
molecular compositions, and optimal
nutritional profiles, all making it much
healthier than livestock-sourced meat.[93]

Artificiality …

Although cultured meat is real meat

consisting of genuine animal muscle cells,
fat and support cells, as well as blood
vessels,[94] that are the same in traditional
meat, some consumers may find the high-
tech production process distasteful.
Cultured meat has been described as fake
or "Frankenmeat". Clean meat can be
produced without the artificial hormones,
antibiotics, steroids, medicine, and GMOs
commonly used in factory farmed meat
and seafood.[95]

If a cultured meat product is different in

appearance, taste, smell, texture, or other
factors, it may not be commercially
competitive with conventionally produced
meat. The lack of bone and cardiovascular
system may be a disadvantage for dishes
where these parts make appreciable
culinary contributions. However, the lack
of bones and/or blood may make many
traditional meat preparations, such as
buffalo wings, more palatable to small
children. Furthermore, cultured blood and
bones could potentially be produced in the
future as well. [96][97][98]

Environmental …

There have historically been concerns

from the United Nations about the
unrelenting production of traditional meat
production for the growing world
population. Animal production for food
has been one of the major causes of
air/water pollution and global warming.[99]
There is significant doubt that the
traditional industry will be able to keep up
with the rapidly increasing demands for
meat, pushing many entrepreneurs and
researchers towards development of
cultured meat as an alternative.[100]
Cultured meat looks to provide an
environmentally conscious alternative to
traditional meat production.[101]
Research has suggested that
environmental impacts of cultured meat
would be significantly lower than normally
slaughtered beef.[102] For every hectare
that is used for vertical farming and/or
cultured meat manufacturing, anywhere
between 10 and 20 hectares of land may
be converted from conventional
agriculture usage back into its natural
state.[103] Vertical farms (in addition to
cultured meat facilities) could exploit
methane digesters to generate a small
portion of its own electrical needs.
Methane digesters could be built on site to
transform the organic waste generated at
the facility into biogas which is generally
composed of 65% methane along with
other gasses. This biogas could then be
burned to generate electricity for the
greenhouse or a series of bioreactors.[104]

A study by researchers at Oxford and the

University of Amsterdam found that
cultured meat was "potentially ... much
more efficient and environmentally-
friendly", generating only 4% greenhouse
gas emissions, reducing the energy needs
of meat generation by up to 45%, and
requiring only 2% of the land that the
global meat/livestock industry
does.[105][106] The patent holder Willem van
Eelen,[27] the journalist Brendan I.
Koerner,[107] and Hanna Tuomisto, a PhD
student from Oxford University all believe
it has less environmental impact.[108] This
is in contrast to cattle farming,
"responsible for 18% of greenhouse
gases"[109] and causing more damage to
the environment than the combined
effects of the world's transportation
system. Vertical farming may completely
eliminate the need to create extra
farmland in rural areas along with cultured
meat.[110] Their combined role may create
a sustainable solution for a cleaner
environment.[110]

One skeptic is Margaret Mellon of the

Union of Concerned Scientists, who
speculates that the energy and fossil fuel
requirements of large-scale cultured meat
production may be more environmentally
destructive than producing food off the
land.[37] However, S.L. Davis has
speculated that both vertical farming in
urban areas and the activity of cultured
meat facilities may cause relatively little
harm to the species of wildlife that live
around the facilities.[111] Dickson
Despommier speculated that natural
resources may be spared from depletion
due to vertical farming and cultured meat,
making them ideal technologies for an
overpopulated world.[112] One study has
shown that conventional farming kills ten
wildlife animals per hectare each year.[111]
Converting 4 hectares (10 acres) of
farmland from its man-made condition
back into either pristine wilderness or
grasslands would save approximately 40
animals while converting 1 hectare (2
acres) of that same farmland back into the
state it was in prior to settlement by
human beings would save approximately
80 animals.

Additionally, the cattle industry uses a

large amount of water for producing
animal feed, animal rearing, and for
sanitation purposes. It is estimated that
the water recycled from livestock manure
is contributing "33% of global nitrogen and
phosphorus pollution," "50% of antibiotic
pollution," "37% of toxic heavy metals," and
"37% of pesticides" which contaminate the
planet's freshwater.[113]

Role of genetic modification …

Techniques of genetic engineering, such

as insertion, deletion, silencing, activation,
or mutation of a gene, are not required to
produce cultured meat. Cultured meat
production allows the biological processes
that normally occur within an animal to
occur without the animal. Since cultured
meat is grown in a controlled, artificial
environment, some have commented that
cultured meat more closely resembles
hydroponic vegetables, rather than GMO
vegetables.[114]

More research is being done on cultured

meat, and although the production of
cultured meat does not require techniques
of genetic engineering, there is discussion
among researchers about utilizing such
techniques to improve the quality and
sustainability of cultured meat. Fortifying
cultured meat with nutrients such as
beneficial fatty acids is one improvement
that can be facilitated through genetic
modification. The same improvement can
be made without genetic modification, by
manipulating the conditions of the culture
medium.[115] Genetic modification may
also play a role in the proliferation of
muscle cells. The introduction of
myogenic regulatory factors, growth
factors, or other gene products into
muscle cells may increase production past
the capacity of conventional meat.[115]

To avoid the use of any animal products,

the use of photosynthetic algae and
cyanobacteria has been proposed to
produce the main ingredients for the
culture media, as opposed to the very
commonly used fetal bovine or horse
serum.[116] Some researchers suggest that
the ability of algae and cyanobacteria to
produce ingredients for culture media can
be improved with certain technologies,
most likely not excluding genetic
engineering.[117]

Ethical considerations …

The Australian bioethicist Julian

Savulescu said "Artificial meat stops
cruelty to animals, is better for the
environment, could be safer and more
efficient, and even healthier. We have a
moral obligation to support this kind of
research. It gets the ethical two thumbs
up."[118]Animal welfare groups are
generally in favor of the production of
cultured meat because it does not have a
nervous system and therefore cannot feel
pain.[37][77][82] Reactions of vegetarians to
cultured meat vary:[119] some feel the
cultured meat presented to the public in
August 2013 was not vegetarian as fetal
calf serum was used in the growth
medium.[120] However, since then lab
grown meat has been grown under a
medium that doesn't involve bovine
serum.[121] American philosopher Carlo
Alvaro argues that the question of the
morality of eating in vitro meat has been
discussed only in terms of convenience.
Alvaro proposes a virtue-oriented
approach that may reveal aspects of the
issue not yet explored, such as the
suggestion that the obstinacy of wanting
to produce lab-grown meat stems from
unvirtuous motives, i.e., "lack of
temperance and misunderstanding of the
role of food in human flourishing."[122]
Independent inquiries may be set up by
certain governments to create a degree of
standards for cultured meat.[123] Laws and
regulations on the proper creation of
cultured meat products would have to be
modernized to adapt to this newer food
product.[123] Some societies may decide to
block the creation of cultured meat for the
"good of the people" – making its legality
in certain countries a questionable
matter.[123]
Cultured meat needs technically
sophisticated production methods making
it harder for communities to produce food
self-sufficiently and potentially increasing
dependence on global food
corporations.[124]

Regulation …

Once cultured meat becomes more cost-

efficient, it is necessary to decide who will
regulate the safety and standardization of
these products. Prior to being available for
sale, the European Union and Canada will
require approved novel food applications.
Additionally, the European Union requires
that cultured animal products and
production must prove safety, by an
approved company application, which
became effective as of 1 January
2018.[125]

Within the United States, the FDA (Food

and Drug Administration) and the USDA
(United States Department of Agriculture)
have agreed to jointly regulate cultured
meat. Under the agreement, the FDA
oversees cell collection, cell banks, and
cell growth and differentiation, while the
USDA oversees the production and
labeling of human food products derived
from the cells.[126][127]

Religious considerations …

Jewish rabbinical authorities disagree

whether cultured meat is kosher (food that
may be consumed, according to Jewish
dietary laws). However, many rabbis agree
that if the original cells were taken from a
slaughtered kosher animal then the
cultured meat will be kosher. Some even
think that it would be kosher even if
coming from non-kosher animals like pigs,
as well as from live animals, however
some disagree.[10]

With the development of cultured meat as

a potentially large-scale product in the
coming years, concerns from the Islamic
faith regarding its viability are becoming
increasingly important.[128] The Islamic
Institute of Orange County in California
has responded to the Islamic consumption
of embryonic stem cell cultured meat
saying, "There does not appear to be any
objection to eating this type of cultured
meat."[129] In addition, Abdul Qahir Qamar
of the International Islamic Fiqh Academy
is quoted saying that cultured meat "will
not be considered meat from live animals,
but will be cultured meat." He continues to
define that excluding cells derived from
pigs, dogs, and other halal banned
animals, the meat would be considered
vegetative and "similar to yogurt and
fermented pickles."[129]

Debate in India over the Hindu

consumption of cultured meat mainly
excludes steak and burgers. Chandra
Kaushik, president of the Hindu
Mahasabha reports that he would "not
accept it being traded in a marketplace in
any form or being used for a commercial
purpose."[129]

Economic …
The production of cultured meat is
currently very expensive – in 2008 it was
about $1 million for a piece of beef
weighing 250 grams (0.55 lb)[32] – and it
would take considerable investment to
switch to large-scale production. However,
the In Vitro Meat Consortium has
estimated that with improvements to
current technology there could be
considerable reductions in the cost of
cultured meat. They estimate that it could
be produced for €3500/tonne
($5424/tonne in March 2008),[130][131]
which is about twice the cost of
unsubsidized conventional European
chicken production.[33][130]

In a March 2015 interview with Australia's

ABC, Mark Post said that the marginal
cost of his team's original €250,000 burger
was now €8.00. He estimates that
technological advancements would allow
the product to be cost-competitive to
traditionally sourced beef in approximately
ten years.[132] In 2016, the cost of
production of cultured beef for food
technology company Memphis Meats was
$18,000 per pound ($40,000/kg).[133] As of
June 2017 Memphis Meats reduced the
cost of production to below $2,400 per
pound ($5,280/kg).[134]

Consumer acceptance …

Cultured meat will likely be exposed to the

public on a global scale in the coming
years, making consumer acceptance of
the product an important concern.[135]
Research is being done to identify how
consumers will accept cultured meat into
the market. A study looking at acceptance
of cultured meat in China, India, and the
USA "found high levels of acceptance of
clean meat in the three most populous
countries worldwide."[136]

Several potential factors of consumer

acceptance of cultured meat have been
identified. Healthiness, safety, nutritional
characteristics, sustainability, taste, and
lower price, are all potential factors.[137]
One study found that the use of highly
technical language to explain cultured
meat led to significantly more negative
public attitude towards the concept.[138]
Similarly, it is suggested that describing
cultured meat in a way that emphasizes
the final product rather than the
production method was an effective way
to improve acceptance.[139] Low
percentages of older adult populations
have been reported to show acceptance
for cultured meat. Green eating behavior,
educational status, and food business,
were cited as most important factors for
this population.[140]

The use of standardized descriptions

would improve future research about
consumer acceptance of cultured meat.
Current studies have often reported
drastically different rates of acceptance of
the product, despite surveying similar
populations. More comparable research is
considered a future goal for consumer
acceptance studies of cultured meat.[141]
It is currently unknown how cultured meat
will be received in worldwide markets.
Large amounts of studies are attempting
to determine the current levels of
consumer acceptance and identify
methods to improve this value. Currently
there is a lack of clear answers
surrounding this unknown, prompting
future studies to work towards improving
overall consumer acceptance of the
product and to provide a clear picture of
its current level.[142][143][138][140][137][139][144]
In fiction
Cultured meat has often featured in
science fiction. The earliest mention may
be in Two Planets (1897) by Kurd Lasswitz,
where "synthetic meat" is one of the
varieties of synthetic food introduced on
Earth by Martians. Other notable books
mentioning artificial meat include Ashes,
Ashes (1943) by René Barjavel; The Space
Merchants (1952) by Frederik Pohl and
C.M. Kornbluth; The Restaurant at the End
of the Universe (1980) by Douglas Adams;
Le Transperceneige (Snowpiercer) (1982)
by Jacques Lob and Jean-Marc Rochette;
Neuromancer (1984) by William Gibson;
Oryx and Crake (2003) by Margaret
Atwood; Deadstock (2007) by Jeffrey
Thomas; Accelerando (2005) by Charles
Stross; Ware Tetralogy by Rudy Rucker;
Divergent (2011) by Veronica Roth; and the
Vorkosigan Saga (1986-2018) by Lois
McMaster Bujold.

In film, artificial meat has featured

prominently in Giulio Questi's 1968 drama
La morte ha fatto l'uovo (Death Laid an Egg)
and Claude Zidi's 1976 comedy L'aile ou la
cuisse (The Wing or the Thigh). "Man-
made" chickens also appear in David
Lynch's 1977 surrealist horror, Eraserhead.
Most recently, it was also featured
prominently as the central theme of the
movie Antiviral (2012).

The Starship Enterprise from the TV and

movie franchise Star Trek apparently
provides a synthetic meat or cultured meat
as a food source for the crew,[145] although
crews from The Next Generation and later
use replicators.

In the ABC sitcom Better Off Ted (2009–

2010), the episode "Heroes" features Phil
(Jonathan Slavin) and Lem (Malcolm
Barrett) trying to grow cowless beef.

In the videogame Project Eden, the player

characters investigate a cultured meat
company called Real Meat.

In the movie "GalaxyQuest", during the

dinner scene, Tim Allen's character refers
to his steak tasting like "real Iowa beef".

In The Expanse “vat-grown” meat is

produced to feed the people who live on
spaceships/space stations away from
Earth, due to the exorbitant cost of
importing real meat.

In popular culture
Cultured meat was a subject on an
episode of the Colbert Report on 17 March
2009.[146]
In February 2014, a biotech startup called
BiteLabs ran a campaign to generate
popular support for artisanal salami made
with meat cultured from celebrity tissue
samples.[147] The campaign became
popular on Twitter, where users tweeted at
celebrities asking them to donate muscle
cells to the project.[148] Media reactions to
BiteLabs variously identified the startup as
a satire on startup culture,[149] celebrity
culture,[150] or as a discussion prompt on
bioethical concerns.[151] While BiteLabs
claimed to be inspired by the success of
Sergey Brin's burger, the company is seen
as an example of critical design rather
than an actual business venture.

In late 2016, cultured meat was involved in

a case in the episode "How The Sausage
Is Made" of CBS show Elementary.

See also
BioArt
Cellular agriculture society
Food vs. feed
 Cultured leather
List of meat substitutes
Quorn (food product)
Resource decoupling
Timeline of cellular agriculture
Tissue culture

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External links
Modern Agricultural Foundation hatches
chicken meat in situ
The Good Food Institute
New Harvest
The Modern Agriculture Foundation
Is cell-cultured meat ready for the
mainstream?

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