Introduction

• Tribology – the study of friction, wear and lubrication of

interacting surfaces in relative motion.
Friction:
Outline • Barreling in compression test
• In forging, rolling, sheet metal forming and machining
• Introduction • Friction – the resistance to relative motion between two bodies
• Friction in contact.
• Example • Force to overcome friction
• Lubrication • Static (μs) and Kinetic (μ) frictions

• Cutting Processes
• Material Handling
- Conveyors
• Forming
– Forging
– Rolling

Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 18/1 Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 18/2

Wear and Friction Friction

• BEARINGS - Minimal friction & Minimal wear
• BRAKES - Maximum friction & Minimal wear
• MACHINING - Maximum wear & Minimal friction
FS P Fk P
zoom! Frictional force is lower once object
is moving. μ kinetic < μ static
Note: Not dependent on area! Finely machined metal surface at high
magnification (not linear) The ratio of the apparent and real
N N only on P areas can be as high as four to five
FS = μSN Fk = μkN orders of magnitude.

F τ×A τ
The nature and strength of Surface property • So two surfaces touching have only very small real contact area.
the interface is the most μ= = =
significant factor N σ×A σ Bulk property
• Initially, get elastic deformation at asperities for low loads.
• Then as loads increase, get plastic deformation forming junctions.
• Friction coefficient can be reduced by decreasing τ and/or increasing σ.
• This observation suggests that placing thin films of low shear strength over a
substrate with high hardness is the ideal method for reducing abrasive friction. • Need relatively large force to break these.
• In fact this is exactly what is achieved by a lubricant layer. • Once moving - less force.
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 Friction Friction Force vs. Normal Force

Asperities Contact Adhesion Theory Effects of Microwelding

Schematic illustration of the relation between friction force F and normal force N.

Changes in originally (a) wire-brushed • As the real area of contact approaches the apparent area, the friction force
and (b) ground-surface profiles after reaches a maximum and stabilizes.
wear. (From Kalpakjian Figure 4-9) • Most machine components operate in the first region.
• The second and third regions are encountered in metalworking operations,
because of the high contact pressures involved between sliding surfaces, i.e.,
die and workpiece.
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Friction Friction

Load transmitted across surface:

P ≈ a σy ……………(1) COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION
Material μ
a is the real contact area, σy is the Complete seizure of metals in Perfectly clean metals in Seizure μ > 5
compressive yield stress. vacuum (or reducing atmosphere vacuum
which removes oxide layer). Clean metals in air 0.8-2
Clean metals in wet air 0.5-1.5
Steel on dry bearing metals 0.1-0.5
So a ≈ P/ σy and if P is doubled so is the real contact area. (e.g. lead, bronze)
Steel on ceramics 0.1-0.5
Sliding is opposed by a shear stress, τ, in asperities and (e.g. sapphire, diamond, ice)
Ceramics on ceramics 0.05-0.5
is greatest at contact region. Force resisting sliding is From eqn’s 1 and 3 (e.g. carbides on carbides)
then given by: Polymers on polymers 0.05-1.0
Fs ≈ P/2 (and as FS = Metals and ceramics on 0.04-0.5
F = aτ ……………….. (2)
polymers
μSP, then μS should be ≈ (PE, PTFE, PVC)
0.5 for machined metal Boundary lubrication of 0.05-0.2
There is now atom-to-atom contact across junctions Oxide film reduces shear stress metals
surfaces - which is of the
(high plastic deformation causes micro-welding) so that required to break junction and High-temperature lubricants 0.05-0.2
right order) (MoS2, graphite)
junction has shear strength as large as material (k). reduces μ. Hydrodynamic lubrication 0.001-0.005
Sliding takes place when F = Fs ≈ ak ≈ (aσy)/2 ………. (3)
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 Friction Measuring Friction
• One popular test is the ring compression test.
¾ When soft metals slide on soft metals (e.g. lead on lead)
• In which the effects of lubrication on barreling can be monitored.
- junctions are weak but area is large so μ is large (0.5 to 1.5).
¾ When hard metals slide (e.g. steel on steel)
- junctions are small, but they are strong, and again friction is large.
Æ Bearings usually made of a thin film of a soft metal between two hard ones: (a) With good lubrication, both the inner and outer diameters increase as the
weak junctions of small area. specimen is compressed; and with poor or no lubrication, friction is high, and
the inner diameter decreases. The direction of barreling depends on the
E.g. White metal bearings: soft alloys of lead or tin in a matrix of stronger phases; relative motion of the cylindrical surfaces with respect to the flat dies.

bearing bronzes consist of soft lead particles (which smear out to form the
lubricating film) supported in a bronze matrix;
and polymer-impregnated porous bearings are made by partly sintering copper
with a polymer (usually PTFE) forced into its pores.
These bearings are not designed to run dry -but if lubrication does break down, the
soft component gives a coefficient of friction of 0.1 to 0.5 which may be low
enough to prevent catastrophic overheating and seizure. (b) Test results: (1) original specimen, and (2-4) the specimen under
increasing friction.
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Ring Compression Tests Example

In a ring compression test, a specimen 10 mm high with outside and inside
diameters (OD and ID) of 30 mm and 15mm, respectively, is reduced in
Friction is thickness by 50%. Determine the coefficient of friction, μ, and the friction
determined from factor, m, if the OD after deformation is 39 mm.
these charts from the
percent reduction in
height and by
measuring the
percent change in the
internal diameter of
the specimen after
compression.

(a) coefficient of friction, µ (b) friction factor, m.

Friction factor:
τi where τi is the shear strength of the interface and k is the shear
m=
k yield stress of the softer material in a sliding pair.
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 Friction Lubrication
• Dry Friction • Fluid Film Lubrication
– No Lubrication – Thick-film or hydrodynamic lubrication.
– Use the Right Materials • Viscosity of a lubricant
– Very Smooth Surfaces • Results erosion
– Low Speeds and Pressures – Thin-film lubrication
• Friction is higher than in thick-film

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Lubrication Lubrication
• Mixed-film lubrication
• Solid lubrication
– Rough surface peaks occasionally in contact – Low coefficient of friction
• Boundary Lubrication– presence of boundary layer – High temperature resistance
that carry normal force
– Extreme pressure lubrication for high T and P

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 Lubrication
Lubricants in Manufacturing
• Friction absorbs a lot of work.
• Functions of Metal Working Lubricants - In machinery: wastes power and generates heat (damage/melt bearing).
– Separate surfaces
• To minimize frictional forces surfaces must easily slide over one another.
– Protect surfaces
– Remain stable and durable • Contaminate the asperity tips with something that:
– Cools the materials (a) can stand the pressure at the bearing surface and prevent atom-to-
– Not Health-hazard atom contact between asperities;
– Inexpensive (b) can itself shear easily.
• Mineral oil, Natural oil, synthetic fluids, Compounded
lubrication, Aqueous lubrication, and coating and barrier.
Usually, however, we would like a much larger
reduction in μ than that given by soft films or
polymers, and then we must use lubricants

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Lubrication Lubrication

Standard lubricants - oils, greases and fatty materials (soap, animal fats).
• "contaminate" surfaces, preventing adhesive contact; • The best boundary lubricants cease to work above about
• thin layer of oil or grease shears easily and lowers the coefficient of friction. 200°C.
• Soft metal bearings can cope with local hot spots: soft
• Fluid oil must not get squeezed out by the enormous pressures generated,
metal melts and provides a local lubricating film.
therefore active organic molecules are added (= 1% ) to prevent this.
• One end of the molecule reacts with the metal oxide surface and sticks to it, • When the entire bearing runs hot, special lubricants are
whereas the other ends attract one another to form an oriented "forest" of needed:
molecules.
- suspension of PTFE in oil (good to 320°C)
- can resist very large forces normal to the surface,
- separate the asperity tips very effectively; - graphite (good to 600°C)
- two layers of molecules can shear over themselves quite easily.
- molybdenum disulphide (good to 800°C).

This type of lubrication is termed

boundary lubrication, and is capable
of reducing μ by a factor of 10.

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 Next time:
Continue Wear

Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 18/21