Enchiridion

CHAPTER 1

In which we learn the Greek alphabet and read Greek.

GREEK ALPHABET

A a alfa alpha-- pronounce “ah” a)sth/r

B b bhta beta-- “b” biografi/a
G g gamma gamma--“g” grafiko/j
D d delta delta-- “d” dia/gramma
E e e yilon epsilon-- “eh” e)pi/gramma
Z z zhta zeta-- “z” zw/nh
H h hta eta-- pronounce “ay” hÅqoj
Q q qhta theta-- “th” qe/atron
I i iwta iota--pronounce “ee” i)/dioj
K k kappa kappa-- “k” kri/sij
L l lambda lambda-- “l” lo/goj
M m mu mu-- “m” metafora/
N n nu nu-- “n” ne/ktar
C c ci xsi-- “x” e)/codoj
O o o mikron omicron-- “oh” o)nomatopoii/a
P p pi pi-- “p” peri/metron
R r rw rho-- “rh” r(ino/kerwj
S s, j sigma sigma-- “s” su/mmetroj
T t tau tau-- “t” taktiko/j
U u u yilon upsilon-- “u” u(/pnoj
F f Fi phi-- “f” filosofi/a
X x Xi chi-- “ch”--pronounce “k” xoro/j, xarakth/r
Y y yi psi-- “ps” yeu=doj
W w o mega omega-- “o”--pronounce w)keano/j, %)dh/
like “o”-cean

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 Enchiridion

Besides differences in alphabet, there are a few other strange things that
get added to Greek words. Words that begin with vowels, (α,ε,ι,ο,υ,ω) α,ε,ι,ο,υ,ω) need a
stroke before them to let you know if the word begins with a rough breathing (“h”
sound) or a smooth breathing (just the vowel sound alone.) Compare the sounds
in English of the words “history”--rough-- and “honor”--smooth. In Greek the
breathings look like a(, e(, i(, o(, u(, w(, r( for the rough sound; and a), e), i), o), u), w)
for the smooth sound.

Vowels are added (or sometimes lengthened) for past tenses of verbs.
These vowels are mainly smooth (no “h” is pronounced.)

Accents are added to Greek words for a variety of reasons that will be
explained when necessary. Their use can sometimes be helpful, at other times
puzzling. Use accents to help you pronounce Greek words.

Punctuation is a little different.

. is still a period for the end of a sentence

; in Greek is a question mark.
· in Greek (a period above the line) is a semicolon in English.
, in Greek is the same as English

Using the chart on page one, you can read the Greek words that are listed
in the last column on the right of the chart. (Say them out loud and your job will
be easier.)

Sometimes capital letters cause no end of problems. Usually these words

are names.

Using your chart read the names below. (Some are Greek, some are
modern.)

¡Apo/llwn, ¡Ale/candroj, ¡Axilleu/j, H¥raklhj, Dhmh/thr, Parqenw/n, E¥¢ktwr,

Ce/rchj, Ne/stwr, Ro/nald (Rh/gan,
Rh/ an, Qe/odwr Roo/
(Roo/sebelt, W¦keano/j, Pri/amoj,
Gigantiko/j

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 Enchiridion

Some colleges have fraternities that use Greek letters for their names.

ΦΒΚ, ΖΒΤ, ΣΧ, ΤΕΚ, ΑΠΩ, ΒΘΠ, ΓΣΣ, ΛΛΛ

Can you tell the names in English?

Some of the first calculations were done by Greeks. The Pythagorean

theorem might be hard for you today, but it was invented over 2000 years ago by
(Puqago/raj)
Pythagoras. (Puqago/ aj). Some Greek letters are used as symbols in math and
science. Here are just a few:

π, Σ, Ω, omega block (why is this weather term named this way?)

Can you tell the names in English?

Some Greek words come into English without changing their spelling. Try
to do these without looking at the alphabet chart. (The underlined letters drop
out in English.)

dra=ma, do/gma, ku=doj, oi( polloi¿, aÃtomoj

omoj,
oj, e)le/fantoj
antoj,
oj, dai/mwn, faino/menon,
krith/ria, mhtro/polij, logiko/
logiko/j, a)riqmhtiko/
iqmhtiko/j, i(ppopo/tamoj, r(odo/dendron,
mani/a, politiko/j, katastrofh/

Can you say and/or write these words in English? If you can, you already
know a lot of Greek words.

All fields: literature, science, medicine, English, arts, social studies have
words that come from Greek. Sometimes spelling is changed, sometimes not.
Once you know some words with their meanings in English you will increase
your English vocabulary tremendously. For example: the Greek word lo/goj
gives the English suffix “-logy” which in English means “the study of.” This
leads to the etymology section of the chapter.

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 Enchiridion

ETYMOLOGY

In each chapter we will ask you to learn one Greek root that gives a lot of
English words. Try to write as many words as you can in English that come from
the Greek root.

Since we’ve already mentioned lo/goj,

oj --logy “the study of”, use that root
as your first assignment.

TRANSLATION HELP

In each chapter we will ask you to learn two Greek words to use in
translating into English. They will be common words, but most of the time they
will have unusual or irregular forms. Knowing these two words will help you to
translate without looking constantly in the dictionary.

1. e)sti/(ν)
(ν) is (The n is used at the end of a clause or when
the next word starts with a vowel.)

2. ei)si/(ν)
(ν) are (Same reasons.)

MYTHOLOGY

In each chapter we will tell a little about mythology. Then we will show you
a similar selection in Greek.

Homer is the most famous Greek epic poet. He is the author of the Iliad
which tells the story of Troy, Greek and Trojan heroes and the gods. There are
several names for the Greeks in the Iliad. They are called Achaeans, Danaans,
and Argives. Achilles is a Greek hero; Hector is a Trojan hero. Zeus is a god;
Hera is a goddess.

O¥¢mhroj
mhroj poihth/j e)stin. h( I¦lia/j e)stin i(stori/a. e)n t$= I¦lia/di
e)sti\
ti\n o( po/lemoj tw=n A¦xaiw=n kai\
kai\ tw=n Trwikw=n. oi( A¦xaioi/ ei)sin
oi( Danaoi\
Danaoi\ kai\
kai\ rgei=oi. A¦xilleu/j e)stin h(/rwj A¦xaio/j. E¥¢ktwr
oi( A¦rgei= ktwr
e)sti\
ti\ Trwiko/j. Zeu\
Zeu\j qeo/j e)stin. H¥¢ra qea/ e)stin. oi( qeoi
qeoi\\ kai
kai\\ oi(
a)/nqrwpoi/ ei)sin e)n t$= I¦lia/di.

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 2

In which we learn how to use a Greek dictionary.

Using a chart with the Greek alphabet if necessary, look up the following
Greek words in a dictionary or glossary:

1. yuxh/ 6. o)/neiroj 11. u(po/ 16. z%=on

2. ge/noj 7. gunh/ 12. e)n 17. pneu=ma
3. a)nh/r 8. xa/rij 13. a)spi/j 18. qeo/j
4. a)/nqrwpoj 9. gluku/j 14. cero/j 19. do/ru
5. potamo/j 10. me/gaj 15. fi/loj 20. bi/oj

Write the English meaning for words 1-20. Try to do the work without
looking at the alphabet chart; time yourself to see how long it takes you to do 10
with the chart and 10 without the chart.

Greek words change their spellings for various reasons. If you already
know Latin, you have heard of case, number and gender for nouns and
adjectives. In that case, skip over most of the next section. If, however, you have
escaped this knowledge, or didn’t really understand it--no problem! Just keep
reading.

CASE means an ending on a noun or adjective that shows how it is used or

where it goes in a sentence. For example:
NOMINATIVE means the noun or adjective is used as a subject -- say it first
in an English sentence. This is the form that you find when you look up a Greek
noun or adjective in a dictionary.
GENITIVE means possession -- use “ ’s ” or use the word “of” in front of
the noun or adjective or after a Greek preposition that is used with the gen.(itive).
DATIVE means indirect object -- use “to” or “for” or after a Greek
preposition that is used with the dat.(ive).
ACCUSATIVE means direct object--use after the verb or after a Greek
preposition that is used with the acc.(usative).

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 Enchiridion

NUMBER is quite simple. The most common are singular (one) and plural
(more than one). Greek also has something called the dual--it’s used for two but
don’t worry about it right now.

GENDER exists in most languages other than English. In Romance

languages (French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian) there are masculine
(m., masc.) and feminine (f., fem.) words. In German there is also neuter (n.,
neut.). Latin and Greek also have three genders for nouns and adjectives. There
is a really good reason why certain words are in certain genders, but we have to
save something for the classical philologists to teach, so in the meantime, notice
the gender when you look up a noun in the dictionary.

If you don’t happen to remember the gender of a noun when you see it on
the page, very often there is a word to tell you the gender as well as the number
and case of the word you’re looking at.

This is where you will find the next chart. It is for the definite article in
Greek. Definite article is a fancy word for “the”. You’ve seen it in French “le, la,
les”, in Spanish “el, la, los, las” just to name a few. In Greek you may see it with
a noun and/or an adjective carrying an ending on it that you don’t know. But the
article can tell you the gender, number and case of the noun and help to point out
words that go together (modifiers) but might not have the same endings.

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 Enchiridion

DEFINITE ARTICLE

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR

o( h( to/ NOM.
tou= th=j tou= GEN.
t%= t$= t%= DAT.
to/n th/n to/ ACC.
PLURAL
oi( ai( ta/ NOM.
tw=n tw=n tw=n GEN.
toi=j tai=j toi=j DAT.
tou/j ta/j ta/ ACC.

Look up the following words in the dictionary or glossary and write the
article that goes with each noun. If the article is already there, write whether the
word is masculine, feminine or neuter. REMEMBER: dictionary forms of nouns
are in the nominative case.

1. _____po/lij 6. _____gewrgo/j 11. _____po/lemoj

2. _____yuxh/ 7. _____tra/goj 12. _____dw=ron
3. _____xrh=ma 8. _____bibli/on 13. _____qea/
4. _____path/
ò r 9. _____a)delfo/j 14. _____gh=
5. _____mh/thr 10. _____o)/noma 15. _____i(/ppoj

Now try something a little more difficult. This time you will see nouns with
articles. Translate into English using a word (subject) or an English preposition
(‘to’, ‘for’, ‘of’) to show that you know the CASE of the word.

1. tw=n po/lewn 7. oi( a)delfoi/

2. ta\
ta\ xrh/mata 8. tou= patro/j
3. t$= g$= 9. tai=j a)delfai=j
4. ai( qeai/ 10. th=j yuxh=j
5. tou= pole/mou 11. ta\
ta\j qea/j
6. ta\
ta\ bibli/a 12. tou\
tou\j a)delfou/j

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 Enchiridion

ETYMOLOGY

The Greek verb gra/fein “to write” gives the root “graph” in English. Find
as many English words as you can with this root.

TRANSLATION HELP

ou), ou)k, ou)x not (before a verb)

e)n in

MYTHOLOGY

In the Iliad of Homer there are repeated phrases used to describe people
and things. These are called “Homeric epithets.” Some are easier to find
because they contain a name of a hero with a phrase or an adjective. See if you
can find the meaning of these Greek epithets.

1. eu)knh/midej A¦xaioi/
2. leukw/lenoj H¥¢ra
3. poda\
poda\j w)ku\
u\j A¦xilleu/j
4. mega/qumoi A¦xaioi/
5. polu/mhtij O¦dusseu/j
6. r(ododa/ktuloj h¦w/j
7. Ai)/aj e(/rkoj A¦xaiw=n
8. di=oj O¦dusseu/j
9. bow=pij H¥¢ra
10. Zeu/j eu)ru/opa

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 3

In which we learn a few things about verbs in Greek.

There is some good news and some bad news about verbs in Greek. The
bad news is that there are more than 300 different forms for most verbs; the
good news is that you will not see most of them (right away, that is.)

Here comes another section that you can skip, if you’ve already learned
this in Latin or in another language or maybe even in English.

If you are still reading, here we go. Verbs have different forms depending
on person (who is talking), tense (when the action takes place), voice (active--
subject is doing something; passive--subject is getting something done to it;
middle--Greek’s way of showing reflexives, among other things) and mood
(indicative--normal actions; imperative--commands to others; subjunctive--for
things that may or may not happen; optative--Greek mood for sentences similar
to subjunctive.) The only new mood not in Latin is the optative; you will
probably see it more than the subjunctive, but it’s easier to recognize.

That is quite a bit to remember, but we will do one thing at a time.

Let’s start with who is talking. Since the stories that we will begin to read
will not have quotes in them, verb endings that go with “I, you, we” will not be
seen immediately. The only time to worry about those endings is if you see
quotation marks that show you that someone is talking, or if you look up a verb in
the dictionary or glossary, (normally verbs will be listed as they are in Latin with
the first form being the “I” form of the verb in the present.).

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 Enchiridion

Normally you will see verb endings in singular ( that refer to he, she, it
pronouns or nouns--singular subjects); or plural verb endings (that refer to they--
plural pronoun or noun subjects.)

Take a look at the chart below: it has a lot of information on it. For right
now look only at the active endings for s/he, it and they (see arrows).

VERBS

VERB ENDINGS

Active Middle/Passive Subject

α η ο υ ω (ν) ον µι µαι (µ)ην (θη)ν I
(α ε ει η οι)ς α ει ου ω αι ο η you
² ει ε(ν) α η ι ται το he, she, it
µεν µεθα we
τε σθε you (pl.)
² σι(ν) α ε ο ου(ν) νται ντο they

You can see that for singular subjects the endings are: ει ε(ν)
ε(ν) α η ι ; for
plural subjects the endings are σι(ν) α ε ο ου (ν). The reason that the ν is in
parentheses is that it is used if the verb is the last word in the sentence (this
happens frequently). It is also used if the next word after the verb starts with a
vowel because the ν makes the pronunciation sound smoother, (like ‘an elephant’
in English rather than ‘a elephant.’)

Sometimes these endings may have accents on them, sometimes not; but
by just referring to these endings, you can tell whether a Greek verb is singular or
plural. Since every Greek sentence you see will have a verb, you can then tell
what to look for as a subject (a singular or plural noun.)

In the next exercise your only assignment is to tell whether the Greek verb
is singular or plural. There will be different tenses listed, but don’t worry about
them right now. Just decide if the verbs are singular or plural. You can look
back at the chart; but see if you can do the exercise without looking.

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 Enchiridion

1. gra/fei 6. tim#= 11. e)/fasan

2. e)/pinon 7. tiqe/asi 12. hÅsan
3. gra/yousi 8. e)/qhke 13. ei)si/
4. e)pai/deue 9. e)/sth 14. e)/dosan
5. filou=si 10. oiÅde 15. hÅlqon

We will come back to these verbs again to show you more about them, but
now you can pick a verb out in a Greek sentence and tell whether the subject is
one or more than one. Put that together with articles that you know and you can
tell the parts of a sentence, even if you don’t know the meaning of the words.
Use what you know about dictionary work to look up the meanings of nouns and
verbs.

In the next section we will see short sentences. Try to see if you can find
the meanings of the words in the glossary; try to translate the sentences into
English.

Write down the Greek words that you need to look up. If you can’t do the
entire sentence, do as much as you can and leave a blank space next to the
words you can’t find. Be sure to ask about these Greek words in class. (In this
exercise the verbs are all in the present tense.)

1. oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ tou\
tou\j a)nqrw/pouj filou=sin.
2. ta\
ta\ tw=n qew=n sw/mata ou)/k e)sti brota/.
3. oi( a)gaqoi\
aqoi\ a)/nqrwpoi ta\ta\j qea\
qea\j timw=sin.
4. oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ ou)/k ei)sin e)pi\i\ th=j gh=j.
5. ai( gunai=kej kai\
kai\ oi( a)/ndrej ei)si\i\n e)pi\i\ th=j gh=j.
6. ai( tw=n a)nqrw/pwn yuxai/ ou)/k ei)si brotai/ brotai/.
7. A¦xilleu\
illeu\j h(/rwj A¦xaio/j e)stin, E¥¢ktwr a)/nqrwpo/j e)stin--tin-- a)lla\
la\ Zeu\
Zeu\j qeo/j
e)stin.
8. Zeu\
Zeu\j o( tw=n qew=n path/r e)stin.
9. E¥le/nh gunh/ e)stin, a)ll ¦ H¥¢ra qea/ e)stin.
10. to\
to\ kle/oj O¥mh/rou me/ga e)sti/n.

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 Enchiridion

ETYMOLOGY

polu/ in Greek is “poly” in English. It means “many”. Write a list of English

words with this root.

TRANSLATION HELP

a)lla/ but
ei) if

MYTHOLOGY

In the Iliad Homer describes people, gods and things. The gods are
immortal; they can be hurt, but they cannot die. They live on Mount Olympus,
where they can watch men on earth. Gods eat only ambrosia and drink nectar.
Men make sacrifices to the gods, but the men eat the meat. If men do not make
sacrifices to the gods, the gods are not pleased.

e)n t$= I¦lia/di, (Omh/roj peri\

peri\ tw=n qew=n kai\kai\ tw=n a)nqrw/pwn
gra/fei. h( I¦lia\
ia\j i(stori/a tou= pole/mou tw=n A¦xaiw=n kai\kai\ tw=n Trww=n
e)sti/n.
oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ ou)/k ei)sin polla/kij e)n t%= pole/m%. oi( qeoi\ qeoi\ e)n t%=
ou)ran%= ei)si/n. oi( a)/nqrwpoi e)e)n t%= pole/m% e)pi\i\ th=j gh=j ei)si/n.
oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ kre/aj ou)k e)sqi/ousin, a)ll` oi( a)/nqrwpoi kre/aj
e)sqi/ousin. oi( a)/nqrwpoi toi=j qeoi=j qu/ousin. ei)) oi( a)/nqrwpoi toi=j
qeoi=j ou) qu/ousin, oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ tou\
tou\j a)nqrw/pouj ou) filou=sin.

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 4

In which we learn about problems in looking up noun and adjective

meanings in the dictionary.

If every noun and adjective had an article with it in Greek, it would be easy
to tell the case, number and gender of every noun and adjective. If every noun
and adjective had a regular form in the singular and plural, nouns and adjectives
would always be easy to find. Unfortunately, neither of these statements is true
all the time.

Just as Latin has different declensions (different sets of endings for

different nouns and adjectives) so does Greek. We are not going to ask you
which declension words are in, but we are going to ask you to look at another
chart. This chart will tell you the different possibilities for different noun and
adjective endings in Greek. Don’t worry about the amount of possibilities; you
will be able to refer to the chart until you get used to the endings that you see a
lot.

We are not putting accents on these endings because accents change from
noun to noun--the endings remain the same.

NOUN, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE ENDINGS

Masc. nouns Fem. nouns Neut. nouns Masc. part. Fem. part. Neut. Case
part.
(α, η, ο, υ)ς α, η, ις, ος ον, ος, α ων, ας, ως, σα, κα, ον, αν, Nom. Sing.
εις ια ος, εν
ου, (ε)ος, (α,η,ο,ω)ς ου, (ε)ος, ντος, οτος σης, ιας ντος, Gen. Sing.
(ε)ως, (ε)ους (ε)ως, (ε)ους οτος
#, $, %, i #, $, %, i, ei %, i ντι, οτι ση, ια ντι, οτι Dative Sing.

(α,η,ι,ο,υ)ν, (α,η,ι,ο,υ)ν, ον, ος, α ντα, οτα σαν, ιαν ον, αν, Acc. Sing.
εα, η, α εα, η, α ος, εν
αι, οι, αι, οι, α, η ντες, οτες σαι, ιαι ντα, οτα Nom. Pl
(ε,η,ει)ς (ε,η,ει)ς
ων ων ων ντων, οτων σων, ιων ντων, Gen. Pl.
οτων
οις, αις, σι(ν) οις, αις, σι(ν) οις, σι(ν) σι(ν) αις σι(ν) Dative Pl.
ας, ους, εις ας, ους, εις α, η ντας, οτας ας ντα, οτα Acc. Pl.

As you can see, there are a lot of possibilities! Where do you start?

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 Enchiridion

If the noun has an article with it, most of the time you can tell if it is
masculine, feminine or neuter. Then you will know which of the columns of
endings to look in.

If the noun has nothing to tell you about it, try looking it up anyway.

If you see a word with a similar spelling, you will know the nominative
singular because that is the dictionary form. Sometimes the dictionary will give
you two forms (the nominative and the genitive). Look at those endings in the
dictionary. Check with your chart to see which column the noun will fit into.

Sometimes, if you’re lucky, the dictionary will tell you whether the noun is
masculine, feminine or neuter. That will also tell you which column of the chart
to look into.

If you cannot find the noun because its spelling has changed too much
from its dictionary form, don’t give up! Write it down on a list of words to ask
about in class.

Some nouns do not occur frequently and your time can be spent more
efficiently by passing them over. If the same word keeps appearing, however,
that means you probably should learn it, unless you want to keep writing it down.

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 Enchiridion

Look up the nouns below in your glossary or dictionary. Some have

articles, some do not. Some appear in the same form as in the dictionary, some
have forms that are similar. There may be some words that you cannot find at all.

Write the dictionary form (nominative only) of the noun, the dictionary
meaning, the gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and the English for the form
you started with.

For example:

yuxh=j yuxh/ soul feminine “of the soul”

GREEK WORD NOM. SING. IN ENGLISH GENDER ENG. FORM

1. tou\
tou\j po/daj
2. th=j ni/khj
3. t%= paidi/
4. tou= potamou=
5. tai=j gunaici/
6. to\
to\n h(/lion
7. tw=n i(/ppwn
8. th=j di/khj
9. tw=n daktu/lwn
10. fo/bou
11. kefalh/n
12. toi=j lo/goij
13. ta\
ta\ bibli/a
14. to\
to\n ui(o/n
15. t$= mhtri/
16. to\
to\n pate/ra
17. tw=n de/ndrwn
18. oi( fi/loi
19. ta\
ta\j qu/raj
20. para\
para\ tai=j
qu/raij

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 Enchiridion

ETYMOLOGY

u(po/ in Greek means “under”. In English the root becomes “hypo”. Write a
list of words in English with this root.

TRANSLATION HELP

kai/ and
polla/kij often

MYTHOLOGY

The Iliad is a story of war. In this war the Greeks and their allies fight
against the Trojans at Troy. In wars men and animals are wounded. Wounds in
the head can kill men and their horses. Women did not fight in the Trojan war.
They stayed behind the gates of Troy and watched from the walls. Often mothers
saw their sons fight and die. Many husbands, fathers and sons died in the Trojan
war.

h( I¦lia\
ia\j i(stori/a tou= pole/mou e)sti//n. e)n t%= pole/m% oi( A¦xaioi\ aioi\
e)pi\i\ tou\
tou\j Trwikou\
Trwikou\j polemi/zousin. e)n t%= pole/m% oi( a)/nqrwpoi
polla\
polla\ trau/mata e)/xousin. ousin. polla/kij ta\ ta\ tw=n a)nqrw/pwn trau/mata
e)pi\i\ t$= kefal$= e)sti/n. ta\ ta\ tw+=n i(/ppwn trau/mata e)pi\i\ toi=j pousi/
e)stin. ai( gunai=kej tou\ tou\j a)/ndraj e)n t%= pole/m% o(rw=sin. ai(
mhte/rej kai\ kai\ ai( qugate/rej ei)/sw tw=n tou= po/lewj qurw=n me/ me/nousin. oi(
pate/rej kai\ kai\ oi( ui(ei=j polla/kij e)n t%= pole/m% a)poqnh/skousin.
e)pi\i\ tou= te/louj tou= pole/mou e)n Troi/$, oi( A¦xaioi\aioi\ th\
th\n ni/khn e)/xousin.
oi( Trwikoi\
Trwikoi\ a)poqnh/skousin! ai( Trwikai/ ei)si dou=lai toi=j A¦xaioi=j!
oi( mikroi\
mikroi\ ui(ei=j tw+=n Trwikw=n a)poqnh/skousin, e)peidh\ eidh\ h( ni/kh toi=j
A¦xaioi=j e)sti/n.

16
 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 5

In which we learn about common spelling changes in nouns and verbs,

and how to look up noun and verb forms in the dictionary.

Look at the chart below and you will see what happens to nouns or verbs
σ) added to them.
that have sigma (σ

+ σ
π β φ ψ
κ γ χ ξ
τ δ θ ς

In the words below, write the Greek for what the noun or verb would look
σ) added to the final consonant. See if you can find the
like if it had a sigma (σ
meaning for the Greek word. Be careful with the verbs--do not change the verb
ending, even if it has a consonant in it. The nouns have the endings underlined.
Drop the ending before you make the spelling change.

1. tou= a)spi/doj 11. bla/ptw

2. gra/fei 12. pei/qw
3. tou= nukto/
nukto/j 13. kle/ptei
4. pe/mpei 14. tou= kh/rukoj
ukoj
5. th=j flebo/
flebo/j 15. dokei=
6. tre/fousi 16. feu/gousi
7. dei/dw 17. ble/pw
8. te/rpei 18. glu/fei
9. tou= fu/lakoj
akoj 19. qa/ptw
10. tou= paido/
paido/j 20. ste/rgousi

17
 Enchiridion

Now let’s try it the other way. In the following list of words, you will
see words that have had the sigma (σ σ) added to them. Write what you think
the form would be without the sigma. There may be more than one
possibility. Check with the dictionary to see which possibility is the
correct one. See if you can find a meaning for the Greek word. Be careful
with the verbs--do not change the verb ending, even if it has a consonant in
it.

1. o( a)/nac 11. qa/yousi

2. kle/yousi 12. glu/yeiei
3. ble/yw 13. te/ryei
4. te/ryousi 14. r(i/yei
5. pe/myei 15. kru/yousi
6. gra/yw 16. diw/cei
7. bla/yousi 17. bla/yei
8. do/cei 18. le/cei
9. kle/yw 19. la/myei
10. dei/sei 20. r(i/yousi

This exercise may have seemed a little strange but it will prepare you for
finding words that may seem complicated. When verbs get different endings,
different spellings, they are sometimes hard to recognize.

That will be the basic material for Chapter 6.

ETYMOLOGY

In Greek the word au)to/j means “self,” or “same.” Write as many English
words as you can that have “auto” in them.

18
 Enchiridion

TRANSLATION HELP

-teroj, -te/rh, -teron when added on the end of an

adjective means “-er” or “more”

-tatoj,-
tatoj,-ta/th, -taton when added on the end of an
adjective means “-est” or “most”

MYTHOLOGY

The Olympian gods are also in the Iliad. They watch the war from Mount
Olympus. Zeus is the most powerful of the gods, but Zeus controls only the
heavens and the earth. Poseidon is Zeus’ brother. He controls the seas. Hera is
the most powerful goddess. She is the sister and the wife of Zeus. She does not
control the earth, but sometimes she controls her husband Zeus. Zeus is often
just, but sometimes he is unjust because of Hera.
In the Iliad Hera is hostile to the Trojans. She loves the Greeks, especially
Achilles. Apollo is the son of Zeus. He loves the Trojans, especially Hector.
Sometimes during the war between the Greeks and the Trojans, the gods also
quarrel with each other.

oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ e)n t$= I¦lia/di kai/ ei)sin. oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ ta\
ta\j ma/xaj tou=
pole/mou e)k O¦lu/mpou o(rw=sin. Zeu\ Zeu\j kra/tistoj tw=n qew=n e)sti/n.
Zeu\
Zeu\j me\
me\n tou\
tou\j ou)ranou\
anou\j kai\
kai\ th\
th\n gh=n kratei=, a)lla\ la\ de\
de\ ta\
ta\j
qala/ssaj ou) kratei=. Poseidw=n, o( a)delfo\ elfo\j Dio/j, ta\
ta\j qala/ssaj
kratei=. H¥¢ra e)sti\
ti\ krati/sth qea/. a)delfh\
elfh\ kai\
kai\ gunh\
gunh\ Dio/j e)stin. th\
th\n
gh=n ou) kratei=, a)lla\la\ to\
to\n po/sin polla/kij kratei=. Zeu\ Zeu\j polla/kij
di/kaio/j e)stin, a)lla\
la\ polla/kij H¥¢raj e(/neka di/kaio\aio\j ou)/k e)sti/n. e)n
t$= I¦lia/di, H¥¢ra e)xqrh\
qrh\ toi=j Trwikoi=j e)sti/n. tou\
tou\j A¦xaiou\
aiou\j filei=,
ma/lista A¦xille/a. A¦po/llwn o( ui(o\j Dio/j e)stin. tou\ tou\j Trwikou\
Trwikou\j
filei=, ma/lista E¥¢ktora. polla/kij e)n t%= pole/m% metazu metazu\\ tw=n
A¦xaiw=n kai\
kai\ tw=n Trwikw=n, oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ e)ri/zousi pro\
pro\j a)llh/louj.

19
 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 6

In which we learn how to translate a lot of different verb tenses (mostly of

regular verbs).

σ) is added in the middle of the verb, before the

For some tenses, a sigma (σ
endings.

For some tenses, a vowel is added before the verb. This is called an
augment, and happens in some past tenses. If the verb starts with a consonant
in the present, the vowel added is epsilon (εε).

If a verb already starts with a vowel in the present tense, the augment is
added to the vowel. This will usually change the vowel into either eta (η η) or
omega (ωω).

If the verb begins with a prefix like e)pi, a)na,

na, e)k, the augment is added
after the prefix.

If a verb is in the perfect tense, there is reduplication of the first consonant

of the verb form and a kappa (κ κ) is added before the verb ending. In the next
chart, you see the kinds of letters or syllables that get added to roots of Greek
verbs.

The most common tense in Greek is the aorist. It is a simple past tense
that usually talks about actions that happened once. It is a bit tricky because not
all of the forms are regular. It’s something like common verbs in English. They
don’t always add “-ed” to make the past tense. Think of some examples in
English for irregular past tenses--like “go, went, gone.” You will not be surprised
to find irregular verbs in the aorist in Greek, because English also has many
irregular past tense forms. In fact, these are not called irregular aorist forms,
they are called SECOND AORIST forms, because they are so frequent.

20
 Enchiridion

In the chart below second aorist is not mentioned because it will have its own
chart.

VERB TENSE INDICATORS

σ-- = future (“will”)

--σ
θης--
θης = future passive (“will be”)
--θης
augment + present stem of verb = imperfect (“was, were”)
augment + verb +--σ σ-- = aorist **(no --σ
σ-- in 2nd aorist) (past tense)
augment + verb + --θη θη--
θη = aorist passive (past tense)
reduplication + verb + --κ κ-- = perfect (“have, has”)
augment + reduplication + verb + --κ κ-- = pluperfect (“had”)

TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING VERBS INTO ENGLISH.

1. gra/fei 6. le/lukan 11. pe/myousi 16. e)/xousi

2. gra/yei 7. le/gousi 12. paideu/ei 17. e)/pempe
3. e)/grayan 8. e)/lue 13. e)pai/deue 18. pe/mpousi
4. e)/grafe 9. le/cousi 14. e)pai/deusan 19. e)/pemyan
5. paideu/sousi 10. e)/lusan 15. pepai/duke 20. pe/myei

Now that you have tried your hand at identifying various tenses we will
show you a chart of the most common second aorist forms. You do not need to
memorize them; some, however, are so frequent that you will find yourself
knowing them. For now, whenever you can’t find the meaning of a past tense
verb, take a look at this chart so that you will know the dictionary (present tense)
form of the verb you are looking for.

21
 Enchiridion

Here is the chart that Dr. Desmond always used with his classes; we pass
it along to you because it will help you tremendously with verbs that are difficult
to find. The first form is the aorist (it is the same form for the subjects “I” and
“they”); the second form is the present for “I” (dictionary form of the verb).

DR. DESMOND’S “TOP 40” SECOND AORISTS

1. e)/balon ba/llw 21. h)/gagon a)/gw

2. e)/fugon feu/gw 22. eiÂlon ai(re/w
3. e)/lipon lei/pw 23. hÅlqon e)/rxomai
4. e)/pion pi/nw 24. e)/fagon e)sqi/w
5. e)/temon te/mnw 25. e)/dramon tre/xw
6. e)/dakon da/knw 26. h)/negkon fe/rw
7. e)/tekon ti/ktw 27. eiÅdon o(ra/w
8. e)/paqon pa/sxw 28. e)/molon blw/skw
9. e)/xanon xa/skw 29. eiÅpon le/gw)
(le/ w
10. e)/peson pi/ptw 30. e)/gnwn gignw/skw
11. e)/qanon qn$/skw 31. e)bi/wn bio/w
12. huÂron eu(ri/skw 32. e)/bhn bai/nw
13. e)/trapon tre/pw 33. e)/sthn i(/stamai
14. e)/sxon
xon e)/xw 34. e(a/lwn a(li/skomai
15. e)/maqon manqa/nw 35. a)fiko/mhn a)fikne/omai
16. e)/labon lamba/nw 36. e)geno/mhn gi/gnomai
17. e)/laqon lanqa/nw 37. e)puqo/mhn punqa/nomai
18. e)/tuxon tugxa/nw 38. e(spo/mhn e(/pomai
19. h(/marton a(marta/nw
nw 39. $)sqo/mhn ai)sqa/nomai
20. e)/laxon lagxa/nw 40. u(pesxo/mhn u(pisxne/omai

REMEMBER:

If verbs have prefixes on them the augment is added AFTER the prefix. For
example in the word a)naba/llw,
lw the second aorist is a)ne/balon; the last verb on
the chart above, u(pisxne/omai, gets the augment added AFTER u(po, o not before it.

22
 Enchiridion

Look up the meanings and translate the following verbs. BE CAREFUL:

some are imperfect (augment + present stem), some are present and some are
aorist. Translate “was” or “were” for imperfects and simple past tense for
aorists.

1. e)/feuge 6. eiÂle 11. pi/nousin 16. e)/bale

2. e)/fagon 7. eiÅdon 12. e)/xei 17. e)/dramon
3. e)/lipe 8. eiÅpe 13. e)/sxon 18. e)/trexe
4. huÂron 9. e)/bh 14. e)la/mbane 19. eu(ri/skousi
5. h)/gagon 10. o(rw=si 15. ba/llousi 20. e)/maqe

At the end of this lesson there will be a paragraph that will contain a variety
of tenses. Refer to these charts if you have any problems. As in the past, write
down the English only for the words in the paragraph that you do not know. Do
not write a translation of the entire paragraph.

ETYMOLOGY

In Greek the word o(mo/j means “the same.” In English this gives the prefix
“homo”. Write as many English words as you can for this root.

TRANSLATION HELP

hÅn was
hÅsan were

MYTHOLOGY

The Iliad tells the story of the Trojan War, but it does not tell many things
about the cause of the war.
Priam, the king of Troy, had 50 sons. When Paris (Alexandros) was born, a
prophecy told Priam that Paris was unlucky and that he would destroy the city of
Troy. King Priam sent Paris to the mountains. In Olympus at this time there was
a quarrel among three goddesses, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. They decided to
ask the shepherd Paris who the most beautiful goddess was. If Paris gave the
honor to Hera, he would be a king. If Paris gave the prize to Athena, he would be
a very wise man. If Paris gave the honor to Aphrodite, he would have a very
beautiful woman. Paris gave the prize to Aphrodite. Unfortunately, the most
beautiful woman on earth was Helen, the wife of Menelaus.

23
 Enchiridion

Paris (Alexandros) came to the home of Helen and Menelaus. Menelaus

welcomed Paris and he lived in Menelaus’ house for a short time. Menelaus was
a general and he left his wife at home with Paris. Aphrodite held the power over
Helen and Helen left with Paris and went to Troy. Menelaus returned home and
because of his anger against Paris he and his brother Agamemnon led a large
army to Troy. The Greeks were outside the walls of Troy for nine years. The Iliad
begins in the tenth year of the war.

h( I¦lia\
ia\j th\
th\n i(stori/an tou= Trwikou= pole/mou e)/xei, a)ll¡ ou) polla polla\\ th=j
a)rxh=j th=j tou= pole/mou e)/xei.
Pri/amoj, o( tu/rannoj Troi/hj, eiÅxe pollou\ pollou\j uiÂaj. e)pei\ ei\ E¥ka/bh
A¦le/candron e)/teken, o( ma/ntij Pria/m% eiÅpen o(/ti A¦le/candroj ou)k e)di/dou th\ th\n
tu/xhn kai\
kai\ ou)k hÕn a)gaqo\
aqo\j t$= po/lei. Pri/amoj A¦le/candron ei)j ta\ ta\ o)/rh e)/pemyen.
A¦le/candroj hÅn poimh/n.
e)n O¦lu/mp% to/te trei=j qeai\ qeai\ H¥¢ra, A¦qhna= kai\
kai\ A¦frodi/th pro\
pro\j a)llh/laj
e)pole/mizon. pa=sai ai( qeai\ qeai\ hÕlqon para\
para\ t%= poime/ni A¦leca/ndr%. A¦le/candroj
hÕn krith/j. ei) A¦le/candroj th\ th\n timh\
timh\n H¥¢r# doi/h, kra/tistoj tu/rannoj ei)/h a)/n. ei)
A¦le/candroj th\ th\n timh
timh\n A¦qhn#= doi/h, sofw/tatoj a)nh\ h\r ei)/h a)/n. ei) A¦le/candroj
th\
th\n timh\
timh\n A¦frodi/t$ doi/h, eu(/roi a)\n th\ th\n kalli/sthn gunai=ka e)pi\i\ th=j gh=j.
A¦le/candroj th\th\n timh\
timh\n A¦frodi/t$ e)/dwken. a)ll ¦ h( gunh\
gunh\ h( kalli/sth e)pi\i\ th=j gh=j
hÕn E¥le/nh, h( gunh\
gunh\ Menela/ou.
A¦le/candroj ei)j th\ th\n oi)ki/an E¥le/nhj kai\
kai\ Menela/ou hÕlqen. A¦le/candroj hÕn
ce/noj Menela/ou. Mene/laoj strathgo\ strathgo\j me/gaj hÕn. e)/lipe th\ th\n gunai=ka E¥le/nhn
e)n t$= oi)ki/# met¡ A¦leca/ndrou.
A¦frodi/th e)kra/tei E¥le/nhn. hn. ou)kou=n E¥le/nh th\th\n oi)ki/an met ¦ A¦leca/ndrou
e)/lipen. e)/bhsan Troi/hnde. e)pei\ ei\ Mene/laoj hÕlqen e)ij th\ th\n po/lin, ou)x huÒren
E¥le/nhn. mh/nidoj eÀneka, Mene/laoj o( strathgo\ strathgo\j kai\
kai\ A¦game/mnwn, o( a)delfo\ elfo\j
Menela/ou, h)/gagon to\ to\n mega\
mega\n strato
strato\
trato\n Troi/hnde pro\
pro\j tou\
tou\j Trwikou\
Trwikou\j kai\ kai\ pro\
pro\j
Ale/candron. oi( A¦xaioi\ aioi\ ei)/sw tw=n teixw=n tw=n Troi/hj hÕsan. h( a)rxh\ xh\ th=j
I¦lia/doj e)n t%= deka/t% e)/tei tou= pole/mou e)sti/n.

24
 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 7

In which we learn about deponent verbs.

If you already studied Latin, you know that deponent verbs are verbs that
have a passive (or middle) form but have an active meaning. How do you know
this type of verb? When you look up the verb in the dictionary, the first form will
not end with ω as it normally does; it will end with µαι which is the same person,
but a middle/passive form.

Look back at the chart in Chapter 3 that tells the verb endings. For now,
look only at the third person singular and plural endings. You already know the
actives, look at the second column which has middle/passive endings.

For singular (he, she, it) the ending is ται or το.

το For plural (they) the ending
is νται or οντο.
οντο In most cases the tenses are formed in the same way; in most
cases the translation of the verb is the same as for the active form.

Translate these verbs into English. They are in different tenses, but all are
deponent. (Passive/ middle form, active meaning.)

1. e)ge/neto 11. e)la/qeto

2. e)gi/gneto 12. me/mfetai
3. e)/rxetai 13. e)me/mfonto
mfonto
4. a)mei/bontai 14. e)ma/xonto
5. diale/contai 15. e)maxe/santo
6. du/natai 16. e)dei/cato
7. e)du/nato 17. peirw=ntai
8. e)pi/statai 18. e)punqa/neto
9. kaqi/zontai 19. e)pu/qeto
10. e)lanqa/nonto 20. me/myetai

25
 Enchiridion

In this section is another series of verbs. Remember: if the dictionary

form of the verb ends in µαι, the verb is deponent. (Translate the middle/passive
form as an active verb.) If the dictionary form ends in ω, translate as a
middle/passive form.

1. e)ba/
ba/lonto 11. kinh/setai
2. e)ba/llonto 12. lu/sontai
3. e)fa/geto 13. filei=tai
4. ei)/deto 14. e)ti/mwnto
5. a)poktei/netai 15. e)dei/knuto
6. e)diw/xqh 16. e)filei=to
7. diw/cetai 17. timh/sontai
8. e)diw/konto 18. e)ki/nei=to
9. eu)daimoni/zetai 19. le/lutai
10. e)kaqai/reto 20. e)lu/eto

ETYMOLOGY

In Greek the verb file/w means “like” or “love”. In English words the root
“--phile” appears at the end of words and “philo--” is usually at the beginning.
Write as many English words as you can with this root.

TRANSLATION HELP

e)fh= s/he said

e)/fasan they said

26
 Enchiridion

MYTHOLOGY

Paris is the brother of Hector. They are both sons of Priam. Hector is the
best warrior and leader for the Trojan side. Hector’s wife is Andromache and
they have one son whom the Trojans call Astyanax which means the leader of the
city. In Troy Helen lives in Paris’ quarters in the palace. The problem is that she
is still married to Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon. Andromache lives in
Hector’s quarters with her servants and with her son. The men leave the city to
fight on the plains in front of Troy.

o( A¦le/candroj a)delfo\
elfo\j E¥¢ktoro/j e)stin. oi( du/o ui(oi\i\ Pria/mou
ei)si/n. E¥¢ktwr o( a)/ristoj strathgo\
strathgo\j Trwiko\
Trwiko\j kai\
kai\ o( a)/ristoj
ristoj a)/nac
a)ndrw=n Trwikw=n e)sti/n. h( gunh\
gunh\ E¥¢ktoroj A¦ndroma/xh e)sti/n. kai\ kai\
ui(o\n A¦stua/nakta e)/xousin. to\ to\ o)/noma tou= fi/lou paido\
paido\j ``a)/nac
pole/wj”” e)sti/n. e)n Troi/$ E¥le/nh met ¦ A¦leca/ndrou e)n toi=j
basilei/oij oi)kei=. to\
to\ xalepo/n e)stin o(/ti E¥le/nh e)/ti h( gunh\ gunh\
Menela/ou, tou= a)delfou= A¦game/mnono/j e)stin. A¦ndroma/xh e)n toi=j
basilei/oij meq ¦ E¢¥ktoroj kai\
kai\ met ¦ A¦stua/naktoj kai\kai\ tw=n dou/lwn
oi)kei=. oi( a)/ndrej bai/nousin e)k th=j po/lewj e)n t%= pedi/% pro\ pro\ tw=n
teixw=n tw=n Troi/hj. ai( pollai\
pollai\ mega/lai ma/xai gi/gnontai e)n t%=
pole/m%.

27
 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 8

In which we learn about infinitives.

Infinitives exist in most languages. In English, infinitives are two words--

the word “to” and the verb, for example, “to go” or “to see”. In Latin, infinitives
are one word--ending most of the time in --re.

Sometimes English teachers talk about split infinitives--that means putting

a word between “to” and the verb. You can’t do that in Latin, even if you want to--
you can’t do it in Greek either because a Greek infinitive is also only one word.

Infinitives in Greek can be active (“to”) or middle/passive (“to be”) and they
have the same tense indicators as before. (−σ− −σ−for
−σ− future and −σα− for aorist.)
Second aorist infinitives add a present infinitive ending to an aorist root.
Infinitives in Greek NEVER HAVE AUGMENTS.

The ending for infinitives are listed below

ACTIVE MIDDLE/PASSIVE TENSE

an, ein esqai present, future, 2nd aorist
s)ai
(s ai s)asqai,
(s asqai, (h
h)nai
nai all other tenses

In most cases infinitives are translated with “to” or “to be”. Sometimes in
indirect statements (dialogue without quotation marks), they are translated as a
verb of whatever tense the infinitive is in.

Tell whether the infinitives below are active (“to”) or passive (“to be”). Tell the
tense too--present, future or aorist.

1. tima=n 11. o(ra=n

2. timh/sasqai 12. paideu/sein
3. timh/sesqai 13. paideu/sasqai
4. gra/yein 14. gene/sqai
5. gra/fein 15. pepaideuke/nai
6. gra/yai 16. le/gein
7. e)lqei=n 17. filei=n
8. e)/rxesqai 18. feu/gein
9. dou=nai 19. maqei=n
10. i)dei=n 20. a)fiknei=sqai

28
 Enchiridion

Now try to translate these indirect statements. (The subject of the

infinitive, if different from the first verb’s subject is put into the accusative. If the
subject is the same for both parts of the sentence, it is not usually repeated with
the infinitive.) If the infinitive is negative, you will see mh\
mh\ instead of ou) before the
infinitive. (It still means “not”.)

Try these: (You will see eiÅnai,

ai which means “to be”.)

1. a)ndrofo/noj E¥¢ktwr nomi/zei tou\

tou\j Trwikou\
Trwikou\j nika=n.

2. poda\
poda\j w)ku\
u\j A¦xilleu\
illeu\j nomi/zei tou\
tou\j Trwikou\
Trwikou\j nikh/sesqai.

3. Pri/amoj tu/rannoj nomi/zei i)dei=n poda\

poda\j w)ku\
u\n A¦xille/a.

4. poda\
poda\j w)ku\
u\j A¦xilleu\
illeu\j e)/fh E¥¢ktora mh\
mh\ nikh/sein.

5. A¦xilleu\
illeu\j e)/fh eiÅnai a)/ristoj tw=n A¦xaiw=n.

6. polu/mhtij O¦dusseu\
usseu\j e)no/mize ta\
ta\ mega/la tei/xh ta\
ta\ Troi/hj eiÅnai kra/tista.

7. oi( mega/qumoi A¦xaioi\

aioi\ e)/fasan Troi/hn a)
a)pobalei=n to\
to\n po/lemon.

8. leukw/lenoj E¥le/nh e)no/mize lei/yein to\

to\n a)/ndra Mene/laon.

9. bow=pij H¥¢ra e)/fh e)qe/lein dou=nai th\

th\n ni/khn toi=j A¦xaioi=j.

10. H¥¢ra e)/fh to\

to\n pate/ra Dio\
Dio\j fagei=n tou\
tou\j paida/j.

As you can see, these indirect statements can be tricky--but when there are
direct quotes in a story you must be careful; look for all types of verb endings
and subjects, not just s/he, it, they.

ETYMOLOGY

In Greek the word fo/boj means “fear.” Write as many English words as
you can that have “-phobia” or “-phobe” in them.

29
 Enchiridion

TRANSLATION HELP

me/ntoi however
ou)kou=n therefore

MYTHOLOGY

All the Trojan women, Hecuba, the mother of Hector, Andromache, his wife,
and even Helen come to the wall to watch the battle during the day. Sometimes
Hector comes back to the city and naturally the women are happy that he is still
alive. There is a famous scene in the Iliad when Helen and Astyanax meet Hector
on the wall and talk with him. The baby is frightened of Hector’s helmet, so he
takes it off. Andromache tells Hector about her worries and he responds to her.

e)pi\i\ toi=j tei/xesi toi=j Troi/hj pa=sai ai( gunai=kej, E¥ka/bh, h(

mh/thr E¥¢ktoroj, A¦ndroma/xh, h( gunh\
gunh\ E¥¢ktoroj kai\
kai\ E¥le/nh ta\
ta\j ma/xaj
tw=n h(rw/wn pro\pro\j a)llh/louj e)n t%= pedi/% o(rw=sin. E¥¢ktwr e)qe/lwn
o(ra=n th\
th\n gunai=ka, e)k th=j ma/xhj e)j th\ th\n po/lin a)fiknei=tai.
A¦ndroma/xh o(r#= to\ to\n a)/ndra kai\
kai\ eu)dai/mwn e)sti/n. E¥ka/bh o(r#= to\
to\n
fi/lon ui(o\n kai\
kai\ eu)dai/mwn e)sti/n. e)n t$= Ilia/di, A¦ndroma/xh kai\kai\
A¦stua/nac
nac ta\ ta\j ma/xaj E¥¢ktoroj o(rw=sin. E¥¢ktwr e)/rxetai ei)j to to\\
tei=xoj kai\
kai\ E¥¢ktwr met ¦ A¦ndroma/xhj diale/getai. A¦stua/nac, o(
mikro\
mikro\j ui(o\j to\ to\ kra/noj E¥¢ktoroj fobei=tai. E¥¢ktwr gel#= kai\ kai\ to\
to\
kra/noj e)kba/llei.

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 9

In which we learn about participles.

Participles exist in Greek as well as in Latin and English. In most

instances there is something to tell you that a verb form is a participle. The
participle, however, refers to a person or a thing rather than to a verb.

In English, active participles end in -- “ing”. In Latin, they are adjectives

that have --nt--plus an adjective ending. In Greek they are generally easy to
identify. Most active participle forms have the ending of the present participle of
the verb ei)mi/. (Sometimes the vowel at the beginning may change).

When the tenses of the participle change, there are tense indicators that
tell you whether a participle is present, past or future. They can be middle or
passive, in which case they have different endings and different meanings. (We’ll
get to those soon.) But there is one thing--they NEVER HAVE AUGMENTS.
That’s what makes most of them easy to find in the dictionary.

Here is a chart of the present participle of ei)mi/. All the forms mean
“being”, but as you can see the forms change depending on whether they go with
masculine, feminine, neuter words, singular or plural, and how they are used in a
sentence. These forms are used as ENDINGS for the participles of other verbs.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Case

w)/n ouÅsa o)/n Nom. Sing.
o)/ntoj ou)/shj o)/ntoj Gen. Sing.
o)/nti ou)/s$ o)/nti Dat. Sing.
o)/nta ouÅsan o)/n Acc. Sing.
o)/ntej ouÅsai o)/nta Nom. Pl.
o)/ntwn ou)sw=n o)/ntwn Gen. Pl.
ouÅsi (n n) ou)/saij ouÅsi (n n) Dat. Pl.
o)/ntaj ou)/saj o)/nta Acc. Pl.

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 Enchiridion

Translate these phrases with active participles into English.

1. h( gunh\
gunh\ o(rw=sa to\
to\n po/lemon 6. o( a)nh\
h\r e)/)xwn to\
to\ bibli/on e)n t$= xeiri/

2. o( path\
path\r tou= paido\
paido\j kalou=ntoj 7. paideu/wn

3. oi( ui(ei=j tw=n mhte/rwn feugo/ntwn 8. oi( a)poqnh/skontej

4. oi( a)ndre\
dre\j o(rw=ntej th\
th\n po/lin 9. h( bai/nousa

5. o( a)/nac tw=n a)ndrw=n polemizo/ntwn 10. pe/mpwn

pro\
pro\j th\
th\n po/lin

Participles can also come in middle and passive forms. They are easy to
menoj, -me/nh, -menon.
recognize because they end in -menoj, menon. That chart is in Chapter 4;
but we will repeat it here. (Remember that deponent verbs also have
middle/passive forms, but are translated as active.)

Masculine Feminine Neuter

menoj me/nh menon NOMINATIVE SINGULAR

me/nou me/nhj me/nou GENITIVE SINGULAR

me/n% me/n$ me/n% DATIVE SINGULAR

menon me/nhn menon ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR

menoi menai mena NOMINATIVE PLURAL

me/nwn me/nwn me/nwn GENITIVE PLURAL

me/noij me/naij me/noij DATIVE PLURAL

me/nouj menaj mena ACCUSATIVE PLURAL

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 Enchiridion

Translate the present participle phrases below. Be careful--some are

deponent (translate with “-ing”); some are truly middle/passive (translate with
“being...”). How to tell the difference? When you look up deponent verbs, they
do NOT end with an ω; they end with µαι. Therefore---if you look up a verb and it
ends in ω, but the participle ends in µενος, −η, −ον,
−ον that is a middle/passive form.
Translate : “being.....”

1. o( a)nh\
h\r e)rxo/menoj

2. ai( gunai=kej o(rw/menai

3. oi( paide\
paide\j kalou/
kalou/menoi

4. ta\
ta\ dw/ra a)fiknou/mena

5. tou= andro\
andro\j e(pome/nou

6. o( strathgo\
strathgo\j timw/menoj e)n t$= po/lei

7. oi( paide\
paide\j fobou/menoi

8. tai=j gunaici\
gunaici\ leipome/naij

9. oi( eu(risko/menoi

10. ai( e(po/menai

From the last exercise you can see that participles can be used with an
article to make a noun, e.g. “the _____ men.”

As we already said participles can have tenses in Greek. The tense

indicators are the same as for the verbs in Chapter 6. There is one difference,
however: PARTICIPLES DO NOT HAVE AUGMENTS.

TENSE INDICATORS

−−σ−− = future (“intending to, will be ------ing, would”)

−−σα− = aorist (“having .........”)
second aorist participles have present participle endings on the second
aorist root (“having.....”)

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 Enchiridion

Translate the following participles:

1. timh/swn 12. oi( nikh/santej

2. kale/saj 13. ai( paideu/sasai
3. i)do/ntej 14. ta\
ta\j pemya/saj
4. eu(rw=n 15. tou\
tou\j pe/myontaj
5. filh/santej 16. h( ballou=sa
6. filh/sontej 17. oi( ba/lontej
7. e)lqo/
qo/ntej 18. o( pi/nwn
8. h( lipou=sa 19. o( piw=n
9. tou\
tou\j timh/santaj 20. to\
to\n paqo/nta
10. oi( le/contej 21. h( pa/sxousa
11. ai( le/gousai 22. oi( dako/ntej

Tenses can also combine with middle/passive participle forms ending in

µενος, η, ον. Translate future as “intending to be, would be”; aorist as “having
been” or just with an English past participle. Translate these participles--watch
out for deponents!

1. i)do/menai
2. to\
to\ leco/menon
3. ta\
ta\ faino/mena
4. oi( a)delfoi
elfoi\ filou/menoi
5. ta\
ta\ o)no/mata lego/mena
6. oi( pole/mioi maxo/menoi
7. ai( a)fiko/menai
8. h( lipome/nh
9. ta\
ta\j o(rwme/naj
10. ta\
ta\ labo/mena

ETYMOLOGY

The word e)pi/ in Greek is a preposition meaning “in” or “on”. Write as

many English words as you can that use this Greek word as a prefix.

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 Enchiridion

TRANSLATION HELP

e)pei/ since, when

o(/ti that

MYTHOLOGY

In the Trojan War the young men fight on the plains in front of the city. The
old men, even Priam the king, stay inside the city with the women and the
children. Helen also lives in the city of Troy. On one day the goddess Iris
summons Helen to the wall to see the fight between Paris and her husband
Menelaus.

The following passage in Greek is from Book 3 of the Iliad. If you see
quotation marks, you will have to look at the verb charts to see if the subject is
possibly “I” or “you”. Make use of all the charts that are available to you. You
will not know some of the words yet; try at least to write the Greek words for the
difficult parts of the passage. This is not easy; Homer’s spelling isn’t exactly
dictionary perfect. Try for the meaning of the passage, not every detail. There
are often a lot of extra vowels on the endings of nouns; sometimes words have a
double consonant (ss ss)
ss where you would expect only one consonant. Try to find
words that are similar to what you see in the passage.

IÕrij eiÅpen:
``au)ta\ a\r A¦le/candroj kai\ kai\ a)rhi/filoj Mene/laoj
makr$=s ¦ e)gxei/$si maxe/ssontai peri\ peri\ sei=o!
t%= de/ ke nikh/santi fi/lh keklh/ keklh/s$ a)/koitij.””
w(\j ei)pou=sa qea\ qea\ gluku\
gluku\n i(/meron e)/mbale qum%=
140 a)ndro/j te prote/roio kai\ kai\ a)/steoj h)de\e\ tokh/wn.
........................
145 aiÅya d¡ e)/peiq ¦ i(/kanon, o(/qi Skaiai\Skaiai\ pu/lai hÅsan.
oi(/ d¡ a)mfi\ fi\ Pri/amon kai\
kai\ Pa/nqoon h)de\ e\ Qumoi/thn
La/mpon te Kluti/on q¡ I¥keta/ona/ t¡ o)/zon A¦¢rhoj
Ou)kale/gwn te kai\ kai\ A¦nth/nwr, pepnume/nw a)/mfw.

Iliad 3.136-140; 145-148

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 10

In which we study lots of pronouns.

There are different types of pronouns: personal, (I, you, me, her,
them); demonstrative, (this, that); reflexive, (myself, herself, himself);
relative, (who, which); interrogative, (who?, what?); indefinite, (anyone,
anything, whatever).

Luckily, since reading/translating is our goal, you don’t have to

memorize the forms, just identify what you see in Greek.

Let’s start with personal pronouns. Here’s a chart!

I you he she it CASE

e)gw/ su/ NOM.
e)mou= sou= au)tou= au)th=j au)tou= GEN.
e)moi/ soi/ au)t%= au)t$= au)t%= DAT.
e)me/ se/ au)to/n au)th/n au)to/ ACC.
PLURAL
h(mei=j u(mei=j NOM.
h(mw=n u(mw=n au)tw=n au)tw=n au)tw=n GEN.
h(mi=n u(mi=n au)toi=j au)tai=j au)toi=
toi=j DAT.
h(ma=j u(ma=j au)tou/j au)ta/j au)ta/ ACC.

You can see several things from this chart. First with I, if you drop
the first e from e)me/, it is spelled “me,” the same as in English. In fact,
Greek often drops the e) in all the forms except e)gw/.

You can also see that the plurals for “we” and “you” are the same
except for the first letter. The first letter of “you” starts with u(.

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 Enchiridion

The third thing that you notice is that the words for “he, she, it,
they,” have the same endings as the definite article (from Chapter 2.) You
also see that there is no subject pronoun for these, because if absolutely
necessary, another word is used.

You can also combine these pronouns to make reflexives: for

example: e)mauto/n--myself; seauto/n--yourself.

Try these short sentences with personal pronouns in them.

1. e)me\
e\ filei=.

2. se\
se\ filou=sin.

3. e)gw\
w\ u(ma=j filw=.

4. kai\
kai\ su/, te/knon;

5. gnw=qi seauto/n.

6. au)th\
h\n eiÅdon e)n t$= o(d%=.

7. E¥¢ktwr au)t$= to\

to\ dw/ron e)/dwken.

8./ A¦le/candroj au)tai=j ou)k eiÅpen.

9. u(pe\
e\r au)tw=n ou) moi\
moi\ eiÅpon.

10. hÅlqon meta\

meta\ sou= ei)j th\
th\n po/lin.

Next are some demonstrative pronouns. Here are three that can be
used as adjectives as well.

ouÂtoj, au(/th, tou=to means “this, these.” It will be in a chart in a

minute, but you can see that it has the endings of the definite article.

o(/de, h(/de, to/de also means “this, these.” In this case, it’s the
beginning of the word that is the same as the definite article, and de is
tacked onto the end of the word.

e)kei=noj, e)kei/nh, e)kei=no means “that, those.” There is no reason to

even look at that because you can recognize it easily.

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 Enchiridion

Here’s the chart!

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER CASE

ouÒtoj au(/th tou=to NOMINATIVE
tou/tou tau/thj tou/
tou/tou GENITIVE
tou/t% tau/t$ tou/t% DATIVE
tou=ton tau/thn tou=to ACCUSATIVE
PLURAL
ouÒtoi auÒtai tau=ta NOMINATIVE
tou/twn tou/twn tou/twn GENITIVE
tou/toij tau/taij tou/toij DATIVE
tou/touj tau/taj tau=ta ACCUSATIVE

Translate these sentences with demonstratives in them.

1. ouÒtoj ou)/k e)sti fi/loj e)mou=.

2. tau=ta ou)k e)pi/statai.
3. tou/touj a)pe/kteinen e)n t$= ma/x$.
4. au(/th ou)/k e)stin A¦ndroma/xh.
5. oi( fi/loi tou/tou a)pe/qanon e)n t%= pole/m%.
6. h(/de e)sti\
ti\ h( po/lij nikhsqei=
nikhsqei=sa e)n t$= ma/x$.
7. th/nde huÒron e)pi\i\ t%= tei/xei.
8. ta/d¡ ou)k e)moi\
oi\ eiÕpon.
9. to/d¡ e)n xeiri/ e)/xei o(/ti e)qe/lei ma/xesqai toi=j polemi/oij.
10. t%=de e(/sponto pro\
pro\j to\
to\n potamo/n.

Next are relative pronouns. These are pronouns that are used in
complex sentences and mean “who, which, whose, that.” You really don’t
need a chart for these because they look just like the article EXCEPT they
always have an accent, they never have a “tt” and they always start with a
vowel and a rough breathing.

Try these sentences that have relative pronouns in them.

1. A¦ndroma/xh, h(\ hÕn gunh\

gunh\ E¥¢ktoroj, e)/meinen e)n Troi/$.
2. A¦xilleu\
illeu\j ou)k e)fi/lei ta\
ta\ dw/ra a(\ A¦game/mnwn au)t%= e)/dwken.
3. oi( a)/ndrej ou(\j E¥le/nh eiÕden hÕsan A¦xaioi/
xaioi/.
4. o( a)nh\
h\r meq¡ ou E¥le/nh e)/lipe th\
th\n oi)ki/an Menela/ou hÕn A¦le/candroj.
5. ai( gunai=kej, ai(\j eiÅpen Eàktwr, hÕsan Trwikai/.

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 Enchiridion

The next pronoun means two different things. With an accent it

means “who?, what?, which?, why?.” Those sentences will also end with
a Greek question mark “ ; ”. Without an accent it means, “anyone,
anything, any,” and it’s not a question. The masculine and feminine forms
are the same, the neuter is different.

When this pronoun is combined with the relative pronoun it means

“whoever, whatever.” In Greek that is o(/stij, h(/tij, o(/ ti. The accent is on
the first part, not on the second part.

Here’s a chart with accents.

who?, whose?, whom? what? which? why? CASE

ti/j ti/ NOMINATIVE
ti/noj, tou= ti/
ti/noj, tou= GENITIVE
ti/ni, t%= ti/ni, t%= DATIVE
ti/na ti/ ACCUSATIVE
PLURAL
ti/nej ti/na NOMINATIVE
ti/nwn ti/nwn GENITIVE
ti/si nŸ ti/si nŸ DATIVE
ti/naj ti/na ACCUSATIVE

The next sentences will be mixed together; be sure to look for the accent
(or lack of accent) and the question mark to know how to translate.

1. ti/j e)sti\
ti\n e)kto\
to\j tou= tei/xouj?;
2. ti/ e)qe/lei A¦xilleu\
illeu\j a)po\o\ Troi/hj;
3. A¦xilleu\
illeu\j mh/nidoj e(/neka/ tinaj a)pe/kteinen ou(\j eiÕden.
4. o(/ ti Zeu\
Zeu\j le/gei, oi( a)/nqrwpoi poiou=sin.
5. ti/nej hÅsan fi/loi tw=n A¦xaiw=n;
6. e)n pole/m% tij pa/skei.
7. ti/na a)pe/kteinen E¥¢ktwr;
8. h( mh/thr tino\
tino\j eu)dai/mwn e)sti\
ti\n e)pei\
ei\ to\
to\n ui(o\n o(r#=.
9. ti/ni to\
to\n a)/qlon e)/dwken A¦le/candroj;
10. oi(/ tinej tou\
tou\j Trwikou
Trwikou\ou\j filou=si/n ei)sin e)xqroi\
qroi\ toi=j A¦xaioi=j.

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 Enchiridion

This has been a long chapter BUT there’s one more thing to do.
Those are the Greek words for “one,” “no one,” “nothing.” In Greek they
are based on the word “one” which in Greek is in the last chart for this
chapter.

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER CASE

eiÂj mi/a e(/n NOMINATIVE
E(no/j mia=j e(no/j GENITIVE
E(ni/ mi#= e(ni/ DATIVE
E (/n a mi/an e(/n ACCUSATIVE

The Greek word for “no one” or “nothing” has the same forms as you see
in the chart. The masculine and neuter forms just add ou)d or mhd in front
of ei/j ---ou)
---ou)dei/j, mhdei/j. Only the ending is changed. For the feminine
forms add ou)de, mhde---
mhde---ou)
---ou)demi/a, mhdemi/a.

Try reading these Greek sentences.

1. e)n mi#= h(me/r#, polloi\

polloi\ A¦xaioi\
aioi\ a)pe/qanon.
2. A¦xilleu\
illeu\j ou)de/na e)n t%= potam%= eiÅden.
3. o( strato\
strato\j ou)de\e\n e)/fage meta\
meta\ th\
th\n ma/xhn, a)lla\la\ pa/nta e)/fage pro\pro\
th=j ma/xhj.
4. e)pei\
ei\ o( Ku/klwy h)rw/thsen, ``ti/j e)sti/n;”” di=oj O¦dusseu\
usseu\j eiÕpe ``mhdei/j.””
5. Pri/
Pri/amoj me\me\n penth/konta ui(ou\ u\j e)/xei , E¥¢ktwr d¡ e(/na ui(o\n e)/xei.

ETYMOLOGY

me/tron in Greek means “measure”. The English form of this root is

“meter.” Find as many words as you can with this root. (You will see it
combine with other Greek roots that make words almost identical to
English ones.)

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 Enchiridion

TRANSLATION HELP

w(/j thus, so
de/, d¡ but, for, although, while

MYTHOLOGY

This passage is also from Book 3 of the Iliad. Some of the words are
difficult, but try to find as many of them as you can. Write out the Greek
words that you do not know, and be sure to ask about the Greek words that
you could not find. This passage is not simplified. Some of the spellings
and/or endings may be different from what you have seen. Try to see if you
can get a general meaning; don’t spend a lot of time on any one word. Just
write it down and try to find the meaning. You can get the details in class.

After Helen goes to the wall and sees the Trojan elders there, King
Priam asks her about the identity of the Greek warriors that are fighting on
the plains in front of Troy.

w(\j a)/r¡ e)/fan! Pri/amoj d¡ E¥le/nhn e)kale/ssato fwn$=!

``deu=ro pa/roiq¡ e)lqou=sa, fi/lon te/koj, i(/zeu e)mei=o,
o)/fra i)/d$ pro/tero/n te po/sin phou/j te fi/louj ouj te, --
ou)/ ti/ moi ai)ti/h e)ssi/! qeoi/ nu/ moi ai)/tioi/ ei)sin,
165 oi(/ moi e)fw/rmhsan po/lemon polu/dakrun A¦xaiw=n,,-- --
w(/j moi kai\
kai\ to/nd¡ a)/ndra pelw/rion e)conomh/n$j,
o(/j tij o(/d¡ e)sti\
ti\n A¦xaio\
aio\j a)nh\
h\r h)u/j te me/gaj te.
hÅ toi me\
me\n kefal$=
kefal$= kai\
kai\ mei/zonej a)/lloi ea)/sin!
kalo\
kalo\n d¡ ou(/tw e)gw\ w\n ou)/ pw i)/don o)fqalmoi=sin
170 ou)d¡ ou(/tw geraro/n! basilh=i ga\ ga\r a)ndri\
dri\ e)/oiken.””

Iliad 3.161-170

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 11

In which we talk about subjunctive as we see it in quotes.

You’ve studied Latin? You didn’t understand the reasons why

subjunctive was used? You hated spending so much time with so little to
show for it? Good!

There are all sorts of rules for subjunctive in Greek, if you are writing
ancient Greek. So WE might have to come up with some atrocious sample
to prove that WE know it.

But--

Reading Greek is the goal. So, if you can live with some ambiguity in
verb forms, this lesson will be short and to the point.

1. Subjunctive is used for a variety of reasons, usually dealing with

emotions, wishes or other things that may or may not come true.

2. There is no future subjunctive because, in a way, future itself may

or may not come true. For subjunctive the tenses are present, aorist and
perfect.

3. The endings for the verbs in subjunctive are basically like other
endings except they become longer vowels. For example:
w becomes w=

e becomes h=

ei becomes $=

(These endings are actually the present subjunctive form of the verb
to be: wÕ, $Õj, $Õ, wÕmen, hÕte, wÕsi)
i

4. Subjunctives are generally used with present or future in the main

part of the sentence, which pretty much limits their appearance to
dialogue.

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 Enchiridion

5. There are NO AUGMENTS in subjunctives (just like infinitives and

participles.)

And most important:

6. They translate into English in the same way that the tenses you
have already seen are translated.

If you want the fuss, the accents, the reasons for use, more power to
you. But you DON’T need them in order to be able to translate subjunctive.

Try the sentences below. They are all direct quotes.

1. A¦game/mnwn eiÅpe, ``e)a\n A¦xilleu\

illeu\j e)/lq$, oi( A¦xaioi\
aioi\ nikh/sousin.””

2. A¦xilleu\
illeu\j e)/fh, ``e)a\n A¦game/mnwn strathgo\
strathgo\j $Õ, ou) maxou=mai meta\
meta\

tw=n A¦xaiw=n.””

3. Pri/amoj tu/rannoj eiÕpe, ``o(/stij a)\n mh\

mh\ e)qe/l$ ma/xesqai pro\
pro\j tou\
tou\j

A¦xaiou/j, ou) menei= e)n Troi/$.””

4. Mene/laoj e)/fh, ``e)a\n A)le/candroj e)moi\

oi\ ma/xhtai, au)to\
o\n a)poktenw=.””

5. A¦le/candroj eiÕpe, ``e)a\n A¦xilleu\

illeu\j mh\
mh\ ma/xhtai, E¥le/nh met¡ e)mou=

menei=.””

6. E¥
E¥le/nh e)/fh, ``e)a\n Mene/laoj mh\
mh\ li/p$ Troi/hn, o( A¦xaio\
aio\j strato\
strato\j

nikh/sei.””

7. A¦ndroma/xh eiÕpe, ``e)peida\

eida\n oi( qeoi\
qeoi\ e)qe/lwsi, oi( Trwikoi\
Trwikoi\

a)poqanou=ntai.””

8. O¦dusseu\
usseu\j e)/fh, ``oi(/ tinej a)\n wÕsi kra/tistoi tou\
tou\j plou/touj Troi/hj

e(/cousin.””
ousin.””

9. E¥¢ktwr eiÅpe, ``e)peida\

eida\n mh\
mh\ wÕ a)/nac, polloi\
polloi\ Trwikoi\
Trwikoi\ a)poqnh/skousin.””

10. Zeu\
Zeu\j e)/fh, ``e)a\n e)qelw= dou=nai e)lpi/da toi=j Trwikoi=j, H¥¢ra o)rgi/zetai.””

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 Enchiridion

ETYMOLOGY

In Greek the word “ fe/rw”

w means carry. Find as many English words
as you can that have “fer” in them.

TRANSLATION HELP

te and (like --que in Latin)

aiÅya quickly, forthwith

MYTHOLOGY

Try to do the passage below. When you see quotation marks, you
will have to look at the verb chart endings to see if the subject is “I” or
“you.” This passage is taken from Book 3 of the Iliad.

Helen continues to talk about the Greek warriors on the plain in her
conversation with Priam.

to\
to\n d¡ E¥le/nh mu/qoisin a)mei/beto di=a gunaikw=n !
““ai)
““ai)doi=o/j te/ moi/ e)ssi, fi/le e(kure/
ure/, deino/j te!
w(j o)/felen qa/nato/j moi a(dei++=n kako/j, o(ppo/te deu=ro
ui(e/i s%= e(po/mhn, qa/lamon gnwtou/j te lipou=sa
175 pai=da/ te thluge/thn kai\ kai\ o(mhliki/hn e)rateinh/n.
a)lla\
la\ ta/ g¡ ou)k e)ge/nonto! to\ to\ kai\
kai\ klai/ousa te/thka.
tou=to de/ toi e)re/w, o(/ m¡ a)nei/reai h)de\e\ metall#=j!
ouÂtoj g¡ A¦trei/+dhj eu)ru\ u\ krei/wn A¦game/mnwn,
a)mfo/teron, basileu/j t¡ a)gaqo\ aqo\j kratero/j t¡ ai)xmhth/j!
180 dah\
dah\r auÅt¡ e)mo\ o\j e)/ske kunw/pidoj, ei)/ pot¡ e)/hn ge.””
ge.””

Iliad 3.171-180

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 12

In which we learn the optative mood.

This will be another short lesson.

Reasons for optative are mainly the same as reasons for subjunctive. Do
you need to know forms? Only if you’re writing, not just reading Greek.
Frequency of use? More frequent than subjunctive, because optative is used
mainly with past tenses, which we see more frequently because not many brand
new ancient Greek works are coming off the presses.

What do you need to know?

1. Optative is used mainly in reference to the past, but it does have a future
(which usually gets translated as “would.”). It is also used to express wishes: “if
ei)/te, ei) ga\
only...” (ei) ga\r)

2. The signs for recognizing optative are simple most of the time. Before
oi--
oi-- added for the present; --soi
the verb ending in an optative you will see --oi soi--
soi
sai--added
sai
added for the the future; and --sai oi--for
oi
for the aorist (--oi second aorist).
The “s/he, they” endings may give you some trouble in the aorist but....

3. There are NO AUGMENTS for optatives (just like participles, infinitives

and subjunctives.)

4. The optative forms of eiÅmi --ei)

--ei)/hn, ei)/hj, ei)/h, ei)/men, ei)/te, ei)/hsan
are, as usual, different from the rest of the usual optative forms.

And most important:

5. Except for future optative (which gets translated as “would,”) they

translate into English the same way other verb moods (indicative, subjunctive)
have been translated.

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 Enchiridion

Try these sentences with optatives in them.

1. A¦le/candroj e)fobei=to mh\

mh\ Mene/laoj au)to\
o\n a)poktei/neien.

2. ei)
ei) ga\
ga\r pa/ntej oi( A¦xaioi\
aioi\ a)poqa/noien.

3. oi( Trwikoi\
Trwikoi\ e)fobh/santo mh\
mh\ A¦xilleu\
illeu\j ni/keioj ei)/h.

4. ei) Zeu\
Zeu\j th\
th\n ni/khn toi=j Trwikoi=j doi/h, H¥¢ra au)to\
o\n e)pe/lqoi a)/n.

5. ei) A¦le/candroj e)/xoi E¥le/nhn, eu)dai/mwn ei)/hn a)/n.

6. ei) o( Ku/klwy
lwy mh\
mh\ pi/oi to\
to\n oiÅnon, tou\
tou\j a)/ndraj O¦dusse/wj fa/goi a)/n.

7. O¦dusseu\
usseu\j e)fobei=to mh\
mh\ o( Ku/klwy ou) pi/oi to\
to\n oi)=non.

8. ei) A¦le/candroj A¦xille/a i)/doi, dra/moi a)/n.

9. o( ma/ntij eiÅpe o(t¡ ei) E¥ka/bh mh\

mh\ te/koi A¦le/candron, ou)k ei)/h a)\n po/
po/lemoj

A¦xaio\
aio\j pro\
pro\j Troi/hn.

10. E¥le/nh e)fobei=to mh\

mh\ Mene/laoj au)t$= e(/spoito ei)j Troi/hn.

ETYMOLOGY

itij gives the suffix -itis, which means “inflammation of”.

The suffix -itij
Write as many English words as you can which use this suffix.

TRANSLATION HELP

w(j how, as, when, in order to

-w=j as an ending on an adjective to make it an adverb

kako/j, kakw=j)
(for example: bad, badly---kako/

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 Enchiridion

MYTHOLOGY

Below is another part of Helen’s conversation with Priam. They talk about
someone else that they see in front of the walls of Troy.

deu/teron auÅt¡ O¦dush=a i)dw\ w\n e)re/ein¡ o( geraio/j!

``ei)/p¡ a)/ge moi kai\
kai\ to/nde, fi/lon te/koj, o(/s tij o(/d¡ e)sti/n!
mei/wn me\ me\n kefal$= A¦game/mnonoj A¦trei/+dao,
eu)ru/teroj d¡ w)/moisin i)de\ e\ ste/rnoisin i)de/sqai.
195 teu/xea me/n oi( kei=tai e)pi\i\ xqoni\
xqoni\ poulubotei/r$,
au)to\ o\j de\
de\ kti/loj w(/j e)pipwlei=tai sti/xaj a)ndrw=n!
a)rnei%= min e)gw/ ge e)i/skw phgesima/ll%,
o(/j t¡ o)i/wn me/ga pw=u die/rxetai a)rgenna/wn.””
to\
to\n d¡ h)mei/bet¡ e)/peiq¡ E¥le/
le/nh Dio\
Dio\j e)kgegaui=a!
200 ``ouÂtoj d¡ auÅ Laertia/dhj polu/mhtij O¦dusseu/j,
o(/j tra/fh e)n dh/m% I¦qa/khj kranah=j per e)ou/shj
ei)dw\w\j pantoi/ouj te do/louj kai\ kai\ mh/dea pukna/.””

Iliad 3.191-202

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 Enchiridion

CHAPTER 13

In which we see some dreaded irregular verbs.

e)sti/n, hÅn, e)fh, e)/fasan).

Don’t panic! You’ve already seen some irregulars (e) asan
If you’d like to know all 300 forms for each of these irregular verbs, they should
be available in most traditional grammar books. Please feel free to investigate
them all.

However, to read Greek you need to recognize them when they appear.
(sound familiar yet?) Following the method we’ve used so far, examine the verb,
look for clues (singular/plural, active/middle/passive, tense) and try to find the
meaning of these hard to recognize words. If they appear so rarely, the best use
of time is not to memorize them.

How to recognize irregular verbs when you see them? First you have to
figure out how to look them up in the dictionary to find out their meaning, and
you also have to figure out how to translate them into English. Most, but not all,
have two distinct roots--one for present, future and imperfect; the other root for
aorist.

Here’s a chart!

VERB PRES. STEM AOR. STEM MEANING

i(/sthmi i(st--
t-- --sta
--sta--
sta-- make a stand
ti/qhmi tiq--
tiq-- --qe
--qe--
qe-- place
di/dwmi did--
did-- --do
--do--
do-- give
dei/knumi deik--
deik-- --deic
--deic--
deic-- show
i(/hmi i(h-- --ei(
--ei(--
-- hurl, send
fhmi/ fh--
fh-- --fai
--fai--
fai-- speak
eiÅmi ei)/--
-- --i)
--i)/--
-- go

If you see any of these you can pick out the tense by the spelling of the
root. Present stem gives present, future, imperfect (with augment), present
subjunctive, present and future optative. With the aorist stem, only the indicative
will have an augment--nothing else does.

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 Enchiridion

Try these sentences.

1. ou)
ou)/ moi to\
to\ bibli/on e)/dosan.
2. e)a/n moi to\
to\ bibli/on did%=, soi\
soi\ le/cw.
3. oi( sta/ntej e)n t%= pedi/% nikh/sousin.
4. e)gw\
w\ soi\
soi\ dei=cai to\
to\ bibli/on e)qe/lw.
5. to\
to\ bibli/on e)pi\i\ t%= tei/xei e)/qesan.

Unfortunately, these verbs are rather frequent and prefixes are often added
to them. Below is a list of these verbs with prefixes added.

a)nadei/knumi e)fi/hmi parati/qhmi

a)ni/hmi e)fi/sthmi peridi/dwmi
a)ni/sthmi kaqi/hmi perii/sthmi
a)podi/dwmi kaqi/sthmi periti/qhmi
a)fi/sthmi katadei/knumi prodi/dwmi
e)kdei/knumi katadi/dwmi prosi/hmi
e)kdi/dwmi katati/qhmi prosi/sthmi
e)ni/hmi meqi/hmi prosti/
prosti/qhmi
e)ni/sthmi meqi/sthmi su/neimi
e)nti/qhmi metati/qhmi suni/hmi
e)/ceimi pa/reimi suni/sthmi
e)ci/hmi paradei/knumi sunti/qhmi
e)ci/sthmi paradi/dwmi u(podei/knumi
e)pidi/dwmi pari/hmi u(fi/hmi
e)piti/
iti/qhmi pari/sthmi u(fi/sthmi

The trick is to look for two things.

If there is an augment it comes after the prefix. With an augment

and the present root (the one you see in the dictionary form of the verb) it
can only be ?----imperfect. If you see an augment with a past root (given in
the chart) it must be? --a past tense of indicative only.

If there is no augment it might be present or future tense, but they

aren’t used very much, so look at the end of the word.

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 Enchiridion

Infinitive and participle endings are added at the end for present or
future (if added onto the present root); verb endings that look strange on a
present root mean present subjunctive or present/future optative.

Infinitive and participle endings added at the end of a past root

(given in the chart) make past participles and infinitives. Past tense verb
endings without an augment at the beginning of the verb mean past
subjunctive or optative.

Thoroughly confused? We wanted to prove to you that we know

what we’re doing, but this hurts us more than it hurts you because we
actually had to come up with the next exercise.

The real job is just to translate the words below; but all of these are
new vocabulary so rather than that, JUST tell as much as you can about the
words. For example: a translation like “to ______ aorist”--leave the
meaning blank; “they were_______”--leave the meaning blank; for the
technically inclined you can write “3rd person sing. aorist optative” but
that is really cruel and unusual punishment, so if you decide to do that, you
might as well look up all the meanings for these irregular verbs.

1. a)nadeiknu=sa 16. e)fei=san 31. peristw=si

2. a)ni/ete 17. kataqh/sein 32. peri/qentej
3. a)ne/sthsan 18. kaqistai/h 33. prodido/nai
4. a)po/dosqai 19. katadei=cai 34. prosei=sa
5. a)fi/stanai 20. katadou=nai 35. prosista=si
6. e)ce/deican 21. meqh/sesqai 36. prostiqh/sein
7. e)kdidoi/h 22. mete/qesan 37. sunie/nai
8. e)nei/h 23. meqasth=
meqasth=nai 38. suni/entej
9. e)nsth=nai 24. parhsa/menoj 39. sune/sthsan
10. e)ne/qhke 25. paradei/caien 40. sunqei=en
11. e)cie/nai 26. parado/ntej 41. u(pe/deica
12. e)cistai=en 27. parasta/ntej 42. u(fei=san
13. e)pe/dosan 28. paraqei=
paraqei=nai 43. u(fisth/sein
14. e)peti/qesan 29. pareiso/menoj
15. e)fei=j 30. peridoi=en

That was an extremely difficult exercise; normally you see the words
in the context of a story and that will be an easier task. Sorry.....

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 Enchiridion

ETYMOLOGY

e)k”means “out” and “tomoj

In Greek the word “e) tomoj”
tomoj means “cut. Find
English words with the suffix “ectomy” which means “cut out.”

TRANSLATION HELP

au)ta/r, a)t but, yet, however

toi soi”
soi
in Homer = “soi

MYTHOLOGY

This is part of the famous scene in Book 6 of the Iliad when Andromache
talks to Hector on the walls of Troy and tells him how she feels.

390 o(\ d¡ a)pe/ssuto dw/matoj E¥¢ktwr

th\
th\n au)th\ h\n o(do\
o\n auÅtij e)uktime/naj kat¡ a)guia/j.
euÅte pu/laj i(/kane dierxo/menoj me/ga a)/stu
Skaia/j, t$= a)/r¡ e)/melle dieci/menai pedi/onde,
e)/nq¡ a)/loxoj polu/dwroj e)nanti/h hÅlqe qe/ousa
395 A¦ndroma/xh, quga/thr megalh/toroj H¦eti/wnoj,
H¦eti/wn, o(/j e)/naien u(po\ o\ Pla/k% u(lhe/ss$.
Qh/b$ u(poplaki/$, Kili/kess¡ a)/ndressin a)na/sswn!
tou= per dh\ dh\ quga/thr e) e)/xeq¡ E¥¢ktori xalkokorust$=.
h(/ oi( e)/peit¡ h)/nths¡, a(/ma d¡ a)mfi/poloj ki/en au)t$=.
400 pai=d¡ e)pi\i\ ko/lp% e)/xous¡ a)tala/frona, nh/pion au)/twj,
E¥ktori/dhn a)gaphto\aphto\n a)li/gkion a)ste/ri kal%=,
to/n r(¡ E¥¢ktwr kale/eske Skama/ndrion, au)ta\ a\r oi( a)/lloi
A¦stua/nakt¡! oiÅoj ga\ ga\r e)ru/eto I¦¢lion E¥¢ktwr.
hÅ toi o(/ me\
me\n mei/dhsen i)dw\ w\n e)j pai=da siwp$=!
405 A¦ndroma/xh de/ oi( a)/gxi pari/stato da/kru xe/ousa
e)/n t¡ a)/ra oi( fu= xeiri\
xeiri\ e)/poj t¡ e)/fat` e)/k t¡ o)no/mazen!

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 Enchiridion

``daimo/nie, fqi/sei se to\

to\ so\
so\n me/noj, ou)d¡ e)leai/reij
pai=da/ te nhpi/axon kai\ kai\ e)/m¡ a)/mmoron, h(\ ta/xa xh/rh
seu= e)/somai! ta/xa ga/r se kataktene/ousin A¦xaioi\ aioi\
410 pa/ntej e)formhqe/ntej. e)moi\ oi\ de/ ke ke/rdion ei)/h
seu= a)famartou/s$ xqo/na du/menai! ou) ga\ ga\r e)/t¡ a)/llh
e)/stai qalpwrh/, e)pei\ ei\ a)\n su/ ge po/tmon e)pi/sp$j,
a)ll¡ a)/xe¡! ou)de/ moi¡ e)/sti path\
path\r kai\
kai\ po/tnia mh/thr.
..............

E¥¢ktor, a)ta\
a\r su/ moi¡ e)ssi path\
path\r kai\
kai\ po/tnia mh/thr
430 h)de\
e\ kasi/gnhtoj, su\
su\ de/ moi qalero\
qalero\j parakoi/thj.
a)ll¡ a)/ge nu=n e)le/aire kai\
kai\ au)tou= mi/mn¡ e)pi\i\ pu/rg%,
mh\
mh\ pai=d¡ o)rfaniko\
faniko\n qh/$j xh/rhn te gunai=ka.``

Iliad 6.390-413; 6.429-32

52