Transferencia de Calor Analitico PDF

Analytical
Heat
Transfer
Je-Chin Han
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1. Heat Conduction Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1.1 Fourier’s Conduction Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2.1 Newton’s Cooling Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3.1 Stefan–Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 General Heat Conduction Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Derivations of General Heat Conduction Equations . . . . . 6
1.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Simplified Heat Conduction Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2. 1-D Steady-State Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1 Conduction through Plane Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Conduction through Circular Tube Walls . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Critical Radius of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Conduction with Heat Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Conduction through Fins with Uniform
Cross-Sectional Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Fin Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1.1 Fin Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1.2 Fin Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Radiation Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Conduction through Fins with Variable
Cross-Sectional Area: Bessel Function Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
v
vi Contents
3. 2-D Steady-State Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.1 Method of Separation of Variables: Given
Temperature BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Method of Separation of Variables: Given Heat Flux
and Convection BCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.1 Given Surface Heat Flux BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.2 Given Surface Convection BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Principle of Superposition for Nonhomogeneous BCs
Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3.1 2-D Heat Conduction in Cylindrical
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4 Principle of Superposition for Multidimensional Heat
Conduction and for Nonhomogeneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 3-D Heat Conduction Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2 Nonhomogeneous Heat Conduction Problem . . . . . . . . 56
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4. Transient Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.1 Method of Lumped Capacitance for 0-D Problems . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2 Method of Separation of Variables for 1-D and for
Multidimensional Transient Conduction Problems . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.1 1-D Transient Heat Conduction in a Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.2 Multidimensional Transient Heat Conduction in a
Slab (2-D or 3-D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2.3 1-D Transient Heat Conduction in a Rectangle with
Heat Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3 1-D Transient Heat Conduction in a Semiinfinite
Solid Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3.1 Similarity Method for Semiinfinite Solid Material . . . . . 78
4.3.2 Laplace Transform Method for Semiinfinite
Solid Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.3 Approximate Integral Method for Semiinfinite
Solid Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Heat Conduction with Moving Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.1 Freezing and Solidification Problems Using the
Similarity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.2 Melting and Ablation Problems Using the Approximate
Integral Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.2.1 Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Contents vii
5. Numerical Analysis in Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1 Finite-Difference Energy Balance Method for
2-D Steady-State Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 Finite-Difference Energy Balance Method for 1-D Transient
Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.1 Finite-Difference Explicit Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.2 Finite-Difference Implicit Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3 2-D Transient Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6. Heat Convection Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

6.1 Boundary-Layer Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2 General Heat Convection Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3 2-D Heat Convection Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4 Boundary-Layer Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4.1 Boundary-Layer Similarity/Dimensional Analysis . . . . 136
6.4.2 Reynolds Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7. External Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

7.1 Laminar Flow and Heat Transfer over a Flat Surface:
Similarity Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.1.1 Summary of the Similarity Solution for Laminar
Boundary-Layer Flow and Heat Transfer over a Flat
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Integral Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.2.1 Momentum Integral Equation by Von Karman . . . . . . . 150
7.2.2 Energy Integral Equation by Pohlhausen . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.3 Outline of the Integral Approximate Method . . . . . . . . . 153
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8. Internal Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

8.1 Velocity and Temperature Profiles in a Circular Tube
or between Parallel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow and Heat Transfer
in a Circular Tube or between Parallel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.2.1 Fully Developed Flow in a Tube: Friction Factor . . . . . . 171
8.2.2 Case 1: Uniform Wall Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.2.3 Case 2: Uniform Wall Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
viii Contents
9. Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

9.1 Laminar Natural Convection on a Vertical Wall:
Similarity Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Integral Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10. Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

10.1 Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) Equation . . . . . . . 195
10.1.1 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.1.2 Momentum Equation: RANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.1.3 Enthalpy/Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.1.4 Concept of Eddy or Turbulent Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.1.5 Reynolds Analogy for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.2 Prandtl Mixing Length Theory and Law of Wall for
Velocity and Temperature Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.3 Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11. Fundamental Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

11.1 Thermal Radiation Intensity and Emissive Power . . . . . . . . . . 221
11.2 Surface Radiation Properties for Blackbody and
Real-Surface Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.3 Solar and Atmospheric Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12. View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

12.1 View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.2 Evaluation of View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.2.1 Method 1—Hottel’s Crossed-String Method for 2-D
Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.2.2 Method 2—Double-Area Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
12.2.3 Method 3—Contour Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.2.4 Method 4—Algebraic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
13. Radiation Exchange in a Nonparticipating Medium . . . . . . . . . . . 257

13.1 Radiation Exchange between Gray Diffuse Isothermal
Surfaces in an Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.1.1 Method 1: Electric Network Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13.1.2 Method 2: Matrix Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Contents ix
13.2 Radiation Exchange between Gray Diffuse Nonisothermal

Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
13.3 Radiation Exchange between Nongray Diffuse Isothermal
Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.4 Radiation Interchange among Diffuse and Nondiffuse
(Specular) Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.5 Energy Balance in an Enclosure with Diffuse and Specular
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
14. Radiation Transfer through Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

14.1 Gas Radiation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.1.1 Volumetric Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.1.2 Geometry of Gas Radiation: Geometric Mean
Beam Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
14.2 Radiation Exchange between an Isothermal Gray Gas
and Gray Diffuse Isothermal Surfaces in an Enclosure . . . . . . . 282
14.2.1 Matrix Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.2.2 Electric Network Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.3 Radiation Transfer through Gases with Nonuniform
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.3.1 Cryogenic Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.3.2 Radiation Transport Equation in the Participating
Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Appendix A: Mathematical Relations and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

A.1 Useful Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.2 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.3 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
A.3.1 Bessel Functions and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
A.3.2 Bessel Functions of the First Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.3.3 Modified Bessel Functions of the First
and Second Kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.4 Gaussian Error Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Preface
Fundamental Heat Transfer is a required course for all mechanical, chemical,

nuclear, and aerospace engineering undergraduate students. This senior-level
undergraduate course typically covers conduction, convection, and radia-
tion heat transfer. Advanced Heat Transfer courses are also required for most
engineering graduate students. These graduate-level courses are typically
taught as individual courses named Conduction, Convection, or Radiation.
Many universities also offer an Intermediate Heat Transfer or Advanced
Heat Transfer course to cover conduction, convection, and radiation for engi-
neering graduate students. For these courses, however, there are not many
textbooks available that cover conduction, convection, and radiation at the
graduate level.
I have taught an Intermediate Heat Transfer course in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University since 1980. This book
has evolved from a series of my lecture notes for teaching a graduate-level
intermediate heat transfer course over the past 30 years. Many MS degree
students majoring in thermal and fluids have taken this course as their only
graduate-level heat transfer course. And many PhD degree candidates have
taken this course to prepare for their heat transfer qualifying examinations as
well as to prepare for their advanced-level courses in conduction, convection,
or radiation. This book bridges the gap between undergraduate-level basic
heat transfer and graduate-level advanced heat transfer as well as serves the
need of entry-level graduate students.
Analytical Heat Transfer focuses on how to analyze and solve the classic heat
transfer problems in conduction, convection, and radiation in one book. This
book emphasizes how to model and how to solve engineering heat trans-
fer problems analytically, rather than simply applying the equations and
correlations for engineering problem calculations. This book provides many
well-known analytical methods and their solutions such as Bessel functions,
separation of variables, similarity method, integral method, and matrix inver-
sion method for entry-level engineering graduate students. It is unique in that
it provides (1) detailed step-by-step mathematical formula derivations, (2)
analytical solution procedures, and (3) many demonstration examples. This
analytical knowledge will equip graduate students with the much-needed
capability to read and understand the heat-transfer-related research papers
in the open literature and give them a strong analytical background with
which to tackle and solve the complex engineering heat transfer problems
they will encounter in their professional lives.
xi
xii Preface
This book is intended to cover intermediate heat transfer between the

undergraduate and the advanced graduate heat transfer levels. It includes
14 chapters and an Appendix:
Chapter 1 Heat Conduction Equations
Chapter 2 1-D Steady-State Heat Conduction
Chapter 3 2-D Steady-State Heat Conduction
Chapter 4 Transient Heat Conduction
Chapter 5 Numerical Analysis in Heat Conduction
Chapter 6 Heat Convection Equations
Chapter 7 External Forced Convection
Chapter 8 Internal Forced Convection
Chapter 9 Natural Convection
Chapter 10 Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer
Chapter 11 Fundamental Radiation
Chapter 12 View Factor
Chapter 13 Radiation Exchange in a Nonparticipating Medium
Chapter 14 Radiation Transfer through Gases
Appendix A Mathematical Relations and Functions
There are many excellent undergraduate and graduate heat transfer text-
books available. Although I do not claim any new ideas in this book, I do
attempt to present the subject in a systematic and logical manner. I hope
this book is a unique compilation and is useful for graduate entry-level heat
transfer study.
While preparing this manuscript, I heavily referenced the following books
and therefore am deeply appreciative to their authors:
W. Rohsenow and H. Choi, Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-

Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1961.
A. Mills, Heat Transfer, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Boston, MA, 1992.
K. Vincent Wong, Intermediate Heat Transfer, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, NY, 2003.
F. Incropera and D. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2002.
Finally, I would like to sincerely express special thanks to my former

student, Dr. Zhihong (Janice) Gao (PhD, 2007). Janice spent a lot of time and
effort to input most of the manuscript from my original Intermediate Heat
Transfer Class Notes in 2005–2007. Without her diligent and persistent contri-
butions, this book would be impossible. In addition, I would like to extend
appreciation to my current PhD students, Jiang Lei and Shiou-Jiuan Li for
their help in completing the book and drawings.
Je-Chin Han
1
Heat Conduction Equations
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Conduction
Conduction is caused by the temperature gradient through a solid mate-
rial. For example, Figure 1.1 shows that heat is conducted from the high-
temperature side to the low-temperature side through a building or a
container wall. This is a one-dimensional (1-D) steady-state heat conduction
problem if T1 and T2 are uniform. According to Fourier’s conduction law, the
temperature profile is linear through the plane wall.
1.1.1.1 Fourier’s Conduction Law
dT T1 − T 2
q = −k =k (1.1)
dx L
and
q
q ≡ or q = q Ac
Ac
where q is the heat flux (W/m2 ), q the heat rate (W or J/s), k the thermal
conductivity of solid material (W/m K), Ac the cross-sectional area for
conduction, perpendicular to heat flow (m2 ), and L the conduction length (m).
One can predict heat rate or heat loss through the plane wall by knowing T1 ,
T2 , k, L, and Ac . This is the simple 1-D steady-state problem. However, in real-
life application, there are many two-dimensional (2-D) or three-dimensional
(3-D) steady-state heat conduction problems; there are cases where heat gen-
eration occurs in the solid material during heat conduction; and transient
heat conduction problems take place in many engineering applications. In
addition, some special applications involve heat conduction with moving
boundary. All these more complicated heat conduction problems will be
discussed in the following chapters.
1
2 Analytical Heat Transfer
T1 Ac
T2
q"
x
L
FIGURE 1.1
1-D heat conduction through a building or container wall.
1.1.2 Convection
Convection is caused by fluid flow motion over a solid surface. For example,
Figure 1.2 shows that heat is removed from a heated solid surface to cooling
fluid. This is a 2-D boundary-layer flow and heat transfer problem. According
to Newton, the heat removal rate from the heated surface is proportional
to the temperature difference between the heated wall and the cooling fluid.
The proportional constant is called heat transfer coefficient; and the same
heat rate from the heated surface can be determined by applying Fourier
Conduction Law to the cooling fluid.
1.1.2.1 Newton’s Cooling Law

dT
q = −kf = h(Ts − T∞ ) (1.2)
dy at wall
Also,

−kf dT
q dy y=0
h= = (1.3)
Ts − T ∞ Ts − T ∞
Velocity or thermal
Air f low boundary layer
T∞
U ∞ T∞ U∞
q′
Ts
Heated surface, As
FIGURE 1.2
Velocity and thermal boundary layer.
Heat Conduction Equations 3
and
q
q ≡ or q = q As
As
where Ts is the surface temperature (◦ C or K), T∞ the fluid temperature (◦ C

or K), h the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K), kf the thermal conductivity of
fluid (W/m K), As the surface area for convection, exposure to flow (m2 ).
It is noted that the heat transfer coefficient depends on fluid properties
(such as air or water as coolant), flow conditions (i.e., laminar or turbulent
flows), surface configurations (such as flat surface or circular tube), and so
on. The heat transfer coefficient can be determined experimentally or analyt-
ically. This textbook focuses more on analytical solutions. From Equation 1.3,
the heat transfer coefficient can be determined by knowing the temperature
profile in the cooling fluid during convection and then taking the cooling
fluid temperature gradient near the wall. However, this requires solving 2-D
boundary-layer equations and will be the subject of the following chapters.
Before solving 2-D boundary-layer equations, one needs heat transfer coef-
ficient as the convection boundary condition (BC) in order to solve the heat
conduction problem. Therefore, Table 1.1 provides some typical values of
heat transfer coefficient in many convection problems. As can be seen, in
general, forced convection has more heat transfer than natural convection;
water as a coolant removes much more heat than air; and boiling or conden-
sation, involving phase change, has a much higher heat transfer coefficient
than single-phase convection.
1.1.3 Radiation
Radiation is caused by electromagnetic waves from solids, liquid surfaces, or
gases. For example, Figure 1.3 shows that heat is radiated from a solid surface
TABLE 1.1
Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficient
Type of convection h, W /m2 · K
Natural convection
Caused by ΔT : air 5
Caused by ΔT : water 25
Forced convection
Caused by fan, blower: air 25–250
Caused by pump: water 50–20,000
Boiling or condensation
Caused by phase change
Water Steam 10,000–100,000
Freon Vapor 2500–50,000
′′
qrad
Any surface at Ts, ε, As
FIGURE 1.3
Radiation from a solid surface.
at a temperature greater than absolute zero. According to Stefan–Boltzmann,

radiation heat rate is proportional to the surface’s absolute temperature’s
fourth power, the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and the surface emissivity. The
surface emissivity primarily depends on material, wavelength, and temper-
ature. It is between 0 and 1. In general, the emissivity of metal is much less
than nonmetal. Note that radiation from a surface can go through air as well
as vacuum environment.
1.1.3.1 Stefan–Boltzmann Law

For real surface,
q = εσTs4 (1.4)
For ideal (black) surface, ε = 1
q = σTs4
and
q
q ≡ or q = q As
As
where ε is the emissivity of the real surface, ε = 0 − 1 (ε metal < nonmetal ε),
Ts the absolute temperature of the surface, K (K = ◦ C + 273.15), σ the Stefan–
Boltzman constant, σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4 , and As the surface area for
radiation (m2 ).
1.1.4 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer

In real application, often radiation occurs when conduction or convection
takes place. This is called combined modes of heat transfer. For example,
Figure 1.4 shows heat transfer between two surfaces involving radiation and
convection simultaneously.
Surrounding wall, Tsur , εsur
Air flow
T∞ h
′′
qconv ′′
qrad,net
Machine or equipment
Surface A at Ts , ε, As
FIGURE 1.4
Heat transfer between two surfaces involving radiation and convection.
Assume: surface A surrounding sky or building wall surface, T∞ = Tsur

(or, T∞ = Tsur )
Total heat flux from the surface A is due to convection and radiation, and
can be found as
q = qconv + qrad,net (1.5)
where
qconv = h(Ts − T∞ )
qrad,net = εσTs4 − αεsur σTsur
4
= εσ(Ts4 − Tsur
4
), if ε = α, εsur=1
= εσ(Ts2 + Tsur
2
)(Ts + Tsur )(Ts − Tsur )
= hr (Ts − Tsur )
Therefore, from Equation 1.5
q = h(Ts − T∞ ) + hr (Ts − Tsur ) (1.6)
where
hr = εσ(Ts2 + Tsur
2
)(Ts + Tsur ) (1.7)
Also
q
q ≡ or q = q As
As
where α is the absorptivity, Tsur the surrounding wall temperature (◦ C or
K), εsur the emissivity of the surrounding wall, hr the radiation heat transfer
coefficient (W/m2 K), and As the surface area for radiation (m2 ). Total heat
transfer rate can be determined by knowing Ts , Tsur , h, ε, εsur , σ, and As .
1.2 General Heat Conduction Equations

If the temperature profile inside a solid material T(x, y, z, t) is known, the
heat rate q through the solid can be determined as shown in Figure 1.5. As
far as thermal stress is concerned, it is equally important to predict the tem-
perature profile in some high-temperature applications. In this chapter, the
general heat conduction equations will be derived. The general heat conduc-
tion equation can be used to solve various real problems with the appropriate
boundary conditions (BCs) and initial condition. The heat conduction can be
modeled as 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D depending on the nature of the problem:
1-D T(x) for steady state or T(x, t) for transient problem

2-D T(x, y) for steady state or T(x, y, t) for transient problem
3-D T(x, y, z) for steady state or T(x, y, z, t) for transient problem
To determine the temperature profile, the following should be given:
1. Initial condition and BCs

2. Material thermal conductivity k, density ρ, specific heat Cp , and
diffusivity α = k/ρCp
1.2.1 Derivations of General Heat Conduction Equations

The general form of the conservation of energy in a small control volume of
solid material is
Ein − Eout + Eg = Est (1.8)
where Ein − Eout is the net heat conduction, Eg is the heat generation, and Est
is the energy stored in the control volume.
Figure 1.6 shows the conservation of energy in a differential control
volume in a 3-D Cartesian (rectangular) coordinate. If we consider energy
TH
T(x, y, z, t)
y
k, α
x
z
TL
FIGURE 1.5
Heat conduction through a solid medium.
∂q
z qz + z
dz ∂qy
∂z qy + dy
∂y
Est ∂qx
qx y qx + dx
Eg ∂x
x
qy q
z
FIGURE 1.6
The volume element for deriving the heat conduction equation.
conservation in a 1-D system (x-direction only),

∂qx
qx − qx + dx + Eg = Est (1.9)
∂x
The conduction heat rates can be evaluated from Fourier’s Law,
∂T
qx = −kAx (1.10)
∂x
With control surface area Ax = dy dz, Equation 1.9 can be written as

∂ ∂T
− −k dy dz dx + Eg = Est (1.11)
∂x ∂x
The thermal energy generation can be represented by
Eg = q̇ dx dy dz (1.12)
where q̇ is the energy generation per unit volume dx dy dz.

The energy storage can be expressed as
∂(ρ dx dy dz · Cp · T)
Est = (1.13)
∂t
Substituting Equations 1.12 and 1.13 into Equation 1.11, we have

∂ ∂T ∂(ρ dx dy dz · Cp · T)
− −k dx dy dz + q̇ dx dy dz = (1.14)
∂x ∂x ∂t
Dividing out the dimensions of the small control volume dx dy dz, Equa-
tion 1.14 is simplified as

∂ ∂T ∂(ρCp T)
k + q̇ = (1.15)
∂x ∂x ∂t
If we consider energy conservation, in a 3-D system (x-direction, y-direction,

z-direction), the heat equation can be written as

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂(ρCp T)
k + k + k + q̇ = (1.16)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
The thermal conductivity k, which is a function of temperature, is hard to

determine. If we assume that k, ρ, and Cp are constants, then Equation 1.16 is
simplified as
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q̇ 1 ∂T
+ + + = (1.17)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 k α ∂t
where α = k/ρCp is the thermal diffusivity.

In a 3-D cylindrical coordinate system as shown in Figure 1.7a, the heat
conduction equation has the form of

1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q̇ 1 ∂T
r + 2 2 + 2 + = (1.18)
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z k α ∂t
In a 3-D spherical coordinate system as shown in Figure 1.7b, it has the

form of

1 ∂ 2 ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ 2T q̇ 1 ∂T
r + sin θ + + = (1.19)
2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ
2 ∂θ r2 sin θ ∂φ2
2 k α ∂t
z (b)
(a)
T(r, θ, ϕ)
r
T(r, z, ϕ) θ
r
ϕ
ϕ
FIGURE 1.7
(a) Cylindrical coordinate system. (b) Spherical coordinate system.
1.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions

The physical conditions existing on the boundary should be known in order to
determine the temperature profile in a medium by solving the heat conduction
equation. Moreover, the initial condition T(x, 0) = Ti should also be known if
the heat transfer is time dependent.
1.3.1 Boundary Conditions

There are three kinds of BCs commonly found in many heat transfer
applications [1].
1. Given surface temperature T(0, t) = Ts , as shown in Figure 1.8

2. Given surface heat flux, as shown in Figure 1.9a and b
a. Finite heat flux
∂T(0, t)
−k = qs (1.20)
∂x
b. Adiabatic or insulated surface, which is a special case
∂T(0, t)
−k = qs = 0 (1.21)
∂x
3. Given surface convection, as shown in Figure 1.10
∂T(0, t)
−k = h [T∞ − T(0, t)] (1.22)
∂x
1.3.2 Initial Conditions

Initial condition, as shown in Figure 1.11, is required for the transient heat
transfer problem.
T(x, 0) = Ti (1.23)
Ts
T(x, t)
FIGURE 1.8
Boundary conditions—given surface temperature.
(a) (b)
T T
T(x, t)
T(x, t)
q"s
x x
FIGURE 1.9
(a) Finite heat flux. (b) Adiabatic surface.
1.4 Simplified Heat Conduction Equations

1. Steady state ∂T/∂t = 0, no heat generation q̇ = 0
∂ 2T
1-D =0
∂x2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
2-D + =0
∂x2 ∂y2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
3-D + + =0
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
T
T∞, h T(0, t)
T(x, t)
FIGURE 1.10
Convective boundary conditions.
T(x, 0) = Ti
FIGURE 1.11
Initial condition.
2. Steady state, 1-D with heat source—heater application
∂ 2T q̇
+ =0
∂x2 k
Steady state, 1-D with heat sink—fin application
∂ 2T q̇
− =0
∂x2 k
3. Transient without heat generation q̇ = 0
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
1-D =
∂x2 α ∂t
∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T
2-D + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 α ∂t
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T
3-D + + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 α ∂t
The above-mentioned three kinds of BCs can be applied to the 1-D, 2-D,
or –3-D heat conduction problems, respectively. For example, as shown in
Figure 1.12,
∂T(0, y, t)
x = 0, −k = 0 (adiabatic surface)
∂x
∂T(a, y, t)
x = a, −k = h[T(a, y, t) − T∞ ] (surface convection)
∂x
∂T(x, 0, t)
y = 0, −k = q (surface heat flux)
∂y

y = b, T(x, b, t) = Ts surface temperature
Remarks
In general, heat conduction problems, regardless of 1-D, 2-D, 3-D, steady
or unsteady, can be solved analytically if thermal conductivity is a given
constant and thermal BCs are known constants. The problems will be ana-
lyzed and solved in Chapters 2 through 4. However, in real-life applications,
there are many materials whose thermal conductivities vary with tempera-
ture and location, k(T) ∼ k(x, y, z). In these cases, the heat conduction equation
shown in Equation 1.16 becomes a nonlinear equation and is harder to solve
analytically.
Ts
y
Insulated T∞ , h
0 a x
q"s
FIGURE 1.12
Heat conduction in 2-D system with various boundary conditions.
In addition, in real engineering applications, it is not easy to determine the

precise convection BC shown in Figures 1.10 and 1.12. These require detailed
knowledge of complex convection heat transfer to be discussed in Chapters 6
through 10.
PROBLEMS
1.1 Derive Equation 1.18.
1.2 Derive Equation 1.19.
1.3 a. Write the differential equation that expresses transient heat
conduction in 3-D (x, y, z coordinates) with constant heat
generation and constant conductivity.
b. Simplify the differential equation in (a) to show steady-state
conduction in one dimension, assuming constant conductivity.
c. If the BCs are: T = T1 . . . at . . . x = x1 , T = T2 . . . at . . . x = x2 ,
solve the second-order differential equation to yield a temper-
ature distribution (T). Express the answer (T) in terms of (T1 ,
T2 , x, x1 , x2 ).
d. Using the Fourier law and the results from (c), develop an
expression for the heat rate per unit area, assuming constant
conductivity. Express your answer in terms of (k, T1 , T2 , x1 , x2 ).
Reference
1. F. Incropera and D. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2002.
2
1-D Steady-State Heat Conduction
2.1 Conduction through Plane Walls

For 1-D steady-state heat conduction in plane wall shown in Figure 2.1, with-
out heat generation, the heat conduction equation 1.17 can be simplified as
∂ 2T
=0 (2.1)
∂x2
dT
= C1
dx
Equation 2.1 has the general solution
T = c1 x + c2 (2.2)
with boundary conditions:
at x = 0, T = Ts1 = c1 · 0 + c2 = c2
at x = L, T = Ts2 = c1 L + c2
Solve for c1 and c2 ,
Ts2 − Ts1
c1 = , c2 = Ts1 ,
L
Substituting c1 and c2 into Equation 2.2, the temperature distribution is
Ts,1 − Ts,2
T(x) = Ts,1 − x (2.3)
L
Applying Fourier’s Conduction Law, one obtains the heat transfer rate
through the plane wall
∂T Ts,1 − Ts,2 Ts,1 − Ts,2

q = −kA = kA = (2.4)
∂x L (L/KA)
13
T∞,1 h1
Ts,1 Cold fluid
Hot fluid Ts,2

k, α T∞,2 h2
0 x L
T∞,1 Ts,1 Ts,2 T∞,2

q q
1 L 1
Ah1 Ak Ah2
FIGURE 2.1
Conduction through plane wall and thermal–electrical network analogy.
The heat transfer rate divided by the cross-sectional area of the plane wall,
that is, heat flux is
q ∂T Ts,1 − Ts,2
q = = −k =k (2.5)
A ∂x L
At the convective surfaces, from Newton’s Cooling Law, the heat transfer
rates are
T∞,1 − Ts,1
q = Ah1 (T∞,1 − Ts,1 ) = (2.6)
(1/Ah1 )
and
Ts,2 − T∞,2
q = Ah2 (Ts,2 − T∞,2 ) = (2.7)
(1/Ah2 )
Applying the analogy between the heat transfer and electrical network, one
may define the thermal resistance like the electrical resistance. The thermal
resistance for conduction in a plane wall is
L
Rcond = (2.8)
kA
The thermal resistance for convection is then
1
Rconv = (2.9)
Ah
The total thermal resistance may be expressed as
1 L 1 1
Rtot = + + = (2.10)
Ah1 kA Ah2 UA
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
1-D Steady-State Heat Conduction 15
Similar to electric current, the heat rate through the wall is
T∞,1 − T∞,2 T∞,1 − T∞,2

q= = = UA(T∞,1 − T∞,2 ) (2.11)
(1/Ah1 ) + (L/kA) + (1/Ah2 ) Rtot
Figure 2.2 shows conduction through two plane walls with contact resistance
between them, the total heat resistance becomes
1 L1 R L2 1
Rtot = + + tc + + (2.12)
Ah1 k1 A A k2 A Ah2
where Rtc = (T − T /(q/A)) = pre-determined (depends on contact material
a b
surface roughness and contact pressure).
2.1.1 Conduction through Circular Tube Walls

1-D steady-state heat conduction, without heat generation, in the radial
system shown in Figure 2.3, can be simplified from Equation 1.18

1 d dT
r =0 (2.13)
r dr dr
dT
r = c1
dr
The general solution of Equation 2.13 is
T(r) = c1 ln r + c2
with boundary conditions
at r = r1, T = Ts,1 = c1 ln r1 + c2
at r = r2 , T = Ts,2 = c1 ln r2 + c2
Contact surface
T∞,1 h1
Ts,1
k2, α2
Hot fluid
Ta ΔT Cold fluid
k1, α1 Tb
Ts,2
T∞,2 h2
0
L1 L2
FIGURE 2.2
Temperature drop due to thermal contact resistance between surface a and surface b.
r2
r1
T∞,1 h1
Inside
hot fluid Ts,1
Ts,2 T∞,2 h2
Outside
cold fluid
T∞,1 Ts,1 Ts,2 T∞,2

q q
1 ln(r2/r1) 1
h12πr1l 2πkl h22πr2l
FIGURE 2.3
Conduction through circular tube wall.
Solve for c1 and c2 , one obtains the temperature distribution

Ts,1 − Ts,2 r
T(r) = Ts,1 − ln (2.14)
ln(r2 /r1 ) r1
The heat transfer rate can be determined from Fourier’s Conduction Law as
dT dT Ts,1 − Ts,2
q = −kA = −k 2πrl = (2.15)
dr dr (ln(r2 /r 1/2πkl)
At the convective surface, from Newton’s Cooling Law, the heat transfer
rates are
T∞,1 − Ts,1
q = A1 h1 (T∞,1 − Ts,1 ) =
(1/A1 h1 )
and
Ts,2 − T∞,2
q = A2 h2 (Ts,2 − T∞,2 ) =
(1/A2 h2 )
where the cross-sectional area for conduction is A = 2πrl, A1 = 2πr1 l, A2 =
2πr2 l.
Applying the electrical-thermal analogy, the heat transfer rate is
expressed as
T∞,1 − T∞,2 T∞,1 − T∞,2
q= =
(1/h1 2πr1 l) + ((ln r2 /r1 )/2πkl) + (1/h2 2πr2 l) Rtot
= UA(T∞,1 − T∞,2 ) (2.16)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, UA = U1 A1 = U2 A2 .

If we consider radiation heat loss between the tube outer surface and
surrounding wall,
4 4
qradiation = A2 εσ(Ts,2 − Tsur )
2 2
= A2 εσ(Ts,2 + Tsur )(Ts,2 + Tsur )(Ts,2 − Tsur )
= A2 hr (Ts,2 − Tsur )
where
2 2
hr = εσ(Ts,2 + Tsur )(Ts,2 + Tsur )
and
q = qconv + qrad
= A2 h2 (Ts,2 − T∞,2 ) + A2 hr (Ts,2 − Tsur )
If Tsur = T∞,2 , then
1 ln(r2 /r1 ) 1
Rtot = + + (2.17)
h1 2πr1 l 2πkl (h2 + hr )2πr2 l
For three concentric cylindrical walls, with radius r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 , respectively,

the total heat resistance becomes
1 ln r2 /r1 ln r3 /r2 ln r4 /r3 1
Rtot = + + + +
h1 2πr1 l 2πk1 l 2πk2 l 2πk3 l h4 2πr4 l
2.1.2 Critical Radius of Insulation

Consider a tube of insulating material with inside radius ri at constant tem-
perature Ti . At the outside radius of the insulating tube, ro , a surface heat
transfer coefficient h may be assumed for convection from the outside surface
of the insulation to the atmosphere at temperature T∞ . From Equation 2.16
for this case:
Ti − T∞
q=
(ln(ro /ri )/2πkl) + (1/h2πro l)
If l, Ti , T∞ , h, k, and ri are all assumed to remain constant while ro varies, the q

is a function of ro alone. As ro increases, the term 1/hro decreases but the term
(ln ro /ri )/k increases; hence, it is possible that q might have a maximum value.
Take derivative of the above equation with respect to ro ; then set dq/dro = 0
and solve for (ro )critical , the critical radius for which q is a maximum [1],
k
(ro )critical = (2.18)
h
Ts,1
. Ts,2
T∞,1 h1 q
T∞,2 h2
x
O
−L L
FIGURE 2.4
Flat plate heat conduction with internal heat generation and asymmetrical boundary conditions.
where k is the conductivity of insulation material, h is outside convection

coefficient from insulation material. If ri is less than (ro )critical , q is increased
as insulation is added until ro = (ro )critical . Further increases in ro cause q to
decrease. If, however, ri is greater than (ro )critical , any addition of insulation
with decrease q (heat loss rate).
2.2 Conduction with Heat Generation

1-D steady-state heat conduction equation with heat generation in the plane
wall is (from Equation 1.17)
∂ 2T q̇
2
+ =0
∂x k
(2.19)
dT q̇
= − x + c1
dx k
The general solution is
q̇ 2
T=− x + c1 x + c 2
2k
with asymmetrical boundary conditions [2] shown in Figure 2.4,
q̇ 2
at x = L, T = Ts,L = − L + c1 L + c 2
2k
q̇
at x = −L, T = Ts,1 = − (−L)2 + c1 (−L) + c2
2k
Solve for c1 and c2 , one obtains the temperature distribution

q̇L2 x2 Ts,2 − Ts,1 x Ts,2 + Ts,1
T(x) = 1− 2 + +
2k L 2 L 2
(a) (b)
T0 T0
. .
Ts q Ts q Ts
T∞ h T∞ h T∞ h
x x
L L
FIGURE 2.5
Flat plate heat conduction with internal heat generation. (a) Symmetric boundary conditions.
(b) Adiabatic surface at midplane.
Applying symmetric boundary conditions shown in Figure 2.5a, at x = L,

T = Ts ; x = −L, T = Ts , solve for c1 and c2 , one obtains the temperature
distribution

q̇L2 x2
T(x) = Ts + 1− 2 (2.20)
2k L
At the centerline of the plane wall, the temperature is
q̇L2
T0 = Ts + (2.21)
2k
The heat flux to cooling fluid is

dT
q = −k = h(Ts − T∞ ) (2.22)
dx x=L
From Equation 2.20, one obtains

dT q̇L
=−
dx x=L k
From Equation 2.22, h(Ts − T∞ ) = −k(−(q̇/k)L) = q̇L.

Therefore, the surface temperature in Equation 2.20 can be determined as
q̇L
Ts = T∞ + (2.23)
h
T0
T∞ h T∞ h
Ts . Ts
q
r r0
FIGURE 2.6
Cylindrical rod heat conduction with internal heat generation.
In 1-D steady-state cylindrical medium with heat generation, the heat

conduction equation is (from Equation 1.18)

1 d dT q̇
r + =0 (2.24)
r dr dr k

d dT q̇
r =− r
dr dr k
dT q̇
r = − r 2 + c1
dr 2k
dT q̇ c1
=− r+
dr 2k r
q̇ 2
T(r) = − r + c1 ln r + c2
4k
with boundary conditions as shown in Figure 2.6:
dT
at r = 0, = 0 = c1
dr
q̇ 2
at r = r0 , T = Ts = − r + c2
4k 0
Solve for c1 (c1 = 0) and c2 , one obtains the temperature distribution

q̇r02 r2
T(r) = Ts + 1− 2 (2.25)
4k r0
At the centerline of the cylindrical rod, the temperature is
q̇r02
T0 = Ts + (2.26)
4k
The heat flux to cooling fluid is

dT
q = h(Ts − T∞ ) = −k (2.27)
dr r=ro
From Equation 2.25, one obtains

dT q̇ro
=−
dr r=ro 2k

From Equation 2.27, h(Ts − T∞ ) = −k −(q̇ro /2k) = (q̇ro /2).
Therefore, the surface temperature in Equation 2.25 can be determined as
q̇ro
Ts = T∞ + (2.28)
2h
2.3 Conduction through Fins with Uniform

Cross-Sectional Area
From Newton’s law of cooling, heat transfer rate can be increased by either
increasing temperature difference between surface and fluid, heat transfer
coefficient, or surface area. For a given problem, temperature difference
between surface and fluid may be fixed, and increasing heat transfer coef-
ficient may result in more pumping power. One popular way to increase heat
transfer rate is to increasing surface area by adding fins on the heated surface.
This is particularly true when the heat transfer coefficient is relatively low such
as air-side heat exchangers (e.g., the car radiators) and air-cooled electronic
components. Heat transfer rate can increase dramatically by increasing many
times of surface area with many fins. Therefore, heat is conducted from the
based surface into fins and dissipated into the cooling fluid. However, tem-
perature drops when heat is conducted through fins due to a finite thermal
conductivity of the fins and the convective heat loss to the cooling fluid. This
means the fin temperature is not the same as the base surface temperature
and the temperature difference between the fin surface and the cooling fluid
reduces along the fins. It is our job to determine the fin temperature in order
to calculate the heat loss from the fins to the cooling fluid.
In general, the heat transfer rate will increase with the number of fins. But,
there is limitation on the number of fins. The heat transfer coefficient will
reduce if the fins are too crowded. In addition, heat transfer rate will increase
with thin fins with high thermal conductivity. But, there is limitation on the
thickness of thin fins due to manufacturing concern. Here we are not inter-
ested in optimizing the fin dimensions but in determining the fin temperature
Fin cross-section area

Tb
Hot wall hAs(T−T∞) Fin
qf
qx ∂qx
qx + dx
x ∂x
h, T∞ Cold fluid
FIGURE 2.7
One-dimensional conduction through thin fins with uniform cross-section area.
at a given fin geometry and working conditions. We assume that heat conduc-
tion through the fin is 1-D steady state because the fin is thin. The temperature
gradient in the other two dimensions is neglected. We will begin with the con-
stant cross-sectional area fins and then consider the variable cross-sectional
area fins. The following is the energy balance of a small control volume of
the fin with heat conduction through the fin and heat dissipation into cooling
fluid, as shown in Figure 2.7. The result of temperature distributions through
fins of different materials can be seen from Figure 2.8.

dqx
qx − qx + dx − hAs (T − T∞ ) = 0 (2.29)
dx
where As = P dx, and P is perimeter of the fin, and qx is from Fourier’s

Conduction Law shown in Equation 1.10.

d dT
− −kAc dx − hP dx(T − T∞ ) = 0 (2.30)
dx dx
Tb
Copper
Aluminum
Steel
Plastic
T∞
x
FIGURE 2.8
Temperature distributions through fins of different materials.
If the cross-sectional area is constant, that is, Ac = constant, and k is also

constant, Equation 2.30 can be simplified as
d2 T hP
− (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx2 kAc
(2.31)
d2 (T − T∞ ) hP
− (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx2 kAc
Let θ(x) = T(x) − T∞ , Equation 2.31 becomes
d2 θ hP
2
− θ=0 (2.32)
dx kAc
Let m2 = hP/kAc , Equation 2.32 becomes
d2 θ
− m2 θ = 0 (2.33)
dx2
θ(x) = c1 emx + c2 e−mx
with the following boundary conditions:

At the fin base,
x = 0, T = Tb , then θ(0) = Tb − T∞ = θb
At the fin tip,
x = L, there are four possible cases
1. Convection boundary condition −k(∂T/∂x)|x=L = h(TL − T∞ ), then

(∂θ(L)/∂x) = (h/− k)θL
2. The fin tip is insulated −k(∂T/∂x)|x=L = 0 or (∂θ(L)/∂x) = 0
3. The tip temperature is given as T|x=L = TL or θ(L) = TL − T∞ = θL

4. For a long fin, L d > 10 ∼ 20, T|x=L = T∞ , or θ(L) = T∞ − T∞ = 0,
which is an ideal case.
Applying boundary conditions:
x = 0, θ(0) = θb = c1 + c2
x=L
For case 1: ∂θ(L) h mL + c (−m)e−mL = −(h/k)(c emL +

∂x = −k θL , that is, c1 me 2 1
c2 e −mL ), solve for c1 and c2 , one obtains the temperature distribution as
follows:
θ(x) T(x) − T∞ cosh m(L − x) + (h/mk) sinh m(L − x)
= = (2.34)
θb Tb − T ∞ cosh mL + (h/mk) sinh mL
The heat transfer rate through the fin base (qf ) is

dT dθ(0)
qf = qx = −kAc = −kAc
dx x=0 dx
sinh mL + (h/mk) cosh mL
=M (2.35)
cosh mL + (h/mk) sinh mL
√
where M = hPkAc θb
emx − e−mx
sinh mx =
2
emx + e−mx
cosh mx =
2
d sinh mx
= cosh mx · m dx
dx
d cosh mx
= sinh mx · m dx
dx
For case 2: dθ/dx|x=L = 0, that is, c1 memL − c2 me−mL = 0, solve for c1 and
c2 , one obtains the temperature distribution through the fin base (qf ) as
θ(x) T(x) − T∞ cosh m(L − x)

= = (2.36)
θb Tb − T ∞ cosh mL

dT dθ(0)
qf = qx = −kAc = −kAc = hPkAc θb tanh mL (2.37)

dx x=0 dx
For case 3: θ(L) = θL , that is, c1 emL + c2 e−mL = θL , solve for c1 and c2 , one
obtains the temperature distribution and heat transfer through the fin base
(qf ) as
θ(x) T(x) − T∞ (θL /θb ) sinh mx + sinh m(L − x)

= = (2.38)
θb Tb − T ∞ sinh mL

dT dθ(0)
cosh mL − θL /θb
qf = qx = −kAc = −kAc = hPkAc θb (2.39)
dx x=0 dx sinh mL
For case 4: very long fins, θ(L) = 0, then c1 = 0, c2 = θb , we obtained the

following temperature distribution and heat transfer rate through the fin base
(qf ) as
θ
= e−mx (2.40)
θb
dθ(0)
qf = qx = −kAc = M = hPkAc θb (2.41)

dx
It should be noted that the above results can be applied to any fins with
uniform cross-sectional area. This includes the fins with circular, rectangu-
lar, triangular, and other cross sections as shown in Figure 2.7. One should
know how to calculate the fin cross-sectional area Ac and fin perimeter P
(circumferential length) for a given uniform cross-sectional area fin geometry.
2.3.1 Fin Performance

2.3.1.1 Fin Effectiveness
Most often, before adding the fins, we would like to know whether it is worth-
while to add fins on the smooth heated surface. In this case, we define the fin
effectiveness. The fin effectiveness is defined as the ratio of heat transfer rate
through the fin surface to that without the fin (i.e., convection from the fin
base area).
qwith fin
ηε = (2.42)
qwithout fin
The fin effectiveness must be greater than unity in order to justify using
the fins. Normally, it should be greater than 2 in order to include the material
and manufacturing costs. In general, the fin effectiveness is greater than 5 for
most of the effective fin applications. For example, for the long fins (case 4 fin
tip boundary conditions), the fin effectiveness is
√
hPkAc θb kP
ηε = = >1∼5 (2.43)
hθb Ac hAc
2.3.1.2 Fin Efficiency

We would like to know the fin efficiency after we have decided to add the
fins. The fin efficiency is defined in Equation 2.42 as the ratio of heat transfer
through the fin surface to that through a perfect conducting fin (an ideal fin
with infinite thermal conductivity as super conductors).
qfin
ηf = (2.44)
qmax
By definition, the fin efficiency is between 0 and 1. However, the fin effi-
ciency is around 0.9–0.95 for most of the efficient fin application. For example,
for long fins (case 4 fin tip boundary conditions), the efficiency is
√
hPkAc θb
ηf = ≥ 90% (2.45)
hPLθb
In order to get the higher fin effectiveness and fin efficiency, we need to have
a thin fin (larger P/Ac ratio) with larger thermal conductivity k (aluminum or
copper) and low working fluid heat transfer coefficient h (air cooling).
q = qfin + qnon-fin
q = Nηf qmax + h(Tb − T∞ )Anon-fin
where N is the number of fins and
qmax = h(Tb − T∞ )As,fin

dT
qfin = −kAc
dx x=0
It is important to point out that the temperature distribution through a

fin varies depending on the aforementioned fin tip boundary conditions. In
general, these temperatures are a decay curve from the fin base to the fin tip
as shown in Figure 2.8. These decay curves are the combination of sinh and
cosh functions shown above. In addition, the heat transfer rate through the
fin depends on the temperature gradient at the fin base and the fin thermal
conductivity. For example, the temperature gradient at the fin base is greater
for the steel fin than the aluminum fin. However, heat transfer rate through
the fin base is higher for an aluminum fin than for a steel fin for the same fin
geometry and working fluid conditions. This is because the aluminum fin has
a much larger thermal conductivity than the steel fin.
2.3.2 Radiation Effect

If we also consider radiation flux qr , the energy balance equation 2.29 can be
rewritten as

dqx
qx − qx + dx − hAs (T − T∞ ) + As qr = 0
dx
where qr = radiation gain from solar = constant, or qr = radiation loss =
4 ). If we consider q = constant, the solution of above equation
−εσ(T 4 − Tsur r
can be obtained by Equation 2.34 by setting
qr
θ = T − T∞ −
h
However, if we consider qr = −εσ(T 4 − Tsur

4 ), the above energy balance
equation can be rewritten as

dqx
qx − qx + dx − hAs (T − T∞ ) − εσAs (T 4 − Tsur
4
)=0
dx
If we let T∞ = Tsur , hr = εσ(T 2 + T∞

2 )(T + T ), the above equation can be
∞
written as
d2 (T − T∞ ) (h + hr )P
− (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx2 kAc
The solution of the above equation can be obtained by numerical

integration.
2.4 Conduction through Fins with Variable Cross-Sectional

Area: Bessel Function Solutions
Most often, we would like to have a fin with decreasing fin cross-sectional
area in the heat conduction direction in order to save material costs. In other
situations, fin cross-sectional area increases in the heat conduction direction
such as an annulus fin attaching to the circular tube (the so-called fin tube). In
these cases, we deal with steady-state 1-D heat conduction through fins with
variable cross-sectional area. Bessel function solutions are required to solve
temperature distribution through these types of fin problems [2–4]. Figure 2.9
shows the heat conduction through variable cross-sectional area fins and heat
dissipation to working fluid.
Consider the energy balance of a small control volume in the fin,

dqx
qx − qx + dx − hAs (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx
dqx
− dx − hAs (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx
where As = P dx, and P is perimeter of the fin, and qx is from Fourier’s
Conduction law shown in Equation 1.10.

d dT
− −kAc dx − hP dx(T − T∞ ) = 0
dx dx
If k is constant, we have

d dT hP
Ac − (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx dx k
(2.46)
d d(T − T∞ ) hP
Ac − (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx dx k
For example, for an annulus fin with uniform thickness t as shown in

Figure 2.9b, the fin cross-sectional area from the centerline of the tube is
(a) (b)
h, T∞
hAs(T−T∞) h, T∞
qx dqx
qf x qx + dx
dx
t
qf
dx r1
dr
r2
(c) h, T∞ (d)
h, T∞
o ro
qf
r
t
dx
x 0
FIGURE 2.9
One-dimensional heat conduction through thin fins with variable cross-section area. (a) Conical
fin; (b) annular fin; (c) taper fin; (d) disk fin.
Ac = 2πr · t. The fin perimeter including the top and the bottom, P = 2 · 2πr.
Let θ = T − T∞ , Equation 2.46 becomes

d dθ h · 4πr
2πrt − θ=0
dr dr k

d dθ 2 hr
r − θ=0
dr dr kt
(2.47)
d dθ 2 hr2
r r − θ=0
dr dr kt

d dθ
r r − m2 r 2 θ = 0
dr dr
where m2 = 2h/kt.
1. For heat generation problem—Bessel function: The solutions of

Equation 2.47 can be a typical Bessel function with heat generation
as the following format:

d dθ
x x + m 2 x 2 − ν2 θ = 0 (2.48)
dx dx
θ = a0 Jν (mx) + a1 Yν (mx), ν = 0, 1, 2, . . . (2.49)
2. For heat loss problem—Modified Bessel function: The solutions of

Equation 2.47 can be the typical modified Bessel function with heat
loss as the following format:

d dθ
x x − m 2 x 2 + ν2 θ = 0 (2.50)
dx dx
θ = a0 Iν (mx) + a1 Kν (mx), ν = 0, 1, 2, . . . (2.51)
Comparing Equations 2.47 and 2.50, r = x, the general solution of Equation

2.47 is the same format as Equation 2.51 with ν = 0
θ(mr) = a0 I0 (mr) + a1 K0 (mr) (2.52)
with the following boundary conditions:

At the fin base, r = r1 , T = Tb , then θ = Tb − T∞ = θb .
At the fin tip, r = r2 , there are four possible cases as discussed before,
1. Convective boundary

∂T ∂θ(r2 ) −h
−k = h(Tr2 − T∞ ) or = θr
∂r r=r2 ∂r k 2
2. The tip fin is insulated

∂T ∂θ(r2 )
−k =0 or =0
∂r r=r2 ∂r
3. Top tip temperature is given
T|r=r2 = Tr2 or θ(r2 ) = Tr2 − T∞ = θr2
4. For a long fin r2 /t > 10 ∼ 20
T|r=r2 = T∞ or θ(r2 ) = T∞ − T∞ = 0
For case 2, the fin tip is insulated, for example:
At r = r1 , θ = θb = a0 I0 (mr1 ) + a1 K0 (mr1 ),

∂θ(r2 ) dI0 (mr) dK0 (mr)
At r = r2 , = a0 + a
dr r=r2 dr r=r2
1
∂r
= a0 mI1 (mr2 ) − a1 mK1 (mr2 ) = 0,
where applying the properties of I and K,
d d
I0 (mr) = mI1 (mr) and K0 (mr) = −mK1 (mr)
dr dr
Solve for a0 and a1
K1 (mr2 )
a0 = θb
I0 (mr1 )K1 (mr2 ) + I1 (mr2 )K0 (mr1 )
I1 (mr2 )
a1 = θb
I0 (mr1 )K1 (mr2 ) + I1 (mr2 )K0 (mr1 )
one obtains the temperature distribution as
θ(r) T(r) − T∞ I0 (mr)K1 (mr2 ) + I1 (mr2 )K0 (mr)

= = (2.53)
θb Tb − T ∞ I0 (mr1 )K1 (mr2 ) + I1 (mr2 )K0 (mr1 )
Therefore, heat transfer through the fin base can be calculated as

dθ dθ
qf = −kAc = −k(2πr1 )(t)
dx r1 dr r=r1
I1 (mr1 )K1 (mr2 ) − I1 (mr2 )K1 (mr1 )
qf = 2πkr1 tm θb (2.54)
I0 (mr1 )K1 (mr2 ) + I1 (mr2 )K0 (mr1 )
And the fin efficiency can be determined as

qf
ηf =
h2π(r22 − r12 )θb
It is important to point out that temperature decreases from the fin base
to the fin tip depending on the specified fin tip boundary conditions. The
temperature decay curve again is a combination of Bessel function I0 and K0 .
The characteristics of Bessel functions J, Y, I, and K, and their derivatives are
shown in Figure 2.10.

If we also consider radiation effect, qr = constant = positive value, then the
above solution can be used by replacing θ = T − T∞ − (qr /h). However, if we
consider qr = −εσ(T 4 − Tsur
4 ), and T = T , h = εσ(T 2 + T 2 )(T + T ), the
∞ sur r ∞ ∞
energy balance equation 2.46 can be written as

d d(T − T∞ ) (h + hr )P
Ac − (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx dx k

integration.
J I
J0 (x)
1 J1 (x)
I0 (x)
0
I1 (x)
1
0
x x
Y K
Y0 (x)
K1 (x)
Y1 (x)
K0 (x)
0 0
x x
FIGURE 2.10
The characteristics of Bessel functions.
Examples
2.1. A composite cylindrical wall (Figure 2.11) is composed of two materials of

thermal conductivity kA and kB , which are separated by a very thin, electric
resistance heater for which interfacial contact resistances with material A and
, R , respectively. Liquid pumped through the tube is at a temper-
B Rtc,A tc,B
ature T∞,i and provides a convection coefficient hi at the inner surface of
R″tc,A, R″tc,B
r3
r2
r1 ho, T∞,o
hi, T∞,i kB q″h, Th

kA
q″h, (2πr2)
T∞,i Th T∞,o
q′i q′o
1 ln(r2/r1) ln(r3/r2) 1
R″tc,B , R″tc,A
hi 2πr1 2πkB 2πkA ho 2πr3
FIGURE 2.11
Thermal circuit of a composite cylindrical wall and all resistance.
the composite. The outer surface is exposed to ambient air, which is at T∞,o
and provides a convection coefficient of ho . Under steady-state conditions,
a uniform heat flux of qh is dissipated by the heater.
a. Sketch the equivalent thermal circuit of the system and express all
resistances in terms of relevant variables.
b. Obtain an expression that may be used to determine the heater tempera-
ture, Th .
c. Obtain an expression for the ratio of heat flows to the outer and inner
fluids, qo /qi . How might the variables of the problem be adjusted to
minimize this ratio?
SOLUTION
a. See the sketch shown in Figure 2.11.
b. Performing an energy balance for the heater, Ėin = Ėout , it follows that
Th − T∞,i
qh (2πr2 ) = qi + qo =
(hi 2πr1 )−1 + (ln(r2 /r1 )/2πkB ) + Rtc,B
Th − T∞,o
+
(ho 2πr3 )−1 + (ln(r3 /r2 )/2πkA ) + Rtc,A
c. From the circuit,
−1
qo (T − T∞,o ) (hi 2πr1 ) + (ln (r2 /r1 ) /2πkB ) + Rtc,B
= h ·
qi (Th − T∞,i ) (ho 2πr3 )−1 + (ln (r3 /r2 ) /2πkA ) + Rtc,A
2.2. Heat is generated at a rate q̇ in a large slab of thickness 2L, as shown in

Figure 2.5a. The side surfaces lose heat by convection to a liquid at temper-
ature T∞ . Obtain the steady-state temperature distributions for the following
cases:
a. q̇ = q̇o 1 − (x/L)2 , with x measured from the centerplane.
b. q̇ = a + b(T − T∞ )
SOLUTION

a. q̇ = q̇o 1 − (x/L)2
x 2
d2 T q̇o
= − 1 −
dx 2 k L

dT q̇o 1 x3
=− x− + C1
dx k 3 L2

q̇o 1 2 1 x4
T =− x − + C1 x + C2
k 2 12 L2
dT
Boundary conditions: x = 0, = 0 (symmetry); x = L,
dx
dT
−k = h (T − T∞ )
dx
Substituting the boundary conditions into the above equation to replace

C1 and C2 ,

q̇o L2 5 1 x 4 x 2 4
T − T∞ = + − +
2k 6 6 L L 3Bi
b. q̇ = a + b(T − T∞ )
d2 T b a
+ T − T ∞ − =0
dx 2 k b
Solving the above equation,

a 1/2 1/2
T − T∞ − = C1 cos b/k x + C2 sin b/k x
b
Applying boundary conditions,
1/2
a h cos b/k a/b x
T − T∞ − = 1/2 1/2 1/2
b h cos b/k L + b/k sin b/k L
2.3. A long gas turbine blade (Figure 2.12) receives heat from combustion gases
by convection and radiation. If reradiation from the blade can be neglected
Ts T∞ , determine the temperature distribution along the blade. Assume
a. The blade tip is insulated.
b. The heat transfer coefficient on the tip equals that on the blade sides.
The cross-sectional area of the blade may be taken to be constant.
SOLUTION
If the blade is at a much lower temperature than the combustion gases, radi-
ation emitted by the blade will be much smaller than the absorbed radiation
and can be ignored to simplify the problem. An energy balance on an element
of fin Δx long gives

dT dT
−kAc + kA − hP Δx(T − T∞ ) + qrad P Δx = 0
dx x dx x+Δx
c
Dividing by Δx and letting Δx → 0,
d2 T hP q P
2
− (T − T∞ ) + rad = 0
dx kAc kAc
qrad Blade tip
Combustion
gases
L
T∞, h
Tb
FIGURE 2.12
A turbine blade modeled as a fin with constant cross-sectional area.
Since qrad is a constant, we rewrite this equation as
d2 T hP q
2
− T − T∞ + rad = 0
dx kAc h
= T + q /h. Then
which defines an “effective” ambient temperature T∞ ∞ rad
.
the solutions can be obtained by replacing T∞ with T∞
a. Insulated blade tip.

T − T∞ + qrad /h cosh m (L − x)
=
Tb − T∞ + qrad /h cosh mL
b. Tip and side heat transfer coefficient equal.

T − T∞ + qrad /h cosh m (L − x) + h/mk sinh m (L − x)
=
Tb − T∞ + qrad /h cosh mL + h/mk sin mL
2.4. The attached Figure shows a straight fin of triangular profile (Figure 2.13).
Assume that this is a thin fin with w t . Derive the heat conduction equation
of fin: determine the temperature distributions in the fin analytically; and
determine the fin efficiency.
SOLUTION
From Figure 2.13,

d dT h dAs
Ac − (T − T∞ ) = 0 (2.55)
dx dx k dx
tw d2 T tw dT 2hw
x + − (T − T∞ ) = 0
L dx 2 L dx k
T∞, h
t
W
dx
L
x
FIGURE 2.13
A triangular straight fin with variable cross-sectional area.
d2 T dT 2h
x + − L (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx 2 dx kt
d2 θ dθ
x2 +x − m2 Lxθ = 0 (2.56)
dx 2 dx
where
t
Ac = w x
L
dAs = 2w dx
θ ≡ T − T∞
2h
m2 ≡
kt
As 2wL
But we need z 2 (d2 θ/dz 2 ) + z(dθ/dz) − z 2 θ = 0, for the modified Bessel

function solution √
So, z 2 ∼ x, z ∼ x √ √ √
From the solution form, I0 2m xL , imply z ∼ x = 2m xL
dz √ 1 √ 1 2m2 L
= 2m L · · x −1/2 = m L √ =
dx 2 x z
2
dθ dθ dz d θ d dθ dz
= · ; = · ;
dx dz dx dx 2 dz dx dx
Substituting into Equation 2.56
d2 θ dθ
z2 +z − z 2θ = 0 (2.57)
dz 2 dz
The solution to the above equation is
θ = C1 Io (z) + C2 Ko (z)
Boundary conditions
at x = 0, Ko → ∞, C2 = 0,
at x = L, θ = θb ,
√
I0 2m xL
θ = θb ·
I0 (2 mL)

dT I (2 mL)
qf = +kAc = θb ktwm 1
dx x=L I0 (2 mL)
qf 1 I1 (2 mL)
ηf = =
hθb 2wL mL I0 (2 mL)
2.5. A hollow transistor (Figure 2.14) has a cylindrical cap of radius ro and height
L, and is attached to a base plate at temperature Tb . Show that the heat
dissipated is

I (mro ) sinh mL + I1 (mro ) cosh mL
qf = 2πkro t Tb − T∞ m 0
I0 (mro ) cosh mL + I1 (mro ) sinh mL
where the metal thickness is t , m = (h/kt )1/2 , and the heat transfer coef-
ficient on the sides and top is assumed to be the same, h, and outside
temperature, T∞ .
t ro
T∞, h
L hi = 0
Tb
FIGURE 2.14
A hollow transistor modeled as a fin.
SOLUTION
The cap is split into two fins, (1) a straight fin of width 2πro and length L, and
(2) a disk fin of radius ro .
For the straight fin with T = Tb at x = 0,
1/2
T1 − T∞ = C1 sinh mx + (Tb − T∞ ) cosh mx; m = h/kt (2.58)
For the disk with dT /dr = 0 at r = 0,

1/2
T2 − T∞ = C2 I0 (mr ) ; m = h/kt (2.59)
The constants C1 and C2 are determined by matching the temperature and

heat flow at the join,

T1 (L) = T2 (ro ); dT /dx x=L = − dT /dr r =r ; (2.60)
o
Since kAc is the same for both fins at the junction. Substituting Equa-
tions 2.58 and 2.59 into Equation 2.60 gives

C2 I0 (mro ) = C1 sinh mL + Tb − T∞ cosh mL

−C2 I1 (mro ) = C1 cosh mL + Tb − T∞ sinh mL
Solving,

C1 = − Tb − T∞ 0
The heat dissipation is the base heat flow of fin 1,

dT1
qf = −kAc = −kAc mC1
dx x=0
= 2πkro t Tb − T∞ 0
Remarks
This chapter deals with 1-D steady-state heat conduction through the plane
wall with and without heat generation, cylindrical tube with and without
heat generation, and fins with constant and variable cross-sectional area.
Although it is a 1-D steady-state conduction problem, there are many engi-
neering applications. For example, heat losses through building walls, heat
transfer through tubes, and heat losses through fins. In undergraduate heat
transfer, we normally ask you to calculate heat transfer rates through the plane
walls, circular tubes, and fins, with given dimensions, material properties, and
thermal boundary conditions. Therefore, you can pick up the right formulas
and plug in with these given numbers and obtain the results.
However, in this intermediate heat transfer level, we are more focused on
how to solve the heat conduction equation with various thermal boundary
conditions and how to obtain the temperature distributions for a given phys-
ical problem. For example, how to solve the temperature distributions for the
plane walls, circular tubes, with and without heat generation, and fins with
constant and variable cross-sectional area, with various thermal boundary
conditions. In particular, we have introduced one of very powerful mathe-
matical tools, Bessel function, to solve the fins with variable cross-sectional
area with various thermal boundary conditions. This is the only thing new as
compared to the undergraduate heat transfer.
PROBLEMS
2.1. The performance of gas turbine engines may be improved by
increasing the tolerance of the turbine blades to hot gases
emerging from the combustor. One approach to achieving high
operating temperatures involves application of a thermal barrier
coating (TBC) to the exterior surface of a blade, while passing
cooling air through the blade. Typically, the blade is made from
a high-temperature superalloy, such as Inconel (k ≈ 25 W/m K)
while a ceramic, such as zirconia (k ≈ 1.3 W/m K), is used as
a TBC.
Consider conditions for which hot gases at T∞,o = 1700 K and
cooling air at T∞,i = 400 K provide outer- and inner-surface con-
vection coefficients of ho = 1000 W/m2 K and hi = 500 W/m2 K,
respectively. If a 0.5-mm-thick zirconia TBC is attached to a 5-
mm-thick Inconel blade wall by means of a metallic bonding
=
agent, which provides an interfacial thermal resistance of Rt,c
10−4 m2 K/W, can the Inconel be maintained at a temperature that
is below its maximum allowable value of 1250 K? Radiation effects
may be neglected, and the turbine blade may be approximated as
a plane wall. Plot the temperature distribution with and without
the TBC. Are there any limits to the thickness of the TBC?
2.2. 1-D heat conduction through a circular tube, as shown in Fig-
ure 2.3. Determine heat loss per tube length as the following
conditions:
Given:
Steam Inside the Pipe Air Outside the Pipe Steel Pipe AISI 1010
T∞1 = 250◦ C T∞2 = 20◦ C 2r1 = 60 mm

h1 = 500 W/m2 K h2 = 25 W/m2 K 2r2 = 75 mm
ε = 0.8
Find: q/L =?
2.3. Heat is generated at a rate q̇ in a long solid cylinder of radius

ro , as shown in Figure 2.6. The cylinder has a thin metal sheath
and is immersed in a liquid at temperature T∞ . Heat transfer
from the cylinder surface to the liquid can be characterized by
a heat transfer coefficient h. Obtain the steady-state temperature
distributions
for the following
cases:
a. q̇ = q̇o 1 − (r/ro )2 .
b. q̇ = a + b(T − T∞ ).
2.4. 1-D, a hollow cylindrical copper tube fin with constant cross-
sectional area (Figure 2.15). Disk-shaped transistor dissipates
0.2 W during steady state. Good insulation at the base plate.
L = 15 mm, ro = 7.75 mm, ri = 7.5 mm, Assume: h1 = 0 (no cool-
ing)
t = 0.25 mm
Air cooling: T∞ = 25◦ C, h2 = 50 W/m2 K
Find: copper tube temperature distribution.
2.5. A thin metal disk, as shown in Figure 2.9d, is insulated on one side
and exposed to a jet of hot air at temperature T∞ on the other. The
convection heat transfer coefficient h can be taken to be constant
over the disk. The periphery at r = R is maintained at a uniform
temperature TR .
a. Derive the heat conduction equation of disk.
b. Determine the disk temperature distributions.
c. Do you think the disk temperature is hotter at the center or the
periphery? Why?
2.6. Given a relatively thin annular fin with a uniform thickness, as
shown in Figure 2.9b, that is affixed to a tube. The inner and outer
radii of the fin are ri and ro , respectively, and the thickness of
the fin is t. The tube surface (i.e., the base of the annular fin) is
maintained at a temperature of Tb or T(ri ) = Tb . Both the top
and the bottom surfaces are exposed to a fluid at T∞ . The con-
vection heat transfer coefficient between the fin surfaces and the
fluid is h.
a. Derive the steady-state heat conduction equation of the annu-
lar fin, and propose a solution of the annular fin temperature
distribution with the associate boundary conditions.
T•, h2 T•, h2
T•, h2 h1 = 0 T•, h2
Tb ri
ro
Transistor
FIGURE 2.15
A hollow cylindrical copper tube fin.
b. If during the air cooling, the annular fin has also received radi-
ation energy from the surrounding environment, Tsur , can you
sketch, compare, and comment on the fin temperature profile
T(r) with that in (a)?
2.7. Both sides of a very thin metal disk, as shown in Figure 2.9d, are
heated by convective hot air at temperature T∞ . The convection
heat transfer coefficient h can be taken constant over the disk. The
periphery at r = R is maintained at a uniform temperature TR .
a. Derive the steady-state heat conduction equation of the disk.
b. Propose a solution method and the associated boundary con-
ditions that can be used to determine the disk temperature
distributions. Sketch the disk temperature profile T(r). Do
you think the disk temperature is hotter at the center or the
periphery? Why?
c. If during the air heating, the disk has also emitted a net uniform
radiation flux qrad to the surrounding environment, derive the
steady-state heat condition equation of the disk and propose
a solution method to determine the disk temperature distri-
butions. Can you sketch, compare, and comment on the disk
temperature profile with that in (b)?
2.8. The front surface of a very thin metal disk is cooled by convective
air at temperature T∞ while the back surface is perfectly insulated,
as shown in Figure 2.9d. The convection heat transfer coefficient h
can be taken to be constant over the front surface of the disk. The
periphery at r = R is maintained at a uniform temperature TR by
a heat source.
a. Derive the steady-state heat conduction equation of
disk.
b. Determine the disk temperature distributions with the associ-
ated boundary conditions. Sketch the disk temperature profile
T(r).
c. If during the air cooling, the disk has also emitted a net uniform
radiation flux qrad to the surrounding environment, derive
the steady-state heat conduction equation of the disk and
determine the disk temperature distributions. Can you sketch,
compare, and comment on the disk temperature profile with
that in (b)?
2.9. A thin conical pin fin is shown in Figure 2.9a. Determine analyt-
ically the temperature profile in the pin fin. Also determine the
heat flux through the pin fin base.
Given:
Pin fin tip temperature: TR > T∞ Pin fin height: l
Pin fin base diameter: d Pin fin base temperature: Tb
Cooling air at T∞ , h Hot wall at Tb
2.10. The wall of a furnace has a height L = 1 m and is at a uni-
form temperature of 500 K. Three materials of equal thickness
t = 0.1 m, having the properties listed in the table attached, are
placed in the order shown in the Figure to insulated the furnace
Air
Furnace
A B C
500 K T∞ = 300 K
V∞ = 1.5 m/s
1 2 3 4
FIGURE 2.16
A furnace composite plane wall model.
wall (Figure 2.16). Air at T∞ = 300 K blows past the outer layer
of insulation at a speed of V∞ = 1.5 m/s as shown in the figure.
a. Assuming 1-D, steady conduction through the insulation lay-
ers, calculate the heat flux from the wall to the surroundings,
q. For this, choose the most appropriate of the following two
correlations:
h̄L 1/2
= 0.664 ReL Pr1/3 (ReL < 105 ; laminarflow)
k
h̄L
= (0.037ReL0.8 − 850)Pr1/3 (ReL > 105 ; turbulentflow)
k
where h̄ is an average heat transfer coefficient, ReL is the

Reynolds number based on L and V∞ , and Pr is the Prandtl
number of air.
b. For the arrangement shown in the figure, calculate the tem-
peratures at surfaces 2, 3, and 4.
c. How should the materials A, B, C be ordered to obtain the
steepest temperature gradient possible between surfaces 1
and 2?
d. For this new arrangement, calculate the temperatures at
surfaces 2, 3, and 4.
Material K(W/m k) ρ(kg/m3 ) μ(kh/m s) cp (kJ/kg K)
A 100
B 10
C 1
Air 0.026 1.177 1.846 × 10−5 1.006
2.11. A very long copper rod of small diameter is moving in a vac-

uum with a constant velocity, V (Figure 2.17). The long rod is
moving from one constant temperature region, T0 , at x = 0, to
another temperature region, TL (at x = L). Solve for the steady-
state temperature distribution in the rod between x = 0 and L.
Neglect thermal radiation.
T0 TL
Copper rod
V
x=0 x=L
FIGURE 2.17
A moving fin model.
a. Write down the governing equation for axial temperature

distribution when V = 0.
b. Determine the axial temperature distribution which satisfies
the specified boundary conditions when V = 0.
c. Write down the governing equation for axial temperature
distribution when V = 0.
d. Determine the axial temperature distribution which satisfies
the specified boundary conditions when V = 0.
(Make any necessary assumption. For example, the thermal
conductivity of the copper rod is k . . .)
2.12. A thin long rod extends from the side of a probe that is in outer
space. The base temperature of the rod is Tb . The rod has a diam-
eter, D, a length, L, and its surface is at an emissivity, ε. State all
relevant assumptions and boundary conditions.
a. Starting with an energy balance on a differential cross section
of the pin fin, perform an energy balance on the rod and derive
a differential equation that could be used to solve this problem.
b. Sketch on the same plot the temperature distribution along
the rod, and compare the heat loss through the rod for the
following four cases: (1) The rod is made of aluminum; (2)
apply paint on the aluminum rod; (3) the rod is made of steel;
(4) apply the paint on the steel rod.
2.13. Given a relatively thin annular fin with uniform thickness that is
affixed to a tube. The inner and outer radii of the fin are ri and
ro , respectively, and the thickness of the fin is w. The tube surface
(i.e., the base of the annular fin) is maintained at a temperature of
Tb , or T(ri ) = Tb . Both the top and bottom surfaces of the fin are
exposed to a fluid at T∞ . The convective heat transfer coefficient
between the fin surfaces and the fluid is h.
a. Show that, to determine the steady 1-D temperature distribu-
tion in the annular fin, T(r), the governing equation may be
written in the form of a modified Bessel’s equation.

d2 y 1 dy 2 n2
+ − c + 2 y=0
dx2 x dx x
where y = y(x), and c and n are constants.

b. The general solution of the above modified Bessel’s equation

is y = C1 In (cx) + C2 Kn (cx), where C1 and C2 are constants,
and In and Kn are the modified Bessel’s functions of the first
and second kinds of order n, respectively. Assuming that
the heat transfer on the outer surface of the fin is negligible
[i.e., dT/dr = 0 at r = ro ], solve the governing equation to
obtain the steady 1-D temperature distribution in the annular
fin, T(r).
c. You may also determine the steady 1-D temperature distribu-
tion in the annular fin numerically using the finite difference
method. Give the finite-difference equations for the nodes at
r = ri and r = ro and for a typical interior node. Please rear-
range the equations to give expressions for the temperatures
at the nodes.
2.14. An engineer has suggested that a triangular fin would be more
effective than a circular fin for a new natural convection heat
exchanger. The fins are very long and manufactured from Al 2024-
T6. The triangular fin has an equilateral cross section with a base
dimension of 1.0 cm and the second fin has a circular cross sec-
tion with a 0.955 cm diameter. If the base temperature of the fin is
maintained at 400◦ C, which fin will transfer more heat and which
fin has a greater effectiveness?
[h = 25 W/m2 K, k2024−T6 = 177 W/mK, T∞ = 25◦ C]
qfin = (hPkAc )1/2 · θb εfin = qfin /hAc θb
2.15. A thin conical pin fin is attached to a hot base plate at Tb . The
cooling air has temperature T∞ and convection heat transfer coef-
ficient h. Determine analytically the temperature profile in the pin
fin. Also, determine the heat flux through the pin fin base.
2.16. Solve temperature profile for the annulus fin geometry as shown
in Figure 2.9b, assume that the fin tip is exposed to convection
fluid with same given temperature and convection heat transfer
coefficient.
2.17. Solve the temperature profile for the annulus fin geometry as
shown in Figure 2.9b, assume that the fin tip is fixed at a given
temperature between the fin base and the convection fluid.
2.18. Determine the solutions shown in Equations 2.36 and 2.37.
References
1. W. Rohsenow and H. Choi, Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1961.
3. A. Mills, Heat Transfer, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Boston, MA, 1992.
4. V. Arpaci, Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Read-
ing, MA, 1966.
3
2-D Steady-State Heat Conduction
3.1 Method of Separation of Variables: Given

Temperature BC
Most often heat is conducted in two dimensions instead of one dimension
as discussed in Chapter 2. For example, we are interested in determining the
temperature distribution in a 2-D rectangular block with appropriate BCs.
Once the temperature distribution is known, the associated heat transfer rate
can be determined. The following are the steady-state 2-D heat conduction
equations without heat generation and the typical BCs with given surface
temperatures.
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
2
+ 2 =0 (3.1)
∂x ∂y
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
+ = 0, if let θ = T − T0 (3.2)
∂x2 ∂y2
Boundary conditions:
x = 0, T = 0 or x = 0, θ = 0 homogeneous BC
x = a, T = 0 or x = a, θ = 0 homogeneous BC
y = 0, T = 0 or y = 0, θ = 0 homogeneous BC
y = b, T = Ts or y = b, θ = Ts − T0 = θs nonhomogeneous BC
Here, we defined a homogeneous BC as T = 0, or ∂T/∂x = 0, ∂T/∂y = 0;
θ = 0, or ∂θ/∂x = 0, ∂θ/∂y = 0, that is, temperature or temperature gradient
at a given boundary surface (in the x- or y-direction) equals 0. In contrast,
we define a nonhomogeneous BC as T = 0, ∂T/∂x = 0, ∂T/∂y = 0; or θ = 0,
∂θ/∂x = 0, ∂θ/∂y = 0, that is, temperature or temperature gradient at a given
boundary surface (in the x- or y-direction) does not equal 0.
Equations 3.1 and 3.2 can be solved by the method of separation of variable.
By means of this, we can separate the temperature from depending on two
directions, T(x, y), to one direction each, T(x) and T(y), respectively. The final
2-D temperature distribution is a product of each 1-D temperature solution,
that is, T(x, y) = T(x) · T(y). The following outlines the method of separation
45
y
T = Ts Isofluxes
b
T=0 T=0
Isotherm
x
T=0 a
y
Ts θ = θs
b
T0 T0
θ = T –T0
θ=0 θ=0
x
T0 θ=0 a
FIGURE 3.1
2-D heat conduction with three homogeneous and one nonhomogeneous boundary conditions.
of variable [1–4]. We need four BCs, two in the x-direction and two in the
y-direction, to solve the 2-D heat conduction problem. One important note is
that, among four BCs, only one nonhomogenoeus BC is allowed in order to
apply the principal of separation of variable method. For a given problem,
we need to make sure that only one nonhomogeneous BC exists either in the
x- or in the y-direction. The principal of superposition will be used for the
problems having two, three, or four nonhomogeneous BCs. We will begin with
the simplest case, as shown in Figure 3.1, with given surface temperatures as
BCs. Then we will move to more complicated cases with surface heat flux and
surface convection BCs as well as the problems required in the principal of
superposition.
T(x, y) = X(x)Y(y) (3.3)
Then take the derivatives
∂T ∂X dX
=Y =Y
∂x ∂x dx
∂ 2T ∂ 2X d2 X
= Y = Y
∂x2 ∂x2 dx2
∂T ∂Y dY
=X =X
∂y ∂y dy
∂ 2T ∂ 2Y d2 Y
= X = X
∂y2 ∂y2 dy2
Then substitute them into the 2-D conduction equation 3.1
d2 X d2 Y
Y + X =0
dx2 dy2
(3.4)
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y
− 2
=
X dx Y dy2
The equality can hold only if both sides are equal to a constant as each side
of Equation 3.4 is a function of an independent variable. The constant can
be positive, negative, or zero. However, the positive number of the constant
is the only possibility for the BCs in this case. The readers may note that
zero and negative constants do not satisfy the BCs. Therefore, we express
Equation 3.4 as
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y
− 2
= = λ2 (3.5)
X dx Y dy2
Then we have
d2 X/dx2 + λ2 X = 0 ⇒ X = X(x), the equation for two homogeneous

BCs,
d2 Y/dy2 − λ2 Y = 0 ⇒ Y = Y(y), the equation for one homogeneous BC,
X(x) = C1 cos λx + C2 sin λx, the solution for equation with two homo-
geneous BCs,
Y(y) = C3 e−λy + C4 eλy or (Y(y) = C3 sinh λy + C4 cosh λy), the solution
for equation with one homogeneous BC.
Solve C1 and C2 for the x-direction equation
at x = 0, T = 0, ⇒ X = 0, then C1 = 0,
at x = a, T = 0, ⇒ X = 0, then C2 sin λa = 0 ⇒ λn a = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and
then,
nπ
λn =
a
Therefore,
nπx
X(x) = C2 sin
a
Solve C3 and C4 for the y-direction equation at y = 0, T = 0, Y = 0 = C3 +

C4 ⇒ C4 = −C3 .
Y( y) = C3 e−λn y − C3 eλn y = C3 (e−λn y − eλn y )
With sinh(x) = (ex − e−x )/2, let C5 = C3 /2, the above equation can be
written as
Y( y) = C5 sinh(λn y)
Then solve for the product equation, and let C2 C5 = Cn .

nπx nπy nπx nπy
T(x, y) = X(x) · Y(y) = C2 C5 sin sinh = Cn sin sinh
a a a a

at y = b, T = Ts = Cn sin(nπ/a)x sinh(nπ/a)b.
Multiplying both sides by sin(nπx/a) dx, one obtains
mπx nπx nπb mπx
sin · Ts dx = Cn sin sinh sin dx
a a a a
Cn can be determined by the integration over x,

Ts sin(mπx/a) dx
Cn = (3.6)
sin(nπx/a) sinh(nπb/a) sin(mπx/a) dx
Cn = 0, if m = n;

Ts sin(nπx/a) dx
Cn = 2
, if m = n.
sin (nπx/a) sinh(nπb/a) dx
How does one perform integration? From the integration table, one
obtains
a
nπx a nπx a a
1. dx = −
sin cos = (1 − cos(nπ))
a nπ a 0 nπ
0
⎧
a ⎨0, n = even
= 1 − (−1)n = 2a
nπ ⎩ , n = odd
nπ
a
nπx a nπx 1 2nπx a a
2. sin2 dx = − sin =
a 2nπ a 2 a 0 2
0
or
a a
nπx
2 1 − cos(2nπx/a) a 1 a 2nπx a a
sin dx = dx = − sin =
a 2 2 2 2nπ a 0 2
0 0
Therefore, one obtains
(2/nπ) [1 − (−1)n ] Ts
Cn =
sinh(nπb/a)
Finally, the 2-D temperature distribution follows:

∞
nπx nπy
T(x, y) = Cn sin sinh (3.7)
a a
n=1
∞
(2/nπ) [1 − (−1)n ] Ts nπx nπy
T(x, y) = sin sinh (3.8)
sinh(nπb/a) a a
n=1
The second-order partial differential equations (PDEs) T(x, y) are split into
two second-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs) T(x) and T(y). The
second-order ODE with two homogeneous BCs is the so-called eigenvalue
equation. The solution of the eigenfunctions, sine and cosine, depend on
the two homogeneous BCs. The eigenvalues, λ, can be determined by one
of the two homogeneous BCs (either both in the x-direction, or both in the
y-direction). The solution of the other second-order ODE is a decay curve
of combining e(x) and e(−x) for an infinite-length problem, or sinh(x) and
cosh(x) for a finite-length problem. The only nonhomogeneous BC will be
used to solve the final unknown coefficient Cn . The integrated value Cn can
be determined by performing integration of sin, sin-square or cos, cos-square,
depending on the given BCs, by using the characteristics of the orthogonal
functions.
If we let θ = T − T0 , follow the same procedure, the 2-D temperature
distribution becomes
nπx nπy
θ(x, y) = θ(x)θ(y) = Cn sin sinh (3.9)
a a
∞
(2/nπ) [1 − (−1)n ] θs nπx nπy
θ(x, y) = sin sinh (3.10)
sinh(nπb/a) a a
n=1
3.2 Method of Separation of Variables: Given Heat Flux

and Convection BCs
3.2.1 Given Surface Heat Flux BC
The following shows the similar principal of using the separation of variable
method to solve the 2-D heat conduction problems with one nonhomogeneous
boundary specified as surface heat flux or surface convection condition [2].
As the aforementioned procedure, we need to make all BCs homogeneous
∂θ
y q " = −k = given
s ∂y
T1 T1
θ = T−T1
θ=0 θ=0
T1 θ=0 a x
FIGURE 3.2
2-D heat conduction with three homogeneous and one heat flux nonhomogeneous boundary
conditions.
but one. For example, in Figure 3.2, the three temperature BCs become homo-
geneous by setting θ = T − T1 and the only nonhomogeneous heat flux BC
becomes qs = −k(∂θ/∂y). The solution will be the product of sine and cosine
in the x-direction (two homogeneous BCs) and sinh cosh in the y-direction
(one nonhomogeneous BC). As before, the nonhomogeneous heat flux BC will
be used to solve the final unknown integrated value Cn .
Given a long rectangular bar with a constant heat flux along one edge,
other edges are isothermal. In order to obtain homogeneous BCs on the three
isothermal edges, let θ = T − T1 . Laplace’s equation, Equation 3.2, applies to
this steady 2-D conduction problem.
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
+ =0
∂x2 ∂y2
at x = 0, y = 0, x = a, θ=0
at y = b, −k(∂θ/∂y) = qs
The solution is subject to the three homogeneous BCs with θ replacing T,

∞
nπx nπy
θ(x, y) = Cn sin sinh
a a
n=1
Applying the last BC, nonhomogeneous, to solve for Cn ,

nπx nπ
∞
∂θ qs nπb
= − = C sin cosh
∂y y=b
n
k a a a
n=1
a
−(qs /k) 0 sin(nπx/a) dx
Cn = a
(nπ/a) cosh(nπb/a) 0 sin2 (nπx/a) dx
y ∂θ
T∞ , h h (θ− θ∞) = −k b
∂y
b
T1 θ = T−T1 T1
θ=0 θ=0
T1 θ=0 a x
FIGURE 3.3
2-D heat conduction with one convective boundary conditions.
−(qs /k)(a/nπ)[1 − (−1)n ]

=
(nπ/a) cosh(nπb/a)[(a/2)]
−(qs /k)(2/nπ)[1 − (−1)n ]
=
(nπ/a) cosh(nπb/a)
Therefore, we obtain
∞
2qs a[1 − (−1)n ] nπx nπy
T(x, y) = T1 − sin sinh (3.11)
kn π cosh(nπb/a)
2 2 a a
n=1
3.2.2 Given Surface Convection BC

A similar procedure can be applied for the only nonhomogeneous convection
BC problem [2] shown in Figure 3.3. Again, the solution will be a product of
sine and cosine in the x-direction and sinh and cosh in the y-direction, and
the nonhomogeneous convection BC will be used to solve the final unknown
integrated value of Cn .
A long rectangular bar with one side cooled by convection and the others
maintained at a constant temperature T1 .
Define θ = T − T1 . Laplace’s equation applies to this steady 2-D conduction
problem.
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
+ =0
∂x2 ∂y2
which must be solved subject to BCs
x = 0, 0<y<b: θ = 0,
y = 0, 0<x<a: θ = 0,
x = a, 0<y<b: θ = 0,
⎧
⎪
⎪ ∂T
⎪
⎪h(T − T∞ ) = −k
⎪
⎪ ∂y
⎨ ∂(T − T1 )
y = b, 0 < x < a : h[(T − T1 ) − (T∞ − T1 )] = −k
⎪
⎪ ∂y
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
∂θ
⎩h(θ − θ∞ ) = −k
∂y
The solution is subject to the three homogeneous BCs with θ replacing T,
∞
nπx nπy
θ(x, y) = Cn sin sinh
a a
n=1
and at y = b, applying nonhomogeneous BCs to solve for Cn :
∞

∂θ nπx nπ nπb h nπx nπb
= Cn sin cosh =− Cn sin sinh − θ∞
∂y a a a k n a a
n=1

nπx nπ nπb h nπb h
Cn sin cosh + sinh = θ∞
a a a k a k
n=1
a
(h/k)θ∞ 0 sin(nπx/a) dx
Cn =
a
((nπ/a) cosh(nπb/a) + (h/k) sinh(nπb/a)) sin2 (nπx/a) dx
0
(h/k)θ∞ (a/nπ) [1 − (−1)n ]

=
((nπ/a) cosh(nπb/a) + (h/k) sinh(nπb/a)) [(a/2)]
θ∞ (2/nπ) [1 − (−1)n ]
=
(sinh(nπb/a) + (nπ/a)(h/k) cosh(nπb/a))
Therefore, we obtain
∞
(2/nπ) [1 − (−1)n ] sin(nπx/a) sinh(nπy/a)
T − T1
= (3.12)
T∞ − T 1 sinh(nπb/a) + (nπ/a)(h/k) cosh(nπb/a)
n=1
3.3 Principle of Superposition for Nonhomogeneous BCs

Superposition
In some applications, we may have all three kinds of surface BCs applied
to a given problem. For example, Figure 3.4 shows a 2-D heat conduction
problem with given surface temperature, heat flux, and convection BCs,
∂θ
hθ = −k
h, T∞ ∂y
∇2 θ = 0 Superposition
T( y ) ∇2 T = 0 T0 ⇒ θ( y ) θ0 ⇒
θ =T–T∞ θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3
q″ ∂θ
q″ = −k
∂y
∂θ1 ∂θ2 ∂θ3

hθ1 = −k hθ2 = −k hθ3 = −k
∂y ∂y ∂y
∇2 θ1 = 0 θ1 = 0 θ2 = θ2 ( y ) ∇2 θ 2 = 0 θ2 = 0 θ3 = 0 ∇2 θ3 = 0 θ3 = θ0
θ1= 0
∂θ1 ∂θ2 ∂θ3

q″ = −k 0 = −k 0 = −k
∂y ∂y ∂y
⊕ ⊕
FIGURE 3.4
Principle of superposition for two-dimensional heat conduction with four nonhomogenous
boundary conditions.
respectively. The problem becomes involving three, nonhomogeneous BCs

after letting θ = T − T∞ . We have to use the superposition principal, split-
ting the problem with three nonhomogeneous BCs into three individual
problems [1]. For each of the problems, there is only one nonhomogeneous
BC. Then the method of separation of variable can be applied. It is impor-
tant to note that both the heat conduction equations and the associated BCs
must satisfy the superposition principal, respectively, that is, θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3
for both heat conduction equation and four BCs. From the aforementioned
discussion, we know how to obtain the solution for θ1 (two homogeneous
x-BCs and one nonhomogeneous at y = 0), θ2 (two homogeneous y-BCs and
one nonhomogeneous at x = 0), and θ3 (two homogeneous y-BCs and one
nonhomogeneous at x = b). Applying superposition, the final temperature
distributions is θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3 .
3.3.1 2-D Heat Conduction in Cylindrical Coordinates

Figure 3.5 shows 2-D cylindrical coordinate systems. The following equations
can be solved using the method of separation of variables as discussed above.
The detailed solutions can be found from any advanced heat conduction
textbook.
∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T
+ + = 0 ⇒ T = R(r)Θ(φ) (3.13)
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂φ2

1 ∂ ∂T ∂ 2T
r + 2 = 0 ⇒ T = R(r)Z(z) (3.14)
r ∂r ∂r ∂z
T(r,ϕ)
ϕ
r
z z
T(r,z,ϕ) T(r,z)
r r
FIGURE 3.5
2-D heat conduction in cylindrical coordinates.
3.4 Principle of Superposition for Multidimensional Heat

Conduction and for Nonhomogeneous Equations
3.4.1 3-D Heat Conduction Problem
Sometimes we need to solve the 3-D heat conduction problems in Cartesian
(rectangular) coordinates as shown in Figure 3.6. Basically, we are first to
convert the 3-D into the 2-D heat conduction problem and then solve the 2-D
problem by using the separation of variable method discussed earlier. The
following is a brief outline on how to solve this type of problem.
The steady-state 3-D heat conduction equation without heat generation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ + =0 (3.15)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
y y
T1
T1
θ0 T0 T1 T1 T1
T1 z x
x T1
FIGURE 3.6
3-D heat conduction in Cartesian coordinates.
Let θ = T − T1 .
The above governing equation and the associated BCs become
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
+ + 2 =0
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z
x = 0, θ = 0, or ∂θ/∂x = 0; x = a, θ = 0, two homogeneous BCs,

y = 0, θ = 0, or ∂θ/∂y = 0; y = b, θ = 0, two homogeneous BCs,
z = 0, θ = θ0 ; z = c, θ = 0, one nonhomogeneous BC.
Let θ = X(x)Y(y)Z(z). Put its derivatives in the above 3-D heat conduction
equation and obtain
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
− 2
= 2
+ = λ2 (3.16)
X dx Y dy Z dz2
This implies
d2 X
+ λ2 X = 0 (3.17)
dx2
1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
− = − λ2 = μ2
Y dy2 Z dz2
The last equation can be further written as
⎧ 2
⎪ d Y
⎪
⎨ 2 +μ Y =0
2
dy
(3.18)
⎪
⎪ 2
⎩ d Z − (λ2 + μ2 )Z = 0
dz2
Therefore, we need to solve two eigenvalue equations. The x-direction solu-

tion will be sine and cosine, the y-direction solution is sine and cosine, and
the z-direction solution is sinh and cosh. The only nonhomogeneous BC
in the z-direction will be used to determine the final unknown integrated
value Cn .
From the previous discussion, the solutions for X, Y, and Z follow:
⎧ ∼
⎪ X = c1 cos λx + c2 sin λx
⎪
⎨ ∼
Y = c3 cos μy + c4 sin μy
⎪
⎪ √ √
⎩Z ∼= c5 e− λ +μ z + c6 e λ +μ z
2 2 2 2
3.4.2 Nonhomogeneous Heat Conduction Problem

The problem of steady-state 2-D heat conduction with uniform heat genera-
tion can be split into two problems shown below, θ(x, y) = ψ(x, y) + φ(x). We
already know how to solve these two problems.
·
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ q
2
+ 2
+ =0 (3.19)
∂x ∂y k
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
+ =0
∂x2 ∂y2
∂ 2 φ q̇
+ =0 (3.20)
∂x2 k
where
ψ = X(x)Y(y) = (c1 cos λx + c2 sin λx) · (c3 e−λy + c4 eλy )
Examples
3.1 A 2-D rectangular plate is subjected to the following thermal BCs:
x = 0, 0<y <b: T = T0
x = a, 0<y <b: T = T0
y = 0, 0<x <a: T = T0
y = b, 0<x <a: T = cx
a. Derive an expression for the steady-state temperature distribution T (x, y ).

b. Sketch the isotherms and isofluxes.
SOLUTIONS
a.
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
2
+ 2 =0 (3.21)
∂x ∂y

Let θ x, y = X (x) · Y y ;
1 ∂ 2X ∂ 2Y
= − = λ2
X ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2X
− λ2 X = 0 (3.22)
∂x 2
∂ 2Y
+ λ2 Y = 0 (3.23)
∂y 2
X = C1 cos (λx) + C2 sin (λx)
Y = C3 e −λy + C4 e λy

θ = C1 cos (λx) + C2 sin (λx) C3 e−λy + C4 eλy (3.24)
i. x = 0: θ = 0
ii. x = a: θ = 0
iii. y = 0: θ = 0
iv. y = b: θ = cx − T0
Applying BC (i) into Equation 3.24, C1 = 0
Applying BC (ii) into Equation 3.24, C2 sinh (λa) = 0, λn = nπ/a.
Applying BC (iii) into Equation 3.24, C3 = −C4 .
nπx
θ x, y = C2 · C4 sin eλn y − e−λn y
a
∞ nπx nπy
(3.25)
θ x, y = Cn sin sinh
a a
n=1
Applying BC (iv) and using orthogonal functions to evaluate Cn ,
a
Cn = 0 (cx − T0 ) sin (nπx/a) dx (3.26)
a
sinh nπb/a sin2 (nπx/a) dx
0
a nπx
(cx − T0 ) sin dx
a
0
nπx a
a 2 nπx ax T ·a nπx a
=c sin − cos + 0 cos .
nπ a nπ a 0 nπ a 0
a nπx ca2 T0 · a
(cx − T0 ) sin dx = (− cos (nπ)) + (cos (nπ) − 1)
a nπ nπ
0
a nπx ca2 T0 · a
(cx − T0 ) sin dx = (−1)n+1 + (−1)n − 1
a nπ nπ
0
a nπx a T0 · a
(cx − T0 ) sin dx = (−1)n (−ca + T0 ) −
a nπ nπ
0
cx
0 0
Isotherms 0 Isofluxes
FIGURE 3.7
Sketch for the isotherms and isofluxes.
a nπx
x 1 2nπx a a
sin2 dx = − sin =
a 2 4nπ a 0 2
0
2 (−1)n+1 (ca − T0 ) − 2T0

⇒ Cn =
nπ sinh (nπb/a)
Hence,
∞ nπx nπy
2 (−1)n+1 (ca − T0 ) − T0
θ x, y = sin sinh
π n sinh nπb/a a a
n=1
b. See the sketch in Figure 3.7.

3.2. A long rectangular bar 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, shown in Figure 3.8, is heated
at x = 0 with a uniform heat flux and is insulated at x = a and y = 0. The
side at y = b loses heat by convection to a fluid at temperature T∞ .
a. Determine the temperature distribution T (x, y ).
b. Sketch the isotherm and isoflux.
∂T
h(T−T∞) = −k
y ∂y y
∂θ
hθ = −k
h, T∞ ∂y
b b
θ = T–T∞
∂T ∂θ ∂θ
qs =0 qs= −k =0
∂x ∂x ∂x
0 ∂T a x 0 ∂θ a x
=0 =0
∂y ∂y
FIGURE 3.8
A long rectangular bar with heat flux as one nonhomogenous boundary condition.
SOLUTIONS
a.
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
2
+ 2 =0 (3.27)
∂x ∂y

Let θ x, y = X (x) · Y (y ):
1 ∂ 2X ∂ 2Y
= − = λ2
X ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2X
− λ2 X = 0 (3.28)
∂x 2
∂ 2Y
+ λ2 Y = 0 (3.29)
∂y 2
X = C1 sinh (λx) + C2 cosh (λx)

Y = C3 sin λy + C4 cos λy

θ = C1 sinh (λx) + C2 cosh (λx) C3 sin λy + C4 cos λy (3.30)
i. x = 0: qs = −k (∂θ/∂x)
ii. x = a: ∂θ/∂x = 0
iii. y = 0: ∂θ/∂y = 0
iv. y = b: hθ = −k (∂θ/∂y )
Applying BC (iii) into Equation 3.30, C3 = 0.
Applying BC (ii) into Equation 3.30, C1 λ cosh (λa) + C2 λ sinh (λa) = 0,
C2 = −C1 coth (λa).

θ = Cn sinh (λx) − coth (λa) cosh (λx) cos λy (3.31)
Applying BC (iv) into Equation 3.31,

hCn sinh (λx) − coth (λa) cosh (λx) cos λb

= +k λCn sinh (λx) − coth (λa) cosh (λx) sin λb
h
λ tan λb =
k
∞

θ= Cn sinh (λn x) − coth (λn a) cosh (λn x) cos λn y (3.32)
n=1

where λn tan λn b = (h/k ).
Applying BC (i) into Equation 3.26,
∞

qs = −k Cn λn cosh (λn x) − coth (λn a) λn sinh (λn x) cos λn y x=0
n=1
∞

qs = −k Cn λn cos λn y
n=1
b b
qs
− cos λn y dy = Cn cos2 λn y dy
k λn
0 0
b
qs 1 b y 2 sin λn y cos λn y
− sin λn y 0 = Cn +
k λn λn 2 4λn
0

2qs sin λn b
Cn = −
k λn sin λn b cos λn b + bλn
∞
2qs sin λn b
θ=
k λn sin λn b cos λn b + bλn
n=1

× − sinh (λn x) + coth (λn a) cosh (λn x) cos λn y
3.3. A thin rectangular plate, 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, as shown in Figure 3.9, with

negligible heat loss from its sides, has the following BCs:
x = 0, 0 < y < b: T = T1
x = a, 0 < y < b: T = T2
y = 0, 0 < x < a: qs = 0 (insulated)
y = b, 0 < x < a: T = T3
y
T = T3
b
T = T1 T = T2
x
0
a
q″s = 0
FIGURE 3.9
A thin rectangular plate with two one nonhomogenous boundary condition.
a. Determine the steady-state temperature distribution.

b. Sketch the isotherms and isofluxes.
SOLUTIONS
a.
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
2
+ =0
∂x ∂y 2
Let θ = T − T1 , then
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
2
+ 2 =0
∂x ∂y
Let θ = θ1 + θ2 ,
∂ 2 θ1 ∂ 2 θ1
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2 θ2 ∂ 2 θ2
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2

θ1 = C1 cos(λx) + C2 sin(λx) C3 cosh(λy ) + C4 sinh(λy )
x = 0, θ1 = 0, ⇒ C1 = 0
x = a, θ1 = 0, ⇒ λa = nπ; λn = (nπ/a) n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
y = 0, ∂θ1 /∂y = 0; ⇒ C4 = 0
∞

θ1 = Cn cosh(λn y ) sin(λn x)
n=1
∞
nπx
nπb
θ1 (x, b) = (T3 − T1 ) = Cn1 cosh sin
a a
n=1
a
(T3 − T1 ) 0 sin ((nπx/a)) dx
Cn1 =
cosh (nπb/a) 0a sin2 ((nπx/a)) dx

(T3 − T1 )a · (1 − cos(nπ)/nπ) 2(T3 − T1 ) 1 − (−1)n
= =
(a/2) cosh (nπb/a) nπ cosh (nπb/a)
∞ nπy nπx
2(T3 − T1 ) 1 − (−1)n
θ1 = · cosh sin
πn cosh (nπb/a) a a
n=1
Solution for θ2

θ2 = C1 cosh(λx) + C2 sinh(λx) C3 cos(λy ) + C4 sin(λy )
y = 0, ∂θ/∂y = 0; ⇒ C4 = 0
y = b, θ2 = 0; ⇒ λn = nπ/2b
x = 0, θ2 = 0; ⇒ C1 = 0
∞

θ2 = Cn2 sinh(λn x) cos(λn y )
nodd
∞

θ2 (a, y ) = (T2 − T1 ) = Cn2 sinh(λn a) cos(λn y ),
nodd

(T2 − T1 ) 0b cos (nπy /2b) dy
Cn2 =
sinh (nπa/2b) 0b cos2 (λn y ) dy
4(T2 − T1 ) sin ((nπ/2))

=
nπ sinh (nπa/2b)
where sin((nπ/2)) = (−1)(n−1/2) for n odd
∞ nπx nπy
4(T2 − T1 )(−1)(n−1)/2
θ2 = sinh cos
n nπ sinh (nπa/2b) 2b 2b
odd
Finally,
⎧
∞
⎨ 2(T − T ) nπy nπx
3 1 1 − (−1)n
T (x, y ) = T1 + cosh sin
⎩ nπ cosh nπb/a a a
n=1
⎫
∞
4(T2 − T1 ) (−1)(n−1)/2 nπx nπy ⎬
+ sinh cos
nπ n sinh (nπa/2b) 2b 2b ⎭
odd
3.4. A long rectangular rod 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, as shown in Figure 3.10, has the

following thermal BCs:
x = 0, 0 < y < b : T = To
x = a, 0 < y < b : T = T0 + T1 sin(πy /b)
y = 0, 0 < x < a : T = T0
y = b, 0 < x < a : T = T0 + T2 sin(πx/a)
a. Determine the steady-state temperature distribution.

b. Sketch the isotherm and isoflux.
y
T = T0 + T2 sin(π x/a)
b
T = T0
T = T0 + T1 sin(π y/b)
x
0 T = T0 a
FIGURE 3.10
A long rectangular rod with two nonhomogenous boundary conditions.
SOLUTIONS
a. Let θ = T − T0 , then
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
x = 0; θ=0

x = a; θ = T1 sin (πy /b)
y = 0; θ = 0,
πx
y = b; θ = T2 sin
a
Let θ = θ1 + θ2 with θ1 and θ2 satisfying the following BCs at
x = 0, θ1 = 0, θ2 = 0
πy
x = a, θ1 = 0, θ2 = T1 sin
b
y = 0, θ1 = 0, θ2 = 0
πx
y = b, θ1 = T2 sin θ2 = 0
a
Solutions for θ1 and θ2 are obtained as

nπx nπy
θ1 = Cn1 sin · sinh
a a
nπy nπx
θ2 = Cn2 sin · sinh
b b
and T = T0 + θ
T = T0 + θ1 + θ2
Remarks
In this chapter, we have introduced a very powerful mathematical tool, the
method of separation of variables, to solve typical 2-D heat conduction prob-
lems with various thermal BCs. In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, we
normally employ the finite-difference energy balance method to solve the
2-D heat conduction problems with various thermal BCs. The finite-difference
numerical methods and solutions will be discussed in Chapter 5. Here we
are more focused on the analytical methods and solutions for various 2-D
heat conduction problems. In general, all kinds of 2-D heat conduction prob-
lems with various BCs can be solved analytically by using superposition of
separation of variables.
The most important thing for applying separation of variable is that you
have to set up your problem where only one nonhomogeneous BC is allowed.
If you have more than one nonhomogeneous BC, you have to employ the
superposition principle to split into two or three subproblems in order to
use separation of variables. The problems become more complicated if you
work with 3-D heat conductions with heat generation and with complex BCs,
but they are still workable. However, if you are interested in solving for the
2-D and 3-D cylindrical coordinate systems and for the 2-D and 3-D spherical
coordinate systems with complex BCs, they are beyond the intermediate-level
heat transfer, you need to look at the advanced heat conduction textbook for
solutions.
Another popular method is using the finite-difference method to be dis-
cussed in the later chapter. It is particularly true when you deal with
complicate BCs such as convection. In real-life engineering applications, the
convection heat transfer coefficients normally are varied along the solid sur-
face. This will cause additional complexity for the separation of variables
because we normally assume the uniform convection BCs to simplify the prob-
lem. This will not cause any complexity at all by using the finite-difference
numerical method.
PROBLEMS
3.1. A long rectangular bar 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, and a, b << L, the
bar length, is heated at y = o and y = b, respectively, to a uniform
temperature To and is insulated at x = 0. The side of x = a loses
heat by convection to a fluid at temperature T∞ with a convection
coefficient h.
a. Write down, step by step, a solution method and associated
BCs, which can be used to determine the bar steady-state
temperature distributions.
b. Sketch the heat flows and the isothermal profiles in the
rectangular bar.
3.2. An infinitely long rod of square cross section (LXL) floats in a
fluid. The heat transfer coefficient between the rod and the fluid
is relatively large compared to that between the rod and the ambi-
ent air, that is, hf >> h or hf ∼= ∞. Determine the steady-state
temperature distributions in the rod with the associated BCs.
a. Use the analytical approach.
b. Sketch the isotherms and isoflux in the rod, if Tf < T∞ and
h = a constant value.
3.3. A long fin of rectangular cross section (2LXL) with a thermal con-
ductivity k is subjected to the BCs is shown on the sketch (the
left side is kept at To , the right side is perfectly insulated, the
upper side is exposed to a constant flux, and the lower side is
exposed to a convection air flow). q = constant; steam To , h = ∞;
air h = constant, T∞ .
a. Determine the temperature distribution in the fin.
b. Approximately plot the temperature and heat flow profiles in
the fin, if To > T∞ .
3.4. Refer to Figure 3.1, and determine the temperature distributions
for 2-D heat conduction with the following BCs:
(1) x = 0, T = To (2) x = 0, T = To
x = a, T = To x = a, T = To
y = 0, T = To y = 0, T = Ts
y = b, T = Ts y = b, T = To
(3) x = 0, T = To (4) x = 0, T = Ts
x = a, T = Ts x = a, T = To
y = 0, T = To y = 0, T = To
y = b, T = To y = b, T = To

(1) x = 0, T = T1 (2) x = 0, T = T1
x = a, T = T1 x = a, T = T1
y = 0, T = T1 y = 0, qs = −k(∂T/∂y)
y = b, qs = −k(∂T/∂y) y = b, T = T1
(3) x = 0, T = T1 (4) x = 0, qs = −k(∂T/∂x)
x = a, qs = −k(∂T/∂x) x = a, T = T1
y = 0, T = T1 y = 0, T = T1
y = b, T = T1 y = b, T = T1

(1) x = 0, T = T1 (2) x = 0, T = T1
x = a, T = T1 x = a, T = T1
y = 0, T = T1 y = 0, −k(∂T/∂y)
= h(T − T∞ )
y = b, −k(∂T/∂y) = h(T − T∞ ) y = b, T = T1
(3) x = 0, T = T1 (4) x = 0, −k(∂T/∂x) = h(T − T∞ )

x = a, −k(∂T/∂x) x = a, T = T1
= h(T − T∞ )
y = 0, T = T1 y = 0, T = T1
y = b, T = T1 y = b, T = T1
3.7. Use the principle of superposition to determine the temperature

distribution for 2-D heat conduction with four nonhomogeneous
BCs shown in Figure 3.4.
(1) x = 0, T = T1 (2) x = 0, T = T1
x = a, T = T1 x = a, T = T1
y = 0, T = T1 y = 0, T = T1
y = b, T = T1 y = b, T = T1
z = 0, T = To z = 0, T = T1
z = c, T = T1 z = c, T = To
3.9. Refer to Equation 3.19, and determine the temperature distribu-

tions for 2-D heat conduction with uniform heat generation with
the following BCs:
(1) x = 0, −k(∂T/∂x) = 0 (2) x = 0, T = To

x = a, −k(∂T/∂x) = h(T − T∞ ) x = a, T = To
y = 0, T = To y = 0, −k(∂T/∂y) = 0
y = b, T = To y = b, −k(∂T/∂y)
= h(T − T∞ )
3.10. Obtain an expression for the steady-state temperature distribution

T(x, y) in a long square bar of side a. The bar has its two sides and
bottom maintained at temperature T1 , while the top side is loosing
heat by convection. Consider the surrounding temperature to be
T∞ , the heat transfer coefficient at the top wall be denoted by h,
and let the thermal conductivity of the bar be equal to k.
a. Sketch the domain and write the governing equation and BCs
for this problem.
b. Define the temperature θ(x, y) = T(x, y) − T1 , and find a series
solution using separation of variables.
c. Using the BCs write the expression for the coefficients used in
the series solution for θ(x, y), and write an expression.
d. Write an expression for (T(x, y) − T1 )/(T∞ − T1 ).
3.11. Given a very long and wide fin with a height of 2L. The base of
the fin is maintained at a uniform temperature of Tb . The top and
bottom surfaces of the fin are exposed to a fluid whose temper-
ature is T∞ (T∞ < Tb ). The convective heat transfer coefficient
a. Sketch the steady 2-D temperature distribution in the fin.

b. If you were to determine the steady 2-D temperature distribu-
tion in the fin using a finite-difference numerical method, you
would solve a set of algebraic nodal equations simultaneously
for the temperatures at a 2-D array of nodes. Derive the equa-
tion for a typical node on one of the surfaces of the fin. Please
do not simplify the equation.
c. Using the method of separation of variables, derive an expres-
sion for the steady local temperature in the fin, in terms of the
thermal conductivity of the fin, k, the convective heat transfer
coefficient, h, the half-height of the fin, L, and the base and
fluid temperatures, Tb and T∞ .
Note that

W
1
[cos2 (aw)] dw = a[2aW + sin (2aW)]
4
0

W
and [cos(aw) · cos(bw)] dw = 0, when a = b.
0
3.12. A long rectangular rubber pad of width a = W and height b = 2W

is a component of a spacecraft structure. Its sides and bottom
are bonded to a metal channel at constant temperature T0 , and
the temperature distribution along the top of the pad can be
approximated as a simple sine curve T = T0 + Tm sin(πx/W).
a. Write the differential equation and BCs needed to solve for the
temperature distribution in the pad.
b. Find the solution for the temperature distribution from the
differential equation and BCs.
3.13. A long rod of right triangular cross section has the horizontal
length “a” at temperature T1 , the vertical length “b” at temper-
ature T2 , and the inclined length perfectly insulated. Obtain an
expression for the steady-state temperature distribution T(x, y) in
the long rod of triangular cross section as stated. Assume that the
thermal conductivity of the material of the rod is constant.
3.14. A long rectangular bar 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, and a, b << L, the
bar length, is heated at y = 0 and y = b, respectively, to a uniform
temperature To and is insulated at x = 0. The side of x = a loses
heat by convection to a fluid at temperature T∞ with a convection
coefficient of h∞ .
a. Write down, step by step, a solution method and the associ-
ated BCs, which can be used to determine the bar steady-state
temperature distributions. You do not need to obtain the final
solution of the steady-state temperature distributions.
b. Sketch the heat flows and the isothermal profiles in the
rectangular bar.
3.15. Given a very long and wide fin with a height of 2H. The base of
a. Derive an expression for the steady 2-D local temperature in
the fin, in terms of the thermal conductivity of the fin, k, the
convective heat transfer coefficient, h, the half-height of the fin,
H, and the base and fluid temperature, Tb and T∞ .
b. Sketch the steady 2-D temperature and heat flux distribution
in the fin.
Note that
x 1
cos2 (ax) dx = a [2ax + sin(2ax)] and
4
0
x
[cos(ax) · cos(bx)] dx = 0 when a = b.
0
References
ing, MA, 1966.
4
Transient Heat Conduction
The temperature in a solid material changes with location as well as with time,
and this is the so-called transient heat conduction problem. We may have
1-D, 2-D, or 3-D transient heat conduction problem depending on the real
applications. However, some problems can be modeled as zero-dimensional
(0-D) because the temperature in a solid material uniformly changes only with
time and does not depend on location. This is a special case of the transient
heat conduction problem. The finite-length solid material of 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D
transient problem can be solved by separation of variable method and the 0-D
transient problem can be solved by the lumped capacitance method. Figure 4.1
shows typical finite-length solid materials of the 1-D transient problem for the
slab (or the plane wall), cylinder, and sphere coordinates. The semiinfinite
solid material of the 1-D transient problem can be solved by the similarity
method, the Laplace transform method, or the approximate integral method.
The unsteady 3-D heat conduction equation with heat generation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q̇ 1 ∂T
+ + + = (4.1)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 k α ∂t
The simplified case of the unsteady 1-D heat conduction equation without
heat generation becomes
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
= (4.2)
∂x 2 α ∂t
We need both the initial and two BCs in order to solve the temperature
depending on (x, t) as sketched in Figure 4.2. The solution of separation of
variable method is
T = T(x, t)
Initial condition:
t = 0, T(x, 0) = Ti .
69
(a) (b) (c)

ro
ro
–L L r
x
θ x θ r θ = fn B , F , r
= fn Bi , Fo , ; = fn Bi , Fo , ;
θ0 L θ0 ro θ0
i o
ro
Thick slab Cylinder Sphere
FIGURE 4.1
1-D transient heat conduction and the characteristic length.
dT
x = 0, =0
dx
∂T(L, t)
x = L, T(L, t) = Ts or −k = h[T(L, t) − T∞ ]
∂x
4.1 Method of Lumped Capacitance for 0-D Problems

In real applications, many transient heat conductions in a solid material
can be modeled as a 0-D problem. The important assumption is that the
entire material temperature changes only with time. If that is the case, those
solid geometries shown in Figure 4.1 can be solved by the following lumped
Ti T (x,t) Ti
T (x,t)
t q″ q″
t
Ts
h, T∞
x x
–L 0 L –L 0 L
FIGURE 4.2
1-D transient problems for a slab or a plane wall.
Transient Heat Conduction 71
(b) hAs
(a) θ – t
Ti 1 = e ρVc
θi
T (t)
θ
t θ
= fn(Bi, Fo) θi
θ0
0.368
x hAs
–L L t
0-D Transient problem–lumped 1 ρVc
capacitance method Thermal time constant
(c)
1 ρVc
= τt
θ hAs
θi
0.368
τ1 τ 2 τ3 t
The solution of 0-D heat conduction
FIGURE 4.3
Method of lumped capacitance.
capacitance method. Note that the lumped method can be applied to any irreg-
ular geometry as long as the assumption of the entire material temperature
uniformly changing with time is valid during the transient. Therefore, we do
not need to solve for 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D transient conduction equations.
Consider the energy balance on the solid material during the cooling (or
heating) process as shown in Figure 4.3:
d(ρVCT)
= −hAs (T − T∞ ) (4.3)
dt
Let θ = T − T∞ then
dθ
ρVC = −hAs θ
dt
dθ hAs
=− θ
dt ρVC

hAs
dθ = − θ dt
ρVC
θ T − T∞
= e−(hAs /ρVC)t = e−(hLc /k)·(αt/Lc ) = e−Bi·Fo = f (Bi, Fo)
2
= (4.4)
θi Ti − T ∞
where Bi = (hLc /k), Fo = (αt/L2c ), Lc = (V/As ) = (volume/surface area).

The above temperature decay solution is plotted in Figure 4.3. Therefore, the
solid temperature can be predicted with time for a given material with certain
geometry under the cooling or heating condition. The material with a smaller
thermal time constant (τt = (ρVc/hAs )) can quickly reach the environment
temperature.
Now, the question is under what condition the lumped capacitance solu-
tion can be used. The answer is that the Biot (Bi) number must be less than
0.1. Therefore, to use 0-D solution, the condition Bi = (hLc /k) < 0.1 must be
satisfied. The Biot number is defined as the ratio of surface convection (h, the
convection heat transfer coefficient from the solid surface; Lc , the characteristic
length of the solid material) to solid conduction (k, the thermal conductivity
of the solid material). The smaller Bi number implies a small-sized mate-
rial with high-conductivity exposure to a low convection cooling or heating
fluid. For the case of smaller Bi, the temperature inside the solid material
changes uniformly (independent of location) with environmental cooling or
heating during the transient. Of course, Bi = 0.1 implies that we may have
10% error by using the lumped solution. The smaller Bi is better for using
the lumped solution. Another point is that the solution can be applied to any
geometry if the condition of Bi < 0.1 is valid. For a given solid geometry,
the characteristic length Lc = (volume/surface area) = (V/As ). For example,
as shown in Figure 4.1, the characteristic length Lc = L is for a 2L-thick slab
(plane wall),
1 1
Lc = Ro for the cylinder and Lc = Ro for the sphere coordinate.
2 3

If we also consider radiation flux qr and internal heat generation q̇, the energy
balance equation 4.3 can be rewritten as
d(ρVCT)
= −hAs (T − T∞ ) + q̇V + As qr
dt
where qr = radiation gain from solar flux = constant, or qr = radiation loss =
εσ(T 4 − Tsur
4 ); q̇ = heat generation = I 2 R due to electric current and resistance
heating = constant.
If we consider qr = constant and q̇ = constant, the solution of the above
equation can be obtained by Equation 4.4 by setting

q̇V + As qr
θ = (T − T∞ ) −
hAs
However, if we consider q̇ = 0, but qr = −εσ(T 4 − Tsur

4 ), the energy balance
equation can be rewritten as
d(ρVCT)
= −hAs (T − T∞ ) − εσAs (T 4 − Tsur
4
)
dt
If let T∞ = Tsur , hr = εσ(T 2 + T∞

2 )(T + T ), the above equation can be
∞
written as
d(T − T∞ ) (h + hr )As
+ (T − T∞ ) = 0
dt ρVC

integration.
4.2 Method of Separation of Variables for 1-D and for

Multidimensional Transient Conduction Problems
4.2.1 1-D Transient Heat Conduction in a Slab
The solution of the 1-D transient conduction problem for a slab (plane wall) is
expected as T(x, t). The separation of variable method used for the 2-D steady-
state heat conduction problem can be applied here if we consider T(x, t)
similar to T(x, y). In other words, we separate the temperature T(x, y) into
the product of T(x) · T(y) for the 2-D steady state and T(x, t) into T(x) · T(t)
for the 1-D transient, respectively. Then we can follow the similar procedure
as before in order to solve the 1-D transient problem [1].
For a 1-D plane wall transient problem, as shown in Figure 4.4a, with the
convection BC,
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x2 α ∂t
Let θ = T − T∞ and θ(x, t) = X(x)τ(t), then,
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
= (4.5)
∂x 2 α ∂t
d2 X
+ λ2 X = 0
dx2
dτ
+ λ2 ατ = 0
dt
X = c1 sin λx + c2 cos λx
τ = c3 e−λ
2 αt
(a) (b)
Ti Ti
t t
h, T∞
Ts
–L 0 L –L 0 L
Constant surface
Convective boundary condition temperature boundary condition
FIGURE 4.4
1-D transient heat conduction.
Initial condition:
θ(x, 0) = θi = Ti − T∞
⎧
⎪ ∂θ(0, t) !
⎨ =0
∂x c =0
⇒ 1
⎪
⎩−k ∂θ(L, t) −kc 2 (− sin λL)λ = hc2 cos λL
= hθ(L, t)
∂x
k sin(λL) · λ = h cos(λL)
h
λn = cot(λn L),
k
hL
λn L = cot(λn L) = Bi cot(λn L).
k
λn is determined by the convection BC.
θ = c2 cos λn x · c3 e−λn αt = cn cos(λn x) e−λn αt ,

2 2
where cn = c2 c3 .
Applying the initial condition
θi = cn cos(λn x) e0 ,
θi cos(λn x) = cn cos2 (λn x),

L
θi 0 cos(λn x) dx θi 2 sin λn
cn = L = ,
2 λ + sin λn cos λn
0 cos (λn x) dx
n
where λ n L = λ n

cn cos(λn x) e−λn αt ,
2
⇒ θ = T − T∞ =
θ T − T∞ 2 sin λn cos λn (x/L)

· e−λn Fo .
2
⇒ = = (4.6)
θi Ti − T ∞ λn + sin λn cos λn
In addition to T(x, t), the ratio of the total energy transferred from the wall
over the time t is

Q ρCp [Ti − T(x, t)] dV
= (4.7)
Qo ρCp V(Ti − T∞ )

1 θ
= 1− dV
V θi
2 sin λn sin λn −λ2n Fo
=1− · ·e (4.8)
λn + sin λn cos λn λn
where Fo = (αt/L2 ).
Similarly, for the case of a given surface temperature as BC shown in
Figure 4.4b,
∂T(0, t)
at x = 0, =0
∂x
at x = L, T(L, t) = Ts
The solution can then be obtained as

2(−1)n 2
θ T − Ts 1 x − n+ 12 π2 Fo
= = cos n + π e (4.9)
θi Ti − T s n+ 1 π 2 L
2
4.2.2 Multidimensional Transient Heat Conduction in a Slab (2-D or 3-D)

The governing equation for multidimensional heat conduction, as shown in
Figure 4.5, is
∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
+ + 2 = (4.10)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z α ∂t
θ(x, y, z, t) = θx (x, t) · θy (y, t) · θz (z, t) (4.11)
⎧
⎪
⎪ ∂ 2 θx 1 ∂θx
⎪
⎪ =
⎪
⎪ ∂x 2 α ∂t
⎪
⎪
⎨ ∂ 2θ
y 1 ∂θy
=
⎪ ∂y
⎪ 2 α ∂t
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∂ θz
2 1 ∂θz
⎩ =
∂z 2 α ∂t
Ts
Ts Ti Ts
Ts
x
z
FIGURE 4.5
Multidimensional transient heat conduction.
where θx (x, t), θy (x, t), and θz (x, t) can be solved by the aforementioned
method of separation of variables with a given surface temperature or
convection BCs.
4.2.3 1-D Transient Heat Conduction in a Rectangle with Heat Generation

The governing equation for 1-D transient heat conduction with heat
generation is
∂ 2 θ q̇ 1 ∂θ
+ = (4.12)
∂x 2 k α ∂t
The temperature profile can be solved by separation of variables. For
example, to use the separation of variables method, we define
θ = θ1 (x) + θ2 (x, t) (4.13)
d2 θ1 q̇
+ =0
dx2 k
where θ1 can be solved by 1-D heat conduction with internal heat generation
and θ2 can be solved by the aforementioned method of separation of variables
with a given convection or surface temperature BCs.
For 3-D transient heat conduction with heat generation, as shown in
Figure 4.6, the following equations can be used to solve temperature profiles
T(x, y, z, t) or θ(x, y, z, t):
∂ 2θ ∂ 2 θ ∂ 2 θ q̇ 1 ∂θ
+ + 2 + = (4.14)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z k α ∂t
θ = θ1 (x) + θ1 (y ) + θ1 (z) + θ2x (x, t) · θ2y (y, t) · θ2z (z, t) (4.15)

.
q
–L x L
z
FIGURE 4.6
Multidimensional transient heat conduction with heat generation.
where
∂ 2 θ1 q̇
2
+ =0
∂x k
∂ 2 θ2x 1 ∂θ2x
=
∂x2 α ∂t
∂ 2 θ2y 1 ∂θ2y
=
∂y2 α ∂t
∂ 2 θ2z 1 ∂θ2z
=
∂z2 α ∂t
A general form of the solution of 1-D transient heat conduction with the
convection BC applicable to a slab, a cylinder, and a sphere, as shown in
Figure 4.1, can be written [2] as
∞

θ = Cn f (λn η) e−λn Fo
2
(4.16)
θi
n=1
∞
Q
Cn F(λn ) e−λn Fo
2
=1− (4.17)
Qo
n=1
Geometry θ(x, t) Cn f (λn η) F(λn )
Slab (∂ 2 θ/∂x2 ) (2 sin λn /(λn cos(λn (x/L)) sin λn /λn

= (1/α)(∂θ/∂t) + sin λn cos λn ))
Cylinder (1/r)(∂/∂r)(r(∂θ/∂r)) (2J1 (λn )/(λn [Jo2 (λn ) Jo (λn (r/ro )) (2J1 (λn )/λn )
= (1/r)(∂θ/∂t) +J12 (λn )]))

Sphere (1/r2 )(∂/∂r)(r2 (∂θ/∂r)) (2[sin λn − λn cos λn ]) (sin(λn (r/ro )) 3(sin λn
= (1/r)(∂θ/∂t) (λn − sin λn cos λn ) (λn (r/ro )) −λn cos λn )/λ3n
With the eigenvalues as
x hL αt
Bi cos λn − λn sin λn = 0 for the slab, η =, Bi = , Fo = 2
L k L
r hro αt
λn J1 (λn ) − BiJo (λn ) = 0 for the cylinder, η = , Bi = , Fo = 2
ro k ro
r hro αt
λn cos λn + (Bi − 1) sin λn = 0 for the sphere, η = , Bi = , Fo = 2
ro k ro
4.3 1-D Transient Heat Conduction in a Semiinfinite

Solid Material
4.3.1 Similarity Method for Semiinfinite Solid Material
The semiinfinite solid is characterized by a single identifiable surface. If a
sudden change in temperature occurs at this surface as shown in Figure 4.7,
then transient 1-D conduction will take place within the solid. The similarity
method can be employed to solve this kind of problem [3]. The 1-D transient
heat conduction equation in a semiinfinite solid without heat generation is
Ts Heating
T (x,t)
q″ t
Ti
x
q″
q″
t Cooling
Ts
FIGURE 4.7
1-D transient heat conduction in a semiinfinite solid material.
given by
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x2 α ∂t
The surface BC is
T(0, t) = Ts
And the interior BC is prescribed by
T(∞, t) = Ti
The initial condition is

T(x, 0) = Ti
By applying the similarity method, we may transform the PDE, which

involves two independent variables (x and t), to an ODE expressed in terms
of a single√similarity
√ variable (η).
As x ∼√ αt ( αt is the diffusion length), we define the similarity variable
η = (x/ 4αt); therefore T(x, t) = T(η),
√
x = η 4αt (4.18)
Let θ = ((T − Ti )/(Ts − Ti )).

The 1-D transient heat equation can be expressed as
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
Applying the similarity variable into θ, that is, θ(x, t) = θ(η)

Therefore,

∂θ dθ ∂η dθ −x
= = √
∂t dη ∂t dη 2t 4αt

∂θ dθ ∂η dθ 1
= = √
∂x dη ∂x dη 4αt

∂ θ
2 d ∂θ ∂η d ∂θ 1 1 1 ∂ 2θ
= = √ √ =
∂x2 dη ∂x ∂x dη ∂η 4αt 4αt 4αt ∂η2
Inserting the above terms into the heat equation, we obtain
1 d2 θ 1 −x dθ
=
4αt dη2 α 2t(4αt)1/2 dη
Rearranging it, we obtain
α d2 θ −x dθ
2
= 1/2
4αt dη 2t(4αt) dη
d2 θ −2x dθ dθ
2
=√ = −2η (4.19)
dη 4αt dη dη
For the case of given constant surface temperature,
x = 0, η = 0, θ(0) = 1
x = ∞, η = ∞, θ(∞) = 0
Let P ≡ (dθ/dη); rearranging the equation and integrating it, we obtain
dP dθ
= c1 e−η
2
= −2ηP ⇒ P ≡
dη dη
⎧
⎪ dP
⎪
⎪ = −2η dη
⎨ P
dP
⎪
⎪ = −2η dη
⎪
⎩ P
ln P = −η2 + c
η
θ = c1 e−η dη + c2
2
From the BC,

η = 0, θ = 1 ⇒ c2 = 1
From the BC,

η = ∞, θ=0

∞ √
−u2 π 2
0 = c1 e du + 1 = c1 + 1 ⇒ c1 = − √
2 π
0
Inserting c1 and c2 into the integral, we obtain the following results as

sketched in Figure 4.8.
η
T − Ti 2 −u2 x x
θ= =1− √ e du = 1 − erf (η) = erfc √ = 1 − erf √
Ts − Ti π 4αt 4αt
0
(4.20)
T−Ti
θ=
Ts−Ti
1
θ = erfc (η)
x
η=
4αt
FIGURE 4.8
Solution of 1-D transient heat.
and

∂T ∂θ
qs = −k = −k(Ts − Ti )
∂x x=0 ∂x x=0
η
∂ 2 −u2
= −k(Ts − Ti ) 1− √ e du
∂x π 0 x=0
(4.21)
2 1
= −k(Ts − Ti ) − √ e−η √
2
π 4αt η=0
k(Ts − Ti )
= √
παt
4.3.2 Laplace Transform Method for Semiinfinite Solid Material

The 1-D transient conduction problem in a semiinfinite solid material can be
solved by the Laplace transform method [1]. The heat diffusion equation for
1-D transient conduction is of the form
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
Case 1: Constant surface temperature BC
T(0, t) = Ts
T(∞, t) = Ti
Initial condition:
T(x, 0) = Ti .
Let θ = T − Ti , therefore,
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
=
∂x2 α ∂t
θ(0, t) = θs = Ts − Ti
θ(x, 0) = 0
θ(∞, t) = 0
Defining the Laplace transform of a given temperature,

∞
L(T) = T = T e−st dt (4.22)

0
Ti
L(Ti ) =
s
L(0) = 0

∂T
L = sT − T i
∂t
n
∂ T ∂ nT
L =
∂xn ∂xn
T(x, t) = T(x , s)
Applying the Laplace transform to 1-D transient heat conduction,

∂ 2T 1 ∂T
L =L (4.23)
∂x2 α ∂t
∂ 2 θ̄ 1
= [sθ̄ − θ̄(x, 0)] (4.24)
∂x 2 α
From the initial condition, θ̄(x, 0) = 0.
d2 θ̄ s √ √
− s/αx s/αx
− θ̄ = 0 ⇒ θ̄ = c1 e + c 2 e
dx2 α
Applying the Laplace transform to the BCs,

⎧
⎨θ̄(∞, s) = 0, c2 = 0
θ θs
⎩θ̄(0, s) = s , c1 =
s s
Ts
T (x,t)
Ti
0 x
FIGURE 4.9
Solution of 1-D transient heat conduction with given surface temperature boundary condition.
So
θs −√s/αx
θ̄ = e
s
Applying the inverse Laplace transform from a given table, we obtain the
following results as sketched in Figure 4.9.
θ T − Ti x
= = erfc √ (4.25)
θs Ts − T i 4αt
Case 2: Constant surface heat flux BC:
T(x, 0) = Ti
T(∞, t) = Ti
∂T(0, t)
−k = qs
∂x
Let θ = T − Ti , then
θ(x, 0) = 0
θ(∞, 0) = 0
∂θ(0, t)
−k = qs
∂x
The Laplace transform solution is
qs 1 √
θ̄ = √ − e− s/αx
k s s/α
qs″
T (x,t)
0 T (x,t)
FIGURE 4.10
Solution of 1-D transient heat conduction with constant surface heat flux boundary condition.
√
qs 4αt −(x2 /4αt) x
T − Ti = √ e − x · erfc √ (4.26)
k π 4αt
√
q 4αt
at x = 0, Ts − Ti = s √ (4.27)
k π
Case 3: Convective surface BC:
T(x, 0) = Ti
T(∞, t) = Ti
∂T(0, t)
−k = h[T∞ − T(0, t)]
∂x
Let θ = T − Ti
θ(x, 0) = 0
θ(∞, 0) = 0
∂θ(0, t)
−k = h[θ∞ − θ(0, t)]
∂x

θ T − Ti x 2 2 x h√
= = erfc √ − e(x(h/k)+α(h /k )t) erfc √ + αt
θ∞ T∞ − T i 4αt 4αt k
(4.28)
∂T(0, t)
q = −k = h[T∞ − T(0, t)] (4.29)
∂x
h, T∞
T (x,t)
0 T (x,t)
FIGURE 4.11
Solution of 1-D transient heat conduction convective surface boundary condition.
4.3.3 Approximate Integral Method for Semiinfinite Solid Material

Let θ = T − Ts ,
θi = Ti − Ts , t=0
∂θ(δ, t)
θ(0, t) = 0, = 0, t>0
∂x
∂θ ∂ 2θ
=α 2 (4.30)
∂t ∂x
δ δ 2
∂θ ∂ θ
dx = α 2 dx
∂t ∂x
0 0

∂θ ∂θ
=α −α
∂x x=δ ∂x x=0
where
δ δ δ
∂θ d dδ dδ d dδ
dx ≡ θ dx − θx=δ + θx=0 = θ dx − · θi + 0
∂t dt dt dt dt dt
0 0 0
δ
d dδ ∂θ ∂θ
∴ θ dx− · θi = α −α
dt dt ∂x x=δ ∂x x=0
0
⎡δ ⎤

d ⎣ ∂θ
⇒ θ dx − θi δ⎦ = −α
dt ∂x x=0
0
Assume a temperature profile is a second-order polynomial,
θ(x, t) = a + bx + cx2
Ts
T (x,t)
t
Ti
x δ (t)
Penetration depth
FIGURE 4.12
Solution of 1-D transient conduction for semiinfinite solid material using approximate integral
method.
subject to BC:
θ x x 2
=2 − ≡ 2η − η2
θi δ δ
x
η = , dx = δ dη
δ
Then
⎡1 ⎤

d ⎣ 2αθi
θi (2η − η2 )δ dη − θi δ⎦ = −
dt δ
0
dδ2
⇒ − 12α = 0 at t = 0, δ(0) = 0
dt
√
⇒ δ = 12αt
From the approximate integral method, we obtain the following results as

sketched in Figure 4.12:
θ x x 2 2x x2
=2 − =√ − (4.31)
θi δ δ 12αt 12αt
4.4 Heat Conduction with Moving Boundaries

There are many engineering application problems involving heat conduc-
tion with moving boundaries such as freezing or melting for solar storage
systems. Other examples are related to high-temperature droplet evaporation
and ablation applications. The problems can be solved by using the similarity
method or the integral approximate method [4].
T∞
Ice
Tm Water
qs″ x
Moving boundary
1 2
Ts
0 x x = δ(t)
FIGURE 4.13
Heat conduction with moving boundary problem—freezing.
4.4.1 Freezing and Solidification Problems Using the Similarity Method

Freezing—Neumann solution (exact solution) [4], as sketched in Figure 4.13:
Governing equation:
θ = T − Tm (4.32)
∂ 2 θ1 1 ∂θ1
=
∂x2 α1 ∂t
∂ 2 θ2 1 ∂θ2
=
∂x2 α1 ∂t
Boundary conditions (4.33):
x = 0, θ1 = θs (4.33a)
x = ∞, θ2 = θ∞ (4.33b)
x = δ(t), θ1 = 0 (4.33c)
θ2 = 0 (4.33d)
∂θ1 ∂θ2 dδ
k1 − k2 = Lρ1 (4.33e)
∂x ∂x dt
where L represents the latent heat of melting.
Initial conditions:
t = 0, δ = 0, T = T∞
Assume ρ1 = ρ2 .
Neumann applied the similarity method:
x
θ1 = c1 + c2 erf √ (4.33f)
4α1 t
x
θ2 = c1 + c2 erf √ (4.33g)
4α2 t
√ √
At x = δ, δ ∼ t to obtain θ1 = 0, δ = b t.
Insert Equations 4.33a through 4.33d into Equations 4.33f and 4.33g
c1 = θs
− θs
c2 = √
erf (b/ 4α1 )
θ∞
c2 = √
erfc(b/ 4α2 )
θ∞
c1 = θ∞ − √
erfc(b/ 4α2 )
From Equation 4.33e,
−k1 θs exp(−b2 /4α1 ) k2 θ∞ exp(−b2 /4α2 ) b

√ √ − √ √ = Lρ1 (4.33h)
πα1 erf (b/ 4α1 ) πα2 erfc(b/ 4α2 ) 2
η
∂ x 2 ∂
e−η dη
2
∵ erf √ =√
∂x 4α1 t π ∂x
0
η
2 ∂η d
e−η dη
2
=√
π ∂x dη
0

2 1 −x2
=√ √ exp
π 4α1 t 4α1 t
∴ b can be obtained from Equation 4.33h:

√
δ=b t
θ1 can be obtained from Equation 4.33f, θ2 can be obtained from Equation 4.33g

∂θ1
q1 = k1 can be determined
∂x 0
Special case: slow freezing, as sketched in Figure 4.14, approximately linear.

⇒ θ∞ = 0:
√
θ1 erf (x/ 4α1 t)
=1− √ (4.34)
θs erf (b/ 4α1 )
b can be obtained
√
δ=b t
Tm
Ice T∞
Water
qs″ x
Moving boundary
Linear
Ts
approximation
0 x x = δ (t)
FIGURE 4.14
Slow freezing: T∞ ∼
= Tm .
4.4.2 Melting and Ablation Problems Using the Approximate

Integral Method
Melting—integral technique by Goodman (1958) [4], as sketched in
Figure 4.15:
δ(0) = 0
Let θ = T − Tm ,
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
= (4.35)
∂x 2 α ∂t
Initial condition: θ(x, 0) = 0.

BCs for slow melting (Figure 4.16):
⎧
⎪ θ(0, t) = Ts − Tm = θs
⎪
⎨
θ(δ, t) = 0
(4.36)
⎪
⎪ ∂θ dδ
⎩−k = Lρ
∂x δ dt
Ts Liquid Solid
Moving boundary
Tm
Ti
x x = δ (t)
FIGURE 4.15
Heat conduction with moving boundary problems.
Liquid Solid
Ts Moving boundary
qs″
Tm = T (δ ,t)
0 x Ti
x = δ (t)
FIGURE 4.16
Slow melting: Tm ≡ Ti .
where L is the latent heat of melting.

⎡δ ⎤

d ⎣ ⎦ ∂θ ∂θ
θ dx − θ(δ, t) δ = α −
dt ∂x δ " ∂x 0
0
δ
d dδ ∂θ
θ dx = −α ρL +
dt dt ∂x 0
0
Assume θ = c1 (x − δ) + c2 (x − δ)2 (4.37)
x = 0, θs = −c1 δ + c2 δ2 (4.37a)

dθ ∂θ dδ ∂θ
x = δ, =0= + , that is, θ(δ, t) = 0
dt δ ∂x δ dt ∂t δ
2
∂θ k ∂θ
=− +
∂x δ ρL ∂t δ
2
∂ 2θ ∂θ k
∴α =
∂x 2 ∂x δ ρL
δ
k
α · 2c2 = c12 . (4.37b)
ρL
From Equations 4.37a and 4.37b, we obtain
αρL
c1 = [1 − 1 + μ]
δk
αδ + θs
c2 =
δ2
where μ = (2θs Cp /L) is the Stefan number.
Va
Tm
qs″
T∞
T i = T∞
x=0 x = L, ∞
FIGURE 4.17
Ablation at surface of flat wall.
Then, inserting Equation 4.37 into Equation 4.35, we obtain

√
dδ 6α 1 − 1 + μ + μ
δ = √
dt 5+μ+ 1+μ
√
δ=b t
√ 1/2
√ 1− 1+μ+μ
b = 2 3α √
5+μ+ 1+μ
Linear approximation for small μ:
√
δ ∼ b t ∼ 2αμt
4.4.2.1 Ablation
Ablating heat shields have been successful in satellite and missile reentry to
the earth’s atmosphere as a means of protecting the surface from aerodynamic
heating. In this application, the high heat flux generated at the surface first
causes an initial transient temperature rise until the surface reaches the melt-
ing temperature, Tm . Ablation (melting of the surface) begins and follows
a second short transient period, and then a steady-state ablation velocity is
reached. The melted material is assumed to run off immediately. The prob-
lem can be simplified to 1-D transient heat conduction with moving boundary
due to ablation. Figure 4.17 shows ablation at the surface of the flat plate with
an imaging ablation velocity, Va , moving to the left [5]. The heat conduction
equation for this reference frame is Equation 4.38 with an added enthalpy
flux term associated with the moving velocity Va :

∂ ∂T ∂T ∂T
k + ρcVa = ρc (4.38)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂t
The problem can be solved by three stages: (1) the initial transient before
the surfaces reach Tm , (2) the second transient period during ablation, and
(3) after the steady-state ablation velocity has been reached, the temperature
distribution in the material is steady. The initial transient problem has been
solved before (i.e., Va = 0, given the surface heat flux BC). The second tran-
sient problem, Equation 4.38, can be solved by the finite-difference method.
For the steady-state problem with constant ablation velocity, Equation 4.38
becomes

∂ ∂T ∂T
k = −ρcVa (4.39)
∂x ∂x ∂x
With the accompanying low thermal conductivity material (such as glasses

and plastics) the temperature gradient at the surface is very steep so that x = L
may be considered as x = ∞. Proper BCs are as follows:
x = 0, T = Tm
x = ∞, T = T∞ = Ti
∂T
x = ∞, =0 (4.40)
∂x
For constant properties k, ρ, c, and for the case of constant surface heat flux
qs , Equation 4.39 is solved by integrating twice and evaluating the integration
constants with Equation 4.40. Let θ = (dT/dx), then
d Va
θ=− θ
dx α
dθ Va
=− dx
θ α

dθ Va
= − dx
θ α
Va
ln θ = − x+C
α
dT
θ= = C1 e−(Va /α)x + C2
dx
where at x = ∞, (dT/dx) = 0 = θ, ∴ C2 = 0.
Then (dT/dx) = C1 e−(Va /α)x ,

dT = C1 e−(Va /α)x dx
α −(Va /α)x
T = −C1 e + C3
Va
at x = ∞, T = T∞ = C3
α
at x = 0, T = Tm = −C1 + C3
Va
Va Va
−C1 = (Tm − C3 ) = (Tm − T∞ )
α α
Therefore,
T = (Tm − T∞ ) e−(Va /α)x + T∞

T − T∞
= e−(Va /α)x (4.41)
Tm − T ∞
Applying energy balance on the surface in order to determine the ablation

velocity Va (assuming L as the heat of ablation of the material),

∂T
qs − ρLVa = −k = ρCVa (Tm − T∞ ) (4.42)
∂x x=0
qs
Va = (4.43)
ρL + ρC(Tm − T∞ )
The total heat conducted into the solid material evaluated with the
temperature distribution, Equation 4.41, is

∞
k(Tm − T∞ )
qc = ρC (T − T∞ ) dx = (4.44)
Va
0
The total heat transferred to the surface in time t is qs · t. Then for this period
of time t, the fraction of the total heat transferred which was conducted into
the solid material is obtained by substituting Equation 4.43 into Equation 4.44:
qc k(Tm − T∞ )[ρL + ρC(Tm − T∞ )]

= (4.45)
qs qs · qs · t
Comparing Equations 4.43 and 4.45, a large magnitude of [ρL + ρC(Tm −

T∞ )] is desirable to reduce the amount of material ablated, but a small mag-
nitude is desirable to reduce the fraction of qs which is conducted into the
solid material. A compromise is necessary.
Examples
4.1. Solve transient temperature profiles of a convectively cooled cylinder, as

shown in Figure 4.1b, by separation of variables.
SOLUTION

1 ∂ ∂θ 1 ∂θ ∂ 2 θ 1 ∂θ 1 ∂θ
r = or + =
r ∂r ∂r α ∂t ∂r 2 r ∂r α ∂t

i. r = 0, ∂θ∂r r =0 = 0

ii. r = ro , −k ∂θ ∂r = hθro
r =ro
Separation of variables:
θ = R(r )τ(t )
∂τ 2
+ λ2 τ = 0; τ = C3 e−αλ t
∂t
∂ 2R 1 ∂R
+ + λ2 R = 0
∂r 2 r ∂r
R(r ) = C1 J0 (λr ) + C2 Y0 (λr )
Applying BCs

∂R
= −C1 λJ1 (0) + C2 λY1 (0) = 0, J1 (0) = 0, ⇒ C2 = 0
∂r r =0

∂R h
−k = kC1 λJ1 (λro ) = hθR , λJ1 (λro ) = J0 (λro ), λn = λro
∂r r =ro k
λn J1 (λn ) − BiJ0 (λn ) = 0
where Bi = (hro /k ),
∞

2 2 r
θ= C n e−(α/ro )λn t J0 λn
ro
n=1
at t = 0, θ=1
∞

r
1= Cn J0 λn
ro
n=1
∫ro rJ0 (λn (r /ro )) dr (r 2 /λn )J1 (λn )

Cn = r0o 2 = 2 o2
∫0 rJ0 (λn (r /ro )) dr (ro /2)[J0 (λn ) + J12 (λn )]
∞
2J1 (λn )J0 (λn (r /ro )) 2
θ= · e−λn F0
2 2
n=1 λn J0 (λn ) + J1 (λn )
where F0 = (αt /ro2 ).

4.2. Solve transient temperature profiles of a convectively cooled sphere, as shown

in Figure 4.1c, by separation of variables.
SOLUTION
1 ∂2 1 ∂θ
(r θ) =
r ∂r 2 α ∂t
i. r = ro − k ∂θ
∂r = hθro
ii. t = 0 θ = 1
Let U(r , t ) = r θ(r , t ),
∂ 2U 1 ∂U
=
∂r 2 α ∂t
⎧
⎨U = 0 at r = 0
BCs ∂U h 1
⎩ + − U=0 at r = ro
∂r k ro
U=r for t = 0
U = R(r )τ(t )
∂τ 2
+ αλ2 τ = 0; ⇒ τ(t ) = C3 e−αλ t
∂t
∂ 2R
+ λ2 R(r ) = 0
∂r 2
R(r ) = C1 sin(λr ) + C2 cos(λr )
U = 0, ⇒ C2 = 0
at r = 0,

h 1
C1 λ cos(λro ) + − C1 sin(λro ) = 0
k ro
λn = λro
λn cos(λn ) + (B i − 1)sin(λn ) = 0
where Bi = (hro /k ),
∞

r 2
U= Cn sin λn e−λn F0
ro
n=1
where F0 = (αt /ro2 ).

At t = 0, θ = 1, U = r ,
∫ro r sin(λn (r /ro )) dr

Cn = 0ro
∫0 sin2 (λn (r /ro )) dr
2(sin(λn ) − λn cos(λn ))
Cn =
λn − sin(λn )cos(λn )
∞
2 [sin(λn ) − λn cos(λn )] sin(λn (r /ro )) −λ2 F0
θ= · ·e n
λn − sin(λn )cos(λn ) λn (r /ro )
n=1
4.3. Solve transient temperature profiles in a semiinfinite solid body using the
Laplace transform for the following BCs of constant surface heat flux.
If at time t = 0 the surface is suddenly exposed to a constant heat flux
qs —for example, by radiation from a high-temperature source—the resulting
temperature response is

q 4αt 1/2 −x 2 /4αt x
T − Ti = s e − x erfc
k π (4αt )1/2
SOLUTION
1-D transient:
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
Initial condition:
t = 0; T = Ti .
i. x = 0; −k ∂T
∂x = qs
ii. x → ∞; T = T i
Let θ = T − T i ,
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
Initial condition:
t = 0; θ = 0.
i. x = 0; ∂θ = q
−k ∂x s
ii. x → ∞; θ = 0
Applying the Laplace transform,
∂ 2 θ̃ s
− θ̃ = 0 (1)
∂x 2 α
∂ θ̃ = sq
i. x = 0; −k ∂x s
ii. x → ∞; θ̃ = 0.
Solving,
√ √
θ̃ = C1 e− s/αx + C2 e s/αx (2)
Applying BC (ii), C2 = 0. √
Applying BC (i), C1 = (qs /s)(1/k s/α).
Substituting this into above (2),
q 1 √
θ̃ = s √ e− s/αx (3)
s k s/α
Rearranging,
√
q /k α √ √
θ̃ = s 3/2 e−(x/ α) s
s
Applying the Laplace inverse,

'
q √ t x2 x x
θ= s α 2 exp − − √ erfc √
k π 4αt α 2 αt

qs 4αt 1/2 x2 x
T − Ti = exp − − x erfc
k π 4αt (4αt )1/2
4.4. Solve transient temperature profiles in a semiinfinite solid body using the
Laplace transform for the following BCs of convective heat transfer to the
surface.
If at time t = 0 the surface is suddenly exposed to a fluid at temperature
T∞ , with a convective heat transfer coefficient h, the resulting temperature
response is

T − Ti x 2 x h
= erfc − ehx/k +(h/k ) αt erfc + (αt )1/2
T∞ − Ti (4αt )1/2 (4αt )1/2 k
SOLUTION
1-D transient
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
Initial condition:
t = 0; T = Ti .
i. x = 0; ∂θ = h(θ − θ )
−k ∂x ∞ 0
ii. x → ∞; T = Ti
Let θ = T − Ti ,
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
Initial condition:
t = 0; θ=0
i. x = 0; ∂θ = h(θ − θ )
−k ∂x ∞ 0
ii. x → ∞; θ=0
Applying the Laplace transform,
∂ 2 θ̃ s
− θ̃ = 0 (1)
∂x 2 α

i. x = 0; −k dθ̃(0,t
dx
)
= h θs∞ − θ̃(0, t )
ii. x → ∞; θ̃ = 0
By solving,
√ √
θ̃ = C1 e− s/αx + C2 e s/αx (2)
Applying BC (ii), C2 = 0.
Applying BC (i),
(h/k )θ∞
C1 = √
((h/k ) + ( s/α))s
Substituting this into above (2),

√
θ̃ = (h/k )θ
√∞ e− s/αx (3)
((h/k )+( s/α))s
By rearranging,
√ √ √
(h/k ) α√ −(x/ α) s
θ̃ = θ∞ √ e
(h/k ) α+ s s
Applying the Laplace inverse,

θ 2 2 h√ x x
= −e(h/k )x e(h α/k )t erfc αt + √ + erfc √
θ∞ k 4αt 4αt

T − Ti x 2
hx/k +(h/k ) αt erfc x h 1/2
= erfc − e + (αt )
T∞ − Ti (4αt )1/2 (4αt )1/2 k
Remarks
There are many engineering problems involving 0-D, 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D tran-
sient heat conduction with various thermal BCs. In the undergraduate-level
heat transfer, we have focused mainly on how to apply the lumped capaci-
tance solutions to solve relative simple engineering problems. For 1-D and
multidimensional transient conduction problems, we normally do not go
through the detailed mathematical equations and solutions. Instead, students
are expected to apply these formulas to solve many engineering relevant prob-
lems by giving solid material geometry with appropriate thermal properties
and thermal BCs.
In the intermediate-level heat transfer, Chapter 4 we have introduced sev-
eral very powerful mathematical tools such as similarity method, Laplace
transform method, and integral approximate method, in addition to the sep-
aration of variables method already mentioned in Chapter 3. Specifically, the
separation of variables method is convenient to solve the transient conduc-
tion problems with finite-length dimensions such as the plate, cylinder, and
sphere with various thermal BCs. However, the similarity method, Laplace
transform method, or integral approximate method is more appropriate to
solve the transient conduction problems with semiinfinite solid material for
various thermal BCs.
1-D transient heat conduction with moving boundaries belongs to advanced
heat conduction material. (Readers can skip these topics.)
PROBLEMS
4.1. The wall of a rocket nozzle is of thickness L = 25 mm and is made
from a high-alloy steel for which ρ = 8000 kg/m3 , c = 500 J/kg K,
and k = 25 W/m K. During a test firing, the wall is initially at
Ti = 25◦ C and its inner surface is exposed to hot combustion gases
for which h = 500 W/m2 K and T∞ = 1750◦ C. The firing time is
limited by the nozzle inner-wall temperature when it reaches
1500◦ C. The outer surface is well insulated.
a. Write the transient heat conduction equation, the associated
BCs, and determine the nozzle wall temperature distributions.
(Note: The diameter of the nozzle is much larger than its thick-
ness. No need to perform integration of orthogonal functions
if you run out of time.)
b. Sketch several nozzle wall temperature profiles during tran-
sient heating.
c. To increase the firing time, changing the wall thickness L is
considered. Should L be increased or decreased? Why? The
value of the firing time could also be increased by select-
ing a wall material with different thermophysical properties.
Should materials of larger or smaller values of ρ, c, and k be
chosen?
4.2. A one-side-insulated metal plane wall with a thickness of L is
initially at temperature Ti and suddenly the other side is heated
by forced convection water at temperature T∞ with a convection
heat transfer coefficient h.
a. Outline, step by step, the procedures and the associated initial
and BCs that may be used to solve the temperature distribu-
tions in the plane wall. You do not need to solve the transient
temperature distribution.
b. Sketch the temperature profiles in the plane wall during the
heating process. Also, estimate the surface temperature at the
final steady-state condition.
4.3. A long metal plane wall with a thickness of 2L is initially at tem-
perature Ti and suddenly both sides are heated by convection
fluid flow at temperature T∞ with a convection heat transfer coef-
ficient h. Outline the procedures that may be used to solve the
temperature distributions in the plane wall and sketch the tem-
perature profiles in the plane wall during the heating process for
two different cases.
a. Fluid flow is natural convection air.
b. Fluid flow is forced convection water.
c. Also, estimate the surface temperature at the final steady-state
condition. Which fluid flow will reach the steady temperature
faster? Why? Make appropriate assumptions in order to justify
your answers.
4.4. A large flat plate (with a thickness of 2L) initially at Ti is suddenly
plunged into a liquid bath at T∞ . Derive an expression for the
instantaneous temperature distribution in the plate, if,
a. The heat transfer coefficient between the two surfaces of the
plate and the liquid, h, is given as constant and finite.
b. The heat transfer coefficient h between the two surfaces of the
plate and the liquid is very large so that the temperatures on the
two surfaces of the plate may be assumed to change abruptly
to the temperature of the liquid (i.e., T(L,t) = T∞ , for t > 0).
c. Sketch the instantaneous temperature distribution in the plate
for both (a) and (b) if T∞ > Ti .
4.5. A semiinfinite solid initially at a uniform temperature Ti and
suddenly exposed at its surface to a constant heat flux q”.
a. Determine the temperature history in the solid.
b. Approximately plot the temperature profiles for the following

BCs:
i. Constant q” at the surface.
ii. Constant temperature at the surface, Ts (0,t) > Ti .
iii. Constant fluid temperature Tf and h, Tf > Ti .
4.6. A semiinfinite carbon steel block is initially at a uniform tem-
perature Ti and its surfaces is suddenly exposed to a constant
irradiation flux q , simultaneously to an ambient air of h, T∞ .
a. Determine the temperature history in the solid and sketch the
temperature profiles in the solid assuming Ti = T∞ . Analytical
method.
b. If a semiinfinite pure copper block will be operated at the same
condition, state that the time required for the surface of the
block to reach Ts will be longer or shorter than that of the steel
block. Why?
4.7. A liquid confined in a half-space x > 0 is initially at a temperature
Ti which is higher than its freezing temperature Tm . For times
t > 0, the surfaces at x = 0 are subjected to the following BCs.
Plot the temperature history both in the liquid and the solid.
a. Constant heat flux is q ; this q is removed away from the
surface.
b. Constant surface temperature To , To < Tm .
c. If natural convection takes place in the liquid region with
a constant h, plot the temperature profiles and freezing dis-
tance δ with time in both case (a) and case (b). Explain the
difference.
4.8. Asolid simulated as a half-space, x > 0, is initially at a temperature
Ti which is equal to its melting temperature Tm . For time t > 0,
the surface at x = 0 is subjected to the following BCs. Plot the
temperature history both in liquid and solid:
a. Constant heat flux is q ; this q is applied to the surface.
b. Constant surface temperature Ts , Ts > Tm .
c. Convection to the surface with heating fluid at T∞ , h.
4.9. Refer to Equation 4.14, and solve the temperature distributions
for the 3-D block with the following BCs:
(1) x = ±a, T = Ts
y = ±b, T = Ts
z = ±c, T = Ts
(2) x = ±a, (−k∂T(±a, t)/∂x) = h[T(±a, t) − T∞ ]

y = ±b, (−k∂T(±b, t)/∂y) = h[T(±b, t) − T∞ ]
z = ±c, (−k∂T(±c, t)/∂z) = h[T(±c, t) − T∞ ]
4.10. A semiinfinite solid is initially at uniform temperature Ts . The

surface of the semiinfinite solid is suddenly exposed to a constant
temperature Tw .
a. Write the governing equations and the BCs.
b. Nondimensionalize the governing equations and BCs by

appropriate choice of temperature variable, length scale, and
timescale.
4.11. An infinite body of cold liquid initially at uniform temperature
Ts is brought in contact with a heated horizontal wall of infinite
length maintained at a constant temperature (Tw ). It is expected
that after infinite time the liquid temperature profile will be linear
within a thermal boundary layer of thickness δ. Neglect gravity or
body forces and liquid convection and assume that heat transfer
in the liquid is by conduction only.
a. Write the governing equations and the BCs.
b. Nondimensionalize the governing equations and BCs by
appropriate choice of temperature variable, length scale, and
timescale.
c. Solve the governing equations to obtain the transient tem-
perature profile. Verify if the solution for the transient
temperature profile satisfies the linear temperature pro-
file when steady-state conditions are reached (at infinite
time).
4.12. A plate is initially at temperature Ti when laid on an insulated
surface and cooled by air flow at temperature T∞ , with the heat
transfer coefficient h. The length of the plate is l, width w, and
thickness b (l w, l b, w b). The thermal diffusivity of the
plate is α and the thermal conductivity of the plate material is k.
The viscosity of air is μ and density is ρ. Estimate the time required
for the bottom surface of the plate to cool to Tb , when
a. The plate material is made of copper (the conduction resistance
in the slab is negligible).
b. The plate material is made of plastic (the convection resistance
on the slab is negligible).
4.13. A long metal plane wall with a thickness of 2L is initially at tem-
perature Ti and suddenly both sides are heated by a convection
fluid flow at temperature T∞ . Outline the procedures and solve
the temperature distributions in the plane wall and sketch the
temperature profiles in the plane wall during the heating process
for two different cases.
a. Fluid flow is natural convection air.
b. Fluid flow is forced convection water.
4.14. a. Consider a large wall, separating two fluids at T∞1 and T∞2
(T∞2 < T∞1 ). To prevent heat transfer from the hot fluid at
T∞1 to the wall, a thin foil guard heater (of negligible thick-
ness) on the surface of the wall exposed to the hot fluid at
T∞1 is used to raise the surface temperature to T∞1 . Sketch
the instantaneous temperature distributions at several differ-
ent times in the fluids near the wall and in the wall, before and
after the surface temperature is raised with the thin foil guard
heater, until a steady state is reached.
b. Consider a large wall, separating two fluids at T∞1 and T∞2
(T∞2 < T∞1 ). Instead of the thin foil guard heater in (a), heat is
generated uniformly in the wall to prevent heat transfer from

the fluid at T∞1 to the wall. Sketch the instantaneous temper-
ature distributions in the fluids at several different times near
the wall and in the wall, before and after heat is generated uni-
formly in the wall to prevent heat transfer from the hot fluid
to the wall, until a steady state is reached.
c. Consider a large wall with a thickness of 2L its surfaces main-
tained at T1 and T2 (T2 = T1 ). Heat is generated uniformly in
the wall. Beginning with the steady-state, 1-D, heat conduction
equation and appropriate BCs (T = T1 at x = −L and T = T2
at x = +L), derive an expression for the steady-state 1-D tem-
perature distribution in the wall, T(x). Using the expression,
show that the rate of heat generation is equal to the sum of the
rates of heat transfer from the two surfaces.
4.15. The plane wall has constant properties and no internal generation
and is initially at a uniform temperature Ti . Suddenly, the surface
x = L is exposed to a heating process with a fluid at T∞ having a
convection coefficient h. At the same instant, the electrical heater
is energized providing a constant heat flux q0 at x = 0.
a. On T − x coordinates, sketch the temperature distributions for
the following conditions: initial condition (t < 0), steady-state
condition (t → ∞), and for two intermediate times.
b. On qx − x coordinates, sketch the heat flux corresponding to
the four temperature distributions of (a).
c. On qx − t coordinates, sketch the heat flux at the locations x = 0
and x = L. That is, show qualitatively how qx (0,t) and qx (L, t)
vary with time.
d. Derive an expression for the steady-state temperature at the
heater surface, T(0, ∞), in terms of q0 , T∞ , k, h, and L.
4.16. The plane wall has constant properties and a uniform internal
generation of q̇(W/m3 ) that activates only when the electric heater
is energized. The wall is initially at a uniform temperature Ti .
Suddenly, the surface x = L is exposed to a cooling process with a
fluid at T∞ having a convection coefficient h. At the same instant,
the electrical heater is energized providing a constant heat flux q0
at x = 0.
a. On T − x coordinates, sketch the temperature distributions for
the following conditions: initial condition (t ≤ 0), steady-state
condition (t → ∞), and for two intermediate times.
b. On qx − x coordinate, sketch the heat flux corresponding to
the four temperature distributions of (a).
c. On qx − t coordinates, sketch the heat flux at the locations x = 0
and x = L. That is, show qualitatively how qx (0,t) and qx (L,t)
vary with time.
d. Derive an expression for the steady-state temperature
at the heater surface, T(0,∞), in terms of q0 , q̇, T∞ , k, h,
and L.
4.17. A 10 m-long 2 cm-diameter copper rod is immersed in a heat-
ing bath at a uniform temperature of 100◦ C. This rod is suddenly
exposed to an air stream at 20◦ C with a heat transfer coefficient

of 200 W/m2 K. Find the time required for the copper rod to cool
to an average temperature of 25◦ C. Write all assumptions if nec-
essary. Thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of copper
are 401 W/m K, 385 J/kg K, and 8933 kg/m3 , respectively.
4.18. Determine the temperature profile for 1-D transient heat conduc-
tion problem in a cylinder at constant surface temperature as
shown in Figure 4.1b.
tion problem in a sphere at constant surface temperature as shown
in Figure 4.1c.
tion problem in a vertical plate at constant surface temperature as
shown in Figure 4.4b.
References
ing, MA, 1966.
4. B. Mikic, Conduction Heat Transfer, Class Notes, MIT, MA, 1974.
5
Numerical Analysis in Heat Conduction
5.1 Finite-Difference Energy Balance Method for 2-D

Steady-State Heat Conduction
The above-discussed principle of separation of variable is a powerful method
to solve the 2-D heat conduction problem. However, the solutions become
tedious for various nonhomogenous BCs. With the help of modern computers,
the heat conduction problem can be easily solved by using the finite-difference
energy balance method for complex BCs. For example, Figure 5.1 shows the
typical numerical grid distribution for 2-D heat conduction with given sur-
face temperatures as BCs. It requires detailed mathematical procedures if we
choose the separation of variable method to solve this problem. Of course,
the accuracy of the numerical solutions depends on the number of finite-
difference grids used for energy balance calculations. In general, the accuracy
improves with the increase of grid points. It should be noted that each grid
point actually represents the temperature of a small area ΔxΔy. So we obtain
the discrete temperature distribution by using the finite-difference method.
However, when Δx and Δy become very small (approaching zero), the tem-
perature distribution predicted by the finite-difference method will be the
same as those calculated using the separation of variable method.
In general, the grid size in the x-direction is not necessarily the same as that
in the y-direction. We need to use smaller grid size (more grid points) in the
high-temperature gradient direction. The energy balance can be performed
for each grid point shown in Figure 5.1. The number of unknown temperatures
is the same as the number of energy balance equations (the number of grid
points). Therefore, the unknown temperatures can be solved. Note that we do
not need to perform energy balance on the boundary points if the boundary
temperatures are already given. But, we need to perform energy balance on
the boundary points if the boundary is exposed to heat flux or convection
in which their boundary temperatures are unknown and to be determined
using the finite-difference method. The following outlines the finite-difference
method to solve the 2-D heat conduction problem shown in Figure 5.2. We
can begin the energy balance at the interior points and then extend to energy
balance at the boundary points with various BCs.
105
y T (x, y)
T1
Grids cells
T0 T0
x
T0
FIGURE 5.1
Finite difference method to solve 2-D heat conduction problem.
Energy balance at the interior nodes:

4
qi→0 + q̇(Δx · Δy · 1) = 0 (5.1)
i=1
T 1 − T0 T 2 − T0 T 3 − T0
kΔy · 1 · + kΔy · 1 · + kΔx · 1 ·
Δx Δx Δy
T 4 − T0
+ kΔx · 1 · + q̇(Δx · Δy) = 0 (5.2)
Δy
If Δx = Δy,

1 q̇ΔxΔx
T0 = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + (5.3)
4 k
Energy balance at boundary nodes (not needed if the surface temperature

is given):
Convection boundary on the surface nodes:
T 1 − T0 Δx T 4 − T0 Δx T 3 − T0
kΔy · 1 · +k ·1· +k ·1·
Δx 2 Δy 2 Δy
Δx
+ hΔy(T∞ − T0 ) + q̇ · Δy = 0 (5.4)
2
Numerical Analysis in Heat Conduction 107
Given surface temperature

Δx T1
1
Δx
2
T3
Insulated h, T∞
wall
Δy T1 T0
h, T∞
Δy T4
Convection
y
x qx'
Uniform heat flux
T3
1 T1 T2
Δy
2
T0 qx'
Δx
T3 m, n + 1 i, j+1
T0 T2 m – 1, n m + 1, n i – 1, j Δy i + 1, j
T1 Δy Δy
Δx Δx Δx
m, n – 1 i, j–1
T4
FIGURE 5.2
Uniform heat flux at the surface nodes:
Δy T 1 − T0 T 3 − T0 Δy T 2 − T0
k ·1· + kΔx · 1 · +k ·1·
2 Δx Δy 2 Δx
Δy
+ qs Δx · 1 + q̇ · Δx = 0 (5.5)
2
If insulation BCs applies to the surface nodes, then qs = 0.

In general, T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 , and T4 can be replaced by Tm,n , Tm−1,n ,
Tm+1,n , Tm,n−1 , and Tm,n+1 or by Ti,j , Ti−1,j , Ti+1,j , Ti,j−1 , and Ti,j+1 ,
where m = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n = 1, 2, 3, . . . or i = 1, 2, 3, . . ., j = 1, 2, 3, . . ., to obtain
T1,1 , T1,2 , T1,3 , . . . , T2,1 , T2,2 , T2,3 , . . ., and T3,1 , T3,2 , T3,3 , . . . .
Another approach is to make grid nodes directly from the heat conduc-
tion equation. The 2-D steady-state heat conduction equation with heat
generation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T q̇
2
+ 2
+ =0
∂x ∂y k
The finite-differential format of the steady-state 2-D heat conduction

equation with heat generation can be written as
(Tm−1,n − Tm,n )/Δx + (Tm+1,n − Tm,n )/Δx

Δx
(Tm,n−1 − Tm,n )/Δy + (Tm,n+1 − Tm,n )/Δy q̇
+ + =0 (5.6)
Δy k
Let Δx = Δy, and one obtains
q̇
(Tm−1,n + Tm+1,n + Tm,n−1 + Tm,n+1 ) + (Δx)2 = 4Tm,n (5.7)
k
where m = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The above linear equation can be applied to any interior nodes. Theoreti-
cally, one would obtain m × n linear equations, and therefore, temperature
T(x, y) = Tm,n can be solved using the matrix method [1,2]. For example,
let Tm,n = T1 , T2 , T3 , . . . , TN , and the above linear equations can be applied
T1 , T1 , T3 , . . . , TN . Rearranging the equation, one obtains
a11 T1 + a12 T2 + a13 T3 + · · · + a1N TN = C1

a21 T1 + a22 T2 + a23 T3 + · · · + a2N TN = C2
.. (5.8)
.
aN1 T1 + aN2 T2 + aN3 T3 + · · · + aNN TN = CN
Using the matrix notation, these equations can be expressed as
[A] [T] = [C] (5.9)
where
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 ··· a1N T1 C1
⎢ a21 a22 ··· a2N ⎥ ⎢ T2 ⎥ ⎢ C2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
[A] = ⎢ . ⎥, [T] = ⎢ .. ⎥ , [C] = ⎢ .. ⎥
⎣ .. ⎦ ⎣ . ⎦ ⎣ . ⎦
aN1 aN2 ··· aNN TN CN
The solution may be expressed as
[T] = [A]−1 [C] (5.10)
where [A]−1 is the inverse of [A] that is defined as

⎡ ⎤
b11 b12 ··· b1N
⎢ b21 b22 ··· b2N ⎥
⎢ ⎥
[A]−1 =⎢ . ⎥
⎣ .. ⎦
bN1 bN2 ··· bNN
Therefore, temperature can be determined by
T1 = b11 C1 + b12 C2 + · · · + b1N CN

T2 = b21 C1 + b22 C2 + · · · + b2N CN
.. (5.11)
.
TN = bN1 C1 + bN2 C2 + · · · + bNN CN
Example 5.1
We use Figure 5.3 as an example to demonstrate how to solve the 2-D heat
conduction problem by using the finite-difference method. Let Δx = Δy , q̇ = 0.
Rearrange the temperatures from the energy balance on node 1, 2, 3, ….
1
T1 = (Ts + Ts + T2 + T3 ) ⇒
4
−4T1 + T2 + T3 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = −2Ts
1
T2 = (T1 + T4 + T1 + Ts )
4
2T1 − 4T2 + 0 + T4 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = −Ts
1
T3 = (Ts + T5 + T4 + T1 )
4
1
T4 = (T3 + T6 + T3 + T2 )
4
1
T5 = (Ts + T7 + T6 + T3 )
4
1
T6 = (T5 + T8 + T5 + T4 )
4
1 hΔx
T7 = 2T5 + T8 + Ts + 2 T∞
4 + 2(hΔx/k ) k
1 hΔx
T8 = T 6 + T7 + T∞
2 + (hΔx/k ) k
Ts
1 2 1
Ts 3 4 3 Ts
5 6 5
7 8 7
T∞, h
FIGURE 5.3
Example of using finite difference method to solve 2-D heat conduction problem.
Place temperatures on the left-hand side of the equation and the constants on the
right-hand side. We can form a coefficient matrix [A], temperature matrix [T ], and
column matrix [C ]. The linear equations of the finite-difference energy balance
on each grid point can be represented by the product of [A][T ] = [C ]. Therefore,
the temperature distribution can be obtained if we know how to solve [T ] from
[A] and [C ]. So the main job for this method is how to obtain [A] and [C ]. The
solution for [T ] is
[T ] = [A]−1 [C ]
⎡ ⎤
−4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
⎢2 −4 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢1 0 −4 1 1 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 2 −4 0 1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 −4 1 1 0 ⎥
[A] = ⎢⎢0
⎥
⎥
⎢ 0 0 1 2 −4 0 1 ⎥
⎢ 2h ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 2 0 − 4+ Δx 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ k ⎥
⎣ h ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 − 2 + Δx
k
⎡ ⎤
−Ts ⎡ ⎤
⎢ −Ts ⎥ T1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢T2 ⎥
⎢ −T ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ s ⎥ ⎢T3 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢T4 ⎥
⎢ −Ts ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
[C ] = ⎢ ⎥ [T ] = ⎢T5 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢T6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢−Ts − 2h ΔxT∞ ⎥ ⎣T7 ⎦
⎢ k ⎥
⎣ h ⎦
T8
− ΔxT∞
k
Example 5.2
We use Figure 5.4 with T (x, y ) = Tm,n , when m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

respectively. We need to solve the temperature column matrix [T ]. Let Δx = Δy ,
q̇ = 0, and write down the linear equations of the finite-difference energy bal-
ance method on each mode, and obtain a coefficient matrix [A] and a column
matrix [C ]. Therefore, the temperature matrix can be solved by [A] [T ] = [C ],
[T ] = [A]−1 [C ], where all [T ], [A], and [C ] are equal:
⎡ ⎤
T1,1
⎢T ⎥
⎢ 2,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
T1,1 T2,1 T3,1 T4,1 T5,1 ⎢T1,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢T1,2 T5,2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ T2,2 T3,2 T4,2 ⎥ ⎢T2,2 ⎥
[T ] = ⎢
⎢T1,3 T2,3 T3,3 T4,3 ⎥ ⎢
T5,3 ⎥ = ⎢ . ⎥
.. ⎥
⎣T1,4 T2,4 T3,4 T4,4 T4,5 ⎦ ⎢ ⎢
⎥
⎥
T1,5 T2,5 T3,5 T4,5 T5,5 ⎢T ⎥
⎢ 1,5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢T2,5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎣ ⎦
T5,5
⎡ ⎤
C1,1
⎢C ⎥
⎢ 2,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
C1,1 C2,1 C3,1 C4,1 C5,1 ⎢C1,1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢C1,2 C5,2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ C2,2 C3,2 C4,2 ⎥ ⎢C2,2 ⎥
[C ] = ⎢
⎢C1,3 C2,3 C3,3 C4,3 C5,3 ⎥ = ⎢ . ⎥
⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎣C1,4 C2,4 C3,4 C4,4 C4,5 ⎦ ⎢ ⎢
. ⎥
⎥
C1,5 C2,5 C3,5 C4,5 C5,5 ⎢ ⎥
⎢C1,5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢C2,5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎣ ⎦
C5,5
⎡ ⎤
a11 a21 a31 a41 a51
⎢a12 a22 a32 a42 a52 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
[A] = ⎢
⎢a13 a23 a33 a43 a53 ⎥
⎥
⎣a14 a24 a34 a44 a54 ⎦
a15 a25 a35 a45 a55
The above-mentioned finite-difference energy balance method can be used for

solving 2-D and 3-D heat conduction problems with Cartesian, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinates with various BCs; for example, for the 3-D problem as shown
in Figure 5.5.
Ts given surface temperature

5
4
qs" = 0 h, T∞
insulated 3 Convection
wall
2
n = 1, ..., 5
y
2 3 4 5
x
qs˝ uniform heat flux
m = 1, ..., 5
FIGURE 5.4
Example of using finite difference method to solve 2-D heat conduction problem with various
boundary conditions.
Let T (x, y , z) = Ti,j,k , with i = 1, 2, 3, . . . i, j = 1, 2, 3, . . . j, and k = 1, 2, 3, . . . k .
T1,1,k T 2,1,k T3,1,k T i,1,k
T1,1,3 T2,1,3 T3,1,3 Ti ,1,3
T1,1,2 T2,1,2 T3,1,2 Ti ,1,2
T1,1,1 T2,1,1 T3,1,1 Ti ,1,1

T1,2,k T2,2,k T3,2,k Ti,2,k
T1,2,3 T2,2,3 T3,2,3 Ti ,2,3
T1,2,2 T2,2,k T3,2,2 Ti ,2,2
T1,2,1 T2,2,1 T3,2,1 Ti ,2,1

T1,j,k T2,j,k T3,j,k Ti,j,k
T1,j,3 T2,j,3 T3,j,3 Ti,j,3
T1,j,2 T2,j,2 T3,j,2 Ti,j,2

k = 1,2,3, ..., k
T (x, y, x)
i = 1,2,3, ..., i
j = 1,2,3, ..., j
FIGURE 5.5
For the case of a curved boundary [3], the interior nodes can be determined as
Given : Ti+1,j , Ti−1,j , Ti,j+1 , Ti,j−1
Ti−1,j − Ti,j Ti+1,j − Ti,j

k Δy + k Δy (5.12)
Δx aΔx
Ti,j+1 − Ti,j Ti,j−1 − Ti,j

+k Δx + k Δx =0
bΔy cΔy
Unknown :Ti,j
Ti, j+ 1
bΔy Δy
Ti – 1, j Ti , j Ti+ 1, j
cΔy Ti, j– 1
Δx
aΔx
FIGURE 5.6
Finite difference method to solve the interior nodes next to the curved boundary.
5.2 Finite-Difference Energy Balance Method for 1-D

Transient Heat Conduction
The heat equation for 1-D transient heat conduction with heat generation is
∂ 2T q̇ 1 ∂T
+ = .
∂x2 k α ∂t
This equation is a parabolic equation. As discussed in Chapter 4, this equa-
tion can be solved analytically by using the separation of variables method,
similarity method, Laplace transform method, or integral method. In this
chapter, we would like to solve 1-D and 2-D transient conduction prob-
lems with various BCs by using the finite-difference explicit method and the
finite-difference implicit method [1].
5.2.1 Finite-Difference Explicit Method

This is finite difference in space with an explicit form (lower bond). At a given
interior point, heat conductions from the neighborhood points are based on
the previous time-step temperatures in order to increase that point tempera-
ture during the incremental time-step change. This method is limited by the
instability problem, but easy to understand and calculate.
The finite-difference format of the above 1-D transient heat conduction
equation can be written as
(T1P − T2P )/Δx + (T3P − T2P )/Δx q̇ 1 T2P+1 − T2P

+ = (5.13)
Δx k α Δt
Example 5.3
Energy balance at the interior nodes, for example, node 2, as shown in Figure 5.7:

q = energy storage
Lower bond:
T P − T2P T P − T2P ρCp Δx · y · 1 ·(T2P +1 − T2P )

k ·y ·1 1 + k · y ·1 3 + q̇ · Δx · y · 1 = .
Δx Δx Δt
(5.14)
Let q̇ = 0, α = (k /ρCp ), one obtains
1 P +1
T1P + T3P − 2T2P = (T − T2P )
Fo 2
T2P +1 = Fo(T1P + T3P ) + (1 − 2Fo)T2P (5.15)
Δx
Ts
p+1
T1
p+1
T2
p+1
T3 p+1
p
T4
T1 p + 1 step
y p
T2 p p step
T3 p
T4
Ti
x 0 1 2 3 4
1
Δx
2
FIGURE 5.7
Finite difference energy balance method for one-dimensional transient heat conduction with
given surface temperature boundary condition.
where time increment Δt with time step P , that is, t = P Δt , with P = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Fo is a finite-difference form of the Fourier number Fo = (αΔt /Δx 2 ).
By hand calculation, temperature at (P + 1) step is determined by the preced-
ing time temperature at P step as sketched in Figure 5.7. For example, P = 0,
t = 0, initial condition, Ts0 = T10 = T20 = T30 = Ti .
For stability, (1 − 2Fo) ≥ 0, that is, Fo ≤ 1/2, consider Δt as a very small value
and Δx as a very large value.
Example 5.4
For the case of surface convection BC (node 0) as sketched in Figure 5.8:
p p p+1 p
p T − T0 T − T0 Δx
h(T∞ − T0 ) + k 1 = 0 ρCp (5.16)
Δx Δt 2
p+1 p 2h Δt p 2αΔt p p
T0 = T0 + (T∞ − T0 ) + (T − T0 )
ρCp Δx Δx 2 1

p p
= 2Fo T1 + Bi T∞ + (1 − 2 Fo − 2 Bi Fo) T0 (5.17)
where
Fo = (αΔt /Δx 2 ) = Fourier number,

hΔx
Bi = = Biot number.
k
For stability criterion, 1 − 2Fo − 2Bi Fo ≥ 0, that is, Fo (1 + Bi) ≤ 1/2.

p+1
h, T∞ T0
p+1
T1
p+1
p T2 p+1
T0 T3
p p + 1 step
y T1
p
T2 p p step
T3
Ti
1
x Δx
2
FIGURE 5.8
Finite difference energy balance method for one-dimensional transient heat conduction with
convection boundary conditions.
Example 5.5
For the case of surface heat flux BC as sketched in Figure 5.9:
p p p+1 p
T − T0 T − T0 Δx
qs + k 1 = 0 ρCp (5.18)
Δx Δt 2
p+1 Δt k Δt p p
T0 = q + T + (1 − 2Fo)T0 (5.19)
(Δx/2)ρCp s (Δx/2)ρCp 1
For stability, Fo ≤ 1/2
p+1
T0
p+1
q"s T1 p+1
T2 p+1
p
T3
T0 p + 1 step
y p
T1 p p step
T2 p
T3
Ti
1
x Δx
2
FIGURE 5.9
Finite difference energy balance method for 1-D transient heat conduction with surface heat flux
boundary condition.
5.2.2 Finite-Difference Implicit Method

This is finite difference in space with an implicit form (upper bond). At a given
interior point, heat conductions from the neighborhood points are based on
the new time-step temperatures in order to increase that point temperature
during the incremental time-step change. This method has no instability prob-
lem, best accuracy, large Δt, and small Δx, but requires a computer to solve
the matrix inverse problem.
Energy balance at the interior nodes (e.g., node 2, as shown in Figures 5.7
through 5.9):
Upper bond:

q = energy storage
p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1 p
T1 − T2 T3 − T2 T2 − T2
k +k + q̇ · Δx · 1 = ρCp Δx (5.20)
Δx Δx Δt
Let q̇ = 0, α = (k/ρCp ), Fo = (αΔt/Δx2 ), one obtains
p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1 Δx2 p+1 p

T1 − T2 + T3 − T2 = (T − T2 )
αΔt 2
p+1 p+1 p+1 p
(1 + 2 Fo)T2 − Fo (T1 + T2 ) = T2 (5.21)
There is no stability issue.

In general, T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 , . . . can be replaced by Tm or Ti , when m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
or i = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
5.3 2-D Transient Heat Conduction

The above-mentioned finite-difference energy balance method can be used
for solving the 2-D transient heat conduction problem [1].
Let T(x, y, t) = T(m, n, t) or T(i, j, t), with m = i = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n = j =
1, 2, 3, . . . .
∂ 2T ∂ 2T q̇ 1 ∂T
+ + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 k α ∂t
x-direction net heat conduction + y-direction net heat conduction =

temperature change of a small element (Δx Δy · 1).
Finite-difference explicit form (lower bond):

* *
p p p p
Tm+1,n − Tm,n Δx + Tm−1,n − Tm,n Δx
Δx
* *
p p p p
Tm,n+1 − Tm,n Δy + Tm,n−1 − Tm,n Δy p+1
q̇ 1 Tm,n − Tm,n
p
+ + =
Δy k α Δt
(5.22)
Let Δx = Δy, q̇ = 0, Fo = αΔt/Δx2 , and temperature at (P + 1) step is

determined by the preceding time temperature at P step as

p+1 p p p p p
Tm,n = Fo Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n + Tm,n+1 + Tm,n−1 + (1 − 4Fo)Tm,n (5.23)
For the stability criterion, (1 − 4Fo) ≥ 0, that is, Fo ≤ 1/4.

For the 1-D transient heat conduction problem, one obtains
p+1 p p p
Tm = Fo (Tm+1 + Tm−1 ) + (1 − 2 Fo)Tm
For stability, (1 − 2Fo) ≥ 0, that is, Fo ≤ 1/2

Finite-difference implicit form (upper bond):

p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1
Tm+1,n − Tm,n /Δx + Tm−1,n − Tm,n /Δx
Δx

p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1
Tm,n+1 − Tm,n /Δy + Tm,n−1 − Tm,n /Δy p+1 p
q̇ 1 Tm,n − Tm,n
+ + =
Δy k α Δt
(5.24)
Let Δx = Δy, q̇ = 0, Fo = αΔt/Δx2 , and temperature at (P + 1) step is

determined by
p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1
Tm+1,n − Tm,n + Tm−1,n − Tm,n + Tm,n+1
p+1 p+1 p+1 1 p+1 p

− Tm,n + Tm,n−1 − Tm,n = Tm,n − Tm,n
Fo

p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1 p
(1 + 4 Fo)Tm,n − Fo Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n + Tm,n+1 + Tm,n+1 = Tm,n (5.25)
For a 1-D transient heat conduction problem, one obtains

p+1 p p p
(1 + 2 Fo)Tm − Fo(Tm+1 + Tm−1 ) = Tm
It can be solved by a computer matrix, and there is no instability issue.

Ta
x
1 2 3
T∞, h 4 5 6 T∞, h
7 8 9
Tb
FIGURE 5.10
Finite difference method to solve a 2-D conduction problem.
In general, the finite-difference energy balance method (explicit or implicit

method) can be used to solve 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D transient heat conduction
problems for Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates with various
BCs.
Example 5.6
Figure 5.10 shows a long, square bar with opposite sides maintained at Ta and Tb ,
and the other two sides lose heat by convection to a fluid at T∞ . The conductivity
of the bar material is k convective heat transfer coefficient is h. For the given mesh,
use the finite-difference energy balance method to obtain a coefficient matrix [A],
temperature matrix [T ], and a column matrix [C ].
SOLUTION
Figure 5.10 shows the prescribed surface conditions and the nodes. Symmetry
allows us to consider just nine nodes. For the interior, nodal temperatures are
1
T2 = (Ta + T1 + T3 + T5 )
4
1
T3 = (Ta + T2 + T2 + T6 )
4
1
T5 = (T2 + T4 + T6 + T8 )
4
1
T6 = (T3 + T5 + T5 + T9 )
4
1
T8 = T5 + T7 + T9 + Tb
4
1
T9 = T6 + T8 + T8 + Tb
4
For the boundary, nodal temperatures are

k Δy k Δx k Δy k Δx k Δx
− + + hΔy T1 + T2 + T4 = − Ta − hΔyT∞
Δx Δy Δx 2Δy 2Δy

k Δx k Δy k Δx k Δy k Δx
T − + + hΔy T4 + T5 + T7 = −hΔyT∞
2Δy 1 Δx Δy Δx 2Δy

k Δx k Δy k Δx k Δy k Δx
T4 − + + hΔy T7 + T8 = − T − hΔyT∞
2Δy Δx Δy Δx 2Δy b
In matrix form [A] [T ] = [C ],
⎡
k Δy k Δx k Δy k Δx
⎢− + + hΔy
⎢ Δx Δy Δx 2Δy
⎢ −4
⎢ 1 1
⎢
⎢ 2 −4
⎢
⎢
⎢ k Δx k Δy k Δx
⎢ − + + hΔy
⎢ 2Δy Δx Δy
⎢
[A] = ⎢ 1 1
⎢
⎢
⎢ 1
⎢
⎢ k Δx
⎢
⎢
⎢ 2Δy
⎢
⎢
⎣
⎤
⎥
1 ⎥
⎥
⎥
1 ⎥
⎥
k Δy k Δx ⎥
⎥
Δx ⎥
2Δy ⎥
⎥
−4 1 1 ⎥
⎥
2 −4 1⎥
⎥
⎥
k Δy k Δx k Δy ⎥
− + + hΔy ⎥
Δx Δy Δx ⎥
⎥
⎥
1 1 −4 1⎥
⎦
1 2 −4
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ k Δx
T1 −Ta − hΔyT∞
⎢ 2Δy ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢T2 ⎥ ⎢ −T a ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢T3 ⎥ ⎢ −Ta ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢T ⎥ ⎢ −hΔyT∞ ⎥
⎢ 4⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
[T ] = ⎢T5 ⎥ [C ] = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢T6 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢T7 ⎥ ⎢ k Δx ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢− Tb − hΔyT∞ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2Δy ⎥
⎢T8 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ −Tb ⎥
T9 ⎣ ⎦
−Tb
Remarks
The finite-difference method is a very powerful numerical technique to solve
many engineering application problems. As long as you know how to perform
the basic energy balance at the interior nodes as well as at the boundary nodes,
this method essentially can solve all kinds of heat conduction problems with
complex thermal BCs. In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, students are
normally required to perform simple energy balance at any specified node
inside a 2-D steady-state solid material and on the boundary.
In the intermediate-level heat transfer, we are more focused on how to per-
form simple energy balance as well as how to discretize the heat conduction
equation in order to solve the 1-D and 2-D steady-state heat conduction prob-
lems with various BCs by using the matrix inverse method. We also put in
effort to solve the 1-D and 2-D transient heat conduction problems with var-
ious BCs by using the finite-difference implicit method and explicit method.
In general, the same technique can be used to solve heat conduction problems
with cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
PROBLEMS
5.1. Refer to Figure 5.4, show the matrices [A], [T], and [C], with the
following grid distributions:
(1) m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (2) m = 1, 2, 3, 4 (3) m = 1, 2, 3

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 n = 1, 2, 3, 4 n = 1, 2, 3
5.2. Derive finite-difference energy balance equations, and show the

matrices [A], [T], and [C], for a 1-D hollow cylinder with the
following BCs:
(1) r = r1 , T = T1 (2) r = r1 , −k(∂T/∂r)

= h1 (T∞1 − T1 )
r = rN , T = TN r = rN , −k(∂T/∂r)
= hN (TN − T∞N )
(3) r = r1 , −k(∂T/∂r) = h1 (T∞1 − T1 )
r = rN , −k(∂T/∂r) = qs
5.3. A semi-infinite stainless-steel block is initially at Ti = 20◦ C. The

surface has an emissivity ε = 1.0 and is placed in a large enclosure
of Tsur of 20◦ C. Suddenly, the surface is exposed to a hot-air flow
of T∞ = 600◦ C and h = 100 w/m2 K.
At an instant time of t s, temperatures T1 and T2 have been
calculated as shown below. Predict the surface temperature after
(t + 100) s. Use the forward-difference energy balance method.
Given
α = 4 × 10−6 m2 /s k = 15.07 w/m K ρ = 7900 kg/m3

C = 477 J/kg K σ = 5.67 × 10−8 w/m2 K4 ε = 0.1
At time t s: T1 = 400◦ C and T2 = 380◦ C

Find: T1 = ? after (t = Δt) s where Δt = 100 s.
5.4. Given a very long and wide fin with a height of 2L. The base of
a. Sketch the steady 2-D temperature distribution in the fin.
b. If you were to determine the steady 2-D temperature distribu-
tion in the fin using a finite-difference numerical method, you
would solve a set of algebraic nodal equations simultaneously
for the temperatures at a 2-D array of nodes. Derive the equa-
tion for a typical node on one of the surfaces of the fin. Please
do not simplify the equation.
c. Using the method of separation of variables, derive an expres-
sion for the steady local temperature in the fin, in terms of the
thermal conductivity of the fin, k, the convective heat transfer
coefficient, h, the half-height of the fin, L, and the base and
fluid temperatures, Tb and T∞ .
Note that
W
[cos2 (aw)] dw = (1/4a)[2aW + sin (2aW)]
0
W
and [cos(aw) · cos(bw)] dw = 0, when a = b.
0
5.5. A 3-mm-diameter rod that is 120 mm in length is supported by two

electrodes within a large vacuum enclosure. Initially, the rod is in
equilibrium with the electrodes and its surroundings. Suddenly,

an electrical current is passed through the rod.
a. Using a first law analysis, what is the energy balance on the
rod?
b. Using Ac = (πD2 /4), P = πD , derive the explicit finite-
difference expression for node (n). Recall that heat generation
follows the I 2 Re law and that Re is defined as Re = ρe Δx/Ac .
Express your answer using the Fourier number in the explicit
finite-difference form.
c. What are the stability criteria at node (n)?
5.6. Refer to Figure 5.4, use the finite-difference explicit method to
derive the energy balance during the transient for the following
grid distributions:
(1) m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (2) m = 1, 2, 3, 4 (3) m = 1, 2, 3

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 n = 1, 2, 3, 4 n = 1, 2, 3
5.7 Refer to Figure 5.4, use the finite-difference implicit method to

derive the energy balance during the transient for the following
grid distributions:
(1) m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (2) m = 1, 2, 3, 4 (3) m = 1, 2, 3

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 n = 1, 2, 3, 4 n = 1, 2, 3
5.8. Use the finite-difference explicit method, and derive finite-

difference energy balance equations for a 1-D hollow cylinder
during the transient with the following BCs:
(1) r = r1 , T = T1 (2) r = r1 , −k(∂T/∂r) = h1 (T∞1 − T1 )

r = rN , T = TN r = rN , −k(∂T/∂r) = hN (TN − T∞N )
(3) r = r1 , −k(∂T/∂r)
= h1 (T∞1 − T1 )
r = rN , −k(∂T/∂r) = qs
5.9. Use the finite-difference implicit method, and derive finite-

difference energy balance equations for a 1-D hollow cylinder
during the transient with the following BCs:
(1) r = r1 , T = T1 (2) r = r1 , −k(∂T/∂r) = h1 (T∞1 − T1 )

r = rN , T = TN r = rN , −k(∂T/∂r) = hN (TN − T∞N )
(3) r = r1 , −k(∂T/∂r)
= h1 (T∞1 − T1 )
r = rN , −k(∂T/∂r) = qs
5.10. Derive Equations 5.23 and 5.25 for 3-D transient heat conduction
problems.
References
3. K.-F. Vincent Wong, Intermediate Heat Transfer, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY,
2003.
6
Heat Convection Equations
6.1 Boundary-Layer Concepts

For flow moving over a solid body, a hydrodynamic (or velocity) boundary
layer is formed near the solid surface. Hydrodynamic (or velocity) bound-
ary layer is the region where the fluid velocity changes from its free-stream
value to zero at the solid surface. For example, considering the flow over a flat
plate as shown in Figure 6.1, due to viscosity of the fluid, velocity gradually
decreases from its free-stream maximum value to zero at the flat plate (assum-
ing that the fluid particle on the surface is not moving). The fluid particle wants
to move faster as its free-stream value, but viscous force tries to resist it from
moving over the solid surface. Therefore, a hydrodynamic boundary-layer
thickness (where velocity is about 99% of the free-stream value) is developed
over a solid surface due to fluid viscosity.
The velocity profile and the associated hydrodynamic boundary-layer
thickness over a flat plate will be solved in the later sections. In general,
hydrodynamic boundary-layer thickness grows with the square root of dis-
tance from the leading edge of the flat plate. Figure 6.1 shows a typical velocity
profile over a flat plate in the laminar flow (Re < 300 × 103 ) and turbulent
flow (Re > 300 × 103 ) boundary-layer region, respectively. Once the velocity
profile over a flat plate, u( y), at a given distance x is determined, the hydro-
dynamic boundary-layer thickness, the shear stress on the surface, and the
friction factor (or friction coefficient) can be obtained as follows:
For external flow,
Inertia force ρU∞ x U∞ x

Re = = =
Viscous force μ ν
The flow is a laminar flow if Re < 300 × 103 , and a turbulent flow if Re >
300 × 103 . √
Flow boundary-layer thickness δ(x) ∼ x
Dynamic viscosity μ,
Kinematic viscosity ν = μ/ρ
125
U∞ ,V∞ U∞ U∞
u (x, y)
y δ (x)
x Laminar Turbulent
flow flow
FIGURE 6.1
Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer over a flat plate (if Pr = 1).
Shear stress

∂u 1 2
τw = μ = Cf · (ρU∞ − 0)
∂y y=0 2
Friction coefficient:
τw τw μ(∂u/∂y)|y=0 μ (U∞ /δ) 1

Cf = = = ∼ ∼ν
2 − 0)
(1/2)(ρU∞ 2
(1/2)ρU∞ (1/2)ρU∞2 ρ U∞ 2 δU∞
Cf is a function of Reynolds number, that is,
1
Cf = aReb ; Cf = aReb ∼ ;
Re
Reynolds number is defined as the fluid inertia force against viscous force
(i.e., the fluid particle tries to move but viscosity tries to resist it from moving)
and is a combination of velocity, viscosity, and length (distance measured from
the leading edge of the plate). When Reynolds number is approximately less
than 300 × 103 , the fluid particle moves like laminar, layer to layer from free-
stream velocity to zero velocity on the solid surface, and creates shear stress
over the solid surface. When the Reynolds number is greater than 300 × 103 ,
the fluid particle tends to become unstable (random motion) and gradually
transitions into the turbulent flow boundary layer. In the laminar boundary
layer, the velocity profile gradually changes from free-stream value to zero
on the surface as a parabolic shape. But, in the turbulent boundary layer,
the velocity profile remains fairly uniform as the free-stream value till near
the surface and then suddenly changes to zero on the surface. This is due to
turbulent mixing (the particle moves up and down, back and forth) so that
free-stream velocity is able to move closer to the surface. From the application
point of view, shear stress (viscosity × velocity gradient at the surface, i.e.,
τw = μ(∂u/∂y)|y=0 ) decreases with decreasing velocity gradient and viscosity.
Heat Convection Equations 127
τw δ U∞
U∞
δ
U∞ δ
Laminar Turbulent
flow flow
0 Transition x 0
FIGURE 6.2
Hydrodynamic boundary layer, friction factor, and shear stress profile.
Since velocity gradient decreases (because boundary-layer thickness grows)

with increasing distance due to viscosity, shear stress (related to pressure loss)
and friction factor decrease with increasing distance from the leading edge of
the flat plate. However, when the flow transitions into the turbulent boundary
layer, pressure loss is much greater than that in the laminar flow portion. This
is because a major portion of pressure loss is required in order to maintain
turbulence random motion in the turbulent boundary layer.
It is noted that boundary-layer thickness decreases with increasing square
root of free-stream velocity, and friction factor decreases with increasing free-
stream velocity; however, shear stress increases with increasing free-stream
velocity (thinner boundary layer and larger velocity gradient) as sketched
in Figure 6.2. Similarly, friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds
number, but, shear stress increases with increasing Reynolds number.
For hot flow moving over a cold solid body, a thermal (temperature) bound-
ary layer is formed around the solid surface. The thermal (or temperature)
boundary layer is the region where the fluid temperature changes from its
free-stream value to that at the solid surface. Heat transfer can take place
either from hot flow to the cold surface or from the heated surface to cold flow
as shown in Figure 6.3. For example, considering the hot flow over a cold flat
T∞ T∞ T∞
y
T (x, y)
δ T (x)
x
Laminar Tw Turbulent
0 flow flow
FIGURE 6.3
Thermal boundary layer over a heated flat plate.
plate as shown in Figure 6.1, due to conductivity of fluid and velocity distri-
bution, the temperature gradually decreases from its free-stream maximum
value to that at the flat plate. The hot fluid particle conducts heat from the
free-stream into the cold surface through the velocity boundary layer. There-
fore, a thermal boundary-layer thickness is developed over a solid surface
due to fluid flow.
The temperature profile and associated thermal boundary-layer thickness
over a flat plate is solved in Chapter 7. In an ideal case (assume Pr = 1),
the thermal boundary layer is identical to hydrodynamic boundary layer as
shown in Figure 6.1 or 6.3. In this ideal case, the temperature profile is the
same as the velocity profile through the entire boundary layer over the flat
plate. Once we determine the temperature profile over a flat plate, T(y) at a
given distance x, the thermal boundary-layer thickness, the heat flux on the
surface, and the heat transfer coefficient (or Nusselt number) can be obtained
as follows: √
Thermal boundary-layer thickness δT (x) ∼ x
If Pr = 1, then δ(x) = δT (x).
At the body surface, the heat flux is

∂T ∂T
qw = −k = −kf ≡ h(Tw − T∞ )
∂y y=0 ∂y y=0
The heat transfer coefficient h with the unit of W/m2 k can be expressed as

−kf (∂T/∂y)y=0 −kf ((T∞ − Tw )/δT ) kf kf
h= ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ k f U∞
Tw − T ∞ Tw − T ∞ δT δ
In the laminar boundary layer, the temperature profile gradually changes

from the free-stream value to the surface as a parabolic shape, but, in the tur-
bulent boundary layer, the temperature profile remains fairly uniform from
the free-stream to near the surface and then suddenly changes to the sur-
face value. This is due to turbulent mixing (particle moves up and down,
back and forth); the hot (or cold) free-stream particle is able to move next to
the cold (or heated) surface due to random motion. From application point
of view, the heat flux (fluid conductivity × temperature gradient at the sur-
face) and heat transfer coefficient (heat flux/temperature difference between
the free-stream and the surface) decrease with decreasing temperature gra-
dient and fluid conductivity. Since temperature gradient decreases (because
thermal boundary-layer thickness increases) with increasing distance due to
fluid thermal conductivity, the heat flux (related to heat transfer rate) and heat
transfer coefficient decrease with increasing distance from the leading edge
of the flat plate. However, when flow transitions into the turbulent boundary
layer, the heat flux (and heat transfer coefficient) is much greater than the
laminar flow portion. This is because a major portion of heat transfer is due
to turbulent random motion in the turbulent boundary layer.
It is noted that heat flux is proportional to the heat transfer coefficient

and temperature difference between the free-stream and the surface. The
heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing free-stream velocity (thin-
ner hydrodynamic and thermal boundary-layer thickness) and fluid thermal
conductivity as sketched in Figure 6.4. This implies that the heat transfer
coefficient, heat flux, and Nusselt number (the dimensionless heat transfer
coefficient) increase with Reynolds number. Another import parameter in heat
transfer study is the role of Prandtl number (Pr). Prandtl number is a ratio
of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity, or a ratio of velocity to tempera-
ture boundary-layer thickness as sketched in Figure 6.4. For example, thermal
boundary-layer thickness is identical to hydrodynamic boundary-layer thick-
ness if Pr = 1 as discussed above. However, in real life, different fluids have
different Prandtl numbers. In Chapters 7, 8, and 10, we will see that Nusselt
number is proportional to Reynolds number and Prandtl number for both
laminar and turbulent flow problems (with different power and constants).
Nusselt number:
hx
Nu = = aReb Prn
k
Prandtl number:
ν μ/ρ μCp δ
Pr = = = ∼
α k/ρCp k δT
Prandtl number is a property of fluid; it shows the ratio of momentum

transfer versus heat transfer.
Air or gas Pr = 0.7
Water Pr = 2 ∼ 20
Oil Pr = 100 ∼ 1000
Liquid metal Pr = 0.01 ∼ 0.001
When temperature increases, the viscosity and Prandtl number for oil
decrease.
δ h
q"w
δT
Pr > 1 U∞
δT
Laminar Turbulent
δ flow flow
0 Transition x
Pr < 1
FIGURE 6.4
Thermal boundary layer, heat transfer coefficient, and heat flux profile.
6.2 General Heat Convection Equations

For flow moving over a heated or cooled solid body, the general 3-D pres-
sure profiles P(x, y, z, t), velocity profiles u(x, y, z, t), v(x, y, z, t), and w(x, y, z, t),
and temperature profiles T(x, y, z, t) can be obtained by solving the following
continuity, momentum, and energy equations inside the hydrodynamic and
thermal boundary layers over the heated or cooled solid surface [1–3].
Conservation of mass (continuity equation):
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0 (6.1)
∂t
where
V = iu + jv + kw
and

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
are the velocity vector and the del operator for unit vectors, i, j, and k in the
x-, y-, and z-direction, respectively.
Conservation of momentum:
DV
ρ = −∇P + μ∇ 2 V + ρg (6.2)
Dt
Conservation of energy:
Dh DP
ρ = + ∇ · k∇T + μΦ + q̇ (6.3)
Dt Dt
where h = e + (1/2)V · V, and e is the specific internal energy. Φ is often called

the dissipation function with the form
2 2 2 2
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂v
Φ=2 + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x
2 2
∂u ∂w ∂v ∂w
+ + + + (6.4)
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
q̇ is the heat generation in unit volume.

6.3 2-D Heat Convection Equations

Many real-life applications for flow moving over a solid body can be mod-
eled as a 2-D boundary-layer flow and heat transfer problems. We need to
know the 2-D velocity profiles u(x, y, t) and v(x, y, t) in order to calculate
the wall shear stress (related to pressure loss) and the friction factor along
the surface for a given fluid at given flow conditions, as well as the 2-D tem-
perature profiles T(x, y, t) in order to calculate the wall heat flux (related
to heat transfer rate) and the heat transfer coefficient along the surface for a
given fluid at given flow and thermal BCs. Since flow moving due to pressure
difference between upstream and downstream flow and viscous boundary
layer effect over the solid surface, it is necessary to perform conservation of
mass (continuity equation) and momentum (momentum equation) through
the boundary layer in order to solve for velocity distributions over the sur-
face. Similarly, since heat transfer due to temperature difference between
the free-stream and the solid surface and flow moving carrying energy, it
is necessary to perform conservation of energy (energy equation) through
the thermal boundary layer in order to solve for temperature distributions
over the heated (or cooled) surface. Consider a small 2-D differential fluid
element (dxdy) at any point of the boundary layer, the following shows a
step-by-step derivation of 2-D conservation equations for mass, momentum,
and energy through hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers over a solid
surface [1–3].
Conservation of mass:
Perform mass balance shown in Figure 6.5:
∂ ∂ ∂
− (ρu dy) dx − (ρv dx) dy = (ρ dx dy) (6.5)
∂x ∂y ∂t
ρv dx + ∂ (ρv dx) dy
∂y
U∞
U∞
ρu dy + ∂ (ρu dy) dx
ρu dy ∂x
Δy
y
Δx
x
ρv dx
FIGURE 6.5
Conservation of mass.
If the flow is steady-state,
∂ ∂
− (ρu dy) dx − (ρv dx) dy = 0
∂x ∂y
∂(ρu) ∂(ρv)
+ =0 (6.6)
∂x ∂y
For incompressible flow, ρ = const, the continuity equation can be simpli-

fied as
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (6.7)
∂x ∂y
Conservation of momentum:
From Newton’s second law, net force exerting on a body equals the
momentum change.

Fx = max

Fy = may
where ax is the acceleration in the x–direction, and ay is the acceleration in the

y-direction.
The force exerting on a control volume and the momentum change are
∂ ∂ ∂Px ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
σx + τxy − = ρu + (ρuv) + (ρu) (6.8)
+∂x
,- . +∂y,- . ∂x
+,-. ∂x
+ ,-
∂y ∂t
. + ,- .
normal pressure unsteady
stress shear convective term
stress gradient term
By Navier–Stokes for Newtonian incompressible fluid:
∂u
σx = 2μ (6.9)
∂x

∂u ∂v
τxy = τyx = μ + (6.10)
∂y ∂x
Substituting Equations 6.9 and 6.10 into Equation 6.8, we obtain

∂ ∂u ∂ ∂u ∂v ∂Px ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
2μ + μ + − = ρu + (ρuv) + (ρu)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂t
∂
τxy + (τ ) dy
∂y yx
∂
σx σx + (σ ) dx
∂x x
Px Px + ∂ (Px) dx
∂x
τyx
∂
ρv dx dz.u + (ρv dx dz.u) dy
∂x
∂
ρu.u dy dz + (ρu.u dy dz) dx
ρu.udydz ∂x
ρv dx dz.u
U∞ U∞
FIGURE 6.6
Conservation of momentum.
For a steady-state, constant-property flow, the left-hand side can be expre-

ssed as
The right-hand side can be expanded as
Substitute the mass conservation equation into and we will obtain the
x-direction momentum equation
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
u +v =− +υ 2 + υ 2 . (6.11)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y
+ ,- . + ,- . + ,- .
convection pressure stress
Similarly, we will obtain the y-direction momentum equation from Equation

6.11 by changing u and v, x and y:
∂v ∂v 1 ∂P ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
u +v =− +υ 2 +υ 2 (6.12)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y
Conservation of energy:
Unsteady state:
Perform energy balance shown in Figure 6.7,
∂qx ∂qy ∂ ∂
− dx − dy − ρu dy · Cp · T dx − ρv dx · Cp · T dy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂ ρ dx dy · Cp · T
= (6.13)
∂t

∂ ρCp T ∂ ∂
+ ρuCp T + ρvCp T
∂t
+ ,- . ∂x ∂y
+ ,- .
unsteady steady convection

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T q̇
= k + k + + μΦ (6.14)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y k +,-.
+ ,- . +,-.
heat dissipation
heat diffusion heat source due to fricion
generation
For steady-state constant properties,

∂ (uT) ∂ (vT) ∂ 2T ∂ 2T μ
+ =α + 2 + Φ. (6.15)
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y ρCp
/ 2 0 2
∂u ∂v 2 ∂u 2 ∂v ∂u
μΦ = μ + +2 + ∼μ (6.16)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂
qy + (qy) dy ρvi dx dz + ∂ (ρvi dx dz) dy
∂y ∂y
E cond, y +dy E conv, y + dy
qx ∂
qx + (qx) dx
∂x
Econd, x Econd,x + dx
Δy
Econv, x Econv,x + dx
Δx
ρ ui dy dz ρui dy dz + ∂ (ρui dy dz) dx
∂x
Econd,y Econv,y
i = enthalpy
qy ρvi dx dz P
= e + = C pT
ρ
Internal energy
FIGURE 6.7
Conservation of energy.
6.4 Boundary-Layer Approximations

The above-derived boundary equations are not easy to solve analytically.
Boundary-layer approximations, as shown in Figure 6.8, can be employed
to simplify the boundary equations as follows: velocity in the x-direction
is greater than that in the y-direction, streamwise velocity change in the
y-direction is greater than that in the x-direction; temperature change in the
T∞ U∞
v,y
δ, δT
u,x 0
Tw L
FIGURE 6.8
Boundary-layer approximations.
y-direction is greater than that in the x-direction.
uv
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
, ,
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂T ∂T

∂y ∂x
Therefore, the continuity equation remains the same. Assume steady-state

constant properties; the momentum equation in the x- and y-directions can
be simplified as
∂u ∂v 1 ∂P ∂ 2u
u +u =− +ν 2 (6.17)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y
1 ∂P
− =0 (6.18)
ρ ∂y
For an incompressible flow, that is, M < 0.2, Φ ∼ 0, and so the energy
equation becomes
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
u +v =α 2 (6.19)
∂x ∂y ∂y
Outside of the boundary layer, it is potential flow (μ effect → 0, v → 0,

∂u/∂y → 0); Equation 6.17 reduces to
∂U∞ 1 ∂P
U∞ =− (6.20)
∂x ρ ∂x
Note that Equation 6.18 implies that there is no pressure change in the
y-direction within the boundary layer. Equation 6.20 implies that pressure
change in the x-direction within the boundary layer can be predetermined
from velocity and its velocity change in the x-direction outside of the bound-
ary layer. Therefore, Equation 6.20 can be substituted into Equation 6.17 to
solve for the velocity profiles inside the boundary layer.
6.4.1 Boundary-Layer Similarity/Dimensional Analysis

Here we want to generalize the application of the above-derived boundary-
layer approximation equations. Most often, one wants to apply the boundary-
layer equations from a small-scale test model to a large-scale application
or from a large-scale test model to a small-scale application. This is
called boundary-layer similarity or dimensional analysis. The following is
a common way of converting dimensional parameters into nondimensional

parameters [2].
x y u v
Let x∗ = , y∗ = , u∗ = , v∗ = ,
L L U∞ U∞
T − Tw P
T∗ = , P∗ = , (6.21)
T∞ − T w ρU∞2
Then, the conservation equations can be written as
∂u∗ ∂v∗
∗
+ ∗ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u∗ ∂u∗ ∂P∗ υ ∂ 2 u∗
u∗ ∗
+ v∗ ∗ = − ∗ + · ∗2
∂x ∂y ∂x U∞ L ∂y
∂P∗
=0
∂y∗
∂T ∗ ∂T ∗ α ∂ 2T∗
u∗ ∗
+ v∗ ∗ = · ∗2
∂x ∂y U∞ L ∂y
And the coefficient is
α 1 1
= = (6.22)
U∞ L (U∞ L/υ) · (υ/α) Re · Pr
The above similarity functional solutions can be written as

∗

∗ ∗dP ∗
u = f1 x , y , ReL , ∗
dx

∂u U∞ ∂u∗
τw = μ =μ
∂y y=0 L ∂y∗ y∗ =0
where
∗

∂u∗ dP
= f2 x∗ , ReL ,
∂y∗ y∗ =0 dx∗

τw m(U∞ /L) ∗ dP∗
Cf = = f
2 2
x , ReL ,
(1/2)ρV∞2 (1/2)ρU∞ dx∗
∗

2 ∗ dP
Cf = f2 x , ReL , (6.23)
ReL dx∗
∗
Special case: when flow over a flat plate dP /dx∗ = 0, the average friction
factor can be determined from Reynolds number as
2
C̄f = f2 (ReL ) = aReLm (6.24)
ReL
Similarly, the temperature and heat transfer coefficient can be obtained as

∗

∗ ∗ ∗ dP
T = f3 x , y , ReL , Pr,
dx∗

−k (∂T/∂y)y=0 k ∂T
∗
k dP
∗
∗
h= ∼ = f4 x , ReL , Pr,
Tw − T ∞ L ∂y∗ ∗
L dx∗
y =0

hL dP∗
NuL ≡ = f4 x∗ , ReL , Pr, (6.25)
k dx∗
∗
For flow over a flat plate, dP /dx∗ = 0, the average Nusselt number can be
determined from Reynolds number and Prandtl number as
hL
NuL ≡ = f5 (ReL , Pr) = aReLm Prn (6.26)
k
The above analysis concludes that, for flow over a flat plate, the local friction
factor (at a given location x) is a function of Reynolds number only, and the
local heat transfer coefficient or Nusselt number (at a given location x) is a
function of Reynolds number as well as Prandtl number.
6.4.2 Reynolds Analogy

Assuming that Pr = 1 (approximation for air, Pr = 0.7), the above friction
factor and the Nusselt number can be reduced to the following:
2
Cfx = f2 x∗ , ReL (6.27)
ReL

Nux = f4 x∗ , ReL , Pr (6.28)
If f2 = f4 , Pr = 1,
ReL
Cf = f2 = f4 = Nu
2
1 Nu (hL/k) h
Cf = = St = = (6.29)
2 Re · Pr (ρVL/μ) · (μCp /k) ρCp V
Reynolds analogy:
1
Cf = St (6.30)
2
Experimentally, we obtained
1
Cf Pr−2/3 = St (6.31)
2
where 0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60.

The importance of Reynolds analogy is that one can estimate the heat trans-
fer coefficient (or the Stantan number (St)) from a given (or a predetermined)
friction factor, or one can calculate the friction factor from a given (or pre-
determined) heat transfer coefficient (or the St) for a typical 2-D boundary
layer flow and the heat transfer problem. The original Reynolds analogy is
shown in Equation 6.30. However, Equation 6.31 still can be called Reynold’s
analogy including Prandtl number effect.
Remarks
This chapter provides the basic concept of boundary-layer flow and heat
transfer; it focuses on how to derive 2-D boundary-layer conservations
for mass, momentum, and energy; boundary-layer approximations; non-
dimensional analysis; and Reynolds analogy. Students have come across
these equations in their undergraduate-level heat transfer. However, in the
intermediate-level heat transfer, students are expected to fully understand
how to obtain these equations.
PROBLEMS
6.1. For hot-gas flow (velocity V∞ , temperature T∞ ) over a cooled
convex surface (surface temperature Ts ), answer the following
questions:
a. Sketch the “thermal boundary-layer thickness” distribution on
the entire convex surface and explain the results.
b. Sketch the possible local heat transfer coefficient distribution
on the convex surface and explain the results.
c. Define the similarity parameters (dimensionless parameters)
that are important to determine the local heat transfer coeffi-
cient on the convex surface.
d. Write down the relationship among those similarity parame-
ters and give explanations.
e. Write down how to determine the local heat flux from the
convex surface.
6.2. For cold-gas flow (velocity V∞ , temperature T∞ ) over a heated
convex surface (surface temperature Ts ), answer the following
questions:
a. Sketch the “thermal boundary-layer thickness” distri-

bution on the entire convex surface and explain the
results.
b. Sketch the possible local heat transfer coefficient distri-
bution on the convex surface and explain the results.
c. Define the similarity parameters (dimensionless param-
eters) that are important to determine the local heat
transfer coefficient on the convex surface.
d. Write down the relationship among those similarity
parameters and give explanations.
e. Write down how to determine the local heat flux from
the convex surface.
6.3. Derive Equations 6.11, 6.12, 6.15, and 6.16.
6.4. Derive Equations 6.23 and 6.25.
6.5. Derive Equation 6.30.
References
3. H. Schlichting, Boundary-Layer Theory, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, NY, 1968.
7
External Forced Convection

Similarity Solution
External forced convection is that flow moves over the external surface of a
solid body and forms hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers around
the surface. There are two well-known methods to solve external boundary-
layer flow and heat transfer problems. One is the similarity method to obtain
the exact solution. The other is the integral method to obtain the approxi-
mate solution. This section begins with the similarity method [1–6]. Figure 7.1
shows stream lines for flow over a flat plate. The velocity along each stream
line looks quite similar to each other. Define stream function Ψ and derive
two nonlinear PDEs to one nonlinear PDE, then use the similarity concept to
derive the nonlinear PDE to the nonlinear ODE.
∂Ψ
u= (7.1)
∂y
∂Ψ
v=− (7.2)
∂x
The continuity equation is automatically satisfied.

∂ ∂Ψ ∂ ∂Ψ
+ − =0 (7.3)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The x-momentum equation becomes

∂Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 3Ψ
− =υ (7.4)
∂y ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y2 ∂y3
Ψ(x, y) ⇒ Ψ(η)
141
U∞
U∞
Streamline
FIGURE 7.1
Stream lines for flow over a flat plate.
Applying the similarity concept from Figure 7.1,

√ c2 y
y∼ x⇒η= √ (7.5)
x
√ Ψ
Ψ ∼ x ⇒ f = c1 √ = f (η) (7.6)
x
η is the similarity variable.

f is the similarity function.
1
u(x, y)
⇒ Ψ(x, y) ⇒ Ψ(η) ⇒ f (η)
v(x, y)
√
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂η x c2 c2
= = f √ = f
∂y ∂η ∂y c1 x c1
√
∂Ψ ∂f x f 1 1
= + √
∂x ∂x C1 C1 2 x
√
∂f ∂η x f 1 1
= + √
∂η ∂x C1 C1 2 x

1 1 1 f 1 1
=f η − √ + √
2 x C1 C1 2 x
1 1
= √ f − f η
2 C1 x
where
∂f ∂η C2 ∂η 1 η
f = , =√ , = − C2 yx−(3/2) = − ,
∂η ∂y x ∂x 2 2x
Similarly,

∂ 2Ψ ∂ ∂Ψ ∂ c2 c2 ∂f ∂η c2 f
= = f = = 2√
∂y2 ∂y ∂y ∂y c1 c1 ∂η ∂y c1 x
External Forced Convection 143

∂ 3Ψ ∂ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ C22 f C2 ∂ f ∂η
3
= = √ = 2 √ ·
∂y ∂y ∂y2 ∂y C1 x C1 ∂η x ∂y
C22 1 C2 C3 f

= √ f √ = 2
C1 x x C1 x

∂ 2Ψ ∂ ∂Ψ ∂ C2 ∂ C2 ∂η C2 η
= = f = f = f −
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x C1 ∂η C1 ∂x C1 2x
Inserting them into the above stream function momentum equation, we

obtain
ff + 2υc1 c2 f = 0 (7.7)
This is the similarity momentum equation.

Assume
υc1 c2 = 1 (7.8)
at
∂Ψ c2
y = ∞, u = U∞ = = f
∂y y=∞ c1
Let
c2
= U∞ . (7.9)
c1
From Equations 7.8 and 7.9, we obtain

'
U∞ 1
c2 = , c1 = √
υ υU∞
Therefore,
'
y y U∞ y
η = C2 √ = √ = Rex (7.10)
x x υ x
Ψ Ψ
f = C1 √ = √ (7.11)
x υU∞ x
where f and η are similarity functions and similarity variables, respectively.

Finally, we obtain the following:
∂Ψ C2
u= = f = U∞ f (7.12)
∂y C1
'
∂Ψ 1 1 1 υU∞
v=− =− √ f − f η = f η−f (7.13)
∂x 2 C1 x 2 x
df u
f = = = velocity profile (7.14)
dη U∞
d2 f d(u/U∞ )
f = 2
= = velocity gradient (7.15)
dη dη
at
u
y = 0, u = v = 0, ⇒ η = 0, f = = 0; v = 0, ⇒ f = 0 ⇒ f (0) = 0 (7.16)
U∞
at y = ∞, u = U∞ , ⇒ f (∞) = 1
1
f = − ff (7.17)
2
Equation 7.17 may be solved numerically by expressing f (η) in a power
series (1908 Blasius Series Expansion) with the above-mentioned BCs as
αη2 1 α2 η5 11 α3 η8 375 α4 η11

f = fi = − + − + · · · for small η (7.18)
2! 2 5! 4 8! 8 11!
/
∞ 0
η−β 2
f = fo = η − β − γ exp − dη dη . . . for large η (7.19)
2
η
where α = 0.332, β = 1.73, and γ = 0.231. Then u and v can be determined.

Equation 7.17 can also be solved by numerical integration as

df 1

= − f dη
f 2
η
1
ln f = − f dη + C
2
0
η
f = e− 0 1/2(f dη)
· C1
η

η

f = df = e− 0 1/2( f dη) dη · C1 + C2
0
∞ η
where C2 = 0 at η = 0, f = 0; C1 = (1/ 0 e− 0 1/2( f dη)
dη) at η = ∞, f = 1.
η η
f = c1 e− 1/2( f dη)
dη dη + c3
0 0
where C3 = 0 at η = 0, f = 0.
Therefore,
η η η
− 0 1/2( f dη)
0 0e dη dη
f = ∞ − η 1/2(f dη) (7.20)
0 e dη
0
For example, use of the trapezoidal rule for the numerical integrations:
Choose ηmax = 5 = Δη · N, when N = 50 (the number of integration steps),
Δη = 0.1
Let ηi+1 = ηi + Δη for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , with ηo = 0
Initial guess fi = ηi
η ηi η ηi η η ηi
Calculate 0 i f dη, e− 0 f dη , 0 i e− 0 f dη dη, and 0 i 0 i e− 0 f dη dη dη
η ηi
Calculate C1 = 1/ 0 max e− 0 f dη dη , fi , fi , fi

Check convergence 1 − finew /fiold < ε?, for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N. If not, go back
again.
From the tabulated data shown in Table 7.1 [2] or Figure 7.2, for given
Rex = ρU∞ x/μ, the velocity profile u x, y at any location (x, y) and the shear
stress f at the wall (y = 0, η = 0) can be determined.
TABLE 7.1
Flat Plate Laminar Boundary Layer Functions [2]

η=y U∞
vx f f = Uu f
∞
0 0 0 0.332
0.4 0.027 0.133 0.331
0.8 0.106 0.265 0.327
1.2 0.238 0.394 0.317
1.6 0.420 0.517 0.297
2.0 0.650 0.630 0.267
2.4 0.922 0.729 0.228
2.8 1.231 0.812 0.184
3.2 1.569 0.876 0.139
3.6 1.930 0.923 0.098
4.0 2.306 0.956 0.064
4.4 2.692 0.976 0.039
4.8 3.085 0.988 0.022
5.2 3.482 0.994 0.011
5.6 3.880 0.997 0.005
6.0 4.280 0.999 0.002
6.4 4.679 1.000 0.001
6.8 5.079 1.000 0.000
u
f ′=
U∞ Universal
velocity profile
0.5
Experimental data
y 5
η= x Rex
FIGURE 7.2
Graphical sketch of velocity profile from similarity.
From η, obtain or derive f and u(x, y).

The similarity function for temperature is shown in Figure 7.3.
Let

T − Tw ∼ u−0
θ= = = f (7.21)
T∞ − T w U∞ − 0
The energy equation becomes
∂Ψ ∂θ ∂Ψ ∂θ ∂ 2θ
− =α 2 (7.22)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
U∞,T∞ T∞
x
Tw
FIGURE 7.3
Concept of thermal boundary layer.
Performing
∂θ ∂θ ∂η C2
= = θ √
∂y ∂η ∂y x

∂ 2θ ∂ ∂θ ∂ C2 ∂ C2 ∂η C22
= = √ θ = √ θ · = θ
∂y2 ∂y ∂y ∂y x ∂η x ∂y x
∂θ ∂θ ∂η −η
= · = θ ·
∂x ∂η ∂x 2x
Inserting this into the energy equation we obtain
1
θ + Pr f θ = 0 (7.23)
2
θ (0) = 0
(7.24)
θ (∞) = 1
Equation 7.23 can be solved as

θ Pr
dη = − f dη
θ 2
η
Pr
ln θ = − f dη + C
2
0
η Pr
− dη · C
θ = e 0 2 f
1
η η Pr
θ = C1 e− 0 2 f dη dη + C
2
0
at η = 0, θ(0) = 0, C2 = 0
at η = 0, θ(∞) = 1,
1
C1 = η
η − Pr/2( f dη) dη
0 e 0
Therefore,
η −
η
Pr/2( f dη) dη
0e
0
θ= η (7.25)
∞
0 e− 0 Pr/2( f dη) dη
η η
Pr
θ = θ (0) exp − f dη dη (7.26)
0 0 2
where
1
θ (0) = ∞ η (7.27)
0 exp − 0 Pr/2( f dη) dη
If Pr = 1, f = θ, the thermal boundary layer is the same as the hydro-

dynamic boundary layer (Equation 7.20 = Equation 7.25).
For a given Pr, θ and θ can be determined if f has been solved previously.
For example,
f
f =−
(1/2)f
η
0 f dη = −2 ln f
η
f = e− 0 1/2( f dη)
η Pr
0 f dη
θ = ∞ Pr
f dη
0
From the tabulated data or Figure 7.4, the temperature profile T(x, y) at any
location (x, y) and the heat flux at the wall (y = 0, η = 0) can be determined.
From η, we obtain θ and T(x, y) for the given Prandtl number.
7.1.1 Summary of the Similarity Solution for Laminar Boundary-Layer Flow

and Heat Transfer over a Flat Surface
The following outlines that the equations can be used to calculate boundary-
layer thickness, shear stress, and the friction factor for a given Reynolds
number; as well as heat flux, the heat transfer coefficient, and Nusselt number
for a given Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
T − Tw T − T∞
θ= θ=
T∞ − Tw Tw − T∞
1 1
Pr > 1
Pr = 1
Pr < 1
Pr < 1
Pr = 1
Pr > 1
5 5
U∞
η=y η=y
U∞
vx vx
FIGURE 7.4
Graphical sketch of temperature profile from similarity solutions.
√
Let u/U∞ = 0.99 at η = 5, that is, η = √
(y/x) Rex = 5, where y = δ, and the
edge of the boundary layer, δ = y = 5x/ Rex
= 5.0/ Rex (7.28)

x

∂u ∂ ∂Ψ C22 f (η)
τw = μ =μ =μ √
∂y y=0 ∂y ∂y y=0 C1 x
η=0
' '
U∞ f (η) U∞
= μU∞ √ = μU∞ f (0)
υ x υx
η=0
f = 0.332 from the Table 7.1 or Figure 7.2
τw 2f (0) 0.664 1
Cfx = = √ =√ ∼√ (7.29)
2
(1/2)ρU∞ ρU∞ x/μ Rex x
1.328
C̄fx =
ReL
when
ρU∞ L
ReL =
μ
'
∂T ∂T ∂η ∂θ U∞
q = −k = −k = k(Tw − T∞ )
∂y y=0 ∂η ∂y y=0 ∂η υx
η=0
'
U∞
= −k(T∞ − Tw )θ (0)
υx
θ (0) = 0.332 Pr1/3 from the Table 7.1 (for Pr = 1) or Figure 7.4
'
q −k (∂T/∂y)y=0 U∞ 1
h= = =k · θ (0) ∼ √ (7.30)
Tw − T ∞ Tw − T ∞ υx x
hx

Nux = = θ (0) Rex = 0.332 Rex Pr1/3

k
Remarks
There are many engineering applications involving external laminar flow
heat transfer such as electronic components cooling and plate-type heat
exchangers design. In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, there are many
heat transfer relations between Nusselt numbers and Reynolds and Prandtl
numbers. Students are expected to calculate heat transfer coefficients from

these relations by giving Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.
For the similarity method, students are expected to know how to derive
the similarity momentum and energy equations with proper velocity and
thermal BCs. Students are also expected to know how to sketch and predict
velocity profiles inside the boundary layer, for a given Reynolds number,
from the velocity similarity solution by using tables or figures; how to sketch
and predict temperature profiles inside the thermal boundary layer, for a
given Reynolds number and Prandtl number, from the temperature similarity
solution by using tables or figures. Here we focus on flow over a flat plate
(zero-pressure gradient flow) with constant surface temperature BC, and do
not include the one at constant surface heat flux BC.
In advanced heat convection, the similarity solution can be extended to
include various constant pressure gradient flows (such as flow acceleration
or deceleration) with variable surface temperature BCs. These can be solved
using the fourth-order Runge–Kutta method in order to obtain the velocity
and temperature profiles across the forced convection boundary-layer flow.

Integral Method
The other powerful method to solve boundary-layer flow and the heat transfer
problem is using the integral approximate solution [1–6]. Instead of perform-
ing mass, momentum, and energy balance through a differential fluid element
inside the boundary layer as the similarity method, the integral method
performs conservation of mass, momentum, and energy across the boundary-
layer thickness at a given differential x-direction. It is noted that, for fluid
with a Prandtl number different from unity, such as gases, water, and oils,
the hydrodynamic boundary-layer thickness is different from the thermal
boundary layer.
7.2.1 Momentum Integral Equation by Von Karman

Employing a control volume that is infinitesimal in the x-direction but finite
in the y-direction across the boundary-layer thickness, as shown in Figure 7.5,
we apply the mass and momentum conservation to the control volume.
From mass conservation,
δ δ
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂u
=− v(δ) = v|0 − dy = − dy
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂x
0 0

d
ρv dx = (ρu dy) dx (7.31)
dx
ρvdx or d ∫ ρu dy dx δ
dx
d
∫ ρu dy ∫ ρu dy + ∫ (ρu dy)dx
dx
Conservation of mass
d
ρvU∞dx or U∞ ∫ ρu dy dx δ
dx
d
∫ ρuu dy + ∫ (ρuu dy)dx
∫ ρuu dy dx
Momentum change
δ
P dδ
∂
∫ P dy ∫ P dy + ∫ P dy dx
∂x
τw dx
Net force
FIGURE 7.5
Integral method.
From momentum conservation,
⎛δ ⎞

dδ d ⎝ d d
−τw dx + P dx − P dy⎠dx = (ρuu dy) dx − U∞ (ρu dy) dx
dx dx dx dx
0 + ,- .
+ ,- . momentum change
net force
(7.32)
where

d d dδ dP
− P dy = − P dy = −P −δ
dx dx dx dx
dP/dx = −ρU∞ (dU∞ /dx) (from the momentum differential equation, at

outside of the boundary layer, u = U∞ , v = 0, ∂ 2 U∞ /∂y2 = 0).
Therefore,

dδ dδ dU∞ d d
− τw + P −P − δ −ρU∞ = ρuu dy − U∞ ρu dy
dx dx dx dx dx

d dU∞ d
− τw = ρuu dy − ρU∞ dy − U∞ ρu dy
dx dx dx

d dU∞ d
= ρuu dy − ρU∞ dy − U∞ ρu dy
dx dx dx

dU∞ dU∞
+ ρu dy − ρu dy
dx dx

d dU∞ d
= ρuu dy + ρ (u − U∞ ) dy − ρuU∞ dy
dx dx dx

d dU∞
= ρu (u − U∞ ) dy + ρ (u − U∞ ) dy
dx dx

d dU∞
τw = ρu (U∞ − u) dy + ρ (U∞ − u) dy (7.33)
dx dx
For a flat plate flow, dU∞ /dx = 0

∂u d
τw = μ = ρu(U∞ − u) dy (7.34)
∂y y=0 dx
7.2.2 Energy Integral Equation by Pohlhausen

From energy conservation, as shown in Figure 7.6,
⎛δ ⎞
δT
d d ⎝
qs dx = ρCp uT dy dx − Cp T∞ ρu dy⎠ dx (7.35)
dx 0 dx
0
δT
d
= ρCp u(T − T∞ ) dy dx
dx
0
δT
∂T d
qs = −k = ρCp u(T − T∞ ) dy (7.36)
∂y y=0 dx
0
d δ
CpT∞ ∫ ρudydx δT
dx 0
δT
δT
∫ 0 ρCpuT dy + (
d δT
∫ ρCpuT dy dx )
∫ 0 ρCpuT dy dx 0
q ″s dx
FIGURE 7.6
Conservation of energy.
7.2.3 Outline of the Integral Approximate Method

For a hydrodynamic boundary layer:
Step 1: assume the velocity profile, such as
u = a + by
u = a + by + cy2
u = a + by + cy2 + dy3
u = a + by + cy2 + dy3 + ey4
Step 2: from the velocity BCs to determine the coefficients a, b, c, d, and e

Step 3: put the velocity profile into momentum integral to solve δ(x)
Step 4: put δ(x) back to the velocity profile
Step 5: the friction factor

τw μ (∂u/∂y)0
Cfx = 2
= 2
can be determined
(1/2)ρU∞ (1/2)ρU∞
Similarly, for a thermal boundary layer:

Step 1: assume a temperature profile in one of the following forms:
T = a + by
T = a + by + cy2
T = a + by + cy2 + dy3
T = a + by + cy2 + dy3 + ey4
Step 2: from the temperature BCs to determine the coefficients a, b, c, d, and e

Step 3: put the temperature profile into energy integral to solve δT (x)
Step 4: put δT (x) back to the temperature profile and
qw −k(∂T/∂y)0
h= = can be determined.
Tw − T ∞ Tw − T ∞
Examples
7.1 Assume third-order velocity and temperature profiles for the boundary layer
flow to satisfy the BCs:
u = a + by + cy 2 + dy 3
T = a + by + cy 2 + dy 3
y =0 u=0 ∂ 2 u/∂y 2 = 0 T = Tw ∂ 2 T /∂y 2 = 0

y = δ u = U∞ ∂u/∂y = 0 T = T∞ ∂T /∂y = 0
u−0 3 y 1 y 3 u
= − =
U∞ − 0 2 δ 2 δ U∞
Put the above velocity profile into momentum integral to solve for δ(x)
δ
31 d 2 3 y 1 y 3 3 y 1 y 3
μU∞ = ρU∞ − 1− + dy
2δ dx 2 δ 2 δ 2 δ 2 δ
0

d 39 2
= δρU∞
dx 280
dδ 140 υ
δ =
dx 13 U∞
1 2 140 υ
δ = x +C
2 13 U∞
at x = 0, δ = 0, C = 0 √
Therefore, δ (x) = 4.64 (υx/U∞ )
Put δ(x) back to velocity profile to obtain the final velocity profile. And the
friction factor can be calculated as
τw μ(∂u/∂y )0 μ(3/2)(1/δ)U∞ 0.646

Cfx = 2
= 2
= 2
= √ (7.37)
(1/2)ρU∞ (1/2)ρU∞ (1/2)ρU∞ Rex

T − Tw 3 y 1 y 3
= −
T∞ − Tw 2 δT 2 δT
or

T − T∞ 3 y 1 y 3
=1− +
Tw − T∞ 2 δT 2 δT
Put the above temperature profile into the energy integral to solve for δT (x).
If Pr = 1, δ = δT , u = T − Tw
δT 4.64
= √
x Rex
The coefficient 4.64 is from momentum integral. It equals 5.0 from the
similarity solution.
From the energy integral, we obtain
δT
∂T 3 1 d 3 y
−k = k (T − T ∞ ) = ρC
∂y y =0
w p
2 δT dx 2 δ
0

1 y 3 3 y 1 y 3
− U∞ (Tw − T∞ ) 1 − + dy
2 δ 2 δT 2 δT
Then,
/ 3
3 1 δT 1 δT 1 d δT
k = ρCp U∞ 3δ −
2 δT δ 10 δ 70 dx δ
4 0
δT 2 1 δT 1 dδ
+3 −
δ 20 δ 280 dx
Let
4
δ δT 3 δT
r = T < 1, ∼ ∼0
δ δ δ
We obtain
dr dδ α
2r 2 δ2 + r 3δ = 10
dx dx U∞
From above
280 υx dδ 140 υ
δ2 = , δ =
13 U∞ dx 13 U∞
We obtain
280 υx dr 140 υ α
2r 2 + r3 = 10
13 U∞ dx 13 U∞ U∞
Then,
dr 13
4r 2 x + r3 =
dx 14Pr
Let s = r 3
dr 1 d 3 1 ds
r2 = r =
dx 3 dx 3 dx
4 ds 13
s+ x =
3 dx 14Pr
13
s = r 3 = C1 x −3/4 +
14 Pr
13
at x = 0, C1 = 0 , r 3 =
14Pr
δ
13 1/3 ∼
r = T = = 0.975 ( Pr ) −1/3 ∼ Pr −1/3
δ 14Pr
4.64
δT = δ Pr−1/3 = √ · Pr −1/3
Rex
−k (∂T /∂y )y =0 3 k
h= =
Tw − T∞ 2 δT
3 k 3 k
= −1/3
= √
2 δPr 2 x(4.64/ Rex )Pr −1/3
For this typical case,
hx 1/2
Nux = = 0.323 Rex Pr 1/3 (7.38)
k
From Figure 7.7,

at x = xo , δT = 0, r = 0
1 13 13 3/4
0 = C1 3/4 + , C1 = − x
xo 14Pr 14Pr o
Therefore,
x 3/4 1/3
δ
r = T = 0.975Pr −1/3 1 −
o
δ x
U∞,T∞
δ
δT
Tw
0 x Apply heat
U∞,T∞
δ
δT
x0
Apply heat
x
0
FIGURE 7.7
Integral approximation method.
For a typical case, xo = 0, δT = 0,
δT
= 0.975Pr −1/3 Pr −1/3
δ
For the nonheating leading length problem, xo > 0,
1/2
hx 0.323 Rex Pr 1/3
Nux = =
3
(7.39)
k 1 − (x0 /x)3/4
If x0 = 0, go back to the typical case.
Remarks
For the integral method, students are expected to know how to sketch and
derive momentum and energy integral equations from mass, force, and heat
balance across the boundary layer. Students are also expected to know how
to solve velocity boundary-layer thickness and the friction factor from the
derived momentum integral equation by assuming any velocity profile to
satisfy velocity BCs across the boundary layer; as well as how to solve ther-
mal boundary thickness and the heat transfer coefficient from the derived
energy integral equation by assuming any temperature profile to satisfy ther-
mal BCs (given surface temperature or surface heat flux) across the thermal
boundary layer. Note that one will get a slightly different velocity boundary-
layer thickness (and friction factor) by using different velocity profiles across
the boundary layer, and a slightly different thermal boundary-layer thick-
ness (and a heat transfer coefficient) by using different temperature profiles
across the thermal boundary layer. This is the nature of the integral method.
Another note is that velocity and thermal boundary-layer thickness is the
same if Prandtl number unity is assumed.
PROBLEMS
7.1. Consider a steady, incompressible, low-speed 2-D laminar
boundary-layer flow (at U∞ , T∞ ) over a flat plate at a uni-
form wall temperature TW . Assume that there exist no body
force and constant thermal and fluid properties. The similarity
momentum and energy equations are listed here for reference:
f + (1/2)ff = 0 and θ + (1/2)Pr f θ = 0.
a. From the Blasius solution of the above similarity equations,
sketch the relations between the similarity functions (f , θ) and
the similarity variable (η) for both water and air (i.e., sketch f
versus η for both water and air on the same plot; and θ versus
η for both water and air on the same plot). Explain why they
have differences, if any. You do not need to solve the above

equations.
b. For a given problem (i.e., U∞ , T∞ , ρ, μ, Tw , Pr are given),
explain briefly how to determine the local velocity u(y) and
temperature T(y) at a specified location x, for both water and
air, from the sketches in (a)?
boundary-layer flow (at U∞ , T∞ ) over a flat plate at a uniform
wall temperature Tw or at a uniform wall heat flux qw , respec-
tively. Assume that there exist no body force and constant thermal
and fluid properties.
a. Based on the approximate integral method, assuming a uni-
form velocity profile inside the boundary layer, that is, u =
U∞ , and assuming a linear temperature profile inside the
thermal boundary layer as T = a + b × y, determine the local
thermal boundary-layer growth along the flat plate (i.e., δT
versus x) at a uniform wall temperature Tw condition. (Note:
a and b are unknown constants that need to be determined.)
b. Based on (a), determine the local Nusselt number distribu-
tion along the flat plate (i.e., Nu versus x) at a uniform wall
temperature.
f + (1/2)ff = 0 and θ + (1/2)Pr f θ = 0.
a. Sketch both the velocity and the thermal boundary-layer thick-
ness distribution for both water and liquid metal, respectively,
flowing over the flat plate? (i.e., sketch δ versus x and δT versus
x on the same plot for water, and δ versus x and δT versus x
on the same plot for the liquid metal). Explain why they have
differences, if any.
b. Define the similarity variable (η), the similarity function for
temperature (θ), and the derivative of the similarity function
for velocity (f )? Write the BCs which can be used for this
problem?
c. From the Blasius solution of the above similarity equations,
the similarity variable (η) for both water and liquid metal (i.e.,
sketch f versus η for both water and liquid metal on the same
plot; and θ versus η for both water and liquid metal on the
same plot). Explain why they have differences, if any. You do
not need to solve the above equations.
d. For a given problem (i.e., U∞ , T∞ , ρ, μ, Tw , Pr are given),
liquid metal, from the sketches in (c)?
e. Explain briefly how to determine the local heat transfer coef-

ficient from the sketches in (c)? Sketch the local heat transfer
coefficient over the flat plate for both water and liquid metal
(i.e., sketch h versus x for both water and liquid metal on the
same plot), if both are at the same free-stream velocity (U∞ )?
Explain why they have differences, if any.
wall temperature Tw or at a uniform wall heat flux qw , respec-
tively. Assume that there exist no body force and constant thermal
and fluid properties.
a. Based on the integral method, sketch and write down the
momentum balance as well as the energy balance across
the boundary layers? (If you cannot remember, derive
it).
b. Assuming a uniform velocity profile inside the boundary layer,
that is, u = U∞ , and assuming a linear temperature profile
inside the thermal boundary layer as T = a + b × y, determine
the local thermal boundary-layer growth along the flat plate
(i.e., δT versus x) at a uniform wall temperature Tw condi-
tion. (Note: a and b are unknown constants that need to be
determined.)
c. Based on (b), determine the local Nusselt number distribu-
tion along the flat plate (i.e., Nu versus x) at a uniform wall
temperature.
d. Assuming a uniform velocity profile inside the boundary layer,
inside the thermal boundary layer as T = c + d × y, deter-
mine the local thermal boundary-layer growth along the flat
plate (i.e., δT versus x) at a uniform wall heat flux qw con-
dition. (Note: c and d are unknown constants that need to be
determined.)
e. Based on (d), determine the local Nusselt number distribution
along the flat plate (i.e., Nu versus x) at a uniform wall heat flux.
Explain and comment on whether the local Nusselt number
distribution along the flat plate will be higher, the same, or
lower than that in (c)?
f + (1/2)ff = 0 and θ + (1/2)Pr f θ = 0.
a. Sketch both the velocity and the thermal boundary-layer thick-
ness distributions, respectively for both water and air flowing
over the flat plate? (i.e., sketch δ versus x and δT versus x on
the same plot for water and for air, respectively). Explain why
they have differences, if any.
b. Define the similarity variable (η), the similarity function for

temperature (θ), and the derivative of the similarity func-
tion for velocity (f )? Write the BCs that can be used for this
problem?
c. From the Blasius solution of the above similarity equations,
the similarity variable (η) for both water and air. (i.e., sketch f
versus η for both water and air on the same plot; and θ versus η
for both water and air on the same plot). Explain why they
have differences, if any. You do not have to solve the above
equations.
d. For a given problem (i.e., U∞ , T∞ , ρ, μ, Tw , Pr are given),
air, from the sketches in (c)?
e. Explain briefly how to determine the local heat transfer coef-
ficient from the sketches in (c)? Answer whether water or air
will provide a higher convective heat transfer coefficient from
the surface, if both are at the same free-stream velocity (U∞ )?
Why?
boundary-layer flow (at U∞ , T∞ ) over a flat plate at a uniform wall
heat flux qw . Assume that there exist no body force and constant
thermal and fluid properties.
momentum balance as well as the energy balance across the
boundary layers? (If you cannot remember, derive it.)
b. Assuming a uniform velocity profile inside the boundary layer,
the local thermal boundary-layer growth along the flat plate
(i.e., δt versus x).
c. Based on (b), determine the local Nusselt number distribution
along the flat plat (i.e., Nu versus x).
d. Consider a parabolic velocity and temperature profile inside
the thermal boundary layer as u = a + b × y + c × y2 , T =
a + b × y + c× y2 , and comment on whether the local Nus-
selt number distribution along the flat plate will be higher, the
same, or lower than those of a uniform velocity profile and a
linear temperature profile as indicated in (b)? Explain why.
e. Consider a uniform suction through the wall (i.e., v = −v0 ),
and comment on whether the local Nusselt number distribu-
tion along the flat plate will be higher, the same, or lower than
that without boundary-layer suction? Explain why.
boundary-layer flow (at U∞ , T∞ ) over a flat plate at a uniform wall
temperature TW . Assume that there exist no body force and con-
stant thermal and fluid properties. The similarity momentum and
energy equations are listed here for reference: f + (1/2)ff = 0

and θ + (1/2) Pr f θ = 0.
a. Define the similarity variable (η), the similarity function for
temperature (θ), and the derivative of the similarity func-
tion for velocity (f )? Write the BCs that can be used for this
problem?
b. From the Blasius solution of the above similarity equations,
the similarity variable (η) for water, air, and liquid metal (i.e.,
sketch f versus η for water, air, and liquid metal on the same
plot; and θ versus η for water, air, and liquid metal on the
same plot). Explain why they have differences, if any. Explain
briefly how to determine the local velocity (u) and temperature
(T) from the sketches? You do not need to solve the above
equations.
c. Explain briefly how to determine the local heat transfer coeffi-
cient from the sketches in (b)? Answer whether water or liquid
metal will provide a higher convective heat transfer coefficient
from the surface, if both are at the same free-stream velocity
(U∞ )? Explain why?
wall temperature TW . Assume that there exist no body force and
constant thermal and fluid properties.
momentum balance as well as the energy balance across the
boundary layers? (If you cannot remember, derive it.)
b. Assuming a uniform velocity profile inside the boundary layer
the local thermal boundary-layer growth and the local Nusselt
number distribution along the flat plate (i.e., δt versus X and
Nu versus X).
c. Consider a uniform blowing through the wall (i.e., v = v0 ), and
comment on whether the local Nusselt number distribution
along the flat plate will be higher, the same, or lower than that
without boundary-layer blowing? Explain why.
wall temperature TW . Assume that there exist no body force and
constant thermal and fluid properties.
a. Based on the integral method, write down the final form of
momentum integral equation. (If you cannot remember, please
derive it.)
b. Based on the integral method, can you remember to write
down the final form of the energy integral equation? (If you
cannot remember, please derive it.)
c. Assuming a uniform velocity profile inside the boundary layer
inside the thermal boundary layer as T = a + by, determine

the local Nusselt number distribution along the flat plate (i.e.,
Nu versus X).
d. Consider a uniform suction through the wall (i.e., v = −v0 ),
those without boundary-layer suction? Explain why.
7.10. Consider a laminar air flow (at U∞ , T∞ ) over a flat plate at a
uniform wall heat flux qw .
a. Based on the integral method, can you remember to write
down the momentum and energy integral equations? (if you
cannot remember, please derive them).
b. Assuming a linear velocity profile inside the boundary layer
as u = a + b y, derive the velocity boundary-layer thickness
distribution along the flat plate (i.e., δ versus X).
c. Assuming a linear temperature profile inside the thermal
boundary layer as T = c + d y, derive the thermal boundary-
layer thickness distribution along the flat plate (i.e., δT versus
X).
d. Based on (b) and (c), determine the local Nusselt number
distribution along the flat plate (i.e., Nu versus X).
e. Consider a uniform wall temperature (Tw ) as a thermal BC at
the wall, and comment on whether the local Nusselt number
distribution along the flat plate will be higher, the same, or
lower than those of uniform wall heat flux as a thermal BC?
Explain why.
f. Consider a uniform suction through the wall (i.e., v = −vo ),
those without boundary-layer suction? Explain why.
7.11. The similarity method for laminar flow over a flat plate:
U∞ is the free-stream velocity, T∞ is the free-stream tempera-
ture, and TW is the flat plate wall temperature.
a. Write down the similarity variable, differential equations,
and BCs for velocity and temperature, respectively. Then,
determine velocity (u) and temperature (if Pr = 1) at
(x, y) = (2 cm, 1/3δ),

= (4 cm, 1/3δ),
= (6 cm, 1/3δ).
b. At any given x, if U∞ increases, the friction factor will be

increased or decreased. Why? How about shear stress? At any
given U∞ , if x increases, the heat transfer coefficient will be
increased or decreased. Why? How about heat transfer rate?
7.12. The similarity method for laminar flow over a flat plate:
U∞ – free-stream velocity, T∞ – free-stream temperature, and
TW – flat plate wall temperature.
a. Write down the similarity variable, differential equations,

and BCs for velocity and temperature, respectively. Then
determine velocity (u) and temperature (if Pr = 1) at
(x, y) = (1 cm, 1/2δ) and (x, y) = (1 cm, 1/4δ)

= (3 cm, 1/2δ) = (3 cm, 1/4δ)
= (9 cm, 1/2δ) = (9 cm, 1/4δ)
b. At any given x, if U∞ increases, the friction factor will be

increased or decreased. Why? How about shear stress? At any
given U∞ : if x increases, the heat transfer coefficient will be
increased or decreased. Why? How about heat transfer rate?
7.13. Consider the development of velocity and thermal boundary lay-
ers on a porous flat plate where air passes into the flat plate at a
velocity Vo .
a. Assume that no pressure gradient exists in either the x- or the
y-direction and that all fluid properties are constant. Derive
the differential equation that relates boundary-layer thickness
δ to distance x. A linear profile may be assumed.
b. The exact solution of the boundary-layer equations with the
BCs of part (a) shows that δ approaches a constant value for
large x, and that for large x, Vx and Vy are given by

Vo y
Vx = V∞ 1 − exp
v
Vy = −Vo
Suppose now that at some large x = (i.e., where δ has

become constant and where Vx and Vy are given above), a
step change in wall temperature occurs. Using the integral
technique, derive a differential equation relating the thermal
boundary-layer thickness δT to x (x > ). Again assume that
fluid properties are constant. A linear temperature profile may
be assumed. Integrals and derivatives need not be evaluated.
7.14. Air at 1 atm and at a temperature of 30◦ C flows over a 0.3-m-
long flat plate at 100◦ C with a free-stream velocity of 3 m/s. At
the position x = 0.05 m, determine the values of the boundary-
layer thickness, displacement thickness, moments thickness, wall
stress, and heat transfer coefficient. Determine the values of the
velocity parallel and normal to the plate surface, the values of
the shear stress, and the values of temperature in the fluid at the
positions (x = 0.05 m, y = 0.002 m); (x = 0.05 m, y = 0.004 m).
7.15. Using the integral method and assuming that velocity and tem-
perature vary as
u = a + by + cy2 + dy3
T = a + by + cy2 + dy3
determine the “x” variations of the heat transfer coefficient and

wall temperature for the case of laminar flow over a flat plate with
a uniform wall heat flux (q/A)w . Compare the result of the heat
transfer coefficient to the solution obtained in the textbook for the
case of uniform wall temperature.
7.16. Laminar air flow at 1 atm pressure over a flat plate at a uniform
Tw . Assume that U∞ = 3 m/s, T∞ = 20◦ C, and Tw = 100◦ C, and
determine local u and T at x = 3 cm and y = 0.2 cm by using the
similarity solution. Also determine the heat transfer coefficient at
the same x = 3 cm location. Will the heat transfer coefficient be
increased or decreased with increasing x for the same U∞ ? Why?
Will the Nusselt number be increased or decreased with increasing
x for the same U∞ ? Why?
7.17. Use similarity solutions: air at 300 K and 1 atm flows along a flat
plate at 5 m/s. At a location 0.2 m from the leading edge, plot the
u and v velocity profiles using the exact solution to the Blasius
equation Also, determine the boundary-layer thickness, if it is
defined as the location where u = 0.99u∞ . Plot the temperature
profile and determine the thermal boundary thickness if the plate
temperature is 500 K.
7.18. Using integral method solutions: air at 300 K and 1 atm pres-
sure flows along a flat plate at 5 m/s. For x < 10 cm, Ts = 300 K,
whereas for 10 cm < x < 20 cm, Ts = 500 K.
Calculate the heat loss from the plate and compare the result
with the heat loss if the plate were isothermal at 500 K. Assume
that there exists a laminar boundary layer. Compare and discuss
the two cases.
7.19. Consider a boundary-layer flow over a flat plate.
a. Using the integral method derive the continuity equation in
the boundary layer for flow over a flat plate.
b. Using the integral method derive the energy conservation
equation in the boundary layer for flow over a flat plate.
c. Using appropriate BCs and boundary-layer theory, show that
for an inviscid fluid,
Nu = 0.564 Pe1/2
where Nu is the Nusselt number and Pe is the Peclet number.

(Hint: Use a plug flow model for velocity.)
7.20. Consider a fluid approaching the leading edge of a flat plate
with uniform velocity and temperature profiles U∞ and T∞ . The
flat plate is frictionless and is held at a constant heat flux of qs .
The temperature profile at a distance x from the leading edge is
given by
T = a0 + a1 y + a2 y2 + a3 y3
a. Using appropriate BCs evaluate a0 , a1 , a2 , and a3 .

b. Qualitatively sketch velocity and temperature profiles at a
distance x1 and x2 , respectively, from the leading edge.
c. Determine the local heat transfer coefficient (hx ) and the Nus-
selt number Nux . Express the answer in terms of the thermal
boundary-layer thickness δt .
7.21. Consider a 2-D laminar air flow over a friction less plate. The flow
approaches the leading edge of the plate with uniform velocity
U∞ and temperature T∞ . The plate is subjected to a constant wall
temperature, Ts (> T∞ ).
a. Qualitatively sketch hydrodynamic (δ) and thermal boundary
layer (δt ) growth as a function of distance x from the leading
edge.
b. Qualitatively sketch velocity and temperature profiles at a
distance x from the leading edge.
c. A third-order polynomial of the form
T − Ts 3
= a0 + a1 (y/δt ) + a2 (y/δt )2 + a3 y/δt
T∞ − Ts
is used to describe the temperature profile. Determine the
constants a0 , a1 , a2 , and a3 using appropriate BCs.
d. Express local Nusselt numbers (Nux ) in terms of local thermal
boundary-layer thickness δt .
e. Set up an integral energy balance equation. Do not attempt to
solve the equation.
7.22. Consider a 2-D, steady, incompressible laminar flow over a flat
plate. The flow approaches the leading edge with free-stream
velocity of U∞ and temperature T∞ . The flat plate is frictionless
and it is kept at a uniform temperature of Ts (> T∞ ).
a. State clearly all the boundary-layer assumptions.
b. If the temperature distribution at any axial distance x is
approximated by a linear profile (T − Ts )/(T∞ − Ts ) = y/δt ,
derive an expression for the local Nusselt number distribution.
7.23. Consider a steady laminar viscous fluid with a free-stream veloc-
ity V∞ and temperature T∞ flows over a flat plate at a uniform
wall temperature Tw . Assume that the thermal fluids properties
are constant.
a. If the fluid has a Prandtl number of one (i.e., Pr = 1.0), deter-
mine the local heat transfer coefficient along the plate. You may
use the method of integral approximation with the assump-
tions of the linear velocity and temperature profiles across the
boundary layers, that is, u = a + by and T = c + dy, where a, b,
c, and d are constants.
b. If the fluid’s Prandtl number is not equivalent to one (i.e., Pr >
1 or Pr < 1), outline the methods (no need to solve) in order
to determine the surface heat transfer. You may use the same
assumptions as in part (a). Does the heat transfer coefficient
increase or decrease with the fluid Prandtl number? Explain
your answers.
7.24. A flat horizontal plate has a dimension of 10 cm × 10 cm. The plate
is maintained at a constant surface temperature of 300◦ K with a
water jacket.
a. If the plate is placed in a hot air stream with a pressure of 1 atm,

temperature of 400◦ K, and velocity of 10 m/s, sketch the local
heat transfer coefficient, hx , along the plate. Also, determine
the surface heat flux at the trailing edge of the plate.
Given: air properties at 350◦ K, k = 30 × 10−3 w/mk, v = 20.92 ×
10−6 m2 /s, Pr = 0.7:
Nux = a Rexm Prn ,

where a = 0.332, m = 1/2, n = 1/3 for laminar flow
a = 0.0296, m = 4/5, n = 1/3 for turbulent flow
7.25. Constant properties laminar viscous fluids (ρ, Cp , K, μ = constant)

with a free-stream velocity U∞ and temperature T∞ move over a
flat plate at a uniform wall heat flux (qw = constant).
a. Determine the local Nusselt number (Nux = hx · x/k) along the
plate by using the integral approximation method with the
velocity and temperature profiles across the boundary layers
as u = a + by and T = c + dy, respectively. Assume Pr = 1 for
this problem.
b. On the same plot, sketch hx , Nux versus x for the uniform
wall heat flux (qw = constant) and uniform wall temperature
(Tw = constant) BCs, respectively. For the same flow velocity,
which wall BC (qw or Tw ) will provide a higher heat transfer
coefficient or Nusselt number? Explain why.
References
3. H. Schlichting, Boundary-Layer Theory, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,
NY, 1968.
4. W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1980.
6. E. Levy, Convection Heat Transfer, Class Notes, Lehigh University, 1973.
8
Internal Forced Convection
8.1 Velocity and Temperature Profiles in a Circular Tube

or between Parallel Plates
Internal forced convection is that flow moves through the internal surface of
a passage and forms an internal boundary layer on the surface. For exam-
ple, fluid flowing through a circular tube or between two parallel plates is a
most common application. Figure 8.1 shows the hydrodynamic boundary-
layer development (due to viscosity) for flow entering a circular tube
(or between two parallel plates). The boundary layer starts from the tube (or
plate) entrance and grows along the tube (or plate) length. The velocity profile
keeps changing in the entrance region of the tube (or plate). The flow becomes
a “hydrodynamic fully developed flow” when the boundary thickness is the
same as the tube radius (or half-spacing between the two plates). The veloc-
ity profile no longer changes after a fully developed flow. For a laminar flow,
the entrance length to tube diameter ratio is about 5% of Reynolds number
(based on the tube diameter). This implies that the entrance length increases
with increasing Reynolds number (because a thinner boundary layer requires
longer distance for the boundary layer to merge). Figure 8.1 also shows that
shear stress decreases from the entrance along the tube and becomes a con-
stant value when the flow reaches the fully developed condition, and shear
stress increases with Reynolds number (because of a thinner boundary layer
from the entrance and the longer entrance length). For a turbulent flow, the
entrance length is harder to determine; the entrance length is around 10–20
tube diameter. It is hard to distinguish whether the turbulent flow is fully
developed or not from 10 to 20 tube diameter downstream [1–4].
Figure 8.2 shows the thermal boundary-layer development (due to thermal
conductivity and velocity) for flow entering a circular tube (or between two
parallel plates). The thermal boundary layer starts from the tube (or plate)
entrance and grows along the tube (or plate) length. The temperature profile
keeps changing from the entrance due to adding heat along the tube (or plate)
wall. The flow becomes “thermally fully developed flow” when the thermal
boundary thickness is the same as the tube radius (or half-spacing between the
two plates). The dimensionless temperature profile no longer changes after
being thermally fully developed (but the temperature still keeps increasing).
167
R
r
U max x
Developing flow Fully developed flow
τw
ReD
0 x
FIGURE 8.1
Velocity profile and shear stress distribution in a circular tube or between two parallel plates.
Hydraulic entrance length, Xf,h

Velocity
Xf,h Xf,t
Xf,h
= 0.05ReD
D Lam
Xf,h
≅ 20 +
D Turb
Thermal entrance length, Xf,t

Prandtl
Xf,t
= 0.05ReD Pr
D Lam
FIGURE 8.2
Hydraulic entrance length and thermal entrance length in a circular tube or between two parallel
plates.
Internal Forced Convection 169
For the laminar flow, the thermal entrance length to tube diameter ratio is
about 5% of Reynolds number (based on the tube diameter) times Prandtl
number. This implies that the thermal entrance length increases with increas-
ing Reynolds number (because a thinner boundary layer requires longer
distance for the boundary layer to merge) and Prandtl number (because lower
thermal conductivity requires longer distance to merge) [1–4].
Figure 8.2 also shows that the heat transfer coefficient decreases from the
entrance along the tube and becomes a constant value when thermal boundary
layer reaches the fully developed condition, and the heat transfer coefficient
increases with Reynolds number (because of a thinner boundary layer from
the entrance and the longer entrance length). It is noted that the thermal
entrance length is identical to the hydrodynamic entrance length if Pr = 1.
For the turbulent flow, the thermal entrance length is harder to determine;
just like the hydrodynamic entrance length, the thermal entrance length is
around 10–20 tube diameter. It is hard to distinguish whether the turbu-
lent flow is thermally fully developed or not from 10 to 20 tube diameter
downstream.
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow and Heat Transfer

in a Circular Tube or between Parallel Plates
For fluid flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number is defined as
ρVD VD 4ṁ
ReD = = = (8.1)
μ ν πDμ
Laminar flow is observed if ReD ≤ 2300.
At a certain distance from the entrance, the velocity profile u(r) remains
unchanging along the tube (if the fluid properties remain constant). Corre-
spondingly, there will be no velocity component in the radial direction. Also,
the axial pressure gradient required to sustain the flow against the viscous
forces will be constant along the tube (no momentum change). The flow is
hydrodynamically fully developed. The differential governing equations for
the flow inside a circular tube are [1–4]
∂u 1 ∂(vr)
+ =0 (8.2)
∂x r ∂r

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P 1 ∂ ∂u
u +v =− +υ r (8.3)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x r ∂r ∂r

∂ (uT) ∂ (vT) 1 ∂ ∂T
+ =α r (8.4)
∂x ∂y r ∂r ∂r
If the flow is hydrodynamically fully developed, then
v=0 (8.5)
∂u
=0 (8.6)
∂x

1 ∂P 1 ∂ ∂u
0=− +υ r (8.7)
ρ ∂x r ∂r ∂r
and u = u(r) only.

Solve momentum equation

1 dP 1 d du
=υ r
ρ dx r dr dr

dP du
r dr = μd r
dx dr
dP 1 2 du
r = μr + C1
dx 2 dr
at r = 0, du/dr = 0, C1 = 0

dP 1
r dr = μ du
dx 2
dP 1 2
r = μu + C2
dx 4
at r = R, u = 0, C2 = (1/4)R2 (dP/dx)
1 2 dP 1 dP
r = μu + R2
4 dx 4 dx
1 dP 2
u= r − R2
4μ dx
and r = 0, u = umax = −(1/4μ)R2 (dP/dx).

We obtain u = −umax (r2 − R2 )/R2
u r 2
=1− (8.8)
Umax R
The bulk mean velocity is defined as
R
1
V= u2πr dr (8.9)
πR2
0
R r 2
1
= 1− umax 2πr dr
πR2 R
0

2umax 1 2 1 4 R
= r − r
R2 2 4R2 0
1
V= Umax (8.10)
2
8.2.1 Fully Developed Flow in a Tube: Friction Factor

∂u 2r
τw = μ = μUmax − 2 (8.11)
∂y y=0 R r=R
where u/Umax = 1 − (r/R)2

−2
τw = μUmax
R
τw μUmax (−2/R) 16μ 16 1
f = 2
= = = ∼ (8.12)
(1/2)ρU (1/2)ρ (1/2)Umax 2 ρUD ReD ReD
where ReD = ρUD/μ.

Figure 8.3 shows the force balance in the fully developed flow region:
ΔPAc + τw πDΔx = 0
τw πDΔx
ΔP = −
(1/4)πD2
ΔP −4τw 4 1 2
= = − f ρU (8.13)
Δx D D 2
4 1 2 16 32μU 32μ ρ D μ 32μ2 ρDU
=− ρU =− = − U = −
D2 ReD D2 D2 ρ D μ D3 ρ μ
32μ2
=− ReD ∼ ReD (8.14)
D3 ρ
And pumping power can be obtained as P ∼ = ΔP (volume flow). Figure 8.4
shows that the friction factor decreases and the pressure drop increases with
Reynolds number.
1U
Xf,h V=
2 max
Umax
τwπDΔx
PAc (P + ΔP)Ac
∫ ρu · u · d Ac ∫ ρu · u · dAc
2πr dr 2πr dr
Δx
FIGURE 8.3
Force balance in fully developed flow region.
Laminar flow heat transfer depends on thermal BCs. However, turbu-

lent flow heat transfer is fairly independent of thermal BCs (particularly for
Prandtl number around one such as air). Typical thermal BCs are case 1,
uniform heat flux and case 2, uniform wall temperature.
8.2.2 Case 1: Uniform Wall Heat Flux

Figure 8.5 shows the laminar flow in a circular tube with a uniform surface
heat flux condition and the thermal boundary layer, temperature, and the heat
transfer coefficient (Nusselt number) along the tube. The following outlines,
step by step, how to obtain the results shown in Figure 8.5.
f ΔP
Δx
0 ReD
FIGURE 8.4
Friction factor and pressure drop versus Reynolds number in fully developed flow region.
(a) qw = constant
Ti
Tw
(b)
q ″w
Temp Tw
T(r)
Tb
Ti
x
Xf,t Thermally fully developed
(c)
15
hD
k
hD
4.3 = Nu =
k
x
FIGURE 8.5
Laminar flow in a circular tube with uniform surface heat flux condition. (a) Thermal boundary
layer; (b) temperature; and (c) heat transfer coefficient.
qw
qw = = h(Tw − Tb ) (8.15)
As
qw
qw = = h(Tw − Tb ) (8.16)
+,-. As + ,- .
const. const.
Bulk mean temperature

R
ρuT · 2πr dr
Tb = 0R (8.17)
0 ρu · 2πr dr
From energy balance,

qw
qw = = ṁCp (Tb,o − Tb,i )/As (8.18)
As
ṁCp dTb dTb
qw = ⇒ = const (8.19)
πD dx dx
For thermally fully developed flow,

∂ T − Tw
=0 (8.20)
∂x Tb − T w
T − Tw
= f (r) = f (x)
Tb − T w

∂T ∂Tw T − Tw ∂Tb ∂Tw
− − − =0
∂x ∂x Tb − Tw ∂x ∂x
+ ,- .
=0
∂T ∂Tw ∂Tb
= = = constant (8.21)
∂x ∂x ∂x
From energy equation 8.4,

∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
ρCp u =k r = T(r) only (8.22)
∂x r ∂r ∂r
r 2
ρCp qw dT
r 2V 1 − dr = d r
k R ṁC /πD dr
+ ,- . + p,- .
u ∂T
∂x
And thermal BCs are
∂T
r = 0, T = Tc or =0
∂r
r = R, T = Tw

ρCp dT r2 r4
T − Tc = U −
k dx max 4 16R2

ρCp ∂T R2 R4 ρCp ∂T 3
Tw − Tc = Umax − = Umax R2
k ∂x 4 16R2 k ∂x 16
where
R
ρuT · 2πr dr 7 ρCp dT
Tb = 0R = Tc + Umax R2
ρu · 2πr dr 96 k dx
0

ρCp dT 3 2 7 2
Tw − T b = Umax R − R (8.23)
k dx 16 96
Therefore, h can be determined by substituting Equations 8.19 and 8.23:
qw (ṁCp /πD)(dTb /dx)

h= =
Tw − T b ρ(Cp /k)(dT/dx)umax (3/16)R2 − (7/96)R2
(ρπR2 V̄Cp /π2R)(dT/dx) (ρCp πR2 (1/2)umax /π2R)(dT/dx)

= =
(ρCp /k)(dT/dx)umax (11/96)R2 (ρCp /k)(dT/dx)umax (11/96)R2
k 96 k
= =
(44/96)R 22 D
hD 96
NuD ≡ = = 4.314 (8.24)
k 22
8.2.3 Case 2: Uniform Wall Temperature

For the case of uniform wall temperature (Tw = constant),
∂T ∂Tb T − Tw
= (8.25)
∂x ∂x Tb − Tw

r 2 dT T − T
b w 1 ∂ ∂T
ρCp 2V̄ 1 − =k r (8.26)
R dx Tb − Tw r ∂r ∂r
Assuming a temperature profile, a final temperature distribution may be

obtained by using an iterative procedure. The resulting Nusselt number is
hD
NuD = = 3.66 (8.27)
k
Examples
8.1. Internal flow, fully developed laminar forced convection: Consider a low-
speed, constant-property, fully developed laminar flow between two parallel
plates at y = ±H, as shown in Figure 8.6. The plates are electrically heated
to give a uniform wall heat flux. Determine the velocity profile, the friction
factor, and the Nusselt number.
Assumptions:
Low speed ⇒ Φ = 0
Constant properties:
Fully developed ⇒ du/dx = 0
Thermally fully developed ⇒ dT /dx = const
q″s
x 2H
q″s
FIGURE 8.6
Two parallel plates at a uniform wall heat flux.
a. Velocity profile
Continuity equation:
∂u ∂υ ∂u
+ =0 ⇒ =0
∂x ∂y ∂x
Momentum equation:

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
u +υ =− +ν + 2
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x 2 ∂y
υ=0
∂u ∂ 2u
=0 ⇒ =0
∂x ∂x2
1 ∂P ∂ 2u
= ν 2 ⇒ Governing equation (8.28)
ρ ∂x ∂y
with solution
1 ∂P 2
u= y + c1 y + c 2 (8.29)
2μ ∂x
where ν = μ/ρ
At y = 0, ∂u/∂y = 0 (maximum velocity)
At y = H, u = 0
c1 = 0
1 ∂P 2
c2 = − H
2μ ∂x
Substituting this into Equation 8.29 and rearranging

H 2 ∂P y2
u=− 1− 2 (8.30)
2μ ∂x H
umax at y = 0
H 2 ∂P
umax = −
2μ ∂x

y2
u = umax 1 − 2 (8.31a)
H

y2
2 0H umax 1 − 2 dy
ρudA H
um = =
ρA 2H
H
umax y − (y 3 /3H 2 )
um = 0 = umax ((2/3)H)
H H
2
um = umax
3
Thus,

3 y2
u = um 1 − 2 (8.31b)
2 H
b. Friction factor:
− (∂P /∂x) Dh
f ≡ 2 /2
ρum
ΔPAc + τw (2w )Δx = 0
ΔP −2τw w −2τw w τw
= = =−
ΔX Ac 2wH H
H
∂u 3 2y um
τw = μ =μ um = 3μ
∂y y =H 2 H2 0 H
Therefore,
ΔP −3μum
=−
Δx H2
4Ac 4(2wH)
DH = = = 4H
P 2w
Thus,
(3μum /H 2 )(4H) 24μum H

f = 2 /2
= 2 H2
ρum ρum
24μ
f =
um Hρ
But,
ρum DH 4u m Hρ
ReDh = =
μ μ
Finally,
96
f = (8.32)
ReDh
c. Energy equation:

∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
ρCp u +υ =k + + q̇ + Φ
∂x ∂y ∂x 2 ∂y 2
Φ = 0 (because of low-speed flow)

q̇ = 0 (no internal heat generation)
dT d2 T
= const ⇒ =0
dx dx 2
The governing equation becomes
∂ 2T u ∂T
= (8.33)
∂y 2 α ∂x
With solution (after substitution of Equation 8.31b)

3 um y2 y4 dT
T = − + c1 y + c2
2 α 2 12H 2 dx
y = 0, dT /dy = 0 → c1 = 0
y = b, T = Ts
5 um 2 dT
c2 = Ts − H
8 α dx

3 um 2 y 2 y4 5 dT
T = H − − + Ts (8.34)
2 α 2H 2 12H 4 12 dx

ρc v uT dA
Tm ≡
ρcv um A
/ 0 / 0

H 3 y2 3 um 2 y 2 y4 5 dT
2 ρcv um 1 − 2 H − − + T s dy
0 2 H 2 α 2H 2 12H 4 12 dx
Tm =
ρcv um (2H)
2 ! 1 ! 1
9 um H 1 1 5 1 1 5 dT 3 Ts
Tm = − − − + + + Ts −
4 α 6 60 12 10 84 36 dx 2 3
17 um H 2 dT
Tm = − + Ts (8.35)
35 α dx
qs = h(Ts − Tm )

∂T
qs = − k
∂y y =H

k (3/2)(um /α) · (2/3)H (dT /dx)
h=
Ts + (17/35)(um /α)H 2 (dT /dx) − Ts
35 k
h=
17 H

h(4H) 35 k 4H
NuD = =
k 17 H k
140
NuD = = 8.235
17
Remarks
There are many engineering applications such as electronic equipments, mini-
scale channels, and compact heat exchangers that required laminar flow heat
transfer analysis and design. In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, stu-
dents are expected to know many heat transfer relations between Nusselt
numbers and Reynolds and Prandtl numbers for developing and fully devel-
oped flows inside circular tubes at various surface thermal BCs. Students are
expected to calculate heat transfer coefficients from these relations by giving
Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.
In the intermediate-level heat transfer, this chapter focuses on how to solve
fully developed heat transfer problems for flow between two parallel plates or
inside circular tubes at uniform surface heat flux BCs. Students are expected
to know how to analytically determine the velocity profile, the friction factor,
the temperature profile, and the Nusselt number for these cases. Here we
do not include how to analytically determine the heat transfer coefficient at
uniform surface temperature BCs.
In advanced heat convection, students will learn how to analytically predict
heat transfer in both developing flow and thermal entrance regions; with
various thermal BCs such as variable surface heat flux as well as variable
surface temperature BCs; for flow in rectangular channels with various aspect
ratios and flow in annulus with various thermal BCs. They require more
complex mathematics and are beyond the intermediate-level heat transfer.
PROBLEMS
8.1. Consider a steady constant-property laminar flow between two
parallel plates at y = ±. The plates are electrically heated to give a
uniform wall heat flux. The differential equations for momentum
and energy are listed here for reference:

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
u +v =− +ν +
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂ x2 ∂ y2

∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ν ∂u 2
u +v =α + +
∂x ∂y ∂ x2 ∂ y2 cp ∂ y
a. Assume a low-speed, slug flow velocity profile (i.e., a uni-

form velocity profile) between two parallel plates, and also
assume a thermally, fully developed condition, and write
down the simplified equations for momentum and energy and
the associated BCs that can be used for this problem.
b. Under the assumption in (a), determine the Nusselt number
on the plate.
c. Consider a fully developed velocity profile (i.e., a parabolic
velocity profile) between two parallel plates and a thermally,
fully developed condition, and comment on whether the Nus-
selt number on the plate will be higher, the same, or lower than
those of symmetry linear velocity profile (uniform velocity
profile). Explain why.

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
u +v =− +ν +
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂ x2 ∂ y2

∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ν ∂u 2
u +v =α + +
∂x ∂y ∂ x2 ∂ y2 cp ∂ y
a. Assume a low-speed, symmetry linear velocity profile (i.e., u =

a + by with maximum velocity at y = 0, zero velocity at y =
±) between two parallel plates, and also assume a thermally,
fully developed condition, and write down the simplified
equations for momentum and energy and the associated BCs
that can be used for this problem.

on the plate.
selt number on the plate will be higher, the same, or lower
than those of the symmetry linear velocity profile (u = a + by)?
Explain why.
8.3. Internal flow, fully developed laminar forced convection: Con-
sider a low-speed, constant-property, fully developed laminar
flow between two parallel plates, with one plate insulated and
the other uniformly heated. Determine the Nusselt number.
8.4. Consider a concentric circular-tube annulus with a radius ratio
of ri /ro = 0.6. Let the inner tube wall be heated at a constant
rate and the outer tube wall remains insulated. Let the fluid be
a low-Prandtl number fluid, and assume a slug flow inside of the
annulus. Develop an expression for the Nusselt number at the
inner surface by means of the following steps:
a. Discuss how temperature and velocity profiles develop in the
system by considering Pr and the type of flow present. Indi-
cate the system conditions. (Is the flow and or temperature
developed?)
b. Let Tm be the mass average fluid temperature, and Ts,ri the sur-
face temperature at the inner surface with radius ri . Form the
thermal BCs; what can be said about Tm − Ts,ri and ∂T/∂x?
c. Draw a diagram, indicating BCs for both temperature and
velocity and indicate the assumptions used to simplify the
energy equation.
d. Solve for T using the simplified velocity profile, BCs, and the
energy equation.
e. Find the heat transfer coefficient and the Nusselt number by
calculating Tm , the mass average fluid temperature, and heat
flux at the inner surface.
Remember that the energy equation in cylindrical coordinates is
given by

∂T ∂T v ∂T ∂T
ρc + vr + θ + vx
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂x

1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
= rk + 2 k + k + q̇,
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂θ ∂x ∂x
where x represents the axial direction of the cylinder.

8.5. Consider a low-speed, constant-property fluid, fully developed
laminar flow between two parallel plates located at y = ±b. The
plates are electrically heated to give a uniform heat flux.
a. Determine the velocity profile and define the bulk velocity (ub )
in terms of the pressure gradient driving the flow.
b. Using the hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac /P, show that the
friction factor is given by f = 96/ReDh .
c. Obtain an expression for the heat convection coefficient and

the Nusselt number.
(Hint: Consider the fully developed condition to approximate

∂T/∂x; and define Y(y) = T − Tb , where Tb = 2 0b uTdy/2bub .)
parallel plates at y ± . The plates are electrically heated to give a

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
u +v = +v + 2
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y

∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ν ∂u 2
u +v =α + +
∂x ∂y ∂ x2 ∂ y2 cp ∂ y
a. Assume
a low-speed, linear velocity profile (i.e., u = um
1 − y/ with maximum velocity at y = 0, and zero velocity
at y ± ) between two parallel plates, and also assume a ther-
mally, fully developed condition, and write down the simpli-
fied equations for momentum and energy and the associated
BCs that can be used for this problem.
on the plate.
selt number on the plate will be higher, the same, or lower than
those of symmetry linear velocity profile in (a)? Explain why.
8.7. Consider an incompressible laminar 2-D flow in a parallel plate
channel as shown below. The top plate is pulled at a constant
velocity UT . The top and bottom plates are maintained at constant
heat flux qs . Flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally fully
developed. Assume that the pressure gradient is zero in a parallel
plate channel.
a. Obtain differential equations governing the velocity U(Y) and
temperature T(Y) fields.
b. Use appropriate BCs to evaluate U(Y). Obtain T(Y). Do not
attempt to evaluate constants of integration for the tempera-
ture field.
8.8. Find the Nusselt number for the following problems.
a. Fully developed Couette flow (i.e., assume that velocity and
temperature profiles do not change along the channel) with
the lower plane wall at uniform wall temperature T0 and the
upper plane wall at T1 . If the velocity profile is a linear profile
(U = 0 at the lower plane wall, U = V at the upper plane wall),
find the temperature profile from the energy equation.
b. Fully developed Poiseuille flow (i.e., assume that velocity and
temperature profiles do not change along the channel) with
the lower plane wall at uniform temperature T0 and the upper

plane wall at T1 . If the velocity profile is a parabolic profile,
find the temperature profile from the energy equation.
8.9. A 2-D channel flow is subjected to a uniform heat flux on one wall
and insulated on the other wall. Assume that the viscous dissipa-
tion is negligible and the properties are constant. Determine the
following.
a. The governing momentum and energy equations with the
appropriate BCs for the developing region. Do not solve the
equations; however, show the details of simplifying the gov-
erning equations. Sketch the temperature and velocity profiles
with respect to y at two x positions.
b. Repeat (a) for the fully developed region.
c. Sketch the temperature profile in the fully developed region
if both walls are insulated. Consider two cases: (1) viscous
dissipation is negligible and (2) viscous dissipation is not
negligible.
8.10. Consider liquid metal flow in a parallel-plate channel at a uniform
wall heat flux condition.
a. Using the momentum and energy differential equations and
making the appropriate assumptions, derive the surface Nus-
selt number if flow is laminar and the temperature profile is in
a fully developed condition.
b. Using the momentum and energy differential equations and
making the appropriate assumptions, outline the methods (no
need to solve) in order to determine the surface Nusselt num-
ber if the flow is laminar and the temperature profile is in a
developing condition. Describe that the surface Nusselt num-
bers for (b) will be higher or lower than those for (a). Explain
why.
c. Nu, Tw , and Tb versus x from the entrance to the fully
developed region.

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
u +v =− +ν +
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂ x2 ∂ y2

∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ν ∂u 2
u +v =α + +
∂x ∂y ∂ x2 ∂ y2 cp ∂ y
a. What is the physical meaning of the last term shown in the

above differential energy equation? Explain under what con-
ditions the last term should be included in order to solve the
temperature distribution between two parallel plates.
b. Assume a low-speed, slug-flow velocity profile (i.e., a uni-
form velocity profile) between two parallel plates, and also
assume a thermally, fully developed condition, and write

down the simplified equations for momentum and energy and
the associated BCs that can be used for this problem.
c. Under the assumption in (b), determine the Nusselt number
on the plate.
8.12. Water at 43◦ C enters a 5-cm-ID pipe at a rate of 6 kg/s. If the pipe is
9 m long and maintained at 71◦ , calculate the exit water tempera-
ture and the total heat transfer. Assume that the Nusselt number of
the flow in the pipe is 3.657. Also, the thermal properties of water
are ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , cp = 4.18 kJ/(kg K), and k = 0.6 W/(m K).
References
3. W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1980.
9
Natural Convection

Similarity Solution
Natural convection can occur when the solid surface temperature is different
from the surrounding fluid. For example, natural convection can take place
between a heated (or cooled) vertical (or horizontal) plate or tube and the sur-
rounding fluid. Figure 9.1 shows the velocity profile, temperature profile, and
heat transfer from a hot vertical wall to a cold fluid due to natural convection.
The hot vertical wall conducts heat to the fluid particle (fluid layer) next to
the wall and the heated fluid particle (fluid layer) conducts heat to the next
cooler fluid particle, and so on. Therefore, the fluid particle near the hot wall
is lighter than that is away from the hot wall and natural circulation takes
place (near the wall, the hot fluid moving up and away from the wall, cold
fluid moving down) due to gravity. This buoyancy-driven natural convection
flow is primarily due to density gradient (temperature gradient) from the hot
vertical wall and cold surrounding fluid. The key parameter/driving force to
determine natural convection is Grashof number, a ratio of buoyancy force
to viscous force (buoyancy force tries to move the fluid up but viscous force
tries to resist it from moving). Another parameter is Prandtl number, a fluid
property showing the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity. The
product of Grashof number with Prandtl number is called Rayleigh num-
ber, another way of measuring the natural convection. The following shows
the definition of Grashof number, Rayleigh number, and 2-D laminar natural
convection boundary-layer equations from a heated vertical wall [1–4].
gβ(Tw − T∞ )x3
Grx = (9.1)
ν2
Rax = Grx · Pr (9.2)
Continuity
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (9.3)
∂x ∂y
185
ρw, Tw = C
T∞, ρ∞
τw 0
dP
dx
g
x
FIGURE 9.1
Natural convection boundary layer from a heated vertical wall.
Momentum
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
u +v = gβ(T − T∞ ) + ν 2 (9.4)
∂x ∂y ∂y
Energy
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
u +v =α 2 (9.5)
∂x ∂y ∂y
The following shows how to derive the above natural convection momen-
tum equation from the original momentum equation:
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u
X-momentum u +v =− −g+ν 2
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y
From outside of the boundary layer 0 = −(1/ρ∞ )(∂P/∂x) − g

1 ∂ρ ∼ 1 ρ∞ − ρ
∵β=− =−
ρ ∂T P ρ T∞ − T
∴ ρ∞ − ρ = ρβ(T − T∞ )
∂P 1 ∂P
∴ = −ρ∞ g ⇒ − −g
∂x ρ ∂x
1 g
= − (−ρ∞ g) − g = (ρ∞ − ρ) = gβ(T∞ − T)
ρ ρ
Natural Convection 187
From the above momentum equation, one can see that natural convection is
due to temperature difference between the surface and fluid and the gravity
force. This implies that there is no natural convection if there exists no temper-
ature gradient or no gravity force. The larger delta T and gravity (means larger
Grashof number) will cause larger natural circulation and results in thinner
boundary-layer thickness and higher friction (shear) and higher heat transfer
coefficient. The Grashof number in natural convection plays a similar role
as Reynolds number does in forced convection; the larger Grashof number
causes higher heat transfer in natural convection as the greater Reynolds num-
ber has higher heat transfer in forced convection. Prandtl number plays the
same role in both natural and forced convection, basically the fluid property.
Just like in forced convection, both similarity and integral methods can be
used to solve natural convection boundary-layer equations. The following
only outline the similarity method from Ostrach in 1953.
Similarity variable:
' 1/4
4 gβ(Tw − T∞ ) y Grx
η=y 2
= (9.6)
4ν x x 4
where
gβ(Tw − T∞ )x3
Grx =
ν2
Similarity functions for velocity and temperature:
Ψ(x, η)
f (η) = (9.7)
4ν (Grx /4)1/4
T − T∞
θ= (9.8)
Tw − T ∞
Put them into the above momentum equation and energy equation,
respectively:
∂Ψ
u= = ···
∂y
∂Ψ
v=− = ···
∂x
∂T
= ···
∂x
∂T
= ···
∂y
The resultant similarity momentum and energy equations are
f + 3ff − 2f 2 + θ = 0 (9.9)

θ + 3Pr f θ = 0 (9.10)
The related BCs are
f (0) = f (0) = 0, f (∞) = 0 (9.11)

θ(0) = 1, θ(∞) = 0 (9.12)
These can be solved by the fourth-order Runge–Kutta method in order

to obtain the velocity and temperature profiles across the natural convec-
tion boundary layer. Figure 9.2 shows typical dimensionless velocity and
0.28 Pr = 0.73
u
f ′=
1
2v 1.0
Gx 2
x
0.12
10
100
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4
1
y Gx 4
η=
x 4
T−T∞
θ=
Tw−T∞ Pr = 0.73
1.0
10
100
1000
0
1 2 3 4
1
y Gx 4
η=
x 4
FIGURE 9.2
Dimensionless velocity and temperature profiles from heated vertical wall.
temperature profiles from the heated vertical wall, for different Prandtl
fluids.

u T∞
f = √
2 gx Tw − T ∞
ux −1/2
= Gx
2ν
u
= (9.13)
1/2
Gx (2ν/x)
From the dimensionless velocity and temperature profiles, the associ-

ated heat flux and the heat transfer coefficient (or Nusselt number) can be
determined.

∂T k Grx 1/4 dθ
qw = −k = − (Tw − T∞ ) (9.14)
∂y 0 x 4 dη y=0
where

dθ
= θ (0) = f (Pr)
dη y=0
qw −k(∂T/∂y)0
∴h= =
Tw − T ∞ Tw − T ∞
1/4
hx Grx dθ
Nu = =− (9.15)
k 4 dη y=0
Numerical results: for laminar natural convection:

Pr 0.01 0.733 1 2 10 100 1000
dθ
− 0.081 0.508 0.567 0.716 1.169 2.191 3.966
dη 0
For air, Pr = 0.733,
hx 1/4
Nux = = 0.359Grx (9.16)
k
hx L 4 1/4
Nux = = NuL = 0.478GrL (9.17)
k 3
where
L 1/4
1 4k GrL dθ 4
hx = hx dx = − = hL
L 3L 4 dη 0 3
0
gβ(Tw − T∞ )L3
GrL = (9.18)
ν2
1/4
3 2Pr
Nux = (Grx Pr)1/4 (9.19)
4 5 1 + 2 Pr1/2 + 2 Pr
Nux = 0.6(Grx Pr2 )1/4 , if Pr → 0 (9.20)

Nux = 0.503(Grx Pr)1/4 , if Pr → ∞ (9.21)
In general,
Nux = a(Grx Pr)b = a Rabx
where Rayleigh number,
gβ(Tw − T∞ )x3
Grx Pr = Rax =
να
Compared to forced convection
Nux = a Rexm Prn
Note: The following is a simple guideline whether the problem can be solved
by forced convection, natural convection, or mixed (combined forced and
natural) convection.
If Grx /Rex2 < 1, the problem can be treated as forced convection.
If Grx /Re2 ∼
x = 1, the problem can be treated as mixed convection.
If Grx /Rex2 > 1, the problem can be treated as natural convection.
9.2 Laminar Natural Convection on a Vertical Wall: Integral

Method
Integral approximate solution by Pohlhausen 1921: We apply the momentum and
energy balance to the control volume across the boundary layer as shown in
Figure 9.3.
Tw, ρw
T
q″w
T∞, ρ∞
∂
∫ ρuu dy + ∂x ∫ ρuu dy dx
∂
∫ Pdy + ∫ P dy dx
∂x
dP∞
dx τw
U∞ = 0
∫ Pdy
∫ ρuu dy
g
x
y
FIGURE 9.3
Integral method.
Net force = Momentum change

∂P ∂
−τw − ρg dy − dy = ρuu dy
∂x ∂x
where ∂P/∂x = ∂P∞ /∂x = −ρ∞ g (outside of the boundary layer).

Also ρ − ρ∞ = −ρ∞ β (T − T∞ ) from β ≡ −1/ρ (∂ρ/∂T)P
δ δ
τw μ ∂u d
= = gβ (T − T∞ ) dy − u2 dy (9.22)
ρ∞ ρ∞ ∂y 0 dx
0 0
δT
∂T d
q = −k = ρcp u (T − T∞ ) dy (9.23)
∂y 0 dx
0
Boundary conditions: u (x, 0) = 0 T (x, 0) = Tw
u (x, δ) = 0, T (x, δT ) = T∞
∂u (x, δ) ∂T (x, δT )
= 0, =0
∂y ∂y
Assuming velocity and temperature profiles to satisfy boundary-layer

conditions,

u = u x, y = u1 η (1 − η)2 (9.24)
T − T∞
= (1 − η)2 = f x, y (9.25)
Tw − T ∞
where η = y/δ(x); u1 = c1 xm ; δ (x) = c2 xn ;
1 1
m= ; n=
2 4
Put this into momentum and energy integral equations:
1/2 1/2
80 Gx ν
u1 (x) =
3 (20/21) + Pr x
1/4
δ (x) 240 (1 + (20/21Pr)) 1/4 x
= → δ (x) ∼
x Pr · Gx Tw − T ∞

∂T 2k (Tw − T∞ )
qw = −k = = h (Tw − T∞ )
∂y 0 δ (x)
1/4
hx x 2x Pr 1/4
Nux = = = · Rax (9.26)
k δ (x) 15 ((20/21) + Pr)
Nux ∼
1/4
= 0.413Rax for Pr = 0.733 (9.27)
1/4
Note: Nux = 0.359Rax for Pr = 0.733 by using the exact similarity solu-
tion.
gβ (Tw − T∞ ) x3
Rax = < 108 − 109 − Laminar natural convection
να
Remarks
In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, we have heat transfer correlations
of external natural convection for a vertical plate, an inclined plate, a hor-
izontal plate, a vertical tube, and a horizontal tube as well as heat transfer
correlations of internal natural convection for a horizontal tube, between two
parallel plates, and inside a rectangular cavity with various aspect ratios.
These correlations are important for many real-life engineering applications
such as electronic components.
In the intermediate-level heat transfer, this chapter focuses on how to
analytically solve the external natural convection from a vertical plate at
a uniform surface temperature by using the similarity method as well as

the integral method. In advanced heat transfer, these methods can be modi-
fied and extended to solve mixed convection (combined natural and forced
convection) problems for vertical, horizontal, and inclined plates or tubes,
respectively, for various Prandtl number fluids.
PROBLEMS
9.1. Consider the system of boundary-layer equations
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂ 2u
u +v = R (T − T∞ ) + ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
∂ (T − T∞ ) ∂ (T − T∞ ) ∂ 2 (T − T∞ )
u +v =α
∂x ∂y ∂ y2
subject to the BCs
y=0 u = 0, v = 0, qw = constant
y=∞ u=0 T = T∞
where the quantities R, ν, and α are constants. Determine the sim-

ilarity variables that will transform the equations to two ODEs.
Derive the resultant ODEs.
9.2. Consider a natural convection flow over a vertical heated plate at
a uniform wall temperature T0 . Let T∞ be the free-stream tem-
perature. The following correlation holds for the heat transfer
coefficient hx at height x:
hx x
= 0.443 (Grx Pr)1/4
k
The Grashof number is
Grx = gβx3 (T(x) − T∞ )/ν2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, β is the coefficient of

thermal expansion, and ν is the kinematic viscosity.
a. Draw a diagram of the system.
b. Sketch a plot of hx along the plate length.
c. Find the average heat transfer coefficient.
d. Show that the average heat transfer coefficient between heights
0 and L is given by Nu = 0.59(GrL Pr)1/4 .
9.3. Derive similarity momentum and energy equations shown in
Equations 9.9 and 9.10.

References
3. W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, Second Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1980.
10
Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer
10.1 Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) Equation

When flow transitions into turbulence, both shear stress and heat transfer
from the surface increase due to turbulent mixing. However, in a fully turbu-
lent region, both shear stress and heat transfer slightly decrease again due to
turbulent boundary-layer thickness growing along the surface. In this section,
we discuss external and internal flow and heat transfer problem in a fully tur-
bulence region. Figure 10.1 shows a sketch of a typical 2-D turbulent boundary
layer for heated flow over a cooled flat surface and the fairly uniform velocity
and temperature profiles across the boundary layer due to turbulent mixing.
A laminar sublayer is developed at a very-near-wall region where turbulent
mixing is damped due to viscous effect. This laminar sublayer thickness is
the major resistance for velocity and temperature changing from the free-
stream value to the wall. In a fully turbulent region, velocity and temperature
change with time at a given location inside the turbulent boundary layer, that
is, u(x, y, t), v(x, y, t), T(x, y, t). These time- and location-dependent behaviors
make turbulent flow and heat transfer much harder to analyze as compared
to laminar boundary-layer flow and heat transfer problem.
The following is to show how to obtain the Reynolds-averaged Navier–
Stokes (RANS) equation for a fully turbulent boundary-layer flow [1–6]. The
idea is to treat a fully turbulent flow as purely random motion superimposed
on a steady (time-averaged) mean flow. This means that the time-dependent
value (such as instantaneous velocity and temperature, etc.) equals the time-
averaged value (Reynolds-averaged value) plus the fluctuation value (due to
random motion). For example, the steady (time-averaged) x-direction velocity
over a period of time can be shown as
t
1
u = lim u(t) dt
t→∞ t
0
and
t
1
u = lim u (t) dt ∼
=0
t→∞ t
0
195
U∞,T∞
δ
v'
−u' u'
y −v'
x Tw δL
u>v
u' ≅ −v'
FIGURE 10.1
Typical turbulent boundary-layer flow velocity and temperature profile.
where t is a large enough time interval, time-averaged velocity u is not affected

by time, and time-averaged fluctuation u is around zero. This can apply to
the y-direction velocity as well as to temperature, pressure, and density.
Figure 10.2 shows the sketches for time-dependent (instantaneous) and
averaged velocity and temperature over a period of time at a given location
(x, y) inside a turbulent boundary layer. The positive and negative fluctu-
ation values (up and down values) is about to cancel each other; averaged
u velocity is much greater than averaged v velocity; however, the fluctuating
u value is about the same as the fluctuating v value with out of phase (when
fluctuating u is positive, fluctuating v is negative); and the fluctuating T value
is also about the same as the fluctuating u value. This is under the condition or
assumption of an isotropic turbulence case. In general, turbulent fluctuating
quantities may not be necessarily the same value.
The following shows the step-by-step method toward the RANS equation.
Turbulent (instantaneous) velocity

V
u
Mean velocity
Turbulent (instantaneous) temperature

T
FIGURE 10.2
Instantaneous time-dependent velocity and temperature profiles inside a turbulent boundary
layer.
Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer 197
Reynolds time-averaged method:

Time dependent (instantaneous) = time averaged (Reynolds averaged) +
fluctuation.
u = u + u ≡ u + u
v = v + v ≡ v + v
T = T + T ≡ T + T
P = P + P ≡ P + P
ρ = ρ + ρ ≡ ρ + ρ
Since

t+Δt
u dt = 0
t

t+Δt
v dt = 0
t

t+Δt
P dt = 0
t

t+Δt
T dt = 0
t
Therefore,
v = T = ρ = P ∼
=0
Substitute the above instantaneous quantities into the original conservation

of mass, momentum, and energy equation, respectively, and then performing
time average over a period of time.
10.1.1 Continuity Equation

Therefore,
∂ ∂
(ρu) + (ρv) = 0 (10.2)
∂x ∂y
and
∂ ∂
ρu + ρv =0 (10.3)
∂x ∂y
10.1.2 Momentum Equation: RANS
Therefore,
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
ρu2 + ρuv + ρu2 + ρu v + ρu + ρuv + 2uρ u
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

∂
∂P
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ uρ v + vρ u = − + ρfx + ρ fx + μ + 2
∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y
Rearranging,

∂u ∂u ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
ρu + ρ u + ρv + ρ v =− + ρfx + ρ fx + μ + 2
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y
(10.5)
⎫
∂ ⎪
+ ρu2 + ρ u2 + uρ u ⎪ ⎬
∂x
6 Reynolds Stress
ρu v + ρ u v + vρ u ⎪
∂
+ ⎪
⎭
∂y
For incompressible flow,

ρ = 0
X-Momentum:
Y-Momentum:

∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂P μ ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂u v ∂v2
u +v + =− + + 2 − − + fy
∂x ∂y ∂t ρ ∂y ρ ∂x2 ∂y ∂x ∂y
+ ,- . + ,- .
viscous forces Reynolds stress, Turbulent stress
(10.7)
From boundary-layer approximation, Y-Momentum equation is not impor-
tant as compared with X-Momentum equation.
10.1.3 Enthalpy/Energy Equation
Therefore,

∂T ∂T
cp (ρu + ρ u ) + ρv + ρ v
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂P ∂P
= k + k +u +v + Φ + ρε (10.9)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂ ∂u 2
+ cp ρu T + ρ u T + uρ T + + ...
∂x ∂x
2
∂
∂u
+ cp ρv T + ρ v T + vρ T + + ...
∂y + ,- . ∂x
6 Reynolds Flux
where Φ is the viscous dissipation and ε is the turbulent dissipation.

For incompressible flow,

ρ = 0
Φ=0
ε=0
10.1.4 Concept of Eddy or Turbulent Diffusivity

The following is a summary from the above RANS equation. The continuity
equation is no useful. The Y-momentum equation is small as compared with
the X-momentum equation. Therefore, only one of six Reynolds stresses and
one of six Reynolds fluxes remain in the RANS equation for a 2-D steady,
incompressible and constant property fully turbulent boundary-layer flow.
In addition to a laminar-type shear stress due to viscous effect, turbulent
stress due to random velocity fluctuation plays the major contribution to
the total pressure loss over a turbulent boundary layer. Similarly, turbulent
flux due to random velocity with temperature fluctuation dominates the total
heat transfer over the turbulent boundary layer. The real problem is how
to quantify the time-averaged Reynolds stress and Reynolds flux because
they are varying with the location (x, y) inside the turbulent boundary. It
is assumed that Reynolds stress is proportional to the velocity gradient and
the proportional constant (actually is not a constant value) is called eddy
or turbulent diffusivity for momentum (turbulent viscosity divided by fluid
density); similarly, Reynolds flux is proportional to temperature gradient and
the proportional constant (actually is not a constant value) is called eddy or
turbulent diffusivity for heat. Therefore, the real turbulent flow problem is
how to determine or how to model the turbulent diffusivity for momentum
(turbulent viscosity) and turbulent diffusivity for heat because they depend
on the location (x, y). It is important to note that molecular Prandtl number
is a ratio of fluid kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity and is a fluid
property depending on what kind of fluid is (e.g., air or water has different
molecular Prandtl numbers); however, turbulent Prandtl number is a ratio of
turbulent diffusivity for momentum to turbulent diffusivity for heat and is
a flow structure behavior depending on how turbulent flow is (e.g., air and
water have the same turbulent Prandtl number at the same turbulent flow
condition). For a simple turbulent flow problem, turbulent Prandtl number is
about one (say 0.9 for most of the models), which implies that one can solve
for turbulent diffusivity for heat if turbulent diffusivity for momentum has
been determined/modeled. Therefore, the first question is how to determine
or model turbulent diffusivity for momentum (turbulent viscosity divided

by fluid density). Once turbulent viscosity is given, one almost solves the
turbulent flow and heat transfer problem.

∂u ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u
1 ∂
u +v = μ − ρu v = (τviscous + τturb. ) (10.11)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂y

∂T ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂
u +v = k − ρCp v T = qmolecular + qturb.
∂x ∂y ρCp ∂y ∂y ρCp ∂y
(10.12)
∂u ∂u
τtotal = τm + τt = μ + ρεm (10.13)
∂y ∂y
where −ρu v = ρεm (∂u/∂y), eddy diffusivity for momentum εm = υt =

(μt /ρ), turbulence viscosity μt = ρεm
∂T ∂T
qtotal = qm + qt = k + ρCp εH (10.14)
∂y ∂y
where −ρCp v T = ρCp εH (∂T/∂y), eddy diffusivity for heat εH = αt
∂u
τtotal = ρ (ν + εm ) (10.15)
∂y
∂T
qtotal = ρCp (α + εH ) (10.16)
∂y
Turbulence Prandtl number
υt εm
Prt = = ∼1 (10.17)
αt εH
So the unknowns are
• Turbulent viscosity μt
• Turbulent diffusivity υt = (μt /ρ) = εm
• Turbulent diffusivity for heat εH = αt
The following shows how to determine the turbulent diffusivity for

momentum.
From force balance in a circular tube as shown in Figure 10.3,
dP 1 ∂
= (rτ)
dx r ∂r

dP d
r = (rτ)
dx dr

dP d
r dr = (rτ) dr
dx dr
Therefore,
1 dP
τ= r ∼r
2 dx
From BCs,
r = 0, τ = 0,
r = R, τ = τw
One obtains
r
τw τ= (10.18)
R
r R−y y ∂u
τ = τw = τw = 1 − τw = ρ(ν + νt )
R R R ∂y
∂u νt y τw
ν 1+ = 1−
∂y ν R ρ

y+ νt ∂u ν νt du+
1− + = 1+ √ √ = 1+
R ν ∂y (τw /ρ) τw /ρ ν dy+
where
'
u yu∗ Ru∗ τw
u+ = , y+ = , R+ = , u∗ =
u∗ v v ρ
ΔP
y
r P1 P2
R
τw
FIGURE 10.3
Force balance in a circular tube.
U∞,T∞
δ
Fully
turbulent
Turbulent δL
flow Very small
FIGURE 10.4
Concept of 2-D turbulent boundary layer flow.
Therefore,
vt εm 1 − (y+ /R+ )
= = −1 (10.19)
v ν (du+ /dy+ )
Similarly, the turbulent diffusivity for momentum for a boundary-layer flow

can be obtained by replacing R+ by δ+ (where δ is turbulent boundary-layer
thickness as shown in Figure 10.4) as
vt εm 1 − (y+/δ+ )
= = −1 (10.20)
v ν (du+/dy+ )
where
δu∗
δ+ =
v
10.1.5 Reynolds Analogy for Turbulent Flow

The following outlines the simple Reynolds analogy between momentum and
heat transfer for a turbulent boundary-layer flow.
τ ρ(ν + εm )(∂u/∂y) (∂u/∂y)

= = (10.21)
q ρCp (α + εH )(∂T/∂y) Cp (∂T/∂y)
If ν = α ⇒ Pr = (ν/α) ≈ 1, then εm ≈ εH ⇒ Prt = (εm /εH ) ≈ 1

The turbulence Prandtl number is the flow structure.
Assume a linear velocity and temperature profile,
τw 1 Δu

= (10.22)
qw Cp ΔT
qw τw
=
Cp (Tw − T∞ ) U∞
where
1 2
τw = ρU · Cf
2 ∞
1 ρU∞ x μCp
Nu = Cf ·
2 μ k
Nu 1 1
= Cf ⇒ Cf = St (10.23)
Re · Pr 2 2
1
Cf = St · Pr2/3 (10.24)
2
For 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 60 for air, water, and oil.

where
Nu (hx/k) h qw
St = = = =
Re · Pr (ρU∞ x/μ) · (μCp /k) ρCp U∞ ρCp U∞ (Tw − T∞ )
(10.25)
There are two kinds of problems:
1. For given Cf to determine St or h;

2. For given h or St, to determine Cf
For a turbulent pipe flow
0.046
Cf = 0.2
(10.26)
ReD
1 0.046 Nu
= Pr2/3
2 ReD0.2 Re · Pr
hD 0.8 1/3
NuD = = 0.023 ReD Pr for cooling (10.27)
k
hD 0.8 0.4
NuD = = 0.023 ReD Pr for heating (10.28)
k
For a turbulent boundary-layer flow,
0.0592
Cf = (10.29)
Rex0.2
1 0.0592 Nux
= Pr2/3
2 Rex0.2 Rex Pr
hx
Nux = = 0.0296 Rex0.8 Pr1/3 (10.30)
k
10.2 Prandtl Mixing Length Theory and Law of Wall

for Velocity and Temperature Profiles
In a laminar boundary-layer flow, universal velocity and temperature profiles
can be obtained by solving conservation equations for mass, momentum, and
energy using the similarity method. In the turbulent flow boundary layer, we
hope to obtain universal velocity and temperature profiles too. The follow-
ing outlines step by step how Prandtl mixing length theory can be applied
to achieve the law of the wall for velocity and temperature profiles (a kind
of universal velocity and temperature profiles for turbulent boundary-layer
flow). Unlike the laminar boundary, however, there is no complete analytical
solution for the turbulent boundary layer due to turbulent random motion
as indicated before. The law of wall for the velocity profile still requires a
predetermined shear stress (or the friction factor from the experimental data)
for a given turbulent flow problem. Therefore, we can only obtain a semithe-
oretical (or semiempirical) velocity profile for turbulent boundary-layer flow.
Figure 10.5 shows the analytical universal velocity profile for a laminar
boundary layer and the semiempirical law of the wall velocity profile for
the turbulent boundary layer.
The following is the details of Prandtl mixing length theory and the law
of the wall for velocity and temperature profiles [3–6]. First, we define the
dimensionless x-direction velocity and y-direction wall coordinate.
u
u+ = (10.31)
u∗
yu∗
y+ = (10.32)
ν
' '
∗ τw (1/2)Cf ρU∞
2 1
u = = = U∞ Cf (10.33)
ρ ρ 2
where u∗ is the friction velocity and Cf is the predetermined friction factor by

experiment.
For example,
−0.2
Cf = 0.046 ReD , for turbulent flow in a tube
Cf = 0.0592 Rex−0.2 , for the turbulent flow over a flat plate
and y+ is the dimensionless wall coordinate or the roughness Reynolds

number.
1
u
f' =
U∞ Blausius
Laminar flow
0
y 5
η= Re x
x
Laminar buffer
u sublayer zone
u+ = Turbulent core
u*
20 Turbulent wake
(core flow)
Data by Martinelli, Von

5 Karman for pipe or B. L.
5 30 500 1000
yu*
ln y + = ν
FIGURE 10.5
Analytical universal velocity profile for laminar boundary layer and semiempirical law of wall
velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer.
Consider a laminar sublayer region, very close to the wall region where
viscosity is dominated and turbulence is damped at the wall.
du
τ = ρν (10.34)
dy

τw du u
=ν ≈ν
ρ dy w y
' '
τw τw du
=ν
ρ ρ dy
du
u∗ u∗ = ν
dy
Therefore,
u yu∗
=
u∗ ν
and
u+ = y + (10.35)
Now, consider a turbulent region, as sketched in Figure 10.6, away from

the wall where turbulence is dominated. From Prandtl mixing length theory,
assuming velocity fluctuation is proportional to velocity gradient and the
mixing length is linearly increasing with distance from the wall,
∂u ∂u
u ∼ =l (10.36)
∂y ∂y
l ≈ y = κy (10.37)
where κ = 0.4, a universal constant from the experimental data by Von

Karman.
And
∂u
v = −u = −κy (10.38)
∂y
Since wall shear is dominated by turbulence and can be approximated as
2
2 2 ∂u
τw ≈ −ρu v = ρκ y (10.39)
∂y
Therefore, from the above Prandtl mixing length assumption,
'
τw ∂u
= κy
ρ ∂y
∂u
u∗ = κy
∂y

du 1
= dy
u∗ κy

1 1
du+ = dy = dy+
ky ky+
v'
−u' u'
−vv''
FIGURE 10.6
Concept of turbulence in 2-D turbulent boundary-layer flow.
Therefore, the law of wall velocity profile can be obtained as
1
u+ = ln y+ + C (10.40)
κ
From the experimental data curve fitting for y+ ≥ 30,

κ = 0.4 or 0.41
u+ = 2.5 ln y+ + 5.0 (10.41)
Or
u+ = 2.44 ln y+ + 5.5 (10.42)
Then, consider the buffer zone between the laminar sublayer and the
turbulence region, 5 ≤ y+ ≤ 30, the velocity profile can be obtained as
u+ = 5 ln y+ − 3.05 (10.43)
It is important to mention that the above three-region velocity profile has

been validated and can be applied for turbulent flow over a flat plate or in a
tube with air, water, or oil as the working fluid. In addition, before showing
the law of wall for temperature profile, it is interesting to point out, just like
for the laminar boundary-layer case, the law of wall for temperature profile
is identical to the law of wall for velocity profile if Prandtl number is unity
(Pr = 1) by replacing the above dimensionless velocity with the appropri-
ate dimensionless temperature with the same dimensionless y-direction wall
coordinate. The effect of Prandtl number on the law of wall for temperature
profile will be discussed in Section 10.3.
10.3 Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer

Consider a fully turbulent flow in a circular tube with uniform wall heat flux
(qw = C) as the thermal BC [4–6], as sketched in Figure 10.7. From the energy
equation,

∂T ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T ∂ 2T
u +v = r(α + εH ) +α 2 (10.44)
∂x ∂r r ∂r ∂r ∂x
y =R−r
r =R−y
dr = −dy
Δx
R
y
x
ΔTb
q"w
FIGURE 10.7
Turbulent flow heat transfer in a circular tube.
For a fully developed flow (v = 0) and assuming (∂ 2 T/∂x2 ) (1/r)

(∂/∂r)[r(α + εH )(∂T/∂r)], the energy equation becomes

∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
u = (R − y)(α + εH )
∂x R − y (−∂y) (−∂y)
Assume
u=V
∂T ∂Tb
=
∂x ∂x
From energy balance,
qw 2πR dx = ρCp VAc dTb

dTb q 2πR 2qw
V = w = ≡C
dx ρCp πR2 ρCp R
And applying BCs,

/
y=0 T = Tw
y=R ∂y = 0
∂T

dTb ∂T
V (R − y) d(−y) = d (R − y)(α + εH )
dx −∂y
dTb 1 dT
V (R − y)2 = (R − y)(α + εH ) +C
dx 2 −dy
1 dTb dT C
(R − y)V = (α + εH ) +
2 dx −dy R − y
where C = 0 at R − y = 0, (dT/dy) = 0.
Therefore,
1 dTb y − R
dT = V dy
2 dx α + εH
T y
1 dTb y−R
dT = V dy
2 dx α + εH
Tw 0
y y+
1 ∂Tb y−R q 1 − (y+ /R+ )
T − Tw = V dy = √w dy+
2 ∂x α + εH ρCp τw /ρ (1/Pr) + (εH /ν)
0 0
Therefore,
y+
Tw − T 1 − (y+ /R+ )
T + ≡ = dy+ (10.45)
(qw /ρCp u∗ ) (1/Pr) + (εH /ν)
0
The above equation can be integrated if one assumes

εH εm εm
≈ or Prt = ≈1
ν ν εH
And from Equation 10.19,
εm 1 − (y+ /R+ )
= −1
υ (du+ /dy+ )
For the laminar sublayer region,
du+ εm
0 ≤ y+ ≤ 5, y + R+ , u+ = y+ , = 1, =0
dy+ ν
For the buffer zone,
du+ 5
5 ≤ y+ ≤ 30, u+ = 5 ln y+ − 3.05, = +
dy+ y
For the turbulent region
du+ 2.5
y+ ≥ 30, u+ = 2.5 ln y+ + 5.0, = +
dy+ y
The above energy integral equation 10.45 can be obtained in the following
three-regions and the Prandtl number effect is shown in Figure 10.8.
y+
+ 1 − (y+ /R+ )
T = dy+
(1/Pr) + (εH /ν)
0
εH εm
=
ν ν
For the region 0 ≤ y+ ≤ 5 with y+ ≈ 0 and (εm /ν) ≈ 0,
y+
T + = Pr dy+ = Pr y+
0
+ +
u =y , T + = Pr y+ (10.46)
For the region 5 ≤ y+ ≤ 30 with u+ = 5 ln y+ − 3.05 and (y+/R+ ) ≈ 0,
εm εH y+
= = −1
ν ν 5
y+
1
T + − T5+ = dy+
(1/Pr) + (y+ /5) − 1
5
y+
1 1 y+
=5 d + − 1
(1/Pr) + (y+ /5) − 1 Pr 5
5
Pr
u
= u+
u* 20
(Tw −T )
= T+ If Pr = 1,
⎛ "
qw ⎞ u+ ≅ T +
⎝ ρCpu* ⎠ 5
5 30 500 1000
yu*
ln y+ =
ν
FIGURE 10.8
Law of wall temperature profile for turbulent boundary layer.
Therefore,

1 y+ 1 5
T + − T5+ = 5 ln + − 1 − 5 ln + −1
Pr 5 Pr 5
(1/Pr) + (y+ /5) − 1
= 5 ln
(1/Pr)

Pr y+
= 5 ln 1 + − Pr (10.47)
5
For the region 30 ≤ y+ with u+ = 2.5 ln y+ + 5.0, (du+/dy+ ) = (2.5/y+ ) and
εH εm 1 − (y+ /R+ )
= = −1
ν ν (2.5/y+ )
{[ ] }−1
Therefore,
+
T + − T30 = 2.5 ln y+ − 2.5 ln 30 (10.48)
The next question is how to determine heat transfer coefficient from the law
of wall for temperature profile. This is shown in the following.
One assumes the simple velocity and temperature profiles as
u y 1/7 r 1/7
∼
= = 1−
Umax R R
T − Tw ∼ y 1/7 r 1/7
= = 1−
Tc − T w R R
Therefore,
∫ u2πr dr
ub or V= = 0.82Umax
∫ 2πr dr
∫R
0 (Tw − Tc )(1 − (r/R))
1/7 U
max (1 − (r/R))
1/7 · r dr
Tw − T b =
∫R
0 Umax (1 − (r/R))
1/7 · r dr
∼ 15
= (Tw − Tc )
18
= 0.833(Tw − Tc )
where
(Tw − Tc ) = (Tw − T5 ) + (T5 − T30 ) + (T30 − Tc )

+
q R
= ∗
5Pr + 5 ln(5Pr + 1) + 2.5 ln
ρCp u 30
Therefore,
qw qw
h= =
Tw − T b 0.833(q /ρCp u∗ )[5Pr + 5 ln(5Pr + 1) + 2.5 ln(Ru∗ /v30)]
The final heat transfer coefficient and the Nusselt number are expressed as
√
hD Re · Pr Cf /2
NuD ≡ = √ (10.49)
k 0.833 5Pr + 5 ln(5Pr + 1) + 2.5 ln (ReD Cf /2)/60
where
0.046 0.079
Cf = 0.2
or Cf = 0.25
ReD ReD
For given ReD , and Pr, the above prediction is fairly close to the following
experimental correlation:
hD 0.8 0.3 0.8 0.4

NuD ≡ ≈ 0.023 ReD Pr or ≈ 0.023 ReD Pr
k
Consider a fully turbulent boundary-layer flow over a flat plate with

uniform wall temperature as the thermal BC (Tw = C) [4–6]. From energy
equation,

∂T ∂T ∂ ∂T
u +v = (α + εH ) (10.50)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
For a fully turbulent boundary-layer flow (v = 0) and assume
∂T ∂Tw
∼ ≈0
∂x ∂x
One can obtain the law of wall for temperature profile as
y+
1
T+ = dy+
(1/Pr) + (εH /ν)
0
Follow a similar procedure as in the previous case; one can obtain three-region
temperature profile.
where c = (− qw /ρCp ).

Therefore,
∂T −qw
(α + εH ) =
∂y ρCp

∂T − qw /ρCp
=
∂y α + εH

y
− qw 1 u∗
T − Tw = dy ∗
ρCp υ((1/Pr) + (εH /υ)) u
0
y
qw 1
Tw − T = dy+ (10.51)
ρCp u∗ ((1/Pr) + (εH /υ))
0
where εH εm .
And from Equation 10.20,
εm 1 − (y+/δ+ )
= −1
υ (du+/dy+ )
Follow the same procedure as outlined before:
0 < y+ < 5, u+ = y+
T + = Pr y+ (10.52)
5 < y+ ≤ 30,u+ = 5 ln y+ − 3.05

+ + Pr y+
T − T5 = 5 ln 1 + − Pr (10.53)
5
30 ≤ y+ , u+ = 2.5 ln y+ + 5.0
+
T + − T30 = 2.5 ln y+ − 2.5 ln 30 (10.54)
Note that ΔT + = Δu+ at y+ ≥ 30

+
T + − T30 = u+ − u+
30
+ + +
T∞ − T30 = u+
∞ − u30
where
u∞ 1
u+
30 = 14, u+
∞ = ∗
=√
u Cf /2
Therefore,
Tw − T∞ = (Tw − T5 ) + (T5 − T30 ) + (T30 − T∞ )

qw + +
= [5Pr + 5 ln(5Pr + 1) + (T∞ − T30 )]
ρCp u∗
qw qw
h= = √
Tw − T ∞ (qw /ρCp u∗ )[5Pr + 5 ln(5Pr + 1) + ((1/ Cf /2) − 14)]
The final heat transfer coefficient and the Stantan number can be obtained as

1/5
where Nux = (hx/k), Rex = (ρU∞ x/μ), Cf = 0.0592/Rex .
For given Rex and Pr, the above predict Nux value is very close to the
following experimental correlation:
Nux = 0.0296Rex0.8 Pr1/3
Remarks
In undergraduate heat transfer, students are expected to know how to
calculate heat transfer coefficients (Nusselt numbers) for turbulent flows over
a flat plate at uniform surface temperature and inside a circular tube at uni-
form surface heat flux, by using heat transfer correlations from experiments,
that is, Nusselt numbers relate to Reynolds numbers and Prandtl numbers.
There are many engineering applications involving turbulent flow conditions.
These turbulent flow heat transfer correlations are very useful for basic heat
transfer calculations such as for heat exchangers design.
In intermediate-level heat transfer, this chapter focuses on how to derive
RANS equation; introduce the concept of turbulent viscosity and turbulent
Prandtl number; Reynolds analogy; Prandtl mixing length theory; law of
wall for velocity and temperature profiles; and turbulent flow heat transfer
coefficients derived from law of wall velocity and temperature profiles and
their comparisons with the heat transfer correlations from experiments.

This classic turbulent flow theory is important to provide students with
fundamental background in order to handle advanced turbulence models.
In advanced turbulent heat transfer, students will learn many more top-
ics such as flow transition and transitional flow heat transfer; unsteady high
turbulence flow and heat transfer; surface roughness effect and heat trans-
fer enhancement; rotating flow, and heat transfer; high-speed flow and heat
transfer; and advanced turbulence models including the two-equation model
and the Reynolds stress model.
PROBLEMS
10.1. Consider a steady low-speed, constant-property, fully turbu-
lent boundary-layer flow over a flat surface at constant wall
temperature. Based on the Reynolds time-averaged concept,
the following momentum and energy equations are listed for
reference:

∂u ∂u ∂ ∂u
u +v = (ν + εM )
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

∂T ∂T ∂ ν ε ∂T
u +v = + M
∂x ∂y ∂y Pr Prt ∂y
a. Define dimensionless parameters, u+ , T + , and y+ , respec-

tively, for universal velocity and temperature profiles for
turbulent flow and heat transfer problems.
b. Based on the Prandtl’s mixing length theory, derive and plot
(u+ versus y+ ) the following universal velocity profile (make
necessary assumptions):
u+ = y+ for a viscous sub-layer region
u+ = 1/κny+ + C for a turbulent layer (the law of the wall
region)
c. Based on the heat and momentum transfer analogy, derive
and plot (T + versus y+ ) for various Pr the universal temper-
ature profile (i.e., temperature law of the wall, T + (y+ , Pr))
for a turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate. Make necessary
assumptions.
10.2. Consider a fully developed turbulent pipe flow with a uniform
qw . If a two-layer universal velocity profiles can be assumed as
u+ = y + for 0 ≤ y+ < 13.6
u+ = 5.0 + 2.44ny+ for 13.6 ≤ y+
Derive the corresponding two-layer university temperature

profiles.
Also, predict the local u and T at y = 0.05 cm from the pipe wall
under the following conditions: friction velocity u∗ = 10 m/s ∼ =
√
τw /ρ, friction temperature T ∗ = 3◦ C ∼
= qw /(ρcp u∗ ), pipe wall
temperature Tw =100◦ C, air flow Prandtl Pr = 0.7
10.3. Consider the Von Kaŕman–Martinelli heat–momentum analogy
for a turbulent pipe flow:
a. If a two-layer universal velocity profile will be employed,
that is,
ū+ = y+ for 0 < y+ < 10
ū+ = 5.0 + 2.5 n y+ for 10 < y+
For a constant wall heat flux, determine the universal tem-

perature profiles at the corresponding two-layer region. Then
determine the NuD where NuD = function (ReD , Pr, f ).
b. If ReD = 104 , Pr = 1, calculate NuD from (a) and then com-
pare it with correlation NuD = 0.023 ReD 0.8 · Pr0.4 . If velocity
increases, the laminar sublayer thickness will be increased or
decreased? Why? How about NuD ?
10.4. Consider a fully developed turbulent flow between two paral-
lel plates with a gap of b and a uniform wall heat flux (q/A)w .
Using the Kaŕman–Martinelli analogy, determine the turbulent
heat transfer coefficient. The result should be in a format such as
h2b
Nu = = function of (Re, Pr, f )
k
If Re = (V2b/υ) = 2 × 103 , 2 × 104 , 2 × 105 , and Pr = 0.7, com-
pare your result of Nu to those of semiempirical correlations, such
that Nu = (h2b/k) = 0.023Re0.8 Pr0.4
10.5. Consider the turbulent flow heat transfer.
a. Derive the following momentum and energy equations
for a turbulent boundary-layer flow, a 2-D flat plate,
incompressible, constant properties:

∂u ∂u ∂ ∂u
u +v = (ν + εM )
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

∂T ∂T ∂ ν εM ∂T
u +v = +
b. Derive the following momentum and energy equations for a

fully developed turbulent flow in a circular tube, incompress-
ible, constant properties:

1 d du 1 dP
r(v + εM ) =
r dr dr ρ dx

∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
u = r(α + εH )
∂x r ∂r ∂r
10.6. Consider a fully developed turbulent pipe flow in a circular tube

with a 5.0 cm I-D, constant properties.
a. Draw the velocity distribution from Martinelli Universal

Velocity Profile (i.e., law of the wall) for air flow at 1 atm, 25◦ C,
and ReD = 30, 000.
b. Calculate the laminar sublayer thickness.
10.7. Consider the turbulent boundary-layer flow heat transfer: Air at
300 K, 1 atm, flows at 12 m/s along a flat plate maintained at 600 K.
Plot the temperature profile T(y) across the boundary layer for the
following two cases:
a. At a location x = 0.1 m for a laminar boundary layer.
b. At a location x = 1.0 m if the transition Reynolds number is
105 .
Plot both profiles on the same graph to show significant
differences.
c. Determine Cfx , τs , u∗ , Stx , Nux , hx , and qs for case (b).
10.8. Consider a 2-D incompressible turbulent flow in a pipe.
a. Specialize (simplify) the given continuity and Navier–Stokes
equations for a fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe.
Write appropriate BCs to solve the flow equations for a fully
developed turbulent flow. Do not attempt to solve the problem.
b. The velocity profile (u(r)) for a fully developed turbulent flow
in a pipe is given by

u R − r 1/7
=
umax R
where R is the pipe radius, r is the radial distance measured

from the pipe axis, and Umax is the maximum velocity. Calcu-
late mean or the bulk velocity (Um ) for a fully developed flow
in terms of Umax .
c. Obtain an expression for the skin friction coefficient (Fanning
friction factor) for a fully developed turbulent flow in terms
of ReD , where ReD is the Reynolds number based on the pipe
hydraulic diameter.
10.9. Consider a steady low-speed, constant-property, fully turbu-
lent boundary-layer flow over a flat surface at constant wall
temperature.
a. Based on the Reynolds time-averaged concept, derive the fol-
lowing momentum and energy equations (make necessary
assumptions):

∂u ∂u ∂ ∂u
u +v = (ν + εM )
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

∂T ∂T ∂ ν ε ∂T
u +v = + M
b. Define dimensionless parameters, u+ , T + , and y+ , respec-

tively, for universal velocity and temperature profiles for tur-
bulent flow and heat transfer problems. Based on the Prandtl’s
mixing length theory, the following universal velocity profile

has been derived:
u+ = y+ for the viscous sublayer region.
u+ = (1/κ) ln y+ + C for the turbulent layer (the law of the
wall region).
Now, based on the heat and momentum transfer analogy,
derive and plot (T + versus y+ for various Pr) the universal
temperature profile (i.e., temperature law of the wall, T + (y+ ,
Pr)] for a turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate? Make the
necessary assumptions.
10.10. Consider a steady low-speed, constant-property, fully turbulent
boundary-layer flow over a flat surface at constant wall tempera-
ture. Based on the Reynolds time-averaged concept, the following
momentum and energy equations can be derived:

∂u ∂u ∂ ∂u
u +v = (ν + εM )
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

∂T ∂T ∂ ν ε ∂T
u +v = + M
a. Explain why the turbulent viscosity and turbulent Prandtl

number should be included in the above equations. Explain
the physical meaning and the importance of the turbulent
viscosity and turbulent Prandtl number, respectively.
b. Based on the Prandtl’s mixing length theory, the following
universal velocity profile has been obtained:
u+ = y+ for the viscous sublayer region.
u+ =(1/κ) ln y+ + C for the turbulent layer (the law of the
wall region).
Based on the heat and momentum transfer analogy, derive and
plot (T + versus y+ for various Pr) the universal temperature
profile for a turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate. Make
necessary assumptions.
References
2. F. Incropera, and D. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth Edition,
3. W.M. Kays and M.E. Crawford, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, Second Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1980.
5. H. Schlichting, Boundary-Layer Theory, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,
NY, 1968.
6. E. Levy, Convection Heat Transfer, Class Notes, Lehigh University, 1973.
11
Fundamental Radiation
11.1 Thermal Radiation Intensity and Emissive Power

Any surface can emit energy as long as its surface temperature is greater
than absolute zero. Thermal radiation can refer to (1) surface radiation and
(2) gas or volume radiation. Surface radiation is that radiation which comes
from an opaque material surface (such as a solid or liquid surface,1 μm thick
from the surface). Gas radiation is that radiation which comes from a volume
of gas (such as, CO2 , H2 O, CO, or NH3 ). But gas radiation does not occur
from a volume of air (air cannot emit or absorb radiation energy). Modern
theory describes the nature of radiation in terms of electromagnetic waves
that travel at the speed of light. The various forms of radiation differ only
in terms of wavelength. In this chapter, the discussion will be confined to
thermal radiation [1–4], as shown in Figure 11.1. Thermal radiation primarily
depends on wavelength (spectral distribution, 0.1–100 μm, from visible light
to infrared (IR)), direction (directional distribution, θ, φ), and material tem-
perature (absolute temperature, ◦ K or ◦ R) and material radiation properties.
Figure 11.2 shows the nature of spectral and directional distributions.
What follows try to establish the relation between surface radiation flux
(i.e., radiation rate per unit surface area, or called emissive power) and radi-
ation intensity. Here we assume that radiation intensity from a surface is
given. The later section will discuss how to obtain the radiation intensity value
from Planck. Figure 11.3 shows the conceptual view of a hemispheric radi-
ation from a surface (consider radiation from the upper surface only) [4].
Monochromatic directional radiation intensity (function of wavelength and
temperature in all directions) is defined as differential radiation rate per unit
surface area and unit solid angle,
dq
Iλ (θ, ϕ, λ, T) = (11.1)
dAn dω
where dω is the unit solid angle,
dAn rdθ · r sin θ · dϕ

dω = 2
= = sin θ dθ dϕ
r r2
221
Visible
Yellow
Green
Violet
Blue
Red
X-rays Infrared
Ultraviolet
Microwave
Thermal radiation
Gamma
rays
0.4 0.7
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103 104

μm
FIGURE 11.1
Conceptual view of hemispheric radiation.
and
dAn = dA cos θ
Therefore, differential surface radiation flux (or differential emissive power)

becomes
dq
≡ dEλ = Iλ (θ, ϕ, λ, T) sin θ cos θ dθ dϕ
dA
After integration in all directions, the monochromatic hemispherical emis-
sive power is
π/2
2π
Eλ = Iλ (θ, ϕ, λ, T) sin θ cos θ dθ dϕ (11.2)
0 0
(a) Spectral (b)

distribution θ
radiation emission
Monochromatic
Wavelength
FIGURE 11.2
(a) Spectral radiation varies with wavelength. (b) Directional distribution.
Fundamental Radiation 223
(a) n (b) r
dAn = r2 sin θ dθ dφ dl
r dθ
r sin
θ dα = dl/r
r r sin θ dφ (c)
θ r
dθ
dA dAn
dφ dω = dAn/r2
FIGURE 11.3
(a) Conceptual view of hemispheric radiation from a differential element area. (b) Definition of
plane angle. (c) Definition of solid angle.
The total hemispherical emissive power (integration over wavelength) is

∞
E(T) = Eλ (λ, T) dλ (11.3)

0
For the isotropic surface (independent of circumferential direction angle),

for most of the surfaces,
π/2

Eλ = 2π Iλ (θ, λ, T) sin θ cos θ dθ
0
For the isotropic and black surface (independent of vertical direction angle),
π/2

Eb,λ = 2πIb,λ (λ, T) sin θ cos θ dθ = πIb,λ (11.4)
0
11.2 Surface Radiation Properties for Blackbody

and Real-Surface Radiation
Total emissive power for black surface (ideal surface)
Eb = πIb = σT 4 (11.5)
Total emissive power for real surface
E = πI = εσT 4 (11.6)
Monochromatic emissivity, a surface radiation property, is defined as

monochromatic emissive power from a real surface to an ideal surface.
E(θ, ϕ, λ, T)
ελ,θ (θ, ϕ, λ, T) = (11.7)
Eb (λ, T)
Therefore, the total hemispherical emissivity can be obtained as a ratio

of total emissive power from a real surface to an ideal surface. The total
emissivity varies from 0 to 1.
E(T)
ε(T) = =0∼1 (11.8)
Eb (T)
Gray surface is defined as if surface emissivity is independent of wavelength

as sketched in Figure 11.4. Diffuse surface is defined as if surface emissivity is
independent of direction as sketched in Figure 11.4. In general, the experimen-
tal data show that normal emissivity of nonconductive materials (about 0.9,
such as nonmetals) is much higher than conductive materials (about 0.1, such
as metals). Emissivity is the most important radiation property and slightly
depends on temperature. Emissivity is measured from experiments and is
available for various materials from any heat transfer textbook.
In addition to emission, a surface can reflect, absorb, or transmit any
oncoming radiation energy (irradiation). Figure 11.5 sketches an energy bal-
ance between irradiation (radiation coming to the surface) and reflection,
absorption, and transmission. Absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity
are defined as the portions of irradiation that are absorbed, reflected, and
transmitted, respectively. For many engineering gray and diffuse materials,
we can assume that surface absorptivity is the same as surface emissivity
(ελ,θ = αλ,θ , ελ = αλ , then ε = α, but in general ε = α), and transmissivity is
εθ
ελ Non conductor
ε 0.9 ε
Conductor
0.1 ε
λ θ
0 45° 90°
Gray surface ε ≅ ελ = const Diffuse surface ε ≅ εθ = const
FIGURE 11.4
Definition of gray surface and diffuse surface.
G, irradiation ρG irradiation
αG absorption
τG transmission
FIGURE 11.5
Radiation energy balance on a surface.
about zero (except window glasses); therefore, reflectivity can be found from
emissivity too.
Absorptivity α = Ga /G
Reflectivity ρ = Gρ /G
Transmissivity τ = Gτ /G
From radiation energy balance, α + ρ + τ = 1
If τ = 0, and assume α = ε, then ρ = 1 − α ≈ 1 − ε
Blackbody radiation is the maximum radiation from an ideal surface.
Blackbody is a diffuse surface and can emit the maximum radiation and can
absorb the maximum radiation (i.e., α = 1and ε = 1). Therefore, blackbody
radiation intensity is not a function of direction ( = (θ, ϕ)), but a function of
wavelength and temperature (= (λ, T)). Planck obtained blackbody radiation
intensity from quantum theory as
2hC02
Iλ,b (λ, T) = (11.9)
λ5 exp (hC0 /λkT) − 1
where h is the Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10−34 J s, C0 is the speed of light in

vacuum = 2.998 × 108 m/s, k is the Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381 × 10−23 J/K,
and T is the absolute temperature, ◦ K or ◦ R. Or, it can be shown as follows:
C1 λ−5
Eλ,b = πIλ,b =
e 2 /λT) − 1
(C
where C1 = 2πhC02 = 3.742 × 108 W μm4 /m2
C2 = hC0 /k = 1.4389 × 104 μm K
Therefore, Planck emissive power for the black surface can be shown as
2hC02 C1
Eλ,b (λ, T) = πIλ,b (λ, T) = π = 5
λ [exp (hC0 /λkT) − 1]
5 λ [exp(C2 /λT) − 1]
Performing integration over the entire wavelength, one obtains Stefan–

Boltzmann law for blackbody radiation as

∞
∞
Eb (T) = Eλ,b (λ, T) dλ = πIλ (λ, T) dλ = σT 4 W/m2 (11.10)

0 0
with the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
σ = f (C1 , C2 ) = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4
However, for a real surface the emissive power is lower than Planck’s black-
body radiation (because the emissivity for the real surface is less than unity).
Therefore, the emissive power for the real surface is
E = εσT 4 (11.11)
Figure 11.6 shows emissive power versus wavelength over a wide range of
temperatures [1–4]. In general, emissive power increases with absolute tem-
perature; emissive power for the black surface (solid lines) is greater than that
for the real gray surface (lower than the solid lines, depending on emissivity)
for a given temperature.
Visible spectrum region
108
lmaxT=2898 mm K
Spectral emissive power, El,b (W/m2 mm)
106 Solar radiation

5800 K
2000 K
104
1000 K
102 800 K
100
300 K
10–2
10–4
10–1 100 101 102
Wavelength, l (mm)
FIGURE 11.6
Spectral blackbody emissive power.
ε(λ)
Ts = 500 K 0.8 ε3
Brick ε2
wall 0.5
Tc = 2000 K
0.1 ε1
0 1.5 10 λ, μm
λ1 λ2
Coal bed
FIGURE 11.7
Radiation between hot coal bed and cold brick wall with nongray.
From Figure 11.6 we see that the blackbody emissive power distribution has
a maximum and that the corresponding wavelength λmax depends on tem-
perature. Taking a derivation on Equation 11.9 with respect to λ and setting
the result as equal to zero, we obtain Wien’s displacement law as
λmax T = C3 = 2898 μm K (11.12)
The focus of Wien’s displacement law is also shown in Figure 11.5. According
to this result, the maximum emissive power is displaced to shorter wave-
lengths with increasing temperature. For example, the maximum emission
is in the middle of the visible spectrum (λmax ≈ 0.5 μm) for solar radiation
at 5800 K; the peak emission occurs at λmax = 1 μm for a tungsten filament
lamp operating at 2900 K emitting white light, although most of the emission
remains in the IR region.
There are many engineering surfaces with diffuse but not gray behaviors. In
this case, surface emissivity is a function of wavelength and is not the same as
absorptivity. Figure 11.7 shows the radiation problem between a hot coal bed
and a cold brick wall with an emissivity function of wavelength [4]. To deter-
mine emissive power from the cold brick wall, one needs to determine the
average emissivity from the brick wall first. The following outlines a method
to determine average emissivity and absorptivity.
The following shows how to determine ε(Ts ), E(Ts ), and α(Ts ). Average
emissivity can be determined by adding three regions of wavelength shown
in Figure 11.7. Then treat each region as a product of constant emissivity and
fraction of blackbody emissive power to total blackbody emissive power as
shown in Figure 11.8. The fraction value is a function of wavelength and
temperature, and can be obtained from integration in each region (e.g., see
Figure 11.9 or Table 11.1) [4].
∞
0 ε(λ)Eb dλ
ε(Ts ) = (11.13)
Eb
λ1 λ2 λ3
0 Eb dλ λ1 Eb dλ λ2 Eb dλ
= ε1 + ε2 + ε1 (11.14)
Eb Eb Eb
E(λ,b) λ
(λT ) ∫Eλ,b dλ
0
0 λ λ1 λ2 λ3
FIGURE 11.8
Concept of fraction method from a blackbody.
= ε1 F0−λ1 + ε2 [F0−λ2 − F0−λ1 ] + ε3 [1 − F0−λ2 ] (11.15)

= 0.1 × 0 + 0.5 × 0.634 + 0.8 × (1 − 0.634)
where
λ
Eλ,b dλ λ
λT
0 0 Eλ,b dλ Eλ,b d(λT)
F0−λ = = = = f (λT) (11.16)

∞ σT 4 σT 5
Eλ,b dλ 0
0
λ2 λ
0 Eλ,b dλ − 0 1 Eλ,b dλ
Fλ1 −λ2 = = F0−λ2 − F0−λ1 (11.17)
σT 4
From Table 11.1 or from Figure 11.9, F0−λ is a function of λT(μm K), with
T = Ts = 500 K, emission from the brick wall.
1.0
0.8
0.6
F(0→λ)
0.4
0.2
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
λT × 10−3 (μm K)
FIGURE 11.9
Fraction of the total blackbody emission in the spectral band from 0 to λ as a function of λT.
TABLE 11.1
Blackbody Radiation Functions
λT(μm · K) F(0→λ)
200 0.000000
400 0.000000
600 0.000000
800 0.000016
1000 0.000321
1200 0.002134
1400 0.007790
1600 0.019718
1800 0.039341
2000 0.066728
2200 0.100888
2400 0.140256
2600 0.183120
2800 0.227897
2898 0.250108
3000 0.273232
3200 0.318102
3400 0.361735
3600 0.403607
3800 0.443382
4000 0.480877
4200 0.516014
4400 0.548796
4600 0.579280
4800 0.607559
5000 0.633747
5200 0.658970
5400 0.680360
5600 0.701046
5800 0.720158
6000 0.737818
6200 0.754140
6400 0.769234
6600 0.783199
6800 0.796129
7000 0.808109
7200 0.819217
7400 0.829527
continued
TABLE 11.1 (continued)

Blackbody Radiation Functions
λT(μm · K) F(0→λ)
7600 0.839102
7800 0.848005
8000 0.856288
8500 0.874608
9000 0.890029
9500 0.903085
10,000 0.914199
10,500 0.923710
11,000 0.931890
11,500 0.939959
12,000 0.945098
13,000 0.955139
14,000 0.962898
15,000 0.969981
16,000 0.973814
18,000 0.980860
20,000 0.985602
25,000 0.992215
30,000 0.995340
40,000 0.997967
50,000 0.998953
75,000 0.999713
100,000 0.999905
Source: Data from F. Incropera and D. Dewritt,

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,
Fifth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY, 2002.
The radiation constants used to generate these
blackbody functions are
C1 = 3.7420 × 108 μm4 /m2

C2 = 1.4388 × 104 μm · K
σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4
Therefore, the average emissivity can be calculated as
ε(Ts ) = 0.61
and the total emissive power is
E(Ts ) = ε(Ts )σTs4 = 2161 W/m2

The brick wall is not a gray surface, and hence α(Ts ) = ε(Ts ). But it is a diffuse
surface, and hence α(λ) = ε(λ). The irradiation from the black coal bed (at
temperature Tc = 2000 K) to the brick wall is G(λ) ∝ Eb . The following shows
a similar way to determine brick wall absorptivity.
∞ ∞
0 α(λ)G(λ) dλ ε(λ)Eb dλ
α(Ts ) ≡ ∞ = 0 (11.18)
0 G(λ) dλ
Eb
= ε1 F0−λ1 + ε2 [F0−λ2 − F0−λ1 ] + ε3 [1 − F0−λ2 ] (11.19)
= 0.1 × 0.275 + 0.5 × (0.986 − 0.273) + 0.8 × (1 − 0.986)
where the fraction value can be found from Table 11.1, or from Figure 11.9,
with T = Tc = 2000 K, irradiation from the black coal bed.
Therefore, average absorptivity can be calculated as
α(Ts ) = 0.395 < 0.61 for ε(Ts )
11.3 Solar and Atmospheric Radiation

Solar radiation is essential to all life on earth. Through the thermal and
photovoltaic process, solar radiation is important for the design of solar collec-
tors, air-conditioning systems for buildings and vehicles, temperature control
systems for spacecrafts, and photocells for electricity. The sun is approxi-
mate as a spherical radiation source with a diameter of 1.39 × 109 m and is
located around 1.50 × 1011 m from the earth. The average solar flux (solar
constant) incident on the outer edge of the Earth’s atmosphere is about
1353 W/m2 . Assuming a blackbody radiation, the sun’s temperature can be
estimated at about 5800 K. Figure 11.10 shows the spectral distribution of
solar radiation [2]. The radiation is concentrated in the low-wavelength region
(0.2 ≤ λ ≤ 3 μm) with the peak value of 0.50 μm.
The magnitude spectral and directional distributions of solar flux change
significantly as solar radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere. The
change is due to absorption and scattering of the radiation by the atmo-
sphere particles and gases. The effect of absorption by the atmosphere gases
O3 (ozone), H2 O vapor, O2 , and CO2 is shown by the lower curve in Figure
11.10. Absorption by ozone is strong in the UV region, providing considerable
attenuation below 0.3–0.4 μm. In the visible light region (0.4–0.7 μm), absorp-
tion is contributed by O3 and O2 ; in the IR region (0.7–3.0 μm), absorption is
due to H2 O vapor and CO2 . The effect of scattering by particles and gases is
that about half goes back to atmosphere and half comes to the earth surface.
Therefore, the average solar flux incident on the Earth’s surface is reduced
to about 300–800 W/m2 , depending on the time of the day, the season, the
latitude, and the weather conditions.
2000
Solar spectrum outside
the Earth’s atmosphere
Monochromatic solar energy flux (W/m2 μm)
1600 Solar spectrum on ground
under a clear atmosphere
O3
1200
H2O
800 O2
O3
H2O, CO2
400 H2O, CO2
H2O
0
0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Wavelength (μm)
FIGURE 11.10
Solar spectra outside the Earth’s atmosphere and on the ground.
It is known that H2 O vapor and CO2 gas in the atmosphere not only absorb
solar radiation but also absorb radiation from the Earth’s surface at around
300 K that give radiation of wavelengths from 10 to 20 μm with an emissivity
about 1.0. In addition, H2 O vapor and CO2 gas in the atmosphere (sky) can
also emit energy at wavelengths of 5–10 μm at the effective sky temperature
around 250–270 K (assume an emissivity of about 0.8–1.0).
Figure 11.11 shows a typical setup for a solar collector. A special glass is
used as a cover for the collector and a specialized coating is used on the
collector plate and tubes where the solar energy is collected to maximize the
performance of the collector.
Solar energy
Glass
cover
Collector plate Tubes
FIGURE 11.11
A typical setup for a solar collector.
q '' Gs
radiation
window−sky
q ''
convection
outside air
q ''
radiation
window−walls
q ''
convection
room air
FIGURE 11.12
A typical design for a house with the skylight.
Figure 11.12 shows a typical design for a house with the skylight. The thin
glass of the skylight of a house has a specific spectral emissivity or absorptivity
distribution. For a given solar flux, atmospheric emission flux, interior surface
emission flux, inside and outside house convection conditions, the thin glass
temperature or the inside house temperature can be predicted.
Examples
11.1. A simple solar collector plate without the cover glass has a selective absorber
surface of high absorptivity α1 (for λ < 1 μm) and low absorptivity α2 (for
λ > 1 μm). Assume that solar irradiation flux = Gs , the effective sky tem-
perature =Tsky , the absorber surface temperature =Ts , and the ambient air

temperature =T∞ ; determine the useful heat removal flux (quseful ) from the
collector under these conditions. What is the correspondent efficiency (η)
of the collector?
SOLUTION
Performing an energy balance on the absorber plate per unit surface area,
we obtain

quseful
= αs Gs + αsky Gsky − qconv −E
q
η = useful
Gs
where αs = α1
αsky = α2
4
Gsky = σTsky
E = εσTs4
ε∼
= α2

qconv = h(Ts − T∞ )
11.2. A thin glass is used on the roof of a greenhouse. The glass is totally trans-
parent for λ < 1 μm, and opaque with an absorptivity α = 1 for λ > 1 μm.
Assume that solar flux = Gs , atmospheric emission flux = Gatm , thin glass
temperature = Tg , and interior surface emission flux=Gi , where Gatm and Gi
are concentrated in the far IR region (λ > 10 μm), and determine the tem-
perature of the greenhouse ambient air (i.e., inside room air temperature,
T∞,i ).
SOLUTION
Performing an energy balance on the thin glass plate per unit surface
area, and considering two convection processes (inside and outside green-
house), two emissions (inside and outside the glass plate), and three
absorbed irradiations (from solar, atmospheric, interior surface), we obtain
T∞,i from
αs Gs + αatm Gatm + ho (T∞,o − Tg ) + hi (T∞,i − Tg ) + αi Gi − 2εσTg4 = 0
where αs = solar absorptivity for absorption of Gλ,s ∼ Eλ,b (λ, 5800 K)
= α1 F0−1 μm + α2 [1 − F0−1 μm
= 0 × 0.72 + 1.0[1 − 0.72]

= 0.28(Note that from Table 11.1, λT = 1 μm × 5800 K, F0−1 μm = 0.72)
αatm = absorptivity for λ > 10 μm = 1

αi = absorptivity for λ > 10 μm = 1
ε = αλ for λ 1 μm, emissivity of the glass for long wavelength
emission = 1
ho = convection heat transfer coefficient of the outside roof
hi = convection heat transfer coefficient of the inside room
Remarks
This chapter covers the same topics as in the undergraduate-level heat trans-
fer. These include spectrum thermal radiation intensity and emissive power
for a blackbody as well as a real surface at elevated temperatures; surface radi-
ation properties such as spectral emissivity and absorptivity for real-surface
radiation; how to obtain the total emissivity or absorptivity from the fraction
method; how to perform energy balance from a flat surface including radi-
ation and convection; and solar and atmospheric radiation problems. This
chapter provides fundamental thermal radiation and surface properties that
are useful for many engineering applications such as surface radiators, space
vehicles, and solar collectors.
PROBLEMS
11.1. A diffuse surface having the following spectral distributions
(ελ = 0.3 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 4 μm, ελ = 0.7 for 4 μm ≤ λ) is maintained
at 500 K when situated in a large furnace enclosure whose walls
are maintained at 1500 K. Neglecting convection effects,
a. Determine the surface’s total hemispherical emissivity (ε) and
absorptivity (α).
b. What is the net heat flux to the surface for the prescribed
conditions?
Given: σ = 5.67 × 10−8 (W/m2 K4 )
11.2. An opaque, gray surface at 27◦ C is exposed to an irradiation of
1000 W/m2 , and 800 W/m2 is reflected. Air at 17◦ C flows over the
surface, and the heat transfer convection coefficient is 15 W/m2 K.
Determine the net heat flux from the surface.
11.3. A diffuse surface having the flowing spectral characteristics (ελ =
0.4 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 μm, ελ = 0.8 for 3 μm ≤ λ) is maintained at
500 K when situated in a large furnace enclosure whose walls are
maintained at 1500 K:
a. Sketch the spectral distribution of the surface emissive power
Eλ and the emissive power Eλ,b that the surface would have
if it were a blackbody.
b. Neglecting convection effects, what is the net heat flux to the
surface for the prescribed conditions?
c. Plot the net heat flux as a function of the surface temperature
for 500 ≤ T ≤ 1000 K. On the same coordinates, plot the heat
flux for a diffuse, gray surface with total emissivities of 0.4 and
0.8.
d. For the prescribed spectral distribution of ελ , how do the
total emissivity and absorptivity of the surface vary with
temperature in the range 500 ≤ T ≤ 1000 K?
11.4. The spectral, hemispherical emissivity distributions for two dif-
fuse panels to be used in a spacecraft are as shown.
For panel A: ελ = 0.5 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 μm, ελ = 0.2 for 3 μm ≤ λ.
For panel B: ελ = 0.1 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 μm, ελ = 0.01 for 3 μm ≤ λ.
Assuming that the backsides of the panels are insulated and that
the panels are oriented normal to the solar flux at 1300 W/m2 ,
determine which panel has high steady-state temperature.
11.5. From a heat transfer and engineering approach, explain how
a glass greenhouse, which is used in the winter to grow veg-
etables, works. Include sketches of both the system showing
energy flows and balances, and of radiation property data (radio-
active properties versus wavelengths) for greenhouse compo-
nents (glass and the contents inside the greenhouse). When appli-
cable, show the appropriate equations and properties to explain
the greenhouse phenomenon. When finished with the above for
a glass greenhouse, extend your explanation to global warm-
ing, introducing new radioactive properties and characteristics if
needed.
11.6. The glass of the skylight of a house as shown in Figure 11.12

has a spectral emissivity, ελ (λ) [or absorptivity, αλ (λ)] distri-
bution as shown: ελ = 0.9 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.3 μm, ελ = 0 for 0.3 ≤
λ ≤ 2.0 μm, ελ = 0.9 for λ ≥ 2.0 μm. During an afternoon when
the solar flux is 900 W/m2 , the temperature of the glass is
27◦ C. The interior surfaces of the walls of the house and the
air in the house are at 22◦ C, and the heat transfer coefficient
between the glass of the skylight and the air in the house is
5 W/(m2 K).
a. What is the overall emissivity, ε, of the skylight?
b. What is the overall absorptivity, α, of the skylight for solar
irradiation? You may assume that the sun emits radiation as a
blackbody at 6000 K.
c. What is the convective heat flux on the outer surface of the
skylight, qconvection outside air , in W/m2 ? Is the temperature
of the outside air higher or lower than the temperature of the
skylight? Please assume that the sky is at 0◦ C.
11.7. Consider a typical setup for a solar collector as shown in Figure
11.11. A special glass is used as a cover for the collector and a
specialized coating is used on the collector plate and tubes, where
the solar energy is collected, to maximize the performance of the
collector.
a. If you had to specify the value of the glass transmissiv-
ity, τλ , as a function of λ to maximize the performance of
the collector, what would you choose and why? Explain.
Use illustrations or sketches if needed to help explain your
answer.
b. If you had to specify the value of the collector plate and tube
absorptivity, αλ , as a function of λ to maximize the perfor-
mance of the collector, what would you choose and why?
Explain.
c. A manufacturing process calls for heating a long aluminum
rod that is coated with a thin film with an emissivity of ε.
The rod is placed in a large convection oven whose surface is
maintained at Tw (K). Air at T∞ (K) circulates in the oven at a
velocity of u (m/s) across the surface of the rod and produces
a convective heat transfer coefficient of h [W/(m2 K)]. The rod
has a small diameter of d (m) and has an initial temperature
of Ti (K). Here, Ti < T∞ < Tw . What is the rate of change of
the rod temperature (K/s) when the rod is first placed in the
oven?
11.8. Asolar collector consists of an insulating back layer, a fluid conduit
through which a water–glycol solution flows to remove heat, an
absorber plate and a glass cover plate. The external temperatures
Tair , Tsky , and Tground are known. Solar radiation of intensity qs
(W/m2 ) is incident on the collector and collected heat qc (W/m2 )
is removed by the fluid. The absorber plate is painted black with
an average solar absorptivity of 0.8 and an average emissivity

of 0.8. Assume that the collector plate is so large that you may
treat the problems as 1-D heat flow with heat sources and/or
sinks.
a. Identify and label all significant heat transfer resistances and
flows and draw the steady-state thermal network diagram for
the collector.
b. Write the heat balance equations needed to solve for qc . Do not
solve.
c. If the absorber plate is replaced with a black chrome surface
with an average solar absorptivity of 0.95 and an average emis-
sivity of 0.1, what values will change in the thermal network
diagram? How will qc change and why?
11.9. A solar collector consists of an insulating back layer, a fluid con-
duit through which a water–glycol solution flows to remove heat,
an absorber plate and a glass cover plate. The external tempera-
tures Tair , Tsky , and Tground are also shown in the diagram. Solar
radiation of intensity qs (W/m2 ) is incident on the collector and
collected heat qc (W/m2 ) is removed by the fluid. The absorber
plate is painted black with an average solar absorptivity of 0.9
and an average emissivity of 0.9. Assume that the collector is so
large that you may treat the problems as 1-D heat flow with heat
sources and/or sinks.
a. Identify and label all significant heat transfer resistances and
flows and draw the steady-state thermal network diagram for
this collector.
b. Write the heat balance equations needed to solve for qc . Do not
solve.
c. If the absorber plate is replaced with a black chrome surface
with an average solar absorptivity of 0.9 and an average emis-
sivity of 0.1, what values will change in the thermal network
diagram? How will qc change and why?
11.10. An opaque, gray surface at 27◦ C is exposed to an irradia-
tion of 1000 W/m2 , and 800 W/m2 is reflected. Air at 17◦ C
flows over the surface and the heat transfer convection coef-
ficient is 15W/m2 K. Determine the net heat flux from the
surface.
11.11. Consider an opaque, horizontal plate with an electrical heater
on its backside. The front side is exposed to ambient air that is
at 20◦ C and provides a convection heat transfer coefficient of
10 W/m2 K, a solar irradiation (at 5800◦ K) of 600 W/m2 , and an
effective sky temperature of −40◦ C. What is the electrical power
(W/m2 ) required to maintain the plate surface temperature at
Ts = 60◦ C (steady state) if the plate is diffuse and has designated
spectral, hemispherical reflectivity (reflectivity = 0.2 for wave-
length less than 2 μm, reflectivity = 0.7 for wavelength greater
than 2 μm)?
References
3. K.-F. Vincent Wong, Intermediate Heat Transfer, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY,
2003.
12
View Factor
12.1 View Factor

In addition to surface radiation properties such as emissivity, reflectivity, and
absorptivity, view factor is another important parameter for determining radi-
ation heat transfer between two surfaces. View factor is defined as the fraction
of radiation energy (the so-called radiosity including emission and reflection)
from a given surface that can be seen (viewed) by the other surface. It is purely
a geometric parameter, depending on the relative geometric configuration
between two surfaces (depending on how the surfaces can see each other). A
view factor is also called an angle factor or shape factor. The following shows
how to define the view factor between two surfaces [1–4]. Figure 12.1 shows
radiation exchange between the two diffuse isothermal surfaces (i.e., each
surface has uniform emission and reflection from the surface). The differen-
tial radiation rate (including emission and reflection) from unit surfaces i to j
is proportional to its intensity and the unit solid angle as discussed before.
cos θj
dqi−j = Ii dAi cos θi dwj−i = Ii cos θi dAj dAi (12.1)
R2
cos θi cos θj
= πIi dAi dAj
πR2
Performing integration over surface area i and surface area j, one obtains
radiation rate from surface i to surface j as

cos θi cos θj
qi−j = Ji dAj dAi (12.2)
πR2
Ai Aj
where πIi ≡ Ji = radiosity (emission plus reflection).

If the radiosity Ji is uniform, that is, diffuse reflection and isothermal
emission, then

Engery intercepted by Aj qij 1 cos θi cos θj
Fij = = = dAj dAi (12.3)
Radiosity leaving Ai A i Ji Ai πR2
Ai Aj
239
Aj
nj
θj
R
dAj
ni
dωj-i
θi
Ai
dAi
FIGURE 12.1
Radiation exchange between two diffuse isothermal surfaces.
Similarly,

1 cos θi cos θj
Fji = dAi dAj (12.4)
Aj πR2
Aj Ai
Therefore, we obtain the Reciprocity Rule
Ai Fij = Aj Fji (12.5)
For enclosure N surfaces, as shown in Figure 12.2,

n
Fij = 1 (12.6)
j=1
2 3
1 N surfaces
FIGURE 12.2
View factor for a N-surface enclosure.
View Factor 241
That is,
F11 + F12 + F13 + · · · = 1

F21 + F22 + F23 + · · · = 1
.
.
.
FN1 + FN2 + FN3 + · · · = 1
Figure 12.3 shows the differential view factor between two differential areas
i and j, and between area i and differential area j. The differential view factor
between differential area i and differential area j can be obtained as
dqij cos θi cos θj dAj

dFdAi−dAj = = ;
Ji dAi πR2
dqji cos θi cos θj dAi
dFdAj−dAi = =
Jj dAj πR2
dAj
θj
n
R
n
θi
dAj
dAi
θj
n
R
n
θi
dAi
Ai
FIGURE 12.3
Concept of view factor between two differential areas.
Similarly, the differential view factor between area i and differential area j is

Ji (cos θi cos θj /πR2 ) dAi dAj dAj cos θi cos θj
dFAi−dAj = = dAi
J i Ai Ai πR2
Ai
And the view factor between differential area j and area i is

Jj (cos θi cos θj /πR2 ) dAi dAj cos θi cos θj
FdAj−Ai = = dAi
Jj dAj πR2
Ai
From reciprocity rules for diffuse and isothermal surfaces,
Ai FAi −Aj = Aj FAj −Ai

dAi dFdAi −dAj = dAj dFdAj −dAi
Ai dFAi−dAj = dAj FdAj−Ai

dAi dFdAi −Aj = Aj dFAj −dAi
Example 12.1
Determine the view factor between two parallel discs as shown in Figure 12.4.
Assume that Ai Aj , the distance between two surfaces is L, and the larger disc
has a diameter D.
dAj
Aj
θj
L R
θi
Ai
FIGURE 12.4
View factor between two parallel disks.
View Factor 243
From Equation 12.3,

1 cos θi cos θj
Fij = dAi dAj
Ai πR 2
Ai Aj

cos θi cos θj
= dAj
πR 2
Aj

where Ai = Ai dAi ,
with θi = θj = θ, R 2 = r 2 + L2 , cos θ = L/R, and dAj = 2πr dr ,

cos2 θ
Fij = dAj
πR 2
Aj

D/2
r dr D2
= 2L2 =
(r 2 + L2 )2 D 2 + 4L2
0
12.2 Evaluation of the View Factor

View factor is a function of geometry only. The following shows several well-
known methods to obtain the view factor for common geometry for radiation
heat transfer applications [3].
Elongated surfaces—use Hottel’s String method for 2-D geometry.

Direct integration—need to perform double-area integration (difficulty).
Contour integration—use Stoke’s theorem to transform area-to-line
integration.
Algebraic method—determine the unknown view factor from the
known value.
12.2.1 Method 1—Hottel’s Crossed-String Method for 2-D Geometry

Hottel proposed the following view factor between surface i and surface j for
2-D geometry (with surfaces elongated in the direction normal to the paper
as shown in Figure 12.5.
Find
(1)
L1 + L2 − Lac
F1−2 = (12.7)
2L1
d 3 c
4 2
a b
1
FIGURE 12.5
Concept of Hotell’s cross-string method for 2-D geometry.
(2)
L1 + L4 − Lbd
F1−4 = (12.8)
2L1
(3)
Lac + Lbd − (L2 + L4 )
F1−3 = (12.9)
2L1
(1) F1−2 + F1−ac = 1
F1−2 = 1 − F1−ac
Lac
=1− Fac−1
L1
Lac
=1− (1 − Fac−2 )
L1
Lac Lac L2
=1− + · · F2−ac
L1 L1 Lac
Lac L2
=1− + · (1 − F2−1 )
L1 L1
Lac L2 L2 L1
=1− + − · · F1−2
L1 L1 L1 L2
Lac L2
=1− + − F1−2
L1 L1
L1 + L2 − Lac
∴ F1−2 =
2L1
(2) Similarly, F1−4 = ((L1 + L4 − Lbd )/2L1 )
(3) F1−2 + F1−3 + F1−4 = 1
∴ F1−3 = 1 − F1−2 − F1−4

L1 + L2 − Lac L1 + L4 − Lbd
=1− −
2L1 2L1
View Factor 245
2L1 − L1 − L2 + Lac − L1 − L4 + Lbd

=
2L1
Lac + Lbd − L2 − L4
=
2L1
The concept of the following examples (2) through (4) comes
from [3].
Example 12.2
Determine the view factor between two parallel plates with partial blockages as

Length of each crossed string = l 2 + c 2

'
c 2
Length of each uncrossed string = 2 b 2 +
2
From Hottel’s crossed-string method, the view factor can be determined as

'
c 2 2
l 2 + c 2 − 2 b 2 + (c/2)2 2b c 2
F1−2 = = 1+ − +
l l l l
Example 12.3
Determine the view factor between two opposite circular tubes as shown in Figure
12.7. From Hottel’s cross-string method, the view factor is
2L1 − 2L2 L − L2
F1−2 = = 1
2A1 πR
where
L1 − crossed string abcde

L2 − uncrossed string ef L2 = D + 2R
A1
b b c
2
c
A2
FIGURE 12.6
View factor between two parallel plates with partial blockages.
e d
θ
R c
θ
b a
1 D 2
FIGURE 12.7
View factor between two opposite circular tubes.
Let X = 1 + D/(2R)

2 1
F1−2 = (x 2 − 1)1/2 + sin−1 −X
π X

2 π 1
F1−2 = (x 2 − 1)1/2 + − cos−1 −X
π 2 X
Example 12.4
Determine the view factor between two circular tubes with partial blockage as
shown in Figure 12.8. From Hottel’s cross-string method, the view factor can be
determined as follows:
The sum of the length of crossed strings: LA−B−D−G−I + LH−C −D−E −F

The sum of the length of uncrossed strings: LA−F + LH−C −D−G−I
Therefore,
L + LH−C −D−E −F − LA−F + LH−C −D−G−I

LA−B−C −H F1−2 = 2 A−B−D−G−I
2
Table 12.1 shows many useful view factors for 2-D geometries that can be
determined by using Hottel’s cross-string method [2,4].
A B E F
α D
α
β h
1 2
R h
C G
H I
d d
FIGURE 12.8
View factor between two circular tubes with partial blockage.
View Factor 247
TABLE 12.1
View Factors for 2-D Geometries
Geometry Relation
Parallel plates with midlines

[(Wi + Wj )2 + 4]1/2 − [(Wj − Wi )2 + 4]1/2
connected by perpendicular Fij =
2Wi
wi
Wi = wi /L, Wj = wj /L
i
j
wj
α
Inclined parallel plates of equal width Fij = 1 − sin
2
and a common edge
j
w
α
i
w
1 + (wj /wi ) − [1 + (wj /wi )2 ]1/2
Perpendicular plates with a common Fij =
2
edge
j
wj
i
wi
wi + wj − wk
Three-sided enclosure Fij =
2wi
wj
wk
k j
i
wi
!
Parallel cylinders of different radii 1
Fij = π + [C2 − (R + 1)2 ]1/2 − [C2 − (R − 1)2 ]1/2
2π
R 1
rj +(R − 1) cos−1 −
ri C C
1
R 1
−(R + 1) cos−1 +
C C
i j R = rj /ri , S = s/ri
S C =1+R+S
continued

Geometry Relation
r s s
Cylinder and parallel rectangle Fij = tan−1 1 − tan−1 2
s1 − s 2 L L
r
j
L
i
s2
s1
1/2 1/2
D 2 D s2 − D 2
Infinite plane and row of cylinders Fij = 1 − 1 − + tan−1
s s D2
s
D
j
Concentric cylinders A1
F12 = 1; F21 =
A2 A2
A1
F22 = 1 − F21 = 1 −
A2
A1
1
Long duct with equilateral triangular F12 = F13 =
2
cross-section
1 2
3
c 2 1/2 c
Long parallel plates of equal width F12 = F21 = 1 + −
a a
1
c
2
continued
View Factor 249

Geometry Relation
Long cylinder parallel to a large plane F12 = 12

area
s
Long adjacent parallel cylinders of Let X = 1 + , then
d
equal diameters 1 1
F12 = F21 = (X 2 − 1)1/2 + sin−1 −X
1 2 π X
d d
s
Concentric spheres A1
F12 = 1; F21 =
A2
A2 A1
F22 = 1 − F21 = 1 −
A2
A1
1
Regular tetrahedron F12 = F13 = F14 =
3
3
2
1
1
Sphere near a large plane area F12 =
2
1
continued

Geometry Relation
Small area perpendicular to the axis of F12 = sin2 θ

a surface of revolution
2
1
A2
Area on the inside of a sphere F12 =
4πR2
A1
R A2
Source: Data from A. Mills, Heat Transfer, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Boston, MA, 1992; F. Incropera
and D. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, Fifth Edition, 2002.
12.2.2 Method 2—Double-Area Integration

Use direct integration to determine the view factor between two adjacent
surface areas i and j as shown in Figure 12.9.

1 cos θi cos θj
FAi−Aj = dAi dAj
Ai πR2
Ai Aj
where
R2 = (xi − xj )2 + (yi − yj )2 + (zi − zj )2
1
cos θi = li (xj − xi ) + mi (yj − yi ) + ni (zj − zi )
R
1
cos θj = lj (xi − xj ) + mj (yi − yj ) + nj (zi − zj )
R
Therefore, the view factor can be determined by performing the following
integration:
b b a c
1 yi dyi
FAi−Aj = dxj dxi zj dzj (12.10)
bc π[(xi − xj )2 + yi2 + zj2 ]2
0 0 0 0
View Factor 251
dAj
θj
Aj θi y
a
Ai dAi b
c
x
FIGURE 12.9
View factor between two adjacent surfaces.
12.2.3 Method 3—Contour Integration

Use Stokes’ theorem to transform area to line integration.
Determine the view factor between two adjacent surfaces as shown in
Figure 12.9.
⎡ ⎤

1 ⎢ ⎥
FAi−Aj = ⎣ ln R dxi dxj + ln R dyi dyj + ln R dzi dzj ⎦ (12.11)
2πAi
ci cj
Apply Stokes’ theorem to reduce quadric to double integrations as
⎡b ⎧b
⎨ 1/2
1 ⎣
FAi−Aj = dxj ln (xi − xj )2 + a2 dx
2πbc ⎩
0 0
⎫
0 1/2 ⎬
+ ln (xi − xj )2 + c2 + a2 dxi
⎭
b
⎧b
0 ⎨ 1/2
+ dxj ln (xi − xj )2 + 02 dx
⎩
b 0
⎫⎤
0 1/2 ⎬
+ ln (xi − xj )2 + c2 + 02 dxi ⎦ (12.12)
⎭
b
The following shows how to use Stokes’ theorem to determine the view factor
between two opposite surfaces [3] as shown in Figure 12.10.
⎡ ⎤

1 ⎢ ⎥
FAi−Aj = ⎣ ln R dxi dxj + ln R dyi dyj + ln R dzi dzj ⎦
2πAi
ci cj
⎧ ⎫
⎨c 1/2 ⎬
1
FAi−Aj = ln xi2 + (yj − yi )2 + a2 dyj dyi
2πbc ⎩ ⎭
ci 0
⎧ ⎫
⎨b 1/2 ⎬
1
+ ln (xj − xi )2 + (c − yi )2 + a2 dxj dxi
2πbc ⎩ ⎭
ci 0
⎧ ⎫
⎨0 1/2 ⎬
1
+ ln (b − xi )2 + (yj − yi )2 + a2 dyj dyi
2πbc ⎩ ⎭
ci c
⎧ ⎫
⎨0 1/2 ⎬
1
+ ln (xj − xi )2 xi2 + yi2 + a2 dxj dxi
2πbc ⎩ ⎭
ci b
0 c ! 1/2 1/2 1
1 2 2 2 2 2
= ln (yj − yi ) + a + ln b + (yj − yi ) + a dyj dyi
2πbc
c 0
+ other integrals
/
2a2 (1 + (b/a)2 )(1 + (c/a)2 )
= ln
πbc 1 + (b/a)2 + (c/a)2

b 2 1/2 −1 b/a
+ [1 + (c/a) ] tan
a [1 + (c/a)2 ]1/2
2 1/2
c b −1 c/a
+ 1+ tan 1/2
a a 1 + (b/a)2
1
b −1 b c −1 c
− tan − tan (12.13)
a a a a
Table 12.2 shows several useful view factors for 3-D geometries [4] that
can be determined by using Stoke’s theorem to transform area-to-line
integration.
View Factor 253
z c
b
A2(x2, y2, c)
a
c
y
b
A1(x1, y1, 0)
FIGURE 12.10
View factor between two opposite surfaces.
Example 12.5
Determine view factors F1−2 and F2−1 for the following geometries shown in
Figure 12.11.
For geometries (a) and (b),
F1−1 + F1−2 + F1−3 = 1

F1−1 = 0
∴ F1−2 = 1 − F1−3 (can be obtained from Table 12.2)
A1 F1−2 = A2 F2−1
A1
∴ F2−1 = F
A2 1−2
12.2.4 Method 4—Algebraic Method

Determine the unknown view factor between surface areas A1 and A2 , as
shown in Figure 12.12, from the known value of view factors.
A1 F1−2 = A1 F1−j − A1 F1−4

= Aj (Fj−i − Fj−3 ) − A4 (F4−i − F4−3 ) (12.14)
where Fj−i , Fj−3 , F4−i , and F4−3 , are available from formulas or charts.
Example 12.6
Determine view factors F1−4 and F4−1 from Figures 12.13a and b:
A1 F1−4 = A2 F2−3
Ai Fi−j = A1 F1−j + A2 F2−j
= A1 F1−3 + A1 F1−4 + A2 F2−3 + A2 F2−4

= A1 F1−3 + 2A1 F1−4 + A2 F2−4
TABLE 12.2
Geometry Relation
X = X/L, Y ⎧= Y/L
1/2
2 ⎨
Aligned parallel rectangles
(1 + X 2 )(1 + Y 2 )
Fij = ln
πXY ⎩ 1 + X2 + Y2
X
j +X(1 + Y 2 )1/2 tan−1
(1 + Y 2 )1/2
L Y
+Y(1 + X 2 )1/2 tan−1
i (1 + X 2 )1/2
Y ⎫
⎬
X −1 −1
−X tan X − Y tan Y
⎭
Coaxial parallel disks Ri = ri /L, Rj = rj /L

rj 1 + Rj2
j S=1+
Ri2
1
L Fij = {S − [S2 − 4(rj /ri )2 ]1/2 }
2
ri
i
Perpendicular rectangles with a

H = Z/X, W
⎛ = Y/X
common edge
1 ⎜ 1 1
Fij = ⎝W tan−1 + H tan−1
πW W H
1
−(H 2 + W 2 )1/2 tan−1
j ⎧ (H 2 + W 2 )1/2
⎪ W 4
i 1 ⎨ (1 + W 2 )(1 + H 2 ) W 2 (1 + W 2 + H 2 )
Z X + ln
4 ⎪ ⎩ 1 + W2 + H2 (1 + W 2 )(W 2 + H 2 )
⎫⎞
Y H 2 ⎪
H 2 (1 + H 2 + W 2 ) ⎬
⎟
× ⎠
(1 + H )(H + W )
2 2 2 ⎪
⎭
Source: F. Incropera and D. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons,
Fifth Edition, New York, NY, 2002.
Hence,
1
A1 F1−4 = [A F − A1 F1−3 − A2 F2−4 ] (12.15)
2 i i−j
where Fi−j , F1−3 , and F2−4 , are available from Table 12.2 formulas or charts.
And, A1 F1−4 = A4 F4−1 .
View Factor 255
(a) D (b)
L 1 (top)
1 (top)
L
L
2 (side)
L=D
2 (side)
3 (bottom) 3 (bottom)
FIGURE 12.11
(a) A cylindrical furnace. (b) A cubic furnace.
A1
A3
Ai
A4 A2
Aj
FIGURE 12.12
Algebraic method.
A4
A3
A3 A4
A1 A1 A2
A2
FIGURE 12.13
Applications of shape factor algebra to opposing and adjacent rectangles.
Remarks
This chapter covers the same information as in the undergraduate-level heat
transfer. In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, students are expected to
know how to use those view factors available from tables or charts in order to
calculate radiation heat transfer between two surfaces for many engineering
applications. However, at the intermediate-level heat transfer, students are
expected to focus more on how to derive view factors instead of how to use
them. In particular, students are expected to know how to determine the view
factors by using Hottel’s string method for many 2-D geometries. For 3-D
geometry view factors, we do not go into much detail because of the required
double-area integrations that belong to advanced radiation heat transfer.
PROBLEMS
12.1 Determine the view factors for Examples 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
12.2 Determine the view factors shown in Table 12.1.
12.3 Determine the view factors shown in Table 12.2.
References
3. K.-F.V. Wong, Intermediate Heat Transfer, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, 2003.
4. F. Incropera and D. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley &
Sons, Fifth Edition, New York, NY, 2002.
13
Radiation Exchange in a Nonparticipating
Medium
13.1 Radiation Exchange between Gray Diffuse Isothermal

Surfaces in an Enclosure
Since we know how to get surface radiation properties such as emissivity,
reflectivity, and absorptivity and how to determine the view factor between
two surfaces, the following shows how to determine radiation heat transfer
between surfaces in an enclosure [1–4]. Assume that there are N gray diffuse
and isothermal surfaces. This implies that each surface at Ti has uniform
radiosity Ji (emission plus reflection). Figure 13.1 shows an energy balance
on each surface i and an energy balance between surface i and the rest of
enclosure surfaces j.
Based on the assumptions, each surface radiation properties can be given
as follows.
αi = εi , for gray and diffuse surfaces
τi = 0, for the opaque body
ρi = 1 − αi = 1 − εi
There are three types of radiation problems for electric furnace applica-
tions.
1. Given each surface temperature Ti to determine each surface heat

flux (q/A)i =?
2. Given each surface heat flux (q/A)i to determine each surface
temperature Ti =?
3. Combination of 1 and 2, some surfaces given temperature but heat
flux unknown, and some surfaces given heat flux but temperature
unknown.
Perform energy balance on the i surface: net energy = energy out (radios-
ity) − energy in (irradiation)
qi = Ai (Ji − Gi ) (13.1)
257
q Gi
A i
N
Ai
ρiGi
Ti i
Ei
}Ji
εi
FIGURE 13.1
Radiation heat transfer between N surfaces in an enclosure.
also
Ji = εi Ebi + (1 − εi )Gi (13.2)
Therefore,

Ji − εi Ebi Ji − εi Ji − Ji + εi Ebi
qi = Ai Ji − = Ai
1 − εi 1 − εi

εi (Ebi − Ji )
= Ai
1 − εi
So that energy from surface i
Ebi − Ji
⇒ qi = (13.3)
(1 − εi )/(εi Ai )
Then perform energy exchange between surface i and the rest of surfaces j:
net energy = energy out (radiosity) − energy in (irradiation)
qi = Ai (Ji − Gi )
where

N
N
A i Gi = Fji Aj Jj = Fij Ai Jj (13.4)
j=1 j=1
Therefore,
⎛ ⎞

N
qi = Ai ⎝ Ji − Fij Jj ⎠
j=1
Radiation Exchange in a Nonparticipating Medium 259
N
By using j=1 Fij = 1, and multiplying to Ji ,
⎛ ⎞
N
N
qi = Ai ⎝ Fij Ji − Fij Jj ⎠
j=1 j=1
So that energy transfer between surface i and the rest of enclosure surfaces
j becomes

N
N
qi = Ai Fij (Ji − Jj ) = qij (13.5)
j=1 j=1
Combining Equations 13.3 and 13.5, we have
Ebi − Ji N N
qi = = Ai Fij (Ji − Jj ) = qij
(1 − εi )/εi Ai
j=1 j=1
Ebi − Ji N
Ji − J j
N
qi = = = qij (13.6)
(1 − εi )/(εi Ai ) (1/Ai Fij )
+ ,- . j=1 + ,- . j=1
surface resistance geometrical resistance
due to emissivity
due to view factor
In addition, combining Equations 13.2 and 13.4, we get

N
Ji = εi Ebi + (1 − εi ) Fij Jj (13.7)
j=1
= emission from surface i + reflection from surface i.
13.1.1 Method 1: Electric Network Analogy

Electric network analogy [3] can be used to solve the aforementioned radiation
heat transfer problem as shown in Figure 13.2. The following shows a few
special cases for radiation heat transfer applications.
Special case 1—Radiation between a two-surface enclosure as shown in Figure 13.3:
(a) hemicylinder, (b) parallel plates, (c) rectangular channel, (d) long concentric
cylinders, (e) concentric spheres, (f) small convex object in a large enclosure:
σ(T14 − T24 )
q1 = q12 = −q2 = (13.8)
(1 − ε1 )/(A1 ε1 ) + 1/(A1 F12 ) + (1 − ε2 )/(A2 ε2 )
If for a blackbody, ε1 = ε2 = 1, then
q1 = A1 F12 σ(T14 − T24 ) (13.9)

qi1
J1
qi2
J2
( Ai Fi1 )
−1
Ebi Ji ( AiFi2 )−1 J3

qi qi 3
1− εi ( AiFi3 )−1
JN−1
εiAi
( AiFi(N–1) )−1 qi ( N −1)
( AiFiN)−1 JN
Node corresponding
to the surface i
qi N
FIGURE 13.2
Network representation of the radiative exchange between surface i and the remaining surfaces
of an enclosure.
–q2 A2 T2 ε2 –q2 A2 T2 ε2 2
2 2
q1 A1 T1 ε1 q1 A1 T1 ε1 1
–q2
r2 A2 T2 ε2
r1
q
r1
q1
q A1 T1 ε1
r2
Eb1 = σT 14 Eb2 = σT 24
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
q1 –q2
1– ε1 1 1– ε2
A1ε1 A1F12 A2ε2
FIGURE 13.3
Radiation between a two-surface enclosure.
Special case 2—Radiation between two parallel surfaces with middle shields as
shown in Figure 13.4:
A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
q1 = q12 =
(1 − ε1 )/ε1 + (1/F13 ) + (1 − ε31 )/ε31
+(1 − ε32 )/ε32 + (1/F32 ) + (1 − ε2 )/ε2 (13.10)
A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
= = −q2
(1/ε1 ) + (1 − ε31 )/ε31 + (1 − ε32 )/ε32 + (1/ε2 )
where F13 = F32 = 1.

To cut down radiation heat loss, ε31 and ε32 should be small, that is, ρ31 is
large.
Special case 3—Reradiating surfaces (insulated surface, qR = 0): The following
electric furnaces, as shown in Figure 13.5, can be modeled as radiation heat
transfer between two opposite surfaces (hot and cold) with a third reradiation
side surface (perfect reflection and perfect insulation).
q12
Radiation
shield
q1
ε31 ε32
1 3 2
A1 A3 A2
ε1 ε2
σT 14 σT 14
Eb1 J1 J31 Eb3 J31 J2 Eb2
q1 −q2
1– ε1 1 1– ε31 1– ε32 1 1– ε2
A1ε1 A1F13 A3ε31 A3ε32 A3F32 A2ε2
FIGURE 13.4
Radiation between two parallel surfaces with middle shield.
A2 T2 ε2 A2 T2 ε2
AR TR εR A2 T2 ε2
AR AR
AR TR 2
TR TR
εR q1 1
q2
εR
εR
A1 T1 ε1 A2 T2 ε2
A1 T1 ε1
A1 T1 ε1 A1 T1 ε1
EbR
1– εR
qR = 0
ARεR
JR = EbR
1 1
σT 14 A1F1R qR 2 ARFR2 σT 24
q1R
q1 Eb1 J1 q12 J2 Eb2
1– ε1 1 1– ε2 −q2
A1ε1 A1F12 A 2 ε2
FIGURE 13.5
Electric furnaces with a reradiating surface.
∵ qR = 0, therefore, q1 = −q2
σT14 − σT24
q1 = −q2 =
(1 − ε1 )/A1 ε1 + 1/(A1 F12 + 1/[(1/A1 F1R ) + (1/A2 F2R )])
+(1 − ε2 )/A2 ε2
(13.11)
where T1 , and T2 are given
AR FR2 = A2 F2R
And surface emissivity, area, and view factors are also given or predeter-
mined.
If q1 = −q2 is determined from above and if qR = 0, how to determine
reradiation surface temperature TR =?
From energy balance on the reradiation surface,
J1 − JR JR − J2
q1R = = qR2 =
1/A1 F1R 1/AR FR2
and
Eb1 − J1 1 − ε1
q1 = ⇒ J1 = σT14 − q1
(1 − ε1 )/A1 ε1 A 1 ε1
J2 − Eb2 1 − ε2
q2 = ⇒ J2 = q2 + σT24
(1 − ε2 )/A2 ε2 A 2 ε2
1
d s
2 2
FIGURE 13.6
A radiant heater panel model.
from
J1 − JR JR − J2 A1 F1R J1 + AR FR2 J2
= ⇒ JR =
1/A1 F1R 1/AR FR2 A1 F1R + AR FR2
Therefore,
1/4
JR
JR = Eb,R = σTR4 ⇒ TR = (13.12)
σ
Special case 4—A radiant heater panel problem: A long radiant heater panel
consists of a row of cylindrical electrical heating elements, as shown in
Figure 13.6.
The above Equations 13.11 and 13.12 can be used to determine heat trans-
fer rate q1 = −q2 , and TR , respectively. However, we need to calculate view
factors F11 , F12 , and F1R (or F13 ). In Table 12.1,

1 1
F11 = (X 2 − 1)1/2 + sin−1 − X
π X
with X = 1 + (s/d).
Assume F12 ∼ = F13 for symmetry and F11 + F12 + F13 = 1.
Therefore, F12 = 1/2(1 − F11 ).
13.1.2 Method 2: Matrix Linear Equations

Applying energy balance on each surface, one can obtain N radiosity linear
equations for N surfaces in an enclosure. The matrix and its inverse matrix can
be used to solve these N radiosity linear algebraic equations. The following
shows how to solve this type of problems for either given surface temperature
or surface heat flux in an enclosure with N surfaces [3–4].
Case A—Given each surface temperature to determine its heat flux,Ti given, ⇒
qi = ?
Use energy balance on surface i and energy exchange between surface i and
the rest of surfaces j, from Equation 13.6,
Ebi − Ji
N
Ji − J j
= (13.13)
(1 − εi )/(εi Ai ) 1/Ai Fij
j=1
Applying the above equation to each surface (1, 2, 3,…, and N), respectively,
one obtains the following N radiosity linear equations (after rearranging
them).
a11 J1 + a12 J2 + · · · + a1N JN = c1

a21 J1 + a22 J2 + · · · + a2N JN = c2
..
.
aN1 J1 + aN2 J2 + · · · + aNN JN = cN
Then coefficient matrix [A], column matrix [ J], and column matrix [C] can
be formed to satisfy the N linear equations. Therefore, the unknown radiosity
matrix [ J] can be determined by solving the given inverse matrices [A] and [C].
[A][ J] = [C]
[J] = [A]−1 [C] = · · ·
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 · · · a1N J1 c1
⎢ a21 a22 · · · a2N ⎥ ⎢ J2 ⎥ ⎢ c2 ⎥
[A] = ⎢
⎣ ···
⎥ [J] = ⎢ ⎥ [C] = ⎢ ⎥
··· ··· ··· ⎦ ⎣ · · ·⎦ ⎣ · · ·⎦
aN1 aN2 · · · aNN JN cN
Once the unknown radiosity J from each surface i has been solved from the
aforementioned matrix relation, radiation heat transfer from each surface can
be shown from Equation 13.6 as
Ebi − Ji σTi4 − Ji
qi = = (13.14)
(1 − εi )/εi Ai (1 − εi )/εi Ai
Special example for a three-surface enclosure problem: If surface temperatures
shown in Figure 13.7 are given (T1 , T2 , T3 ), how to determine surface heat
transfer rates (q1 , q2 , q3 )?
From Equation 13.13,
Ebi − Ji
N
Ji − J j
=
(1 − εi )/Ai εi 1/Ai Fij
j=1
2 2
2 2
3 3 3
3
1 3
1
1 1
FIGURE 13.7
Radiation heat transfer among a three-surface enclosure.
Apply for surface 1:
where a11 = (A1 ε1 /(1 − ε1 ) + A2 F12 + A1 F13 ), a12 = −A2 F12 , a13 = −A1 F13 ,
c1 = (A1 ε1 /(1 − ε1 ))σT14 .
where a21 = −A2 F21 , a22 = ((A2 ε2 /1 − ε2 ) + A2 F21 + A2 F23 ) , a23 = −A2 F23 ,
c2 = (A2 ε2 /(1 − ε2 ))σT24 .
where a31 = −A3 F31 , a32 = −A3 F32 , a33 = (A3 ε3 /(1 − ε3 ) + A3 F31 + A3 F32 ),
c3 = (A3 ε3 /(1 − ε3 ))σT34 .
From the above three linear equations, the following matrix can be formed:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 a13 J1 C1
A = ⎣ a21 a22 a23 ⎦ J = ⎣ J2 ⎦ C = ⎣ C2 ⎦
a31 a32 a33 J3 C3
[A][ J] = [C]
[J] = [A]−1 [C]
Alternatively, we can apply Equation 13.7 to each surface and get
J1 = ε1 Eb1 + (1 − ε1 )[F11 J1 + F12 J2 + F13 J3 ]

J2 = ε2 Eb2 + (1 − ε2 )[F21 J1 + F22 J2 + F23 J3 ]
J3 = ε3 Eb3 + (1 − ε3 )[F31 J1 + F32 J2 + F33 J3 ]
Similarly, the above three linear equations can be rearranged in order to

obtain the matrix relation as [A][ J] = [C] and then solve for [J] = [A]−1 [C].
Once matrix [ J] is determined, that is, J1 , J2 , and J3 have been determined,
then use Equation 13.14 to find surface heat transfer rates as
Eb1 − J1 σT14 − J1
⇒ q1 = =
(1 − ε1 )/(A1 ε1 ) (1 − ε1 )/(A1 ε1 )
Eb2 − J2 σT24 − J2
⇒ q2 = =
(1 − ε2 )/A2 ε2 (1 − ε2 )/A2 ε2
Eb3 − J3 σT34 − J3
⇒ q3 = =
(1 − ε3 )/A3 ε3 (1 − ε3 )/A3 ε3
Case B—Given each surface heat flux to determine its temperature, qi given, ⇒
Ti = ?
Use energy exchange between surface i and the rest of surfaces j, from
Equation 13.6,
N
Ji − J j
qi = (13.15)
1/Ai Fij
j=1
Apply the above to each surface (1, 2, 3, …, and N) and obtains N radiosity
linear equations as
a11 J1 + a12 J2 + · · · + a1N JN = c1
a21 J1 + a22 J2 + · · · + a2N JN = c2
..
.
aN1 J1 + aN2 J2 + · · · + aNN JN = cN
The following matrix can be used to solve for [ J]:

[A][ J] = [C]
[J] = [A]−1 [C] = · · ·
Once matrix [J] has been solved, use Equation 13.14 on each surface i to
determine surface temperature on each surface
Ebi − Ji σTi4 − Ji
⇒ qi = =
(1 − εi )/εi Ai (1 − εi )/εi Ai
or
1 − εi
Ebi = σTi4 = qi + Ji
A i εi
Therefore,
1/4
qi (1 − εi )/Ai εi + Ji
Ti = (13.16)
σ
Case C—Combined Case A and Case B
• Some surfaces are given temperatures but heat fluxes are unknown.
• Some surfaces are given heat fluxes but temperatures are unknown.
• Use the same procedure shown for Case A and Case B in order to
form matrix [A], column matrix [J], and column matrix [C].
• After determining matrix [J], either heat fluxes or temperatures can
be determined.
Special case for the blackbody radiation problem: Use the aforementioned results
for any blackbody surface with unity emissivity (εi = 1).
13.2 Radiation Exchange between Gray Diffuse

Nonisothermal Surfaces
The following shows how to solve radiation heat transfer between non-
isothermal surfaces [4–5]. In this case, one shall consider radiation exchange
between two differential surfaces (which can be assumed as a uniform tem-
perature over each differential element) as shown in Figure 13.8. Then the
aforementioned analysis method can be applied.
Consider radiosity from a differential element i,
Ji (ri ) = εi σTi4 (r̄i ) + (1 − εi )Gi (r̄i )

N

= εi σTi4 (r̄i ) + (1 − εi ) Jj (r̄j ) dFdAi −dAj (13.17)
j=1 A
j
Define known quantity
dFdAi −dAj
K(r̄i , r̄j ) ≡
dAj
Therefore,
N

Ji (ri ) = εi σTi4 (r̄i ) + (1 − εi ) Jj (r̄j )K(r̄i , r̄j ) dAj (13.18)
j=1 A
j
For Case A problem, obtain N equations, where Ti is known, solve the

integral and Ji (r̄i ) can be obtained.
Ai Aj
Ai Aj
dAi dAj
dAi ri rj
dAj
FIGURE 13.8
Radiation exchange between nonisothermal surfaces.
When Ji (r̄i ) is determined by using the matrix method, and for given Ti (r̄i ),
then q εi 4
(r̄i ) = σTi (r̄i ) − Jj (r̄j ) (13.19)
A i 1 − εi
can be solved.
Example
Apply the numerical method—Simpson’s rule (Trapezoidal rule) for the nonisother-
mal surfaces shown in Figure 13.9.
Given: εa = 0.9, Ta = 1000−1500◦ C
εb = 0.2, Tb = 300◦ C
1. q̄a =?
2. Compare qa = qa1 + qa2 =?
For case B problem, if (q/A)i is given, then

q N Ji (r̄i ) − Jj r̄j

=
A i 1/dFdAi −dAj
j=1
q N

= Ji (r̄i ) − Jj r̄j K r̄i , r̄j dAj
A i
j=1

when Ji (ri ) is determined by the matrix method, and for given q/A i (ri ), then
1 − εi q
σTi4 (r̄i ) = (r̄ ) + Ji (r̄i )
εi A i i
a b ya yb
1000C
1m 2 300C
1250C
1m 1
1500C
1m
FIGURE 13.9
Radiation between nonisothermal surfaces.
13.3 Radiation Exchange between Nongray Diffuse

Isothermal Surfaces
The following (a) integral model or (b) band model can be used to deter-
mine radiation exchange among isothermal diffuse nongray surfaces [4,5] as
sketched in Figure 13.10.
a. Integral model
q
∞
q
= dλ (13.20)
A i A i
0
b. Band model
q N
q
= Δλk (13.21)
A i A i
k=1
13.4 Radiation Interchange among Diffuse and Nondiffuse

(Specular) Surfaces [4,5]
Exchange factor by using the image method, as shown in Figure 13.11,
EA1−A4 = FA1−A4 + ρs3 FA1(3)−A4 (13.22)

+ ,- . + ,- .
diffuse specular reflection
EA2−A4 = FA2−A4 + ρs3 FA2(3)−A4 (13.23)
Reciprocity Rules Ai EAi−Aj = Aj EAj−Ai
ελ ελ
Nonmetal
Metal
Δλ1 Δλ2 Δλ3
λ λ
FIGURE 13.10
Radiation exchange among diffuse, isothermal, nongray surfaces.
4(3) 4
1(3) 1
2(3) 2
Specular surface
FIGURE 13.11
Radiation exchange among diffuse and specular surfaces.
13.5 Energy Balance in an Enclosure with Diffuse

and Specular Surface
Nd is the diffuse reflection surface,
N − Nd the specular reflection surface.
Assume all surfaces shown in Figure 13.12 are diffuse emitting, gray, and
isothermal; then
Ji = εi σTi4 + (1 − εi )Gi
where Gi = Gid + Gis .

From the diffuse surface,

Nd
Gid = Jj EAi−Aj (13.25)
j=1
where

EAi−Aj = FAi−Aj + ρsk FAi(k)−Aj
k
q Gi
A
i
N
Ai
ρiGi
Ti i
Ei
}Ji
εi
FIGURE 13.12
Radiation heat transfer between N surfaces (including diffuse and specular) in an enclosure.
From the specular surface,

N
Gis = εj σTj4 EAi−Aj (13.26)
j=Nd+1
for given Ti , from the above equations, Ji can be solved.

If Ti is given, Gi can be solved (Gi = Gid + Gis ).
For the Nd diffuse surfaces,
q 1
= σTi4 − Ji (13.27)
A i (1 − εi )/εi
or for the N − Nd specular surfaces,
q
= εi σTi4 − Gi (13.28)
A i
Remarks
In undergraduate-level heat transfer, students are expected to know how to
calculate radiation heat transfer between two surfaces or between two sur-
faces with a third reradiating surface by using the electric network analogy
method for many engineering applications such as electric heaters, radia-
tion shields, and electric furnaces with insulating side walls, and so on. In
intermediate-level heat transfer, this chapter focuses on how to analyze and
solve radiation heat transfer problems in an N-surfaces enclosure by using the
matrix linear equations method for more complicated electric or combustion
furnaces applications. Students are expected to know how to set up a matrix
from linear equations by applying energy balance on each of N-surfaces
with given surface temperatures or surface heat fluxes BCs. Here we assume
that each N-surface has gray and diffuse properties and keeps at isother-
mal condition. We do not go into much details for any N-surface behaving
as nongray, nondiffuse (specular), or nonisothermal condition. These require
more complex mathematics and belong to advanced radiation topics.
PROBLEMS
13.1. A rectangular oven is 1 m wide, 0.5 m tall, and 2 m deep into the
paper and is used to bake a carbon-fiber cloth with an electric
heater at the top. All vertical walls are reradiating (reflectory and
insulated). Take ε1 = 0.7, ε2 = 0.9, and ε3 = 0.8. The heater tem-
perature is 650◦ C when 20 kW of power is supplied. Convection
is negligible.
Given:
W
σ = 5.67 × 10−8 2 4
m K
a. Based on the analogy of electric resistance network, draw

radiation heat transfer network from surface 1 to surface 2.
b. Determine the cloth (surface 2) temperature.
13.2. A rectangular oven is 1 m wide, 0.5 m tall, and very deep into the
paper and is used to bake a carbon-fiber cloth with an electric
heater at the top. All vertical walls are reradiating (reflectory and
insulated). Take ε1 = 0.7, ε2 = 0.9, and ε3 = 0.8. When 20 kW of
power is supplied, the heater temperature is 650◦ C. Neglecting
convection, what is the cloth temperature?
13.3. A cubic furnace (1 m × 1 m × 1 m). During the steady-state oper-
ation, the top surface is cooled at 250◦ C and the bottom floor is
heated at 1000◦ C. The side walls are insulated refractory surfaces.
The view factor between the top and bottom surfaces is 0.2.
a. Determine the net radiation transfer between the top and
bottom surfaces.
b. Determine the temperature of the insulated refractory sur-
faces.
c. Comment on what effect changing the values of emissivities of
top, bottom, and refractory surfaces would have on the results
of (a) and (b).
13.4. Consider two aligned, parallel, square planes (0.5 m × 0.5 m)
spaced 0.5 m apart and maintained at T1 = 500 K and T2 = 1000 K.
Calculate the net radiative heat transfer from surface 1 for the
following special conditions:
a. Both planes are black and the surroundings are at 0 K.
b. Both planes are black with connecting, reradiating walls.
c. Both planes are diffuse and gray with ε1 = 0.6, ε2 = 0.8, and
the surroundings at 0 K.
d. Both planes are diffuse and gray (ε1 = 0.6 and ε2 = 0.8) with
connecting, reradiating walls.
13.5. A room is 3 m square and 3 m high. The walls can be taken as
adiabatic and isothermal. The ceiling is at 35◦ C and has an emit-
tance of 0.8, while the floor is at 20◦ C and has an emittance of 0.9.
Denote the ceiling as surface 1, the floor 2, and the walls 3.
a. Set up the radiosity equations. Determine and evaluate all
the shape factors, and tabulate as a 3 × 3 array. Solve these
equations to determine the heat flow into the floor, q2 .
b. Draw the radiation network. Use the network to obtain an
expression for q2 , and solve for q2 again.
13.6. A thin plate (surface area A1 , emissivity ε1 , absorptivity α1 ) is
mounted horizontally facing above a larger horizontal surface
(area A2 , emissivity ε2 , absorptivity α2 ).
a. Give the corresponding thermal radiation network associated
to the problem.
b. Develop an expression without the radiosities for the radiation
heat transfer rate from 1 to 2.
c. What is the limit of this expression when the second surface is
infinite?
d. Let surface 2 be the sky which is a blackbody at a temper-
ature 15◦ C cooler than ambient air, which is at 2◦ C. The
plate is well insulated at the bottom. Let h be the average

convective heat transfer coefficient between the surface and
ambient air. Given h = 10 W/m2 K, ε1 = 0.54 = α1 , σ = 5.67 ×
10−8 W/m2 K4 . Determine the equilibrium plate temperature.
13.7. Consider two very large parallel plates with diffuse, gray sur-
faces. Determine the irradiation and radiosity for the upper plate
(at T1 = 1000◦ K, ε1 = 1). What is the radiosity for the lower plate
(at T2 = 500◦ K, ε2 = 0.8)? What is the net radiation exchange
between the plates per unit area of the plates?
13.8. A 0.25-m-diameter sphere (surface 1) is located inside of a 0.5-m-
diameter sphere (surface 2). Surface 1 is 200◦ C and surface 2 is
100◦ C. Determine all of the view factors and calculate the net heat
transfer rate (W) between the two spherical surfaces. Show all
work and list all assumptions. (Note: σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4 )
13.9. For a three-surface enclosure problem as shown in Figure 13.7, do
the following problems by using the matrix method.
a. Given T1 , T2 , T3 , determine q1 , q2 , q3 .
b. Given q1 , q2 , q3 , determine T1 , T2 , T3 .
c. Given T1 , T2 , q3 , determine q1 , q2 , T3 .
d. Given T1 , q2 , q3 , determine q1 , T2 , T3 .
e. Given q1 , q2 , T3 , determine T1 , T2 , q3 .
References
4. R. Siegel and J. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York,
NY, 1972.
5. J. Chen, Conduction and Radiation Heat Transfer, Class Notes, Lehigh University,
1973.
14
Radiation Transfer through Gases
14.1 Gas Radiation Properties

A volume of gases, such as CO2 , H2 O (water vapor), CO, NO, NH3 , SO2 , HCl,
the hydrocarbons, and the alcohols, can emit and absorb energy at a given
temperature and pressure. It is important to determine gas radiation proper-
ties such as emissivity and absorptivity for combustion furnace designs [1–5].
The combustion products (CO2 , water vapor, CO, NO, and NH3 ) have radi-
ation properties but air (oxygen and nitrogen gases), helium, and hydrogen
have no radiation properties (transparent to radiation). Assume that there is
no scattering effect, in order to simplify the analysis. In general, gas emissivity
and absorptivity increase with pressure and volume, but decrease with tem-
perature; gas emissivity and absorptivity vary with wavelength [1] as shown
in Figure 14.1. Gases absorb and emit radiation in rather narrow wavelength
bands rather than in the continuous spectrum exhibited by solid surfaces. For
real gas, gas absorptivity is not the same as emissivity. But under gray gas
assumption, absorptivity can be equivalent to emissivity.
Figure 14.2 shows that gas radiation properties (carbon dioxide, water
vapor) increase with their partial pressure and geometric mean bean length
(four times volume divided by surface area), decrease with temperature [1].
The results were obtained by applying hemispherical gas radiation to an ele-
ment area at the center of the base, as shown in Figure 14.3. Several other
geometries that contain gases are also sketched in the figure. In general, gas
emissivity and absorptivity are relatively low, approximately equivalent to
an order of magnitude 0.1.
εc = εc (Pc L, Tg ) ∼
= 0.1 (14.1)
εw = εw (Pw L, Tg ) ∼
= 0.1. (14.2)
At 1 atm total pressure, CO2 has partial pressure Pc and water vapor has
partial pressure Pw . L, geometric mean bean length, is defined as
4V ∼ 4V
L= = 0.9 (14.3)
As As
where V is the volume and As is surface area.
275
100
H2O
CO2
L = 100 cm
αλ,x-%
50
0
1 2 3 5 10 15 20 25 30
Wavelength - μm
FIGURE 14.1
Band emission of carbon dioxide and water vapor.
D d
CO2 + N2
a b a
L = 1.26R
1.0 ft-atm
1.0 ft-atm
PwL PcL
0.2
εw 0.1 ε c 0.1 0.2
0.01
0.01
0 1000 2000 0 1000

Tg(°K) Tg(°K)
FIGURE 14.2
Gas radiation properties for water vapor and carbon dioxide.
Radiation Transfer through Gases 277
dAj
dAi
FIGURE 14.3
Hemispherical gas radiation to an element area at the center of base.
The concept of geometric mean beam length for other gas mass geometries
will be discussed in a later section.
The total gas emissivity for combined CO2 and H2 O can be obtained as
εg = εc + εw − Δε (14.4)
where Δε ∼= 0.01 is a correction factor of emissivity for overlap of λ for CO2

and H2 O.
For gray gas,
εg = αg (14.5)
14.1.1 Volumetric Absorption

Consider radiation heat transfer between two parallel plates at T1 and T2 ,
filled with absorption gas at a uniform temperature Tg . Spectral radiation
absorption in a gas is proportional to the absorption coefficient kλ (1/m) and
the thickness L of the gas. The radiation intensity decreases with increasing
distance due to absorption [3], as shown in Figure 14.4.
dIλ (x) = −kλ Iλ (x) dx (14.6)
If Kλ is a constant value for a given gas, we obtain
dIλ (x)
= −kλ dx
Iλ (x)
T1 T2
Iλ,0 Iλ(x) Iλ L
0 dx L
x
FIGURE 14.4
Absorption in a gas.
Performing integration, we obtain
ln Iλ (x) = −Kλ x + C1
Iλ (x) = e(−Kλ x+C1 ) = C e−Kλ x
at x = 0, C = Iλ,0
Iλ (x) = Iλ,0 e−Kλ x
at x = L
Iλ,L = Iλ,0 e−Kλ L (14.7)
This exponential decay is called Beer’s law. One can define the transmis-
sivity as
Iλ,L
τλ = = e−Kλ L (14.8)
Iλ,0
The absorptivity is
αλ = 1 − τλ = 1 − e−Kλ L .
For gases, α = ελ = emissivity.

λ
If we consider both gas emission and the absorption effect, the intensity
of the beam is attenuated due to absorption and is augmented due to gas
emission along the distance [2]. Assume a local thermodynamic equilib-
rium, absorption coefficient will equal emission coefficient, and Equation 14.6
becomes
dIλ (x) = [−Kλ Iλ (x) + Kλ Ibλ ] dx (14.9)
where Kλ Ibλ is intensity gained due to gas emission, −KIλ (x) is the intensity
attenuated due to gas absorption.
Performing integration, we obtain:
dIλ (x) = −Kλ [Iλ (x) − Ibλ ] dx

d[Iλ (x) − Ibλ ]
= −Kλ dx
[Iλ (x) − Ibλ ]
ln[Iλ (x) − Ibλ ] = −Kλ x + C1
Iλ (x) − Ibλ = e(−Kλ x+C1 ) = C e−Kλ x
at x = 0, C = Iλ,0 − Ibλ
Iλ (x) = Ibλ + (Iλ,0 − Ibλ ) e−Kλ x

Iλ (x) = Iλ,0 e−Kλ x + Ibλ (1 − e−Kλ x )
at x = L, and we obtain
Iλ (L) = Iλ,0 e−Kλ L + Ibλ (1 − e−Kλ L ) = Iλ,0 τλ + Ibλ ελ (14.10)
In general, the absorption coefficient Kλ is strongly dependent on wave-

length. If we use the averaged overall wavelength of total properties, we
obtain: Kλ = K, α = 1 − τ, α = ε, Iλ = I,
Ibλ = Ib = σTg4
14.1.2 Geometry of Gas Radiation: Geometric Mean Beam Length

The typical gas emissivity data were obtained by applying radiation to hemi-
spherical (of radius R) collection of gases radiating to an element of area at
the center of the base, as shown in Figure 14.3. For other furnace shapes,
there exists an equivalent mean beam length (L), defined as the radius of
a gas hemisphere which radiates to unit area at the center of its base the
same as the average radiation over the area from the actual gas volume shape
[2]. Consider two surface elements dAi and dAj of an enclosure containing
an isothermal gray gas at temperature Tg , use total properties, as shown in
Figure 14.5. The irradiation dGi coming to surface dAi from surface dAj is
dGi = Ii− cos θi dwj (14.11)
where Ii− is the intensity approaching surface dAi , using the concept devel-
oped in Equation 14.10, replacing L by R = Ij+ e−KR + Ibg (1 − e−KR ), Ij+ the
intensity leaving surface dAj = Jj /π, Jj the radiosity leaving surface dAj =
emission and reflection from surface dAj , Ibg the intensity from blackbody
dAj
θj
R
dGi
θi
dAi
FIGURE 14.5
Elemental surface for radiation in an enclosure containing an isothermal gray gas.
gas emission = Ebg /π = σTg4 /π, Ebg the blackbody gas emission = σTg4 , dwj =
dAj cos θj /R2 , R the distance (beam length) between surface dAi and dAj , and
K the gas absorption coefficient.
Therefore,
cos θi cos θj
dGi = Jj e−KR + Ebg (1 − e−KR ) dAj dAi
πR2
Aj

1
Gi = dGi dAi
Ai
cos θi cos θj
1
= Jj e−KR + Ebg (1 − e−KR ) dAj dAi (14.12)
Ai πR2
Ai Aj
The distance (beam length) R varies over the surface. For convenience, we
define a mean surface (mean beam length) Lij , such that
1 cos θi cos θj
−KLij −KLij
Gi = Jj e + Ebg (1 − e ) dAj dAi
Ai πR2
Ai Aj

= Jj e−KLij + Ebg (1 − e−KLij ) Fij (14.13)
Comparing Equations 14.12 and 14.13, we obtain

−KLij 1 cos θi cos θj
e Fij = e−KR dAj dAi (14.14)
Ai πR2
Ai Aj
If KLij is small, for the optically thin gases low pressure, e−KLij ≈ 1 − KLij ,
Equation 14.14 becomes

1 cos θi cos θj
Lij = dAj dAi (14.15)
Ai Fij πR
Ai Aj
Lij Ai Fij = Lji Aj Fji (14.16)
If a furnace or combustion chamber can be modeled as a single-surface

enclosure, that is, with a uniform wall temperature and emission (uniform
radiosity Js ), Ai = As , Fij = 1, Lij = Lji = L Equations 14.13 and 14.14 become
Gs = Js e−KL + Ebg (1 − e−KL ) (14.17)

−KL 1 cos θ cos θ
e = e−KR dAs dAs (14.18)
As πR2
As As
If KL is small, for the optically thin gases low pressure, e−KL ∼

= 1 − KL,
Equation 14.18 becomes

1 cos θ cos θ
L= dAs dAs
As πR
As As
4V
= (14.19)
As
where V is the volume of the gas in the enclosure and As is the enclosure
surface area.
In general, the geometric mean beam length (Lij ) between surfaces i and j of
an enclosure should be determined from Equation 14.4, and can be deter-
mined by Equation 14.15 for the optically thin gas (i.e., small absorption
coefficient K, low pressure, and small enclosure Lij , KLij is small). In addi-
tion, it can be determined from Equations 14.18 and 14.19, respectively, for
a single-surface enclosure with a uniform temperature and emissivity. How-
ever, in some problems, for the optically thick gases (i.e., KL is not small,
high pressure), the geometric mean beam length (L) is less than the above-
mentioned values. From experience, the geometric mean beam length has
been proved to be a good approximation for the actual mean beam length.
For practice, Equation 14.3, L ∼
= 0.9(4V/As ), can be used.
14.2 Radiation Exchange between an Isothermal Gray Gas

and Gray Diffuse Isothermal Surfaces in an Enclosure
Since we know how to obtain gas radiation properties such as emissivity and
absorptivity and how to determine the view factor between two surfaces, the
following shows how to determine radiation heat transfer between surfaces
in an enclosure with radiation gases. Assume that there are N gray diffuse and
isothermal surfaces [2,4,5]. This implies that each surface at Ti has uniform
radiosity Ji (emission plus reflection). Also assume that radiation gases are
gray gases at uniform pressure and temperature (emissivity = absorptivity)
and have no scattering effect. Figure 14.6 shows an energy balance on surface
i and an energy balance between surface i and the rest of enclosure surfaces j
through gases.
If given surface i temperature (Ti ) and gas temperature (Tg ), the follow-
ing shows how to determine heat transfer rate from surface i(qi ) and from
radiation gases (qg ). Gas transmissivity is inversely proportional to the gas
absorption coefficient as
τg = e−κL (14.20)
where κ = is the total absorption coefficient (predetermined), for example,

κ = 0.3 m−1 , L is the mean beam length (predetermined from Equation 14.3).
Since gas absorptivity+gas transmissivity = 1, αg + τg = 1.
Therefore,
1 − αg = τg = e−κL (14.21)
For given Ti , Tg , how to obtain qi , qg ?

Perform energy balance on surface i, net heat transfer rate =
radiosity (energy out) − irradiation (energy in)
qi = Ai (Ji − Gi ) (14.22)
Tg
i Gi
Ebg
Ji N
eg
Ti Ai qi
ag
FIGURE 14.6
Radiation heat transfer through gases in an enclosure.
and
Ji = εi Ebi + (1 − εi )Gi (14.23)
Therefore,
Ebi − Ji
qi = (14.24)
(1 − εi )/(Ai εi )
Performing energy balance between surface i and the rest of surfaces j

through radiation gases,
qi = Ai (Ji − Gi )

= A i Ji − Fij Jj (1 − αij,g ) − Ebg εi,g + Ai εi,g Ji − Ai εi,g Ji

= Ai εi,g (Ji − Ebg ) + Ai Fij (1 − αij,g )( Ji − Jj ) (14.25)
where

Ai Gi = Aj Fji Jj (1 − αg ) + Ai εi,g Ebg

= Ai Fij Jj (1 − αg ) + Ai εi,g Ebg (14.26)
And from the following relationships:
Ai (Ji − εi,g Ji ) = Ai Ji (1 − εi,g )

= Ai Ji (1 − αi,g )

= Ai Fij (1 − αi,g ) Ji
Therefore,
Ji − Ebg
N
Ji − J j
qi = + (14.27)
1 j=1 1
Ai εi,g Ai Fij (1 − αij,g )
+ ,- . + ,- .
resistance due to resistance due to view factor
gas emissivity and gas absorptivity
If gas has no radiation properties, that is, εg = αg = 0, τg = 1, then the above

equation returns to the one we have seen before as

N
Ji − J j
qi =
1/Ai Fij
j=1
14.2.1 Matrix Linear Equations

Apply method 2—the matrix method for N surfaces enclosure with participat-
ing gases. For case A problem, given temperatures to determine heat fluxes.
Let the right side of Equation 14.24 = the right side of Equation 14.27 to form
the matrix as before:
a11 J1 + a12 J2 + · · · + a1N JN = c1

a21 J1 + a22 J2 + · · · + a2N JN = c2
a31 J1 + a32 J2 + · · · + a3N JN = c3
aN1 J1 + aN2 J2 + · · · + aNN JN = cN
Therefore,
[A] [ J] = [C]
[J] = [A]−1 [C]
In addition, combining Equations 14.23 and 14.26, we obtain Ji = emission

from surface i + reflection from surface j
⎡ ⎤
N
= εi Ebi + (1 − εi ) ⎣ Fij Jj (1 − αg ) + εi,g Ebg ⎦ (14.28)
j=1
Similarly, Equation 14.28 can be used to form the matrix [A][J] = [C] as
follows:
J1 = ε1 Eb1 + (1 − ε1 )[F11 J1 (1 − αg ) + ε1,g Ebg + F12 J2 (1 − αg ) + ε1,g Ebg + · · · ]

J2 = ε2 Eb2 + (1 − ε2 )[F21 J1 (1 − αg ) + ε2,g Ebg + F22 J2 (1 − αg ) + ε2,g Ebg + · · · ]
..
.
..
.
JN = εN EbN + (1 − εN )[FN1 J1 (1 − αg ) + εN,g Ebg
+ FN2 J2 (1 − αg ) + εN,g Ebg + · · · ]
Once matrix [ J] has been solved, then surface heat transfer rate can be
determined from Equation 14.24 as
Ebi − Ji
⇒ qi =
(1 − εi )/(εi Ai )
If we consider energy balance between gases and enclosure surfaces i, the

heat transfer rate (energy releases) from gases to the enclosure is

N
N
Ebg − Ji
qg = Ai εi,g (Ebg − Ji ) = (14.29)
1/Ai εi,g
i=1 i=1
However, we still need Equations 14.24 and 14.27 or Equation 14.28 to solve
Ji using the matrix method. The aforementioned gas radiation problems can
also be solved by method 1—the electric network analogy method.
14.2.2 Electric Network Analogy

Special case 1: Figure 14.7a shows several combustion furnaces that can be
modeled as radiation between two surface enclosures containing hot radia-
tion gases, if Tg > T1 > T2 : By using Equations 14.24, 14.27, and 14.29, Figure
(a) 2
1 2
2
Gases Gases
Gas 2 2
1 or coal
2 1
2
2
2 Gases 2
Gases Gases
1 1
or coal or coal
(b) Ebg
1 1
A1ε1–g A2ε2–g
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
1 – ε1 1 1 – ε2 –q2
A1ε1 A1F12 (1 – α1–2,g) A2ε2
FIGURE 14.7
(a) Radiation between hot gases and two-surface enclosures; (b) Electric network for radiation
from hot gas to two-surface enclosure.
14.7b shows the associated electric network from hot gas to surfaces 1 and 2.
Hot gases release energy to surfaces 1 and 2 through their resistances (with
gas emissivity less than unity); each surface has its own resistance (with sur-
face emissivity less than unity). There is a reduced view factor between two
surfaces because gas cannot be completely seen through between two sur-
faces (due to the gas absorption effect). If gas absorptivity is zero, the view
factor is the same as the one with nonparticipating gases (such as air). Energy
balance on surfaces 1 and 2 must be performed in order to solve for radiosities
J1 and J2 , respectively. Then, energy releases from hot gases, and heat transfer
to surfaces 1 and 2 can be determined.
Special case 2: Figure 14.8 shows that several combustion furnaces can be
modeled as heat transfer between hot gases and a single gray surface enclo-
sure (assume an enclosure at a uniform temperature). The simple electric
network can be used to solve this type of problem.
From Equations 14.24 and 14.28, solve for q1 as
J1 = ε1 Eb1 + (1 − ε1 )[ J1 (1 − αg ) + εg Ebg ] (14.30)

q1 = (Eb1 − J1 )A1 ε1 /(1 − ε1 ) (14.31)
Substituting J1 into q1 , we obtain
A1 ε1α g σTs4 A1 ε1 εg σTg4

q1 = −
1− ( 1 − ε1) (1 − αg ) 1− ( 1 − ε1)(1 − αg )
A1 ε1
= ( αg σTs4 − εgσTg4 ) (14.32)
1− ( 1 − ε1) (1 − αg )
Special case 3—Net radiation heat transfer between nongray gases and a single
black enclosure: To further simplify the problem, assume that the whole furnace
1
Natural 1 1
gases
1
1 1
1-gray or black surface
FIGURE 14.8
Radiation between hot gases and single-surface enclosure.
Black six-surface
Ts As
εs = αs = 1
Gray gases Tg
CO2 + H2O
FIGURE 14.9
Radiation between hot gases and single black enclosure.
surface is a blackbody at a uniform temperature as shown in Figure 14.9. Net

heat transfer rate = hot gas emission and absorbed by the black surface-black
surface emission and absorbed by gases [1].
qnet = (εg As σTg4 ) · αs − (εs As σTs4 ) · αg = As σ(εg Tg4 − αg Ts4 ) (14.33)

+ ,- . + ,- .
emission emission
from the gas from the surface
For gray gas,

εg = αg (Otherwise, εg = αg )
and for nongray gas
εg = εc + εw − Δε
αg = αc + αw − Δα
Δα = Δε
For water vapor,

0.45
Tg Ts
αw = Cw · εw Ts , Pw L (14.34)
Ts Tg
For carbon dioxide,

0.65
Tg Ts
αc = Cc · εc Ts , Pc L (14.35)
Ts Tg
Note that the problem will be more complicated if we consider radiation

exchange between nongray gases and a single gray enclosure, or radiation
exchange between nongray gases and an N-surfaces enclosure, where N =
1, 2, 3, . . . , N.
R Ebg
1 1
A1eg1 ARegR 1 – εR
AReR
Eb1 JR
R g R
1 – ε1 J1 1 EbR
A1F1t1gR qR = 0
A1e1
1
FIGURE 14.10
A gray enclosure and a refractory surface filled with a gray gas.
Special case 4—Gray enclosure filled with a gray gas: Figure 14.10 shows a
furnace consisting of a hot or a cold gray surface (1), a refractory surface R, and
a gray gas, g, where each element is assumed to be at a uniform temperature
−T1 , TR , and Tg ; determine the radiation heat transfer between the surface (1)
and gas as
σ(T14 − Tg4 )
q1g = (14.36)
(1 − ε1 )/A1 ε1 + 1/{A1 εg1 + 1/[1/(AR εgR ) + 1/(A1 F1R τ1gR )]}
Special case 5—Two gray surfaces with a gray gas: Figure 14.11 shows a furnace
consisting of a hot gray surface (1), cold gray surface (2), a refactory surface
R, and a gray gas g; determine the radiation heat transfer [1].
Real furnace applications—The zone method: Figure 14.12 shows the concept of
the zone method for real-furnace applications proposed by Hottle (MIT) [5].
In a real furnace, combustion gases as well as furnace surface temperatures are
nonuniform. The problem can be solved by dividing gases and surfaces into
a number of gas zones and surface zones, respectively. Energy balance can
be performed on each subsurface (each zone) and between each subsurface
and the rest of subsurfaces (zones) through gas zones. View factors need
to be calculated between subsurfaces too. The solution procedures are quite
complicated.
Ebg
2
1 1 1
A1εg1 A2εg2
R R ARε gR
g 1 1
A1F1Rτ1gR A2F2Rτ2gR
JR
Eb1 Eb 2
1 − ε1 J 1
1 J2 1 − ε 1
A1ε1 1 A1F12τ1g2 A1ε1
FIGURE 14.11
An enclosure of a gray hot surface, a gray cold surface, and a refractory surface.
Surface zones Surface zones
Air fuel Air fuel
Gas zones Gas zones
FIGURE 14.12
Concept of zone method for real furnace heat transfer problem.
Zone for gases Tg,i = Number of gas zones, a uniform temperature in

each zone
Zone for surfaces Ti = Number of surface zones, a uniform temperature
in each zone
The problem will be even more complicated if convection effects are con-
sidered, which is up to 20% of heat transfer rate for a circulation well-mixed
furnace. In reality, soot formation and radiation can further make the problem
harder to model.
14.3 Radiation Transfer through Gases with Nonuniform

Temperature
14.3.1 Cryogenic Thermal Insulation
In some applications, such as cryogenic thermal insulation, radiation heat
is transferred from surface 1 to surface 2 through participating gases with
varying temperature as shown in Figure 14.13. For a simple 1-D problem,
+
Gases L T2
In cos θ
θ Iλ qλ
Tg(x) ds dy = ds cos θ
y y dw
τ θ
o T1
T1 x T2
T1 > T2
FIGURE 14.13
Radiation heat transfer through gases with varying temperature.
gray gas temperature changes from gray diffuse surface 1 to surface 2 [5,6].
• Nonuniform gas temperature: Cryogenic thermal insulation.

• For simple case: 1-D gray gas, gray and diffuse surfaces.
14.3.2 Radiation Transport Equation in the Participating Medium
∂I
=0
∂φ
∂I
= 0
∂θ
ebλ (y) rλ Gλ (y)
dIλ+ (θ) = −kλ Iλ+ ds − rλ Iλ+ ds + kλ ds + ds (14.37)
π 4π
where kλ is the absorption coefficient, rλ the scattering coefficient, ebλ the

emission power, and Gλ (y) the scattering into the area ds from surrounding.
Also dIλ− (θ) = . . . .
The net heat flux:

1. qλ = Iλ (τλ , θ) cos θ dω
where Iλ = Iλ+ − Iλ− , τλ —Number of mean free path,
y
τλ = (1/λp ) dy ⇒ τL = (L/λp ) = Lβλ
0
With λp the mean free path, βλ volumetric extinction coefficient βλ =

kλ + rλ .
2. dq/dy = 0, that is, q = const. if only consider radiation, no conduc-
tion, no convection.
Radiosity at surface 1,
J1 ε1 σT14 + (1 − ε1 )G1
I + (0) = =
π π
J2 ε2 σT24 + (1 − ε2 )G2
I − (L) = =
π π
From the above (1), (2), and BCs, a solution can be achieved by an
exponential or numerical method [6].
1.0 Optically thin

1.0
Q Experimental
ϕ(τ) Thin τL= 0
1
2 Thick τL= ∞ Optically thick
Numerical
0 τ τL 1 0 τL 10
FIGURE 14.14
Nondimensional temperature and heat flux profiles.
For 1-D, gray gases, gray and diffuse surface, radiation only, the heat flux

σ T14 − T24 Q
q= (14.38)
1 + Q ((1/ε1 ) + (1/ε2 ) − 2)
q 1
Q≡ ≡ (14.39)
J1 − J 2 1 + (3/4)τL
σT 4 (τ) − J2
φ(τ) ≡ (14.40)
J1 − J 2
where Q is the nondimensional heat flux, φ(τ) is the nondimensional

temperature profile, as sketched in Figure 14.14.
Temperature profile:
1 3
φ(τ) = 1 − Q − Qτ (14.41)
2 4
Physical significances:
Special case (a)—Optical thin medium: τL = Lβλ 1 ≈ 0, or system dimension
mean free path, then, Q → 1 and the physical heat flux is

σ T14 − T24
⇒q= (14.42)
(1/ε1 ) + (1/ε2 ) − 1
This equals to surface radiation problem.
Special case (b)—Optical thick medium: β is large or τL → ∞, then Q =
(4/3)(1/τL ) is small,
4 1
q = σ T14 − T24 (14.43)
3 τL
If considering black surfaces, ε1 = ε2 = 1, from Equations 14.39 through
14.41, the temperature profile between two surfaces with participating
medium can be obtained and sketched in Figure 14.15,
a. φ = 1/2 = (T 4 − T24 )/(T14 − T24 ) for the optical thin medium.

b. φ = 1 − (τ/τL ) = (T 4 − T24 )/(T14 − T24 ) for the optical thick medium.
T 41
(a)
(b)
T 42
τ/τL
FIGURE 14.15
Temperature profile between two black surfaces through participating gas.
If considering conduction and radiation,

T1 − T2 σ T14 − T24 Q
q = qc + qr = k + (14.44)
L 1 + Q((1/ε1 ) + (1/ε2 ) − 2)
If considering convection and radiation,

σ T14 − T24 Q
q = qconv + qr = h̄ΔT̄ + (14.45)
1 + Q((1/ε1 ) + (1/ε2 ) − 2)
Remarks
In the undergraduate-level heat transfer, from charts, students are expected
to know how to read the emissivity and absorptivity values of water vapor
and carbon dioxide in a furnace at given size, temperature, and pressure,
and then apply these properties to calculate radiation transfer between these
gases and the furnace wall, assuming the blackbody furnace wall at a uniform
temperature.
In the intermediate-level heat transfer, this chapter focuses on how to
derive volumetric absorption; geometric mean beam length; radiation trans-
fer between gray gases at a uniform temperature and an N-surfaces furnace
with each surface at different gray diffuse uniform temperature conditions.
Students are expected to know how to analytically solve gas radiation prob-
lems by using the matrix linear equations method for an N-surfaces furnace
with various surface thermal BCs. By using electric network analogy, this
chapter has also provided several relevant engineering applications such as
radiation transfer between gas at a high uniform temperature and one-surface
furnace assuming the gray diffuse surface at a low uniform temperature;
or between gas at a high uniform temperature and two-surfaces furnace
assuming gray diffuse surfaces with each surface at different low uniform
temperatures.
This chapter does not go into much detail on real-furnace applications
with varying gas temperature and surface temperature by using the zon-
ing method. We only deal with the 1-D varying gas temperature, steady-state,
and gray diffuse surface problem. However, in real-life applications, there are
many gas radiation problems involving flow convection; 2-D or 3-D varying
gas temperature; cylindrical or spherical furnace geometry; nongray gases;

nongray nondiffuse surfaces; gases with scattering particulates and soot for-
mation; and sphere fillet or fiber porous medium. These topics belong to
advanced radiation transfer.
PROBLEMS
14.1. A hemispherical furnace is shown in Figure 14.7. If the furnace
contains CO2 + N2 gases at 1 atm pressure and temperature Tg ,
determine the total radiation heat transfer from gases to sur-
faces 1 and 2 (assume Tg > T1 > T2 , and make other necessary
assumptions).
a. Based on the analogy of electric resistance network, draw a
radiation heat transfer network from gases to surfaces 1 and 2.
b. Determine the total radiation from gases to surfaces 1 and 2.
The final solutions should be the function of given tempera-
tures, surface area, and radiation properties.
14.2. A hemispherical furnace is shown in Figure 14.7.
a. If the furnace contains N2 gas at 5 atm pressure, determine the
net radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 (assume
T1 > T2 , and make other necessary assumptions).
b. If the furnace contains CO2 + N2 gases at 5 atm pressure and
temperature Tg , determine total radiation heat transfer from
gases to surfaces 1 and 2 (assume Tg > T1 > T2 , and make
other necessary assumptions).
c. Reconsider (b), if surface 1 now is a reradiating surface, deter-
mine the total radiation heat transfer to the surface 2 of the
furnace. In this new condition, comment on whether the radi-
ation transfer to surface 2 will be higher, the same, or lower
than that of (b) (make necessary assumptions).
14.3. A long hemicylindrical furnace is shown.
a. Determine the net radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to
surface 2, q12 .
b. If T2 = T2 (θ), describe how to determine q12 .
c. Consider combustion gray gas with a uniform temperature Tg
and emissivity εg inside the furnace, and determine the total
radiation heat transfer from gas to surfaces 1 and 2, qg . Assume
T1 , T2 constant.
14.4. A hemispherical furnace, with a reradiating floor and a water-
cooled ceiling, contains CO2 and N2 gases at 1 atm pressure
and 1000◦ C. Take ε1 = 0.8, ε2 = 0.7, D = 1 m, and T2 = 500◦ C.
Determine the radiant heat transfer to the ceiling of the furnace.
Assume gray gases.
Given: σ = 5.67 × 10−8 (w/m2 K4 ).
Volume of a sphere = (4/3)π((1/2)D)2
Surface of a sphere = 4π((1/2)D)2
14.5. A hemispherical furnace, with a reradiating floor and a water-
cooled ceiling, contains 2CO2 and 8N2 gases at 1 atm pressure
and 1000◦ C. Take ε1 = 0.8, ε2 = 0.7, D = 1 m, and T2 = 500◦ C.

14.6. A cryogenic storage chamber has double walls for the purpose of
insulation against heat loss. The gap between the walls is filled
with a gas whose properties are
Thermal conductivity: K(T) = 2 × 10−7 × T ◦ K (KW/(m −
◦ C))
Volumetric radiation extinction coefficient: β = 10−6 (m2 /m3 )

a. Determine the rate of heat loss if one wall is at 500◦ K and the
other wall is at 100◦ K. Take ε1 = ε2 = 0.1, L = 0.2 m.
b. If β = 100 (m2 /m3 ), what would be the result in (a)?
Thermal conductivity: K(T) = 1 × 10−7 × T ◦ K(KW/(m − ◦ C))
The walls are made of a polished metal, with an emissivity of 0.2.
The gap between the walls is 0.5 m.
other wall is at 100◦ K.
Thermal conductivity: K(T) = 3 × 10−7 × T ◦ K(KW/(m − ◦ C))
The walls are made of a polished metal, with an emissivity of 0.1.
The gap between the walls is 0.3 m.
other wall is at 100◦ K.
14.9. Agas turbine combustion chamber may be approximated as a long
tube of 0.4 m diameter. The combustion gas is at a pressure and
temperature of 1 atm and 1000◦ C, respectively, while the chamber
surface temperature is 500◦ C. If the combustion gas contains CO2
and water vapor, each with a mole fraction of 0.15, what is the
net radiative heat flux between the gas and the chamber surface,
which may be approximated as a blackbody?
14.10. Consider a hemispherical furnace, with a reradiating floor and a
water-cooled ceiling, contains 2CO2 + 8N2 gases at 1 atm pressure
and 1200◦ C. Take ε1 = 0.9, ε2 = 0.6, D = 1.5 m, and T2 = 350◦ C.
14.11. Consider a hemispherical furnace radiation heat transfer problem.
The furnace floor (surface 1) has area A1 and emissivity ε1 at tem-
perature T1 , whereas the furnace enclosure (surface 2) has area
A2 and emissivity ε2 at temperature T2 . If the furnace contains
CO2 + N2 gases at 1 atm pressure and temperature Tg , determine
the total radiation heat transfer from gases to surfaces 1 and 2

(assume Tg > T1 > T2 , and make other necessary assumptions).
14.12. Consider a hemispherical furnace. The hemispherical furnace wall
has surface area A1 , emissivity ε1 , at temperature T1 , whereas the
furnace floor has surface area A2 , emissivity ε2 , at temperature
T2 . If the furnace contains CO2 +N2 gases at 10 atm pressure and
temperature Tg , determine the total radiation heat transfer from
gases to surfaces 1 and 2 (assume Tg > T2 > T1 , and make other
necessary assumptions). Assume that the gas emissivity is εg .
14.13. For a cylindrical furnace (top wall 1, bottom wall 2, side wall 3)
with hot gray gases, solve the following problems by using the
matrix method.
a. Given T1 , T2 , T3 , Tg , determine q1 , q2 , q3 , qg .
b. Given q1 , q2 , q3 , qg , determine T1 , T2 , T3 , Tg .
c. Given T1 , T2 , q3 , Tg , determine q1 , q2 , T3 , qg .
d. Given q1 , q2 , T3 , Tg , determine T1 , T2 , q3 , qg .
e. Given T1 , T2 , T3 , qg , determine q1 , q2 , q3 , Tg .
14.14. For a cubic furnace (top wall 1, bottom wall 2, four side wall 3)
with hot gray gases, solve the following problems by using the
matrix method if the side wall is a reradiating surface.
a. Given T1 , T2 , TR , Tg , determine q1 , q2 , qR , qg .
b. Given q1 , q2 , qR , qg , determine T1 , T2 , TR , Tg .
c. Given T1 , T2 , qR , Tg , determine q1 , q2 , TR , qg .
d. Given q1 , q2 , TR , Tg , determine T1 , T2 , qR , qg .
e. Given T1 , T2 , TR , qg , determine q1 , q2 , qR , Tg .
References
4. R. Siegel and J. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York,
NY, 1972.
5. H. Hottel and A. Sarofim, Radiative Transfer, McGraw- Hill, New York, NY, 1967.
6. J. Chen, Conduction and Radiation Heat Transfer, Class Notes, Lehigh University,
1973.
Appendix A: Mathematical Relations
and Functions
A.1 Useful Formulas
x x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + + + + + ···
1! 2! 3! 4!
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + − ···
2! 4! 6! 8!
x3 x5 x7
sinh x = x + + + + ···
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cosh x = 1 + + + + ···
2! 4! 6!
ex − e−x
sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
d sin x = cos x dx; d cos x = − sin x dx
d sinh x = cosh x dx; d cosh x = + sinh x dx

sin x dx = − cos x + c; cos x dx = sin x + c

1 1 1 1
sin2 x dx = − sin x cos x + x + c = − sin 2 x + x + c
2 2 4 2

1 1 1 1
cos2 x dx = sin x cos x + x + c = sin 2x + x + c
2 2 4 2

sinh x dx = cosh x + c; cosh x dx = sinh x + c
297
298 Appendix A

1 1
sinh2 x dx = sinh x cosh x − x + c
2 2

1 1
cosh2 x dx = sinh x cosh x + x + c
2 2
A.2 Hyperbolic Functions [1]
x sinh x cosh x tanh x

0.00 0.0000 1.0000 0.00000
0.10 0.1002 1.0050 0.09967
0.20 0.2013 1.0201 0.19738
0.30 0.3045 1.0453 0.29131
0.40 0.4108 1.0811 0.37995
0.50 0.5211 1.1276 0.46212

0.60 0.6367 1.1855 0.53705
0.70 0.7586 1.2552 0.60437
0.80 0.8881 1.3374 0.66404
0.90 1.0265 1.4331 0.71630
1.00 1.1752 1.5431 0.76159

1.10 1.3356 1.6685 0.80050
1.20 1.5095 1.8107 0.83365
1.30 1.6984 1.9709 0.86172
1.40 1.9043 2.1509 0.88535
1.50 2.1293 2.3524 0.90515

1.60 2.3756 2.5775 0.92167
1.70 2.6456 2.8283 0.93541
1.80 2.9422 3.1075 0.94681
1.90 3.2682 3.4177 0.95624
2.00 3.6269 3.7622 0.96403

2.10 4.0219 4.1443 0.97045
2.20 4.4571 4.5679 0.97574
2.30 4.9370 5.0372 0.98010
2.40 5.4662 5.5569 0.98367
2.50 6.0502 6.1323 0.98661

2.60 6.6947 6.7690 0.98903
2.70 7.4063 7.4735 0.99101
Appendix A 299
(continued)
x sinh x cosh x tanh x
2.80 8.1919 8.2527 0.99263
2.90 9.0596 9.1146 0.99396
3.00 10.018 10.068 0.99505

3.50 16.543 16.573 0.99818
4.00 27.290 27.308 0.99933
4.50 45.003 45.014 0.99975
5.00 74.203 74.210 0.99991
6.00 201.71 201.72 0.99999

7.00 548.32 548.32 1.00000
8.00 1490.5 1490.5 1.00000
9.00 4051.5 4051.5 1.00000
10.00 11013 11013 1.00000
A.3 Bessel Functions

A.3.1 Bessel Functions and Properties [2]
Behaviors of Bessel functions for small arguments:
(x/2)2 (x/2)4
J0 (x) = 1 − 2
+ − ···
(1!) (2!)2
x (x/2)3 (x/2)5
J1 (x) = − + − ···
2 1!2! 2!3!
..
.
/ 0
(x/2)v (x/2)2 (x/2)4
Jv (x) = 1− + − ···
Γ(v + 1) 1!(v + 1) 2!(v + 1)(v + 2)
(x/2)2 (x/2)4
I0 (x) = 1 + + + ···
(1!)2 (2!)2
x (x/2)3 (x/2)5
I1 (x) = − + − ···
2 1!2! 2!3!
..
.
/ 0
(x/2)v (x/2)2 (x/2)4
Iv (x) = 1+ + + ···
Γ(v + 1) 1!(v + 1) 2!(v + 1)(v + 2)
300 Appendix A
Behaviors of Bessel functions for large arguments:

'
2 π vπ
Jv (x) ≈ cos x − −
πx 4 2
'
2 π vπ
Yv (x) ≈ sin x − −
πx 4 2

ex 4v2 − 1
Iv (x) ≈ √ 1−
2πx 8x
'
π −x 4v2 − 1
Kv (x) ≈ e 1+
2x 8x
Properties of Bessel functions:
d d
[J0 (mx)] = −mJ1 (mx), [Y0 (mx)] = −mY1 (mx)
dx dx
d d
[I0 (mx)] = mI1 (mx), [K0 (mx)] = −mK1 (mx)
dx dx
A.3.2 Bessel Functions of the First Kind [1]
x J0 (x) J1 (x)
0.0 1.0000 0.0000
0.1 0.9975 0.0499
0.2 0.9900 0.0995
0.3 0.9776 0.1483
0.4 0.9604 0.1960
0.5 0.9385 0.2423
0.6 0.9120 0.2867
0.7 0.8812 0.3290
0.8 0.8463 0.3688
0.9 0.8075 0.4059
1.0 0.7652 0.4400
1.1 0.7196 0.4709
1.2 0.6711 0.4983
1.3 0.6201 0.5220
1.4 0.5669 0.5419
1.5 0.5118 0.5579
1.6 0.4554 0.5699
1.7 0.3980 0.5778
Appendix A 301
(continued)
x J0 (x) J1 (x)
1.8 0.3400 0.5815
1.9 0.2818 0.5812
2.0 0.2239 0.5767
2.1 0.1666 0.5683
2.2 0.1104 0.5560
2.3 0.0555 0.5399
2.4 0.0025 0.5202
A.3.3 Modified Bessel Functions of the First and Second Kinds [1]
x e−x I0 (x) e−x I1 (x) ex K0 (x) ex K1 (x)

0.0 1.0000 0.0000 ∞ ∞
0.2 0.8269 0.0823 2.1407 5.8334
0.4 0.6974 0.1368 1.6627 3.2587
0.6 0.5993 0.1722 1.4167 2.3739
0.8 0.5241 0.1945 1.2582 1.9179
1.0 0.4657 0.2079 1.1445 1.6361
1.2 0.4198 0.2152 1.0575 1.4429
1.4 0.3831 0.2185 0.9881 1.3010
1.6 0.3533 0.2190 0.9309 1.1919
1.8 0.3289 0.2177 0.8828 1.1048
2.0 0.3085 0.2153 0.8416 1.0335
2.2 0.2913 0.2121 0.8056 0.9738
2.4 0.2766 0.2085 0.7740 0.9229
2.6 0.2639 0.2046 0.7459 0.8790
2.8 0.2528 0.2007 0.7206 0.8405
3.0 0.2430 0.1968 0.6978 0.8066
3.2 0.2343 0.1930 0.6770 0.7763
3.4 0.2264 0.1892 0.6579 0.7491
3.6 0.2193 0.1856 0.6404 0.7245
3.8 0.2129 0.1821 0.6243 0.7021
4.0 0.2070 0.1787 0.6093 0.6816
4.2 0.2016 0.1755 0.5953 0.6627
4.4 0.1966 0.1724 0.5823 0.6453
4.6 0.1919 0.1695 0.5701 0.6292
4.8 0.1876 0.1667 0.5586 0.6142
5.0 0.1835 0.1640 0.5478 0.6003
5.2 0.1797 0.1614 0.5376 0.5872
5.4 0.1762 0.1589 0.5279 0.5749
continued
302 Appendix A
(continued)
x e−x I0 (x) e−x I1 (x) ex K0 (x) ex K1 (x)
5.6 0.1728 0.1565 0.5188 0.5633
5.8 0.1696 0.1542 0.5101 0.5525
6.0 0.1666 0.1520 0.5019 0.5422
6.4 0.1611 0.1479 0.4865 0.5232
6.8 0.1561 0.1441 0.4724 0.5060
7.2 0.1515 0.1405 0.4595 0.4905
7.6 0.1473 0.1372 0.4476 0.4762
8.0 0.1434 0.1341 0.4366 0.4631
8.4 0.1398 0.1312 0.4264 0.4511
8.8 0.1365 0.1285 0.4168 0.4399
9.2 0.1334 0.1260 0.4079 0.4295
9.6 0.1305 0.1235 0.3995 0.4198
10.0 0.1278 0.1213 0.3916 0.4108
A.4 Gaussian Error Function [1]
η erf η η erf η η erf η

0.00 0.00000 0.36 0.38933 1.04 0.85865
0.02 0.02256 0.38 0.40901 1.08 0.87333
0.04 0.04511 0.40 0.42839 1.12 0.88679
0.06 0.06762 0.44 0.46622 1.16 0.89910
0.08 0.09008 0.48 0.50275 1.20 0.91031
0.10 0.11246 0.52 0.53790 1.30 0.93401
0.12 0.13476 0.56 0.57162 1.40 0.95228
0.14 0.15695 0.60 0.60386 1.50 0.96611
0.16 0.17901 0.64 0.63459 1.60 0.97635
0.18 0.20094 0.68 0.66378 1.70 0.98379
0.20 0.22270 0.72 0.69143 1.80 0.98909
0.22 0.24430 0.76 0.71754 1.90 0.99279
0.24 0.26570 0.80 0.74210 2.00 0.99532
0.26 0.28690 0.84 0.76514 2.20 0.99814
0.28 0.30788 0.88 0.78669 2.40 0.99931
0.30 0.32863 0.92 0.80677 2.60 0.99976
0.32 0.34913 0.96 0.82542 2.80 0.99992
0.34 0.36936 1.00 0.84270 3.00 0.99998
Appendix A 303
The Gaussian error function is defined as
η
2
e−u du
2
erf η = √
π
0
The complementary error function is defined as
erfcη ≡ 1 − erf η
x
η= √
4αt
References
ing, MA, 1966.
Mechanical Engineering
Analytical
Heat
Transfer
Je-Chin Han
“… it will complete my library … [and] complement the existing
literature on heat transfer. It will be of value for both graduate
students and faculty members.”
—Bengt Sunden, Lund University, Sweden
Developed from the author’s 30 years of teaching a graduate-level

intermediate heat transfer course, Analytical Heat Transfer explains
how to analyze and solve conduction, convection, and radiation heat
transfer problems. Suitable for entry-level graduate students, the book
fills the gap between basic heat transfer undergraduate courses and
advanced heat transfer graduate courses.
The author places emphasis on modeling and solving engineering heat

transfer problems analytically, rather than simply applying the equations
and correlations for engineering problem calculations. He describes
many well-known analytical methods and their solutions, such as Bessel
functions, separation of variables, similarity method, integral method,
and matrix inversion method. He also presents step-by-step mathematical
formula derivations, analytical solution procedures, and numerous
demonstration examples of heat transfer applications.
By providing a strong analytical background, the text enables readers

to tackle complex engineering heat transfer problems encountered in
practice. This analytical knowledge also helps them to read and
understand heat transfer–related research papers.
K12869
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What are the different methods discussed for solving heat transfer problems analytically?

What are the different methods discussed for solving heat transfer problems analytically?

What applications does the author provide examples for in demonstrating the analytical solution procedures?

What applications does the author provide examples for in demonstrating the analytical solution procedures?

Analytical

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-9689-1 (eBook - PDF)

and the CRC Press Web site at

1. Heat Conduction Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. 1-D Steady-State Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3. 2-D Steady-State Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4. Transient Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5. Numerical Analysis in Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6. Heat Convection Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7. External Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

8. Internal Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

9. Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

10. Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

11. Fundamental Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

12. View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

13. Radiation Exchange in a Nonparticipating Medium . . . . . . . . . . . 257

13.2 Radiation Exchange between Gray Diffuse Nonisothermal

14. Radiation Transfer through Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Appendix A: Mathematical Relations and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Fundamental Heat Transfer is a required course for all mechanical, chemical,

This book is intended to cover intermediate heat transfer between the

W. Rohsenow and H. Choi, Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-

Finally, I would like to sincerely express special thanks to my former

1.1.1.1 Fourier’s Conduction Law

1.1.2.1 Newton’s Cooling Law

where Ts is the surface temperature (◦ C or K), T∞ the fluid temperature (◦ C

Any surface at Ts, ε, As

at a temperature greater than absolute zero. According to Stefan–Boltzmann,

1.1.3.1 Stefan–Boltzmann Law

For ideal (black) surface, ε = 1

1.1.4 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer

Surrounding wall, Tsur , εsur

Assume: surface A  surrounding sky or building wall surface, T∞  = Tsur

Therefore, from Equation 1.5

q = h(Ts − T∞ ) + hr (Ts − Tsur ) (1.6)

1.2 General Heat Conduction Equations

1-D T(x) for steady state or T(x, t) for transient problem

To determine the temperature profile, the following should be given:

1. Initial condition and BCs

1.2.1 Derivations of General Heat Conduction Equations

conservation in a 1-D system (x-direction only),

The conduction heat rates can be evaluated from Fourier’s Law,

With control surface area Ax = dy dz, Equation 1.9 can be written as

The thermal energy generation can be represented by

where q̇ is the energy generation per unit volume dx dy dz.

Substituting Equations 1.12 and 1.13 into Equation 1.11, we have

If we consider energy conservation, in a 3-D system (x-direction, y-direction,

The thermal conductivity k, which is a function of temperature, is hard to

where α = k/ρCp is the thermal diffusivity.

In a 3-D spherical coordinate system as shown in Figure 1.7b, it has the

1.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions

1.3.1 Boundary Conditions

1. Given surface temperature T(0, t) = Ts , as shown in Figure 1.8

Assume: surface A surrounding sky or building wall surface, T∞ = Tsur