Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Corrosion Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/corsci

Assessing the long term benefits of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

C. Christodoulou a,*, G. Glass a, J. Webb a, S. Austin b, C. Goodier b
a
AECOM, 94-96 Newhall Street, Birmingham, B3 1PB, UK
b
Loughborough University, Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This experimental field study interrupted the protection current offered by Impressed Current Cathodic
Received 25 January 2010 Protection (ICCP) to ten in-service reinforced concrete structures. The study aimed to identify the long-
Accepted 18 April 2010 term effects of ICCP after it was recognised that some of the systems are now reaching the end of their
Available online 28 April 2010
design life and require a significant level of maintenance. It was found that after five or more years of
ICCP, the steel remained passive for at least 24 months after interrupting the protection current despite
Keywords: chloride contamination that would represent a corrosion risk.
A. Steel reinforced concrete
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Polarisation
C. Cathodic protection
C. Passivity
C. Pitting corrosion
C. Repassivation

1. Introduction responsible for restoring the pH to the metal surface and inducing
passivity of the metal.
ICCP of atmospherically exposed steel reinforced concrete Evidence suggests that after steel passivity has been restored
structures has been used since 1970s and it is a proven technique then the protection current may be interrupted, as illustrated by
which is able to arrest ongoing corrosion and induce and sustain Broomfield and Tinnea [6]. This study looked at steel potentials
steel passivity [1]. The main principle of cathodic protection is prior to the application of an ICCP system and compared them with
applying an impressed current such as to induce negative steel the potentials after the structure was protected for approximately
polarisation [2], in other words to drive the steel potentials more 1 year and the cathodic protection system turned off for 3 months.
cathodically than 850 mV (SCE), where corrosion process is ther- It was observed that the application of ICCP shifted the steel poten-
modynamically impossible to occur [3]. Under these conditions the tials towards more positive values.
steel will be immune to corrosion. A recent study was undertaken in the USA by Presuel-Moreno
However, for atmospherically exposed reinforced concrete, et al. [7] on the effect of long-term cathodic polarisation in rein-
changing the environment from actively corroding (i.e. pitting) to forced concrete columns in a marine environment. The structures
passive, where pitting is unstable will be sufficient. Steel protec- tested were partially submerged with the splash zone exposed to
tion has been attributed to the negative potential shift achieved very high chloride contamination levels, in some cases up to 4.7%
from the impressed current [4] but it has also been reported that by weight of cement and they had been protected by ICCP for an
it also contributes to the production of hydroxyl ions, an increase approximate period of 9 years. The study concentrated the testing
of the pH and driving the chloride ions away from the steel – con- on the splash zone and illustrated that corrosion did not initiate
crete interface [5]. immediately after the current was interrupted. Some of the rein-
It is widely accepted that the application of cathodic protection forcement was reported to start corroding again after approxi-
to a reinforced concrete structure transforms the environment mately 35 days but even after the study was stopped at 220 days,
around the reinforcement over a period of time [5]. The metal sur- not all the reinforcement was actively corroding at the time. It is
face is now polarised negatively, thus repelling the chlorides (Cl ); also very interesting that steel passivation was achieved with cur-
oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) are consumed and hydroxyl (OH ) is rent densities of 0.5 lA/cm2 (5 mA/m2). With reference to BS EN
generated at the metal surface. The hydroxyl alkalinity will then be 12696 [2] such current density is considered to be on the lower
spectrum of the suggested design current to achieve cathodic pro-
tection on actively corroding structures.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1212626084; fax: +44 1212621999.
Although the above study concluded that given enough time the
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Christodoulou),
[email protected] (G. Glass), [email protected] (J. Webb), S.A.Austin@ corrosion could initiate on all the reinforcement again, there is
lboro.ac.uk (S. Austin), [email protected] (C. Goodier). evidence from a very aggressive environment that ICCP has

0010-938X/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2010.04.018
2672 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679

long-term persistent protective effects [7]. It is also supporting the therefore being 20. Fig. 3, illustrates one of the beams that were
experimental data presented in this paper, which was collected on tested to assess the long-term benefits of ICCP. It is showing severe
a far less aggressive environment with chloride levels not exceed- anode deterioration but no active corrosion.
ing 2% by weight of cement as opposed to the 4.7% by weight of ce- The 10 beams that were selected are given in Table 1. All the
ment recorded in the US field study. structures were constructed in the period of 1966–1970. Samples
In addition, there is a substantial amount of laboratory data for chloride analysis were collected to identify areas of residual
obtained under more rigorous circumstances to support this risk. The locations of testing were in original un-repaired concrete
observation of an increase in the tolerance to chloride contamina- and the chloride contents are expressed as weight percent of ce-
tion and the persistent protective effects. Fig. 1 shows the results ment and for a 25–50 mm cover depth. No chloride contents above
of a study in which a brief period of electrochemical treatment 2% by weight of cement were detected at this depth. All the struc-
that would have generated hydroxide ions at the steel caused a tures were treated for a period of time with ICCP as illustrated by
substantial increase in the tolerance to chloride contamination Table 1 and the anode system comprised a conductive coating. The
[8]. The observation that electrochemically treated structures structures selected have anode systems provided by different sup-
are more tolerant to chloride contamination is countered by an pliers in order to also compare their performance.
observation that in very heavily chloride contaminated concrete;
corrosion may start again.
The study aims to identify the existence of persistent protective 2.2. Methods of assessment
effects afforded by the application of ICCP in a number of field
structures. Midland Links Motorway Viaducts represents the larg- In order to assess corrosion activity in the structures, a number
est application of ICCP in the UK, with over 700 reinforced concrete of tests were undertaken, including:
structures being protected by cathodic protection. Data was col-
lected from in-service structures that can be compared in context 1. Corrosion potential measurements, undertaken monthly and in
of published laboratory data. some cases continuously.
2. Polarisation resistance determination of corrosion rates, under-
taken monthly to calculate corrosion rates.
2. Field study and methodology
3. Impedance measurement of corrosion rates initiated after
6 months.
The following sections describe the field study by stating the
location of the works, briefly describing the structures and their Measuring steel potentials against the potentials of a standard
history and by analysing the selection methods used in order to ob- reference electrode is a long established technique [9,10]. Typical
tain a representative sample of structures. Furthermore, the meth- ranges of steel potentials for various conditions against different
odology used to assess corrosion risk is described and examples of types of reference electrodes are widely available in the public do-
technical calculations are also given. main [10,11]. In accordance with BA 35/90 values more positive
than 200 mV Cu/CuSO4 (saturated) indicate a low probability of
2.1. Structures selection corrosion. Steel potentials can give a good approximation of the
corrosion risk of steel but they are affected by various other factors
Fig. 2, illustrates a typical arrangement of the sub-structure for [11].
the Midland Links Motorway Viaducts. Each span of the viaduct is Corrosion rates are usually expressed as a current density, a rate
simply supported on a reinforced concrete crossbeam. In total of weight loss or a rate of section loss. A corrosion rate of 1 mA/m2
there are approximately 1200 crossbeams in the network and when expressed as a current density is approximately equal to a
about 700 of them have been protected by means of ICCP over steel weight loss of 10 g/m2/year or a steel section loss of 1 lm/
the last 20 years. year. In general corrosion rates higher than 1–2 mA/m2 are consid-
The beams tested were selected in such an order to represent ered to be significant and in cases where there is easy access of
reinforced concrete with a high risk of chloride induced corrosion oxygen (i.e. non-saturated with water) then average corrosion
that had been subject to cathodic protection for a range of protec- rates can reach values up to 100 mA/m2 [12]. The calculation of
tion periods. A total of 10 beams were selected based on the age of corrosion rates through the polarisation resistance method is a
the installed CP system, accessibility and chloride levels indicating well established technique and its feasibility has been demon-
a residual corrosion risk. On every beam two locations were se- strated in numerous occasions [13–16].
lected for monitoring based on the chloride analysis to install an- Rates below 2 mA/m2 (500 years to lose one mm of steel sec-
ode segments, with the total number of monitored locations tion) are considered negligible and corrosion development is
highly unlikely. At a rate higher than the 2 mA/m2 localised corro-
sion activity becomes increasingly likely. This results from the loss
of protection provided by the passive oxide film and the concrete
cover [17].
Fig. 4, illustrates how corrosion rates are calculated based upon
the applied current and the achieved potential shift. A small cur-
rent density is applied to the steel for a period of 10 min. This pro-
duces a steel potential shift and a voltage drop (IR drop) through
the concrete. The potential shift and applied current density are in-
serted into the Butler–Volmer equation, which provides the basis
for polarisation resistance theory, to calculate the corrosion rate.
There are several variations on this method, but this variation is
more suited to the determination of corrosion rates in site condi-
tions as it uses a larger potential shift and less complex equipment
Fig. 1. Effect of cathodic protection treatment on corrosion risk at high chloride than is commonly applied in the laboratory and makes use of the
contents [8]. existing CP anode system as a guard electrode [18].
 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679 2673

Fig. 2. Typical sub-structure arrangement.

high-level, the anode segment and a new enclosure at high-level

to facilitate the new connections to the system.
A segment of the anode (patch) approximately 0.35 m2 was iso-
lated from the rest of the anode system by removing the old anode.
This isolated area was cleaned up and a new anode was installed
locally and coloured black as shown in Fig. 6. The existing anode
segment acts as a counter electrode and the rest of the anode
system acts as a guard ring to confine a current perturbation of
the anode segment to the steel below the anode segment during
Fig. 3. Beam tested for long-term effects of ICCP, showing evidence of severe anode the corrosion rate measurement process. A reference electrode
deterioration but not signs of corrosion. located in the middle of the anode segment is used to assess the
steel potential shift.
Impedance is an alternative technique to calculate corrosion The new electrodes were installed in order to monitor high chlo-
rates and was added to the testing regime during this project to pro- ride concentration areas that were not previously monitored from
vide additional data. A short current pulse is applied to the structure the original electrodes installed during the installation of the ICCP
and the potential shifts over a short period of time are recorded. The system. All the new reference electrodes installed in the 10 beams
potential shift achieved and the time of the potential decay can then were Ag/AgCl/0.5 M KCl, the same as the originally installed refer-
be associated with the corrosion rate of the structure [19]. ence electrodes. The data was recorded using data loggers or re-
Impedance testing differs from polarisation resistance testing in corded manually. The system was designed with the existing
the form of the perturbation applied and the subsequent data anal- power supply providing the current perturbation. However, some
ysis. A current pulse delivers a charge to the steel that affects the of the existing supplies were unstable and a battery power supply
steel potential and the potential response is recorded and analysed. was used for all measurements from the second month.

2.3. Testing arrangement 3. Results

The arrangement used to assess steel passivity is illustrated in This section describes the findings obtained from the monthly
Fig. 5. Briefly the main elements were the existing power supply monitoring of the structures over a period of 24 months and dis-
enclosure located at ground-level, the existing CP enclosure at cusses in detail the findings.

Table 1
Details of the 10 selected structures.

Structure Year of Locations with No of test Locations with Cl Comments Age of system
reference installation Cl greater than 1% by locations greater than 0.4% by (as of 2007) (years)
weight of cement weight of cement
A1 1991 2 4 4 24/7 data logger 12–16
A2 1995 2 5 3 –
A3 1995 2 5 5 24/7 data logger
B1 1996 3 6 4 – 9–11
B2 1998 1 5 4 –
B3 1998 2 5 3 –
B4 1998 2 5 3 –
C1 1999 0 5 2 – 5–8
C2 2002 0 5 1 –
C3 2000 0 5 1 –

Note: Cl sampling at 25–50 mm.

2674 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679

Fig. 4. Example of a corrosion rate calculation.

Fig. 5. Testing arrangement.

3.1. Chloride content the newly installed reference electrodes. In accordance with BA
35/90, values more positive than 200 mV Cu/CuSO4 (saturated)
Samples for chloride analysis were collected at the start of the which is equivalent to 120 mV(Ag/AgCl/0.5 M KCl), indicate a
project. Five locations were tested for every structure. The values re- low probability corrosion risk. Values more negative than
ferred to Table 1 correspond to chloride levels found at the depth of 270 mV(Ag/AgCl/0.5 M KCl indicate a high corrosion risk. The val-
steel (i.e. 25–50 mm). The values express total chloride content by ues recorded during this study were in most cases more positive
weight of cement. The test locations were all in the parent concrete than 120 mV(Ag/AgCl/0.5 M KCl) and therefore the corrosion po-
not previously repaired, in order to identify residual corrosion risk. tential data suggests that corrosion risk is currently negligible on
From Table 1 it can be observed that higher chloride contents were these structures.
present in the older beams whereas in the recently repaired beams Looking at the steel potentials of structure C2 from Fig. 8, it can
chloride levels did not exceed 1% by weight of cement. be observed that in most cases the original 11 (Ag/AgCl/0.5 M KCl)
reference electrodes (installed on the crossbeam at the time the
3.2. Steel potentials ICCP was installed) were more positive than 120 mV. The highs
and lows observed are usually dependant on the weather condi-
Fig. 7, illustrates the most negative steel potentials for all 10 tions. Although the ambient conditions were not recorded as part
structures monitored for a period of 24 months with respect to of this study, the site notes indicate that in the majority of the
 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679 2675

The readings obtained were used to evaluate the potential shift for
corrosion rate measurements.
It was observed that a current of 2 mA/m2 applied for 20 min in-
duced a steel potential shift of 20 mV and affected the off poten-
tials for more than 12 h. This again shows that the steel is
passive as such a large and slow response would not result if the
corrosion rate (corrosion current) was large. The measurement of
corrosion rates by means of polarisation resistance testing was
actually producing a polarisation effect as indicated by the steel
potential decay. Close interval automatic corrosion rate measure-
ments were discontinued.
Fig. 11, provides a summary of corrosion rates calculated from
the manual polarisation resistance testing undertaken monthly
Fig. 6. Isolated anode segment and reference electrode location.
on each structure. It can be observed that in all cases the corrosion
rates were well below the threshold level of 2 mA/m2, reinforcing
the view that cathodic protection will have persistent long-term
occurrences parts of the crossbeam were very wet whereas other
effects. Occasional peaks can be observed from the readings but
completely dry. The absence of a trend to more negative values
these are primarily associated with the influence of galvanic cur-
indicates that the passive condition is stable.
rents as discussed before.
Fig. 9, illustrates steel potentials with regards to the Ag/AgCl/
0.5 M KCl reference electrode for one of the segments obtained
from the continuous monitoring of structure A1 over a period of
7 days. The fluctuation of the readings is associated with changes 3.4. Impedance testing
in the environmental conditions (i.e. temperature, moisture, etc.)
and indicate that there is no residual corrosion risk as the values As discussed previously, for impedance testing a short pulse is
are fairly positive. applied and the potential decay is recorded. The current – time
(current pulse) and potential – time (Fig. 12) data are combined
and transformed into impedance data (Fig. 13). Impedance is a fre-
3.3. Polarisation resistance testing quency dependent resistance that includes phase angle informa-
tion. It is commonly plotted on an x–y graph. Each point on the
Manual polarisation resistance testing was undertaken monthly graph is obtained at a different frequency and the data represents
for every structure. Fig. 10, illustrates potential data obtained from the magnitude of the resistance and phase angle at that frequency.
structure A3 during November 2007. Structure A3 was one of the The units on the axes in Fig. 13 arise when potential is divided
two structures where a data logger was installed. The location of by current density and are also the units of polarisation resistance.
these loggers was based on the condition of the anode systems, The point at a phase angle of zero (the x-axis intercept) is the
accessibility and safety issues. The two structures selected were polarisation resistance (Icorr). The corrosion rate may be derived
part of the early installations with one of them performing very from this in the usual manner. The frequency at the peak of the
well whereas the other one showed signs of severe anode deterio- curve is termed the characteristic frequency (f). It is affected by
ration. The data collected was very important as it offered a direct the condition of the steel and lower frequencies indicate a more in-
comparison between a failing and a very good performing system tact passive film.
and both where installed with a small difference in time. The data obtained for structure C3 (Fig. 13) is compared with
The installed data logger controlled the current output and the published laboratory data for active and passive specimens in
system was switched on for 20 min twice a day. During this period Fig. 14. It is evident that the shape of the impedance data from site
a current pulse was applied and the steel potentials were recorded. corresponds closely to the data obtained from the passive steel

Fig. 7. Steel potentials of the 10 structures monitored over a period of 24 months.

2676 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679

Fig. 8. Steel potentials with respect to original reference electrodes for structure C2.

Fig. 9. Steel potentials for structure A1 over a 7 day period.

specimen. This is indicated by both the x-axis range and the char- depth of steel. Thus, both of these beams had a substantial residual
acteristic frequency. corrosion risk.
In the study presented here, the protective current has been
4. Discussion interrupted for 24 months and the off steel potentials have shifted
towards more positive values and have remained passive. Further-
At the start of the study all the structures were evaluated for more, the corrosion potential and corrosion rate data suggest that
corrosion risk. Structures A2 and B1 were at most risk because there is no significant corrosion activity on these structures. These
the impressed current conductive coating anode had suffered sig- results confirm the published hypothesis that long term-applica-
nificant deterioration. Chloride sampling results showed that these tion of ICCP renders the steel passive and has a persistent protec-
two structures had 40–50% of their test locations with chlorides tive effect in the absence of a negative potential shift. Of the two
greater than 1% by weight of cement and 60–66% of their test loca- effects, chloride extraction and hydroxide production, the latter
tions with chlorides more than 0.4% by weight of cement at the is considered to be the most important [20].
 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679 2677

Fig. 10. Potential data for structure reference A3, illustrating the long-term effects of polarisation induced by a brief and low current density pulse.

Fig. 11. Corrosion rates summary from polarisation resistance testing over a period of 24 months.

Most importantly, the cathodic protection treatment applied study it has been shown these anode systems have been capable of
with a poorly performing anode system (as that shown on Fig. 3) arresting ongoing corrosion and sustaining steel passivity despite
has been sufficient to induce and maintain steel passivity for a per- providing low current densities. This is also supported by Polder
iod of 24 months. These anodes were never capable of sustaining et al. [21] who illustrated that only a small current will be suffi-
more than 20 mA/m2 of current at the concrete surface, with steel cient to induce and sustain passivity.
surface area ranging between 1.4 to 2.2 times the concrete surface Furthermore, it was observed that the zone layout of the ICCP
area. In several occasions the power supplies of the anode systems systems was different, with older systems, such as those on struc-
were voltage limited at current densities less than 2 mA/m2 of con- tures A2 and B1, having a single zone for the whole of the structure
crete surface area. Whilst this is a low cathodic protection current whereas newer systems had multiple zones. However, no apparent
density, it was capable of inducing a substantial protective effect as difference was observed and the steel was rendered passive in all
indicated by the negative steel potential shift (refer to Fig. 10). cases. Another observation was that newer installations of ICCP
Moreover the condition of the impressed current conductive systems involved substantial concrete repairs which removed
coating anode systems at the start of this project indicated that excessive chloride contamination (refer to Table 1).
in some locations on these structures the current had been inter- The polarisation achieved by a short current pulse as shown for
rupted for a substantially longer period. Based on the results of this structure A3, indicates that long-term application of ICCP trans-
2678 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679

Fig. 12. Raw data for impedance analysis for structure C3.

5. Conclusions

The site data presented here is consistent with laboratory data

and results reported in previous works by others, indicating a per-
sistent protective effect after the interruption of ICCP systems.
More specifically we conclude the following:

1. After 24 months with no cathodic protection current, all the

structures investigated have remained passive and with no cor-
rosion signs. This includes structures where 60% of the test loca-
tions had chloride contents exceeding 1% by weight of cement
at the depth of steel and would normally present a corrosion
risk. This supports the published hypothesis that ICCP arrests
ongoing corrosion and has persistent protective effect in the
absence of a negative potential shift.
Fig. 13. Analysis of raw data to obtain corrosion rate for structure C3.
2. Low design current densities from low grade conductive coating
anodes have been capable of inducing steel passivity in chloride
contaminated structures. These anodes were never capable of
sustaining more than 20 mA/m2 of concrete surface, with steel
surface area ranging between 1.4 to 2.2 times the concrete sur-
face area. This suggests that design current densities can be
kept to the lower spectrum of the suggested values of the
design standards.
3. Dividing the ICCP system in smaller zones it did not appear to
give any benefit with regards to protection or durability. At all
cases of single and multi-zone systems, the reinforcement
was found to be passive and the concrete repairs undertaken
Fig. 14. Published impedance data illustrating passive and corroding steel [19]. prior to the installation of the ICCP system would tend to
remove excessive chloride contamination.
4. The absence of corrosion should be taken into account when
repairing old CP systems. The replacement anode systems need
forms the environment around the steel reinforcement. The steel only to deliver a low current density to achieve polarisation and
has now been polarised to such a degree that only a brief current prevent corrosion initiation.
pulse (densities usually used for corrosion prevention) is required
to achieve polarisation. Acknowledgements
Repairs to old CP systems are clearly not critical for at least
24 months after the protection current has been interrupted. When The authors acknowledge the support and invaluable help
considering refurbishment of existing ICCP systems which have throughout all the stages of this work of Chris Spence (Amey), Peter
deteriorated, the absence of corrosion signs and the polarisation Gilbert (Amey), Dr. Vitalis Ngala (Mouchel) and Sam Beamish
of the reinforcement should be taken under consideration. The (Mouchel). They would also like to thank the Highways Agency,
replacement system will need to be designed for cathodic preven- AECOM and the EPSRC (through the Centre for Innovative and
tion rather than cathodic protection as the steel has already been Collaborative Engineering at Loughborough University) for their
sufficiently polarised. commercial and financial support.
 C. Christodoulou et al. / Corrosion Science 52 (2010) 2671–2679 2679

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