Prevention of Corrosion of Reinforcing

Bars in Concrete
By
Hamza Khan

Abstract
The success of reinforced concrete (RC) is mainly due to its structural versatility, long-term
durability characteristics and the complementary interaction of its materials, namely the
reinforcing steel and concrete. Reinforcing steel bars (rebar) embedded in concrete is
normally protected against corrosion during the service life of the structure. However, this
concrete cover protection to the reinforcement can be deteriorated by aggressive agents
leading to corrosion of steel in concrete. The objective of this paper is to investigate the
mechanism of corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete and expound its prevention. The
study of usage of migrating corrosion inhibitors (MCIs) is discussed. The methods for
coating reinforced bars with epoxy coated reinforced bars (ECR) and its applications are
detailed. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) rebars exceptional resistance to corrosion
as well as its comparison with ECR has been presented and explained in detail.

Introduction
Concrete is a complex material of construction that enables the high compressive strength of
natural stone to be used in any configuration. In tension, however, concrete can be no
stronger than the bond between the cured cement and the surfaces of the aggregate. This is
generally much lower than the compressive strength of the concrete. Concrete is therefore
frequently reinforced, usually with steel. When a system of steel bars or a steel mesh is
incorporated in the concrete structure in such a way that the steel can support most of the
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tensile stresses and leave the immediately surrounding concrete comparatively free of tensile
stress, then the complex is known as reinforced concrete.
Corrosion is one of the main concerns in the durability of materials and structures. Much
effort has been made to develop a corrosion inhibition process to prolong the life of existing
structures and minimize corrosion damages in new structures. Carbon steel is one of the most
widely used engineering materials despite its relatively limited corrosion resistance. Iron in
the presence of oxygen and water is thermodynamically unstable, causing its oxide layers to
break down. Corrosion undermines the physical integrity of structures, endangers people and
the environment, and is very costly. Because carbon steel represents the largest single class of
alloys used, corrosion is a huge concern. Steel corrosion is a major concern for any society
with reinforced concrete structures. Different technologies are being used for the control of
corrosion, which depend on the intensity of corrosion e.g. galvanised steel, epoxy coated
reinforced bars, membranes, migrating corrosion inhibitors, fiberglass rebar, Electrochemical
Chloride Extraction (ECE) etc.

Corrosion in Steel Reinforced Concrete

Corrosion-induced deterioration of reinforced concrete can be modelled in terms of three
component steps:
(1) time for corrosion initiation, Ti;
(2) time, subsequent to corrosion
initiation, for appearance of a crack on
the external concrete

surface (crack

propagation), Tp; and

(3) time for surface cracks to progress
into further damage and develop into
spall, Td, to the point where the
functional service life, Tf, is reached.
Figure illustrates these schematically as a plot of cumulative damage versus
time.

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Common types of corrosion in rebar

1) Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution
on the micro-environmental level. Such stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in crevices
(shielded areas). Oxygen in the liquid which is deep in the crevice is consumed by reaction
with the metal. Oxygen content of liquid at the mouth of the crevice which is exposed to the
air is greater, so a local cell develops in which the anode, or area being attacked, is the
surface in contact with the oxygen-depleted liquid.

2) Pitting
Theories of passivity fall into two general categories, one based
on adsorption and the other on presence of a thin oxide film.
Pitting in the former case arises as detrimental or activator
species, such as Cl-, compete with O2 or OH- at specific surface
sites. By the oxide film theory, detrimental species become
incorporated into the passive film, leading to its local dissolution
or to development of conductive paths. Once initiated, pits
propagate auto-catalytically according to the generalized reaction,
M+n + nH2O + nCl- M(OH)n + nHCl,

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resulting in acidification of the active region and corrosion at an accelerated rate (M+n and M
are the ionic and metallic forms of the corroding metal).

Reasons of Corrosion
The two most common causes of reinforcement corrosion are (i) localized breakdown of the
passive film on the steel by chloride ions and (ii) general breakdown of passivity by
neutralization of the concrete, predominantly by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Sound concrete is an ideal environment for steel but the increased use of de-icing salts and
the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in modern environments principally due to
industrial pollution, has resulted in corrosion of the rebar becoming the primary cause of
failure of this material. The scale of this problem has reached alarming proportions in various
parts of the world. Following are the contributing factors leading to corrosion:

1) Loss of Alkanity due to Carbonation

It is well known that if bright steel is left unprotected in the
atmosphere brown oxide rust quickly forms and will continue
to grow until a scale flakes from the surface. This corrosion
process will continue unless some external means is provided
to prevent it. One method is to surround the steel with an
alkaline environment having a pH value within the range 9.5
to 13. At this pH value a passive film forms on the steel that
reduces the rate of corrosion to a very low and harmless value.
Thus, concrete cover provides chemical as well as physical
protection to the steel. However, alkalinity can be lost as a
result of:
(a) Reaction with acidic gases (such as carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere.
(b) Leaching by water from the surface.
Concrete is permeable and allows the slow ingress of the atmosphere; the acidic gases react
with the alkalis (usually calcium, sodium and potassium hydroxides), neutralising them by
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forming carbonates and sulphates, and at the same time reducing the pH value. If the
carbonated front penetrates sufficiently deeply into the concrete to intersect with the concrete
reinforcement interface, protection is lost and, since both oxygen and moisture are available,
the steel is likely to corrode. The extent of the advance of the carbonation front depends, to a
considerable extent, on the porosity and permeability of the concrete and on the conditions of
the exposure.
In the case of carbonation, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with pore water alkali
according to the generalized reaction,
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
It consumes alkalinity and reduces pore water pH to the 89 range, where steel is no longer
passive.

2) Loss of Alkanity due to Chlorides

The passivity provided by the alkaline conditions can also be destroyed by the presence of
chloride ions, even though a high level of alkalinity remains in the concrete. The chloride ion
can locally de-passivate the metal and promote active
metal dissolution. Chlorides react with the calcium
aluminate and calcium aluminoferrite in the concrete to
form insoluble calcium chloroaluminates and calcium
chloroferrites in which the chloride is bound in non-active
form; however, the reaction is never complete and some
active soluble chloride always remains in equilibrium in
the aqueous phase in the concrete. It is this chloride in
solution that is free to promote corrosion of the steel. At
low levels of chloride in the aqueous phase, the rate of
corrosion is very small, but higher concentration increases
the risks of corrosion.

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3) Cracks due to Mechanical Loading

Cracks in concrete formed as a result of tensile loading, shrinkage or other
factors can also allow the ingress of the atmosphere and provide a zone
from which the carbonation front can develop. If the crack penetrates to the
steel, protection can be lost. This is especially so under tensile loading, for
debonding of steel and concrete occurs to some extent on each side of the
crack, thus removing the alkaline environment and so destroying the
protection in the vicinity of the debonding.

4) Stray Currents
Stray currents, arising for instance from railways, cathodic protection systems, or high
voltage power lines, are known to induce corrosion on buried metal structures, leading to
severe localized attack. They may find a low resistance path by flowing through metallic
structures buried in the soil (pipelines, tanks, industrial and marine structures). A cathodic
reaction (e.g., oxygen reduction or hydrogen evolution) takes place where the current enters
the buried structure, while an anodic reaction (e.g., metal dissolution) occurs where the
current returns to the original path, through the soil. Metal loss results at the anodic points,
where the current leaves the structure; usually, the attack is extremely localised and can have
dramatic consequences especially on pipelines.

Example of stray current from a DC railway line picked up by steel reinforcement in concrete.

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5) Corrosion of steel reinforcement due to atmospheric pollution

Most of the times steel reinforcement is exposed to the
atmosphere during transportation and storage in the building
sites for a long period before their installation in the concrete
structures. At any of those stages, steel rebar can be
contaminated by chloride ions from sea spray or windblown
salt. This fact leads to the formation of corrosion products on
their surface. Fig. shows fiber optical microscope images after
three months at open atmosphere conditions.

6) Moisture Pathways
If the surface of the concrete is subject to long-term wetting, the water will eventually reach
the level of the reinforcement, either through diffusion through the porous structure of the
concrete, or by traveling along cracks in the concrete. Concrete roof decks, by their nature,
are meant to be protected from moisture. However, the presence of moisture on roofing
systems may result from failure of the roofing membrane, poor detailing of drainage
facilities, or lack of maintenance of drainage facilities.

7) Water-Cement Ratio
Concrete placed with a high water-cement ratio, as seen under
freeze-thaw cycles, is more porous due to the presence of excess
water in the plastic concrete. The porosity increases the rate of
diffusion of water and electrolytes through the concrete and makes
the concrete more susceptible to cracking.

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8) Low Concrete Tensile Strength

Concrete with low tensile strength facilitates corrosion damage in two ways. First, the
concrete develops tension or shrinkage cracks more easily, admitting moisture and oxygen,
and in some cases chlorides, to the level of the reinforcement. Second, the concrete is more
susceptible to developing cracks at the point that the reinforcement begins to corrode.

9) Electrical contact with dissimilar metals

Dissimilar metals in contact initiate a flow of electrons that promotes the corrosion of one or
the other, by a process known as galvanic corrosion. When two dissimilar metals are in
contact with each other the more active metal (lower on the list) will induce corrosion on the
less active. Such corrosion may induce cracking and damage in the concrete.

10) Corrosion due to difference in environments

Corrosion occurs when two different metals, or metals in different environments, are
electrically connected in a moist or damp concrete. This will occur when:

Steel reinforcement is in contact with an aluminium conduit.

Concrete pore water composition varies between adjacent or along reinforcing bars.

Where there is a variation in alloy composition between or along reinforcing bars.

Where there is a variation in residual/applied stress along or between reinforcing bars.

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Prevention Techniques
Migrating corrosion inhibitors
Migrating corrosion inhibitor (MCI) technology was developed to protect the embedded steel
rebar / concrete structure. Recent MCIs are based on amino carboxylate chemistry and the
most effective types of inhibitor interact at the cathode and anode simultaneously. One such
type is MCI 2022, a mixture of amine carboxylates, amino alcohols and siloxane. Organic
inhibitors utilize compounds that work by forming a monomolecular film between the metal
and the water. In the case of film forming amines, one end of the molecule is hydrophilic and
the other hydrophobic. These molecules will arrange themselves parallel to one another and
perpendicular to reinforcement forming a barrier. Migrating corrosion inhibitors are able to
penetrate into existing concrete to protect steel from chloride attack. The inhibitor migrates
through the concrete capillary structure, first by liquid diffusion via the moisture that is
normally present in concrete, then by its high vapour pressure and finally by following
hairlines and micro cracks. The diffusion process requires roughly 120 days to reach the rebar
surface and to form a protective layer.
MCIs can be incorporated as an admixture or can be surface impregnated on existing concrete
structures. With surface impregnation, diffusion transports the MCIs into the deeper concrete
layers, where they will inhibit the onset of steel rebar corrosion. Furthermore, laboratory tests
have proven that MCI corrosion inhibitors migrate through the concrete pores to protect the
rebar against corrosion even in the presence of chlorides.

This photo shows the treated rebar still embedded in the concrete and the portion of the rebar that was exposed to the
corrosive environment.

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Epoxy Coated Rebar (ECR)

Recent developments including the use of epoxy coating as a protective outer layer of steel
rebar have improved the corrosion resistance of reinforcement. This new product has
provided considerable benefits over standard reinforcement, and was thought to completely
eliminate the problem of corrosion susceptibility of steel rebar. Unfortunately, some minor
issues have arisen since the implementation of epoxy coated rebar (ECR), such as corrosion
on rebar in areas of cracked concrete, and some coating defects due to damage in
construction. ECR have still proved to be a cost effective option to black steel rebar by
reducing the maintenance required over a long service life.

Designed to provide a physical barrier between chlorides and oxygen absorbed in the
concrete and the reinforcing steel, epoxy coating consists of organic epoxy resins combined
with curing agents. Epoxy coating is thermoset material; meaning that it is not subject to
damage by high temperatures once it is cured. The coating starts out as a dry powder, and is
heat-treated to melt the powder and catalyse the chemical reaction that allows epoxy coating
to adhere to the steel. EC is then applied by either spraying it directly on to steel or dipping
the steel into epoxy baths.
The surface of the steel must be cleaned and roughened with abrasive material in order to
provide an uneven surface for the epoxy to bond to mechanically as well as chemically. The
steel is then heated and passed through a sprayer which charges the epoxy powder and causes
it to evenly coat the surface of the steel. The heated steel melts the powder on contact,
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initiating the chemical reaction that forms complex polymers in the epoxy and bonds the
epoxy molecules to each other and the rough steel surface.
In addition to providing a barrier for corrosive agents, epoxy coating also has a high electrical
resistance, and prevents the flow of electrons that contribute to electrochemical corrosion. EC
also possesses the necessary mechanical properties for use in coating steel, i.e. ductility,
negligible shrinkage after application, and good heat resistance. Epoxy coating is also durable
to rough handling and weathering, and is flexible enough to expand and contract with the
steel. Epoxy coating is environmentally friendly thanks to a lack of hazardous materials and
solvents and very efficient methods of manufacture and application to the steel. Epoxy coated
reinforcement is generally required in roadways and bridge decks where de-icing salts cause
significant chloride contamination to the concrete. ECR was first used to reinforce a fourspan bridge deck over Pennsylvanias Schuylkill River in 1973. Today EC is the most widely
used rebar corrosion protection method for bridge deck reinforcement. The use of ECR has
quickly expanded from bridge deck to parking garages and marine structure reinforcement.

Drawbacks of ECR
A disadvantage of substituting epoxy coated reinforcement in the place of uncoated steel is
that epoxy has poor chemical adhesion to the cement mortar mix, resulting in lower bond
strength between the rebar and concrete. Epoxy coating also reduces the size of rebar
deformation ribs and provides less friction to resist bond slip. Bond slip creates cracking in
the concrete, and epoxy coated bars were found to create fewer but wider cracks in concrete
as a result of bond slip. The suggested modification factor for epoxy coated bars to account
for bond slip is 1.35.
Reduced bond strength between ECR and concrete affects the strength and development
length of laps and splices, as well as the capacity of plastic hinges in reinforced concrete.
In addition to the reduced bond strength between the epoxy surface and the concrete, the
bond between the epoxy coating and the steel rebar also tends to deteriorate over time. The
EC adhesion to steel deteriorates at an even higher rate in the presence of cracks in concrete.

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Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is a relatively new material however its numerous
advantages have made it a very popular one. Its market penetration as concrete
reinforcement is increasing by about 20% per year worldwide. Recently design codes have
been released throughout the world and the fiberglass rebar market is growing rapidly.
One of the first and most notable GFRP projects was completed during the 1950s. The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) completed a house design crafted entirely from
fiber-reinforced polymer. The carefully designed GFRP house, constructed in 1956, was
situated in Tomorrowland at Disneyland in Orange, California. For a full decade Disneys
GFRP home of the future welcomed countless visitors and was a very popular attraction. In
1967, it was decided that the House of the Future would be replaced by another attraction.
Amazingly, when the wrecking ball hit the futuristic GFRP home, it simply bounced off the
structure. The fiberglass House of the Future had to be dismantled by hand. This fully
highlighted the astonishing strength of fiber-reinforced polymer and its potential as a building
material.
Over the following decades GFRP rebar was identified as a possible solution to the extensive
degradation of concrete structures. Many questions needed to be asked and answered prior to
it being recommend for use in concrete structures. Over the last 50 years many conferences
and studies have been commissioned and completed.
Field tests around the world have concluded that GFRP rebar has unparalleled corrosion and
fatigue resistance. While most improvements in steel reinforcements incrementally improved
the longevity of concrete structures, GFRP rebar is seen as a breakthrough material which is
expected to extend concrete life by a factor of 4 times due to its corrosion resistance. In
applications where the concrete is exposed to heavy cyclic loads (i.e. bridge decks, loading

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docks, railway crossings, driveways) fiberglass reinforced concrete is expected to last 20

times longer than steel reinforced concrete.
Modern concrete structures frequently need repairs in 10 to 15 years and will generally
require major repairs after 25 years. Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) rebar has been
proven not to corrode even under extreme corrosive conditions allowing structures so
reinforced to last many times longer than steel reinforced concrete structures.
Fiberglass rebar is made up of high strength fibers in a polymer resin matrix. Similar resins
are used to make containment vessels for highly concentrated acids, chlorine, alkalis and
other chemicals. The fibers in a GFRP composite are the main load-carrying element and
exhibit very high strength and stiffness when pulled in tension. A GFRP rebar will typically
consist of millions of these thin, thread-like fibers. Damage to the exterior of the rebar does
not degrade the rebars resistance to corrosion.

Fiberglass rebar comes in many types some of which are listed below:
Sand-coated on a smooth bar
The sand coating is primarily responsible for bonding with concrete. Sand coating also
reduces crack width in applications where concrete is exposed to heavy fatigue loading
applications. This type of application is found in bridge deck, loading dock, and driveway
construction.
Sand-coated on a deformed bar
This type of fiberglass rebar has a sand coating on an underlying deformed surface essentially
giving two layers of bond. It is more resilient to a drop in bond strength if some sand coating
is lost during shipping or handling. It is ideal for heavy fatigue loading applications found in
bridge decks, loading docks, driveway, power pole, or truck scale applications.
Un-sand coated Smooth Bar
Usually used in dowelling applications, it is not recommended for beam applications.
Threaded GFRP
Ideal for form ties, barrier anchors, sea wall tiebacks, floating docks, soil nail or rock bolt
applications. In many applications GFRPs are a good alternative to stainless steel fasteners
since they exhibit superior corrosion resistance in acidic and in salt-water environments.
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Bent Bar
The manufacturer of GFRP rebar prefabricates bends. FRP distributors generally keeps a
family of prefabricated bends in inventory to meet customers immediate requirements.

GFRP REBAR vs. EPOXY COATED REBAR

Once the epoxy is encased in concrete, water and chloride vapours, liquids seep under the
paint film through any crack, pinhole, sheared end, and scuff caused during handling.

Epoxy Coated Steel Re-bar (ECR) is comparable in price to GFRP and the coating on epoxy
rebar has proven to slow down the corrosion process on steel if it remains intact. Maintaining
the integrity of the coating is difficult to ensure during the process of manufacturing and even
more difficult to maintain at a construction site.
A pinhole manufacturing defect or a scratch that may occur during handling or placement at a
construction site will cause an epoxy coated rebar to degrade rapidly. Studies indicate GFRP
reinforcement degrades very slowly in concrete. Corrosion rates indicate the reinforcement
has a viable life of over 160 year.

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[15]

Conclusion
This paper provided a comprehensive description of issues and solutions of corrosion
involved with reinforcing concrete structures. Steel reinforcing bars are implemented because
of their high strength in tension and compression, ductility and bond strength with concrete.
As the varieties of applications and conditions for reinforced concrete construction have
increased, corrosion of rebar in harsh environment has emerged as a significant problem.
Common types of corrosion occurring are Pitting and Crevice corrosion. The two most
common causes of reinforcement corrosion are chloride ions and carbonation by atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Corrosion occurs when concrete is exposed to moisture and chlorides, which
infiltrate the concrete cover to the depth of steel. The chlorides, water and oxygen then react
chemically with the metal to form iron oxide. The products of the corrosion reaction take up
more volume than the original bar and cause the concrete to crack and delaminate. In order to
prevent corrosion damage in new construction, different prevention methods are being
developed.
MCI coated rebar shows significant reduction in the corrosion rate. Epoxy coating has proved
to be an effective method for resisting rebar corrosion. Epoxy coating lengthen the structures
service life by 2 to 3 times. Unfortunately, epoxy coating is not completely corrosion and
maintenance free. Coating defects, loss of adhesion, reduction of bond strength with concrete
and increased incidence of concrete cracking have all resulted from epoxy coated rebar
subjected to high concentrations of corrosive agents over time.
Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) rebar, with its superior tensile properties, built-in
corrosion resistance, and inherent electromagnetic neutrality, offers a unique and
economically feasible reinforcing bar for such applications. GFRP has showed exceptional
resistance to corrosion even under extreme conditions. GFRP reinforced concrete structures
can last from 4 to 20 times longer than steel rebar reinforced concrete structures, which
makes it the best alternate for prevention of corrosion in concrete.

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References
Texts and Articles:
1) Luca Bertolini , Maddalena Carsana, Pietro Pedeferri, Corrosion behaviour of steel
in concrete in the presence of stray current, Corrosion Science 49 (2007) 10561068
2) G. Batis, E. Rakanta, Corrosion of steel reinforcement due to atmospheric pollution,
Cement & Concrete Composites 27 (2005) 269275
3) D. Bjegovic and B. Miksic, Migrating Corrosion Inhibitor Protection of Concrete, MP,
NACE International, Nov. 1999.

4) B. Bavarian and L. Reiner, Corrosion Protection of Steel Rebar in Concrete using Migrating
Corrosion Inhibitors, BAM 2001.

5) Leone Roberto (editor), Bondand Developmentof Reinforcement, American Concrete

Institute (ACI), 1998.
6) Nawy, Edward G, Reinforced Concrete : A Fundamental Approach, 5th edition
Prentice Hall, 2003
7) Silva Araya, Rincon, O Neill (editors), Repair and Rehabilitation of Reinforced
Concrete Structures: The State of the Art, American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), 1998.

Websites:
1)
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5)

www.wikipedia.org
http://libraries.mit.edu/docs/
www.cortecvci.com
http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu
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