Q. 1 Why is a model of teaching needed?

What approaches are used

in building model of teaching?
Model of Teaching
A model of teaching can be defined as the depiction of teaching and learning environment,
including the behavior of teachers and students while the lesson is presented through that model.
According to Barr (1996) “Teaching means many different things; and that the teaching act
varies from person to person and from situation to situation.
Models are mainly representations, copies or images of real objects. They can be used to
represent objectives, systems, concepts or ideas.
Model of teaching can be defined as an instructional design, which describes the process of
specifying and producing particular environmental situations. Which cause the students to
interact in such a way that a specific change occurs in their behaviour. (S.S Chohan – 1989)
A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula to design
instructional material and to guide instructions in the classroom and other settings. The most
important aim of any model of teaching is to improve the instructional effectiveness in an
interactive atmosphere and to improve or shape the curriculum. (Mujeeb-ul-Hasan – 1991)
Characteristics of a Model of Teaching
All good models of teaching have some common identifiable characteristics, which are described
as follows:
1. Scientific Procedure: A model of teaching is not a haphazard combination of facts but
on the other hand, it is a systematic procedure to modify the behaviour of learners. They
are based on certain assumptions.
2. Specification of Learning Outcomes: All models of teaching specify the learning
outcomes in detail on observable students’ performance and what the students will
perform, after completing an instructional sequence.
3. Specification of Environment: This means that every model of teaching specifies in
definite terms the environmental conditions under which a student’s response should be
observed.
4. Criterion of Performance: A models specifies the criterion of acceptable performance,
which is expected from the students. A model of teaching delineates the behaviour
 outcomes, which the learner would demonstrate after completing specific instructional
sequence.
5. Specification of Operations: All models of teaching specify mechanisms that provide
for students reaction and interaction with the environment.
Elements of Models of Teaching
Element of a model of teaching represent its structure, process and teaching aids of the
instruction. A model of teaching consists of syntax, social system, principle of reaction and
support system. The detailed descriptions are as follows.
Syntax It is the steps or phases of the model being presented before the class. It illustrates the
logical and sequential order of the teacher student activities of the instruction procedure. It
describes the complete programed of action of the model.
Social System Social system of a model explains its nature of learning environment. It describes
the role and relationship of the teacher and students through the phases as well as designing the
lesson. As each and every model is unique, the role of teacher and students in every model may
vary according to the respective learning theory of the model is built. It also varies in phases to
phases.
Principle of Reaction This is the extension of social system. It deals with the rules of reaction to
the students responses in the classroom interaction. The reaction of the teacher must be in
accordance with the theory of which model has been built. The teacher reaction is desired when
the students’ responses/ behavior are untouched with expected level responses and for giving
reinforcement. It depends the family of the model is presented.
Support System It includes all instructional aides used in a model of teaching. E.g. Books,
Encyclopedia, Video clips, slides, Newspaper, Tab, Expert, Films, Specimen etc.
Effect of models of Teaching
Models of teaching have a very positive effect on students’ behavior. Bruce Joyce classified the
effect as Instructional effect and Nurturant Effect. Instructional effects are the direct effect of an
instruction on students’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain. Nurturant effects are the
indirect effect other than the teacher intends to achieve through the model.  It is the additional
achievement gained by the students through the unique nature classroom interaction. Examples
are the development of problem solving ability, analytical thinking, critical thinking, social skill,
tolerance etc.
Need for a Model of Teaching
The theory of teaching in research on teaching is an important aspect for the teachers. It can be
utilized in following ways:
1. It is a guide to formation of research hypothesis that may be tested in practical context.
2. It trains investigators to look for facts, which may not be readily apparent.
3. It accumulates research work, allowing old studies to gain supports from new studies.
4. It also allows research to proceed systematically.
5. Above all, it makes possible the conclusion to take shorthand from and thereby helping
communicability among the research themselves and also between the researchers and
the practitioners in teaching.
The Committee on the Criteria of Teacher Effectiveness (1953) concerned itself with theories
and paradigms with a view to draw notice to the necessity of more systematic and orderly
approaches to research on teaching. The tools and theories allow the research workers to bring
clarity into their concepts, orders in their procedure and system in their investigation.
Kerlinger (1964) says, “I appreciate the trend of building theories in education”. He further says
that the development of theory should be the basic aim of research in education. Theories, he
contends, have wider applicability and usefulness than non-theoretical findings.
The need for theory of instruction may be summarized as follows:
i. A theory of teaching helps to clarify the description of the teaching situation in ordinary
language.
ii. It summarizes existing knowledge.
iii. It mediates application of our knowledge of teaching to a new situation.
iv. It leads to fruitful lines of experimental inquiry.
Approaches in Building Models of Teaching
Basically there five approaches in building a theory of teaching. These five approaches can be
grouped in to categories: quantitative and qualitative.
 Quantitative: the look at the relationship between observable teacher behaviour and
student achievement.
 Qualitative: Is a descriptive way, which seeks to understand the reason why teaching is
the way it is.
The quantitative approaches are:
 The process product approach
 The aptitude-treatment interaction approach
 The carol model
The process product approach by this approach the relationship between teacher behaviour and
the average amount of learning is found, which is accomplish by a group. A typical process
product type would count the frequency with which a specific teacher behaviour occurred in
many classrooms over a fixed period of time. Then the frequency of teacher behaviour would be
statistically correlated with average student achievement scores to determine the cause and effect
of relationships.
The aptitude-treatment interaction approach is concerned identifying particular instructional
methods that are well suited to particular students. The guiding question of this type of a model
is “which teaching method is best for which kinds of students”.
The carol model focuses on “time” as the most important factors in student achievement. This
type of teaching investigation the ways for teachers to optimize the amount of time that students
spend on learning tasks.
Qualitative Approaches:
 Cognitive Information Processing
 Ethnography
Cognitive Information Processing approach deals with the basic psychological processes that
organize and direct teacher behaviour.
Ethnography, which has its roots in anthropology, looks at a whole social system.
Ethnographer’s frequency participate in the social system they are studying.

Q. 2 Discuss in detail Bruner’s “Concept Attainment Model” and

Piaget’s “Cognitive Growth Model”.
The Concept Attainment Model
The Concept Attainment model is an instructional strategy founded on the works of Jerome
Bruner. Built on the principle of concept formation, the Concept Attainment model promotes
student learning through a process of structured inquiry.
The model helps students to understand and learn concepts by identifying attributes or key
features through a process of analysis, comparison, and contrasting of examples. Two sets of
examples are used in this strategy – Yes (examples that have attributes of the concept) and No
(examples that do not have attributes of the concept) examples.
Concept Attainment Model in Practice
Introduced as a whole-class activity, this instructional strategy can be implemented using the
following steps:
Preparation:
 Choose a concept with well-defined attributes.
 Prepare “yes” and “no” examples. Some of the yes examples should have a high attribute
value (meaning it should be a clear representative of the concept)
In the classroom:
 Introduce and explain the strategy.
 Draw two columns on the board and title them as “Yes” and “No.”
 Present each example and write them in the appropriate column. Start with three
examples in each column.
 Instruct students to analyze and compare the examples, within the group (find similar
attributes in the “yes” group) and between the groups (find how “yes” and “no” examples
differ from each other). Write the attributes listed by the students on the other side of the
board.
 Add three more examples to each column. Instruct students to refine the attribute list by
analyzing the additional examples.
 Ask students if they are able to identify the concept, but not to say it out aloud. Students
who have identified the concept can be encouraged to add more “yes” examples to the
column. Encourage other students to examine the student-generated examples to identify the
concept.
 Teachers can assist by modeling the thought process to help other students identify the
concept. Once identified, help students define it using the list of identified attributes.
 To test for understanding, have students suggest more “yes” and “no” examples of the
concept with explanations. Or, teachers can present students with examples and instruct them
to categorize them as “yes” or “no”.
Practicing the Strategy:
Divide the class into small groups or pairs and provide them with Concept Attainment
Worksheets.
Instruct students to find the essential attributes of a concept, identify the concept, and define it.
An additional sheet with random examples can be included which students can be instructed to
categorize. At the end of the session, each group can present and discuss their findings.
Teachers can combine the Concept Attainment model with the Carousel method, placing
different concept worksheets at different workstations. Each group starts from one workstation
and eventually visits each workstation identifying attributes and recording them. At the end of
the carousel, groups return to their original workstations and using the information recorded, try
to identify and define their concepts. Each group can then present their concept to the class,
teaching using the Concept Attainment model.
The Concept Attainment model serves as a powerful teaching and learning strategy. For teachers,
it is advantageous to use the model to introduce and teach new concepts through an active,
student-centric, inquiry-based approach. Simultaneously, the model as a learning strategy helps
students to:
 Link past knowledge with new information
 Critically analyze, compare, and categorize information
 Examine and understand a concept from multiple perspectives, strengthening
understanding and retrieval of the concept.
Example:
Looking at this set of pictures, what theme do you think all the pictures have in common? If you
guessed, 'weather,' you are right. The pictures and text associated with the pictures (sunny, rainy
and cloudy) all have one thing in common - they are symbols and descriptors of the weather.
That was pretty easy, you may say! Well, that was a very basic and elementary example of
concept attainment. Concept Attainment is a teaching strategy created by Jerome Bruner that
encourages critical thinking and involves a teacher giving students a group of pictures or words
and asking them to decide what the pictures or words have in common. The concept or common
theme, therefore, is kept from the students so that they can use their critical thinking skills to
figure it out themselves! It really is a fun teaching method and fun for students as well.
Piaget’s Cognitive Growth Model
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model
of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded
cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction
with the environment.
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.
His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational
studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different
cognitive abilities.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve
problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which
fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, and justice and so
on emerged.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less
competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different
ways compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited
and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.
Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Model
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's
thought. His theory focuses on understanding how children acquire knowledge regarding
fundamental concepts such as object permanence, number, categorization, quantity, causality,
and justice.
Piaget's four stages of cognitive development include:
1. Sensorimotor: Birth to ages 18-24 months
2. Preoperational: Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7)
3. Concrete operational: Ages 7 to 11 years
4. Formal operational: Adolescence to adulthood
Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and child development is determined by
biological maturation and interaction with the environment. Although no stage can be missed
out, there are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages, and
some individuals may never attain the later stages. Piaget did not claim that a particular stage
was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of
the age at which the average child would reach each stage.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth- 2 years)
The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still
exists, even if it is hidden.
It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make
one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself.
Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development
because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.
This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try
things out in the real world).Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight
(age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though
its appearance changes.
Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During
this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test
hypotheses.

Q. 3 Differentiate between styles of instruction and also explain the

instructional methods and principles applied to each style.
Every teacher has her or his own style of teaching. And as traditional teaching styles evolve with
the advent of differentiated instruction, more and more teachers are adjusting their approach
depending on their students’ learning needs. The use of different teaching styles started in the

beginning of the twentieth century.  This was due to the amount of research being poured into
different learning methods. Once we understood that everybody learns differently, it became
obvious that there need to be different teaching styles to accommodate the learning styles.
Different teaching styles are necessary because the students need to be able to learn what the
teacher is teaching. However, the choice of teaching styles used can also depend on the school
mission statement, the classroom demographics, the educational philosophy of the teacher, and
most importantly, the subject area.
These teaching styles highlight the five main strategies teachers use in the classroom, as well as
the benefits and potential pitfalls of each.
Type of Instruction Styles
  The Authority, or lecture style
 The Demonstrator, or coach style
 The Facilitator, or activity style
 The Delegator, or group style
 The Hybrid, or blended style
 The Authority method
The Authority method, also known as the lecture style, involves sitting and listening to the
instructor speak about a pre-assigned topic while the students take notes and memorize to the
best of their ability what is being said. This particular style is more popular in universities and
some high schools due to a larger student population. However, less common in the standard
classroom setting due to its lack of allowance of student participation and inability to meet
individual needs. The Authority method, also known as the lecture style, involves sitting and
listening to the instructor speak about a pre-assigned topic while the students take notes and
memorize to the best of their ability what is being said. This particular style is more popular in
universities and some high schools due to a larger student population. However, less common in
the standard classroom setting due to its lack of allowance of student participation and inability
to meet individual needs.

 The Demonstrator method

The Demonstrator method, widely known as the coaching style, similar to the lecture style, The
Demonstrator method tries to maintain authority in the classroom. Even so, instead of using only
a verbal lecture to give information and teach, this style coaches students using gateways like
multimedia presentations, class activities and demonstrations. For subjects like music, art, and
physical education subjects, this style is perfect because the demonstration is usually necessary
to acquire a full understanding of the subject. However, a downside is that there is little
individual interaction between the teacher and students which makes it difficult to accommodate
to personalized needs.
 The Facilitator method
The Facilitator style recognized also as the activity or action method, tries to encourage self-
learning through peer-to-teacher learning. In contrast to the lecture style, teachers ask students to
question rather than give them the answer. The goal is for students to develop a deeper
understanding of the topic by using self-discovery and develop problem-solving skills. This
technique is best used in small classroom settings because, as a facilitator, the teacher needs to
interact with students on an individual basis, which can be difficult with a larger number of
students.
 The Delegator method
The Delegator style, or group method, is used for school subjects that require group work, lab-
based learning, or peer feedback. For example, science classes and certain language learning
classes. The teacher acts as a delegator, becoming an observer to promote peer collaboration and
encourage student-to-student learning. The Delegator style is becoming more and more popular
throughout many classrooms. However, some people consider other styles to be more proactive
due to the fact that the group method removes the teacher from a position of authority.
 The Hybrid method
Last, but not least, the Hybrid method, also known as blended learning, is an integrated teaching
style that incorporates personal preferences, individual personalities, and specific interests into
their teaching. It’s popular in English, science, and religion classes because it’s easy to
incorporate extra-curricular knowledge into a developed, deeper knowledge of a particular topic.
Some argue that this style weakens the learning process because the teacher tries to be all things
to all students.
Instructional Methods
Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the
activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular
methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a
variety of strategies.
General models and families of teaching methods are guides for designing educational activities,
environments and experiences. They help to specify methods of teaching and patterns for these
methods. Instructional strategies, or teaching methods, depend on a number of factors such as the
developmental level of students, goals, intent and objectives of the teacher, content, and
environment including time, physical setting and resources. Imagine a course that challenges
teachers to meet a number of objectives. A single method cannot meet all of our goals nor can a
single method accommodate all learning styles at once. For example, demonstrations or projects
are effective for meeting some goals but ineffective for meeting others. So we need a toolbox of
methods, not merely a single tool.
In the most general terms, there are four or five different models of instructional strategies or
teaching methods. Having spent years in schools, you will recognize each and probably have
strong preferences for one or two models.
 Didactic- Direct teaching; Verbal and typically in the form of a lecture or presentation.
 Modeling- Direct teaching; Visual and typically in the form of demonstration and
practice.
 Managerial- Indirect or Interactive teaching; Facilitation, individualization and group
management.
 Dialogic- Indirect Interactive teaching; Socratic Technique of dialogue, questions and
thought provocations.

In the Direct Instruction models, the teacher imparts knowledge or demonstrates a skill.
The Direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most commonly used.
This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice
and drill, and demonstrations. The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing
information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other
teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction.
In the Indirect Instruction models, the teacher sets up strategies, but does not teach directly; the
students make meaning for themselves. Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making,
and discovery are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect
instruction. In contrast to the direct instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-
centered, although the two strategies can complement each other. Examples of indirect
instruction methods include reflective discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, cloze
procedure, problem solving, and guided inquiry. Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student
involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It
takes advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate
alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse
possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers.
Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and
abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and

develop the ability to draw on these understandings.

In the Interactive Instruction models, the students interact with each other and with the
information and materials; the teacher is organizer and facilitator. The interactive instruction
strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class
discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on
assignments together. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of
discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques.
Interactive instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and
intervention skills and abilities by both teacher and students. The success of the interactive
instruction strategy and its many methods is heavily dependent upon the expertise of the
teacher in structuring and developing the dynamics of the group.
The Experiential learning, is inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented. Personalized
reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply learnings to other contexts
are critical factors in effective experiential learning. Experiential learning occurs when learners:
 Participate in an activity;
 Critically look back on the activity to clarify learnings and feelings;
 Draw useful insights from such analysis; and put learnings to work in new situations.
(Pfeiffer & Jones, 1979)
Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are
necessary:
 Experiencing (an activity occurs);
 Sharing or publishing (reactions and observations are shared);
 Analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are determined);
 Inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and,
 Applying (plans are made to use (earnings in new situations).

The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the product. A
teacher can use experiential learning as an instructional strategy both in and outside the
classroom. For example, in the classroom students can build and stock an aquarium or engage in
a simulation. Outside the classroom they can, for example, observe courtroom procedures in a
study of the legal system, or conduct a public opinion survey. Experiential learning makes use of
a variety of resources.
In Independent Study models, the students interact with the content more or less exclusive of
external control of the teacher. For the purposes of this document, independent study refers to the
range of instructional methods which are purposefully provided to foster the development of
individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While independent study may
be initiated by student or teacher, the focus here will be on planned independent study by
students under the guidance or supervision of a classroom teacher. In addition, independent study
can include learning in partnership with another individual or as part of a small group.

Q. 4 Enlist the phases of curriculum and elaborate the process of

curriculum planning and development.
Phases Curriculum Development
There are four major phases of the curriculum development process: Plan and Research,
Curriculum Development, Professional Learning and Curriculum Development, and
Implementation. The process is ongoing and cyclical. As with any process, the curriculum
development process is flexible and dynamic and should be tailored to meet the needs of the
discipline or specific course development and to ensure that students receive a viable and
rigorous curriculum.
Phase I - Plan and Research
During this phase of curriculum development, the planning and research needed to begin
curriculum development will occur. The goals of this phase are to gain a deeper understanding of
the standards and of best practices in the field and in education and to develop a plan that will
ensure timely completion and implementation of the curriculum development process.

Phase II - Curriculum Development

This phase is where the substance of the curriculum is written. The work completed in the first
phase will inform the writing process so that the written curriculum will be viable and rigorous,
aligned to the standards, and articulated EC-12 so that there is a natural and logical progression
of skills from one grade level/course to the next to ensure that every student is college and career
ready. The goals of this phase are to create a yearlong curriculum map, to investigate potential
resources that will support the curriculum, and to determine the professional learning needs of
the district community.
Phase III - Professional Learning and Continued Curriculum Development
During this phase, the curriculum will be prepared for implementation and professional learning
will be provided to the district community. Professional learning will take place to ensure that
the written curriculum becomes the taught curriculum. Through professional learning, teachers
will have a clear understanding of how to implement the written curriculum, including being able
to read the unit maps, translate the unit maps into daily plans, and navigate and implement any
new resources and assessments. They should also understand how and when they will be able to
give feedback and whom they should seek for support when concerns arise. The goals of this
phase are to create core unit maps, design or select common assessments, select resources if
needed, provide professional learning, and to develop an evaluation plan for the curriculum.

Phase IV - Implementation 
During this phase, the written curriculum will become the taught curriculum. As the curriculum
is implemented, evaluation of the curriculum will take place simultaneously as teachers will be
able to provide feedback to improve instruction, curriculum, the use of resources and
assessments, and any other aspect of learning and teaching as needed. Because the curriculum
development process is ongoing and recursive, the goal of this phase is to gather feedback during
the implementation phase that will inform future curriculum development and professional
learning.
Process of Curriculum Planning and Development
Process of Curriculum Planning
The process concerned with making decisions about what to learn, why, and how to organize the
teaching and learning process taking into account existing curriculum requirements and the
resources available. At the general level, it often results in the definition of a broad curriculum
framework, as well as a syllabus for each subject to be used as reference by individual schools.
At the school level, it involves developing course and assessment plans for different subjects. At
the classroom level, it involves developing more detailed plans for learning units, individual
lessons and lesson sequences.

Characteristics of Curriculum Planning

 Curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of the learners.
 Curriculum planning involves decisions about content and planning.
  Curriculum planning involves decisions about a variety of issues.
 Curriculum planning involves many groups.
 Curriculum planning take place at many levels.
 Curriculum planning is continuous process.

Process of Curriculum Development

The process of curriculum development begins with the following steps:
 Step 1: Problem Identification
 Identify and characterize the health care problem that will be addressed by the
curriculum, how it is currently being addressed, and how it should be addressed.
Step 2: Needs Assessment of Targeted Learners
 A needs assessment of targeted learners is a process by which curriculum developers
identify the differences between the ideal and the actual characteristics of the targeted
learner group and between the ideal and actual characteristics of their environment.

Step 3: Goals and Objectives

 A goal or objective is defined as an end toward which an effort is directed. Goal - broad
educational objective, Objective - specific measurable objective. Goals and objectives are
important because they do the following:
 Help direct the choice of curricular content
 Suggest what learning methods will be most effective
 Enable evaluation of learners and the curriculum
 Suggest what evaluation methods are appropriate
 Clearly communicate to others what the curriculum addresses and
hopes to achieve.

Step 4: Educational Strategies

 Develop the educational strategies by which the curricular objectives will be achieved.
Educational strategies involve both content and methods.
 Provide the means by which a curriculum’s objectives are achieved.
Step 5: Implementation
  Careful attention must be paid to issues of implementation. The curriculum developer
must ensure that sufficient resources, political and financial support, and administrative
strategies have been developed to successfully implement the curriculum.
Step 6: Evaluation and Feedback
 Closes the loop in the curriculum development cycle.

The Importance of Teachers Involvement in Curriculum Development

Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the
teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers are central to any
curriculum development effort. Better teachers support better learning because they are most
knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum
in the classroom. If another party has already developed the curriculum, the teachers have to
make an effort to know and understand it. So, teachers should be involved in curriculum
development. For example, teacher’s opinions and ideas should be incorporated into the
curriculum for development. On the other hand, the curriculum development team has to
consider the teacher as part of the environment that affects curriculum (Carl, 2009). Hence,
teacher involvement is important for successful and meaningful curriculum development.
Teachers being the implementers are part of the last stage of the curriculum development
process.
Preparation for Teacher Involvement in Curriculum Development
Because teachers have to be involved in curriculum development, the teacher should be provided
with appropriate knowledge and skills that help them to effectively contribute in curriculum
development operation. As a result, teachers need training and workshops, which are geared
toward professional development to be able to contribute to curriculum development. On the
other hand, there is an important point to make efficient in involvement teacher in curriculum
development that is teachers have to be empowered in the process of curriculum development
(Carl, 2009). This means teachers should have improvement and increasing in many points of
them, such as experience and autonomy. Thus, teachers play an integral part in the process of
developing the curriculum; then students’ outcomes.
The Teachers Role in Curriculum Development
The teacher involved in curriculum organization has many roles and responsibilities. Teachers
want to enjoy teaching and watching their students develop interests and skills in their interest
area. The teacher may need to create lesson plans and syllabi within the framework of the given
curriculum since the teacher's responsibilities are to implement the curriculum to meet student
needs (Carl, 2009). Many studies support empowerment of teachers through participation of
curriculum development. For example, Fullan (1991) found that the level of teacher involvement
as a center of curriculum development leads to effective achievement of educational reform.
Therefore, the teacher is an important factor in the success of curriculum development including
the steps of implication and evaluation. Handler (2010) also found that there is a need for teacher
involvement in the development of curriculum. Teachers can contribute by collaboratively and
effectively working with curriculum development teams and specialists to arrange and compose
martial, textbooks, and content. Teacher involvement in the process of curriculum development
is important to align content of curriculum with students needs in the classroom.

Q. 5 Keeping in view the influence and bias of the society and

culture on curriculum elicits the role of sociology in curriculum
development.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development,
organization, networks, and institutions. Educational sociology is a branch of sociology, which is
confronted with the problems of relationship between society and education. It makes an effort to
achieve the aims of sociology through educational process, which is nothing but an interaction
between the individual and the society. Society has its own expectations about the aims and
objectives that should be considered when designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of
what the product of the school system should look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum
designers to take into account these societal considerations.
Curriculum development
Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic process
to create positive improvements in the educational system. Every time there are changes or
developments happening around the world, the school curricula are affected. There is a need to
update them to address the society’s needs. Curriculum development has a broad scope because
it is not only about the school, the learners, and the teachers. It is also about the development of
society in general. In today’s knowledge economy, curriculum development plays a vital role in
improving the economy of a country. It also provides answers or solutions to the world’s
pressing conditions and problems, such as environment, politics, socio-economics, and other
issues of poverty, climate change, and sustainable development.
Educational significance
Education is not mere schooling or instruction imposed by the elders on the younger ones. It is
equivalent to the development of character or personality by means of the social life of education
institutions. The social life includes all kinds of out-of-class activities. Man acquires experience
throughout his life. This acquisition of experience is education. This process of acquiring
experience is a social process and it is related to and influenced by social factors. Education is
thus a social process and its function is not only to preserve the social heritage but also to enrich
it. Learning is the result of social interaction and social motivation. Education helps to develop
this social self so that an individual may become an effective and useful member of the society.
Education is a process of directed learning. Education sociology focuses upon the social forces
through which the individual gains experience.
Sociology and education are closely related to each other. Whenever we speak of sociology,
education system and schools have been studied as social phenomena. Thus the sociology
changes affected social foundations of curriculum. Social foundations of curriculum are different
considering attitudes of community planners toward society and the role of education in the
engagement of these two subjects.
The Sociological Aspects of Curriculum Development
 Issues from society including groups and institutions in the culture and their contribution
to education.
 Refer to issues from society that have an influence on curriculum.
There are many aspects of the society that need consideration in curriculum making. These
include:
 Social change
 Transmission of culture
 Economics issues
 Technological
 Home/family
 Diversity
 Environment
 Church/mosque
Social change
When societies are faced with enormous cultural changes, especially if these changes affect their
basic behaviour, the image of society is blurred and the people saw themselves unable against
natural and logical activities. Less than 20 years, the Internet, Face book, i Pad, websites, blogs
and e-mail have changed our lives dramatically. Downloading music and videos, chat, computer
games and mobile phones are part of our and our children daily lives. You must remember that
some of the current events had no place even in the dreamed of people in hundred years ago. For
example, to people in one hundred years ago, imagining a plane, subway, radio, etc., which is
natural to us, seems unlikely. Nowadays, because of frequent changes we can expect more
amazing changes in science, technology, lifestyle, economy, education, demographics and the
politics.
All education comes from some assumptions about the future. If taught of a society about the
future is clearly wrong, the youth education system will be betrayed. Anyway, as we make plans
for curriculum, we need to think about abilities and possibilities that may occur in the future. We
will be faced with complex problems that we cannot respond to it. These include terrorism,
human rights, pollution, attention to the rights of individuals and respect to the family, and
control of different communities based on an authority. The problem will be solved with critical
thinking that today we can hardly imagine it. We shall educate citizens that can make decisions
based on science. Either now or in the future, our curriculum must be open and flexible against
uncertain and intangible consequences. The curriculum planners shall have a future based
approach and to predict and monitor changes in values and their implications for curriculum
changes to promote more informed methods for curriculum. Changes in the curriculum focused
equally on where we are going and where we are right now.
Transmission of Culture
Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, customs and any
other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the society. It is the sum total of a given
society’s way of life moulded and shaped by prevailing circumstances and environment (Brown,
1990). This implies that culture is not static but dynamic and it responds to external influences,
which bring about changes and curriculum development in schools.
The fundamental aspects of culture include beliefs, values, routines and customs:
 Beliefs
 Every culture has some beliefs which are accepted as true. These beliefs are sometimes
called superstitious beliefs because of lack of empirical knowledge or lack of scientific
proof. These beliefs are valued and so are accepted by majority of people in the
community.
 Values
Values are those aspects of cultural practices, actions or objects that are valued in high
esteem in the society. The values of a society are also those aspects of the culture that
society wants to preserve because their traditionally valued and they want to pass it from
generation to generation. The values of the society are the aspect of the culture, which is
needed in the society. These aspects of the culture that are valued should be passed from
generation to generation so as to maintain a particular valid aspect of the culture. For
instance, every society expects adults to get married for procreation to keep the society
moving. An individual in the society may complain of inability to pay his children’s
school fees but will have money for marrying another wife to have more children or
would provide money for the late father’s burial. This is because the individual could
place a higher premium on either having more children or spending a huge sum of money
for the burial ceremony of his late father than paying the school fees of his surviving
children. Values and judgments are not only important elements of culture but they are
also relevant to modern society.
 Routines and Customs
Routines and customs are also very important aspects of culture. Recipes are the ideas
and the understanding about how things should be done as prescribed by the culture in
question. For instance, different societies have different ways prescribed by their culture
in performing naming, burial, marriage ceremonies and so on.
Routines and customs refer to the actual doings and the regularities of those cultural
actions or elements. Customs serve as recipes and routines to which people regularly
resort for recurring purposes.
Economic issues
 Change in curriculum, needs financial support.
 New teaching material are required.
  Teachers are needed to be provided with in-services training and equipped with new
teaching materials textbooks are to be revised to fulfill the changing needs of the society.
 Supportive personal are required to assist the teachers for effective implementation of
new curriculum designs.
Technological
Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century.
The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level
of learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite
interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational
goals and learning experiences among students.
The family
The home is still the main institution affecting the life and growth of the child. The family exerts
significant influence on the social, emotional and moral development of the child. His
personality and values are affected by the family. In planning any relevant curriculum for the
learners, the planner should be familiar with the family and home conditions of the learner. The
intellectual climate of the home and attitudes of the parents towards education affects the
individual’s behaviour and accomplishment in schools. A study of the family at close range
reveals much information for a more complete and sympathetic understanding of children. From
the child’s earliest age, the feelings of oneness, identification with the family group, is naturally
instilled. Even before he begins the first grade of school at the primary level, many of his
patterns of living, of conduct, of emotions and attitudes, and of ideals are already set. In one
family, swift and sure obedience is absolutely required; in another home it is understood that the
occupation of the son or the daughter shall be decided by the parents; in still another, much
freedom and choice may be permitted the child. Neatness and cleanliness in the home are likely
to be reflected in the appearance and dress of the child; and the language habits of the parents
appear in marked form in their children. Respect for and obedience to adults, respect for the
property and rights of others, race prejudice, social stratification-these are but a few of the mores
and attitudes that the child absorbs more frequently and fundamentally outside school walls than
within them. As boys and girls grow older, friction is especially likely to arise between parents
and adolescents because the training that the adolescent has received in the family begins to
clash with the customs “gang” or of the community.
More attention is now being devoted in the school to aspects of the home and of the family life.
Courses in homemaking are found frequently on both the secondary school and the collegiate
levels, and the courses in marriage and family relationships and in sex education are given on
both levels. In the curriculum of the secondary schools, newer courses in social living, social
problems, and child care are often cantered around family life.
Diversity
Curriculum development affect from diversity opens learning opportunities. Social diversity
including religion, culture and social groupings affects curriculum development because these
characteristics influence the types of topics and methods for teaching information. Developing
relevant curriculum takes into account society’s expectations, accommodating group traditions
and promoting equality.
Environment
Environment issues affect curriculum development. World awareness and action toward
reversing and ending pollution continues affecting curriculum development. Typical elementary
classrooms teach recycling and healthy environmental practices.
The Church/Mosque
These are public worship centres for Christians and Moslems respectively. However, apart from
these two worship centres where people go to worship God in order to satisfy their spiritual
needs, there are other worship centres in the society to satisfy the spiritual needs of the people.
Religion itself is a social institution. Although religion is a human is a human society it is not
necessarily accepted by everyone and even those who accept religion do not accept it in the same
degree. The major role of the church and the mosque is in moulding the character of the child
and the people in general. Similarly, the church and the mosque are also agencies of intellectual
development in the society. The Sunday schools and adult literacy classes introduced in churches
have helped to teach the people how to read, interpret and even write out verses in the bible and
other learned works. The Islamic religion also encourages the art of reading, interpreting and
writing. The church and the mosque teach the virtue of obedience to the law of God Almighty
and the constitutional laws of the society. This is because both religions teach peace in the
society. There are rules in these societies that could bring peace. Such rules include ‘love your
neighbours as yourself’, ‘do unto others, as you would want them to do unto you’. These are two
golden rules that could bring peace to the society because if you love your neighbours as
yourself, you will not kill, steal, bear false witness against your neighbours, and so on. Christian
and Moslem youths are known to participate in public activities like community sanitation and
road construction in the communities. Although, clashes and conflicts have been recorded
between these two religions in Nigeria, they still play a very significant role in socialization of
the child and the education of the child in the society.