Unit I-21 Literature in Various Regions: Lesson 1 - Philippine Literature During The Precolonial Period

UNIT I- 21ST LITERATURE IN VARIOUS
REGIONS
Lesson 1- Philippine Literature during the Precolonial Period

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The precolonial literature includes all literature produced before the Spanish colonization like
chants, proverbs, songs, and folk narratives. These were all passed down from generation to
generation by word of mouth.
Philippine folk narratives are varied and distinct. They depict the people’s livelihood, customs,
and traditions.
1. Folktale – This is a characteristically anonymous, timeless, and placeless tale

circulated orally among a people.
2. Fable – This features animal characters or inanimate objects that behave like people.
3. Legend – This is presented as history but is unlikely to be true.
4. Myth – This is told to explain a belief, a practice, or a natural phenomenon.
5. Epic – This narrative poem celebrates the adventures and achievements of a hero.
Folktales
 Folktales about Juan are very popular. Some emphasize certain virtues, and some
serve as warning about behavior. Also, some are for the reader’s amusement.
Fable
 The monkey is a common animal character in Philippine fables. It is often depicted as a
cunning animal.
Legend
 There are different Filipino legends of the great flood. The story of Bukidnon, for
instance, tells that a huge crab caused the water to rise by going into the sea. On the
other hand, the Igorot story tells that the sons of Lumawig the Great Spirit caused the
flood.
Myth
 There are Philippine versions of the creation myth. The Igorot’s story tells that Lumawig
the Great Spirit created people. On the other hand, the Tagalog story tells that the first
man and woman came from a bamboo.
Epic
 The Philippine epics are sung or chanted in episodes. They feature supernatural
characters and reflect the society where they originated. Also, there are different
versions of a story.
Summary
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The precolonial literature of the Philippines includes all literature produced before the Spanish
colonization. It includes chants, proverbs, songs, spells, and different folk narratives like folk
tales, fables, legends, myths, and epics that were all passed down from generation to
generation through the word of mouth.
Lesson 2- Philippine Literature during the Spanish Colonial

Period
Notes on the Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)
 Expeditions to the Philippines were sent by Spain in the 16th century. In their conquest,
the Spaniards brought Christianity with them. The clergy made a great impact on faith,
education, and government.
 Through the Manila-Acapulco trade (1565–1815), liberal ideas entered the country.
Also, the trade gave rise to a wealthier middle class. Children in middle class families
could then be sent to Europe to get an education. Upon their return, they brought
European ideals of liberty and freedom with them. Such ideals would then give rise to
Filipino nationalism.
The Spanish missionaries taught the gospel through the native language, so they hired natives
to translate Spanish religious instructional materials. Eventually, the natives became fluent in
Spanish and became known as ladinos.
Ladinos mainly wrote devotional poetry. Two of them were Fernando Bagongbanta and
Gaspar Aquino de Belen. Bagongbanta wrote “Salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sin
sempiternas,” which appeared in Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala(1605), a book
containing basic Catholic doctrines. On the other hand, de Belen wrote “Ang Mahal na Passion
ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tola” (1704), the earliest version of pasyon.
Also, the native drama called the komedya or moro-moro was popular. It depicted the war
between Christians and Muslims, wherein the former always wins. The poet Jose de la Cruz
(1746–1829) was a master of such art form.
Native literature continued. Though the Spaniards destroyed the written literature in their effort
to replace it with their own, the oral tradition survived and flourished in areas beyond the reach
of the Spaniards.
Francisco Baltazar (1788-1862), the master of traditional Tagalog poetry, became well-known

for his work Florante at Laura (1838–1861), the most famous metrical romance of the country.
Pedro Paterno (1857–1911) wrote Sampaguitas y poesias varias (1880), the first poetry

collection in Spanish by a Filipino; and the novel in Spanish Ninay (1885), considered to be the
first Filipino novel.
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Jose Rizal (1861–1896), a prominent ilustrado and the country’s national hero, is famous for
the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These novels portray the corruption and
abuse of the Spanish officials and the clergy.
Andres Bonifacio (1863–1897), the founder of the Katipunan, wrote the poem “Pag-ibig sa
Tinubuang Bayan.” This poem appeared in the Kalayaan, the official newspaper of the
Katipunan, in March 1896.
Leona Florentino (1849–1884), known as the “mother of Philippine women’s literature,” was a

poet in both Ilocano and Spanish. Twenty of her poems were preserved and exhibited in
Europe. The poems were included in the Encyclopedia International des Oeuvres des Femme
in 1889.
Summary
Philippine Literature during the Spanish occupation was mostly influenced by Christianity as
well as the European ideals of liberty and freedom through trade. Filipino writers either wrote in
Spanish or in their own tongue or both.
Lesson 3- Philippine Literature during the American and the

Japanese Periods
Notes on the American Occupation

(1898–1940)
 The US established a civil government in 1901. Free public education was introduced.
Also, English was the medium of instruction.
 In 1934, President Roosevelt signed a bill making the Philippines a commonwealth. On
May 14, 1935 Manuel L. Quezon was elected president.
Literary Works Produced

The production of literary works in English is the direct result of the American colonization of
the Philippines. The first collection of poetry in English is Filipino Poetry(1924), edited by
Rodolfo Dato. The short story “Dead Stars” (1925) by Paz Marquez Benitez is considered as
the first Filipino modern short story in English. A Child of Sorrow (1921) by Zoilo M. Galang is
the first Filipino novel in English. The novel His Native Soil (1940) by Juan C. Laya won first
prize in the First Commonwealth Literary Awards in 1940.
Filipino writers in English during the apprenticeship period (1900–1930) imitated American
writing. The poet Fernando Maramag writes in the Romantic tradition in his sonnet “Moonlight
on Manila Bay” (1912). Filipino fictionists copied Sherwood Anderson, William Saroyan, and
Ernest Hemingway. Jose Garcia Villa used the Anderson pattern. Manuel Arguilla and N. V. M.
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Gonzalez were influenced by Anderson and Hemingway. Francisco Arcellana was influenced
by Saroyan.
Notes on the Japanese Occupation

(1941–1945)
 On December 8, 1941, the Japanese attacked Manila.
 On January 2, 1942, Japanese occupied Manila. They set up a Council of State in the
country and started propaganda to remold the Filipinos.
 In October 1943 the Japanese declared the Philippines “independent.” On September
20, Jose P. Laurel was elected president.
 MacArthur and his Allied forces returned to the country in 1944. They landed on Leyte
on October 20, and the biggest naval battle in history ensued.
 The Japanese surrendered formally on September 2, 1945.
Literary Works Produced

During the occupation, publications were censored by the military. Also, Tagalog was declared
an official language (together with Nihonggo). In effect, Philippine literature in English came to
a halt. Some Filipino writers then turned to writing in Filipino.
The Tagalog short story reached its maturity during the period. The best works were compiled
by the Liwayway magazine editors in Ang Pinakamabuting Maikling Kathang Pilipino ng 1943,
which came out in 1944. It is a collection of stories that won a contest sponsored by the
Japanese. The top four stories were “Lupang Tinubuan” by Narciso G. Reyes, “Uhaw ang
Tigang na Lupa” by Liwayway Arceo, “Nayon at Dagat-dagatan” by N. V. M. Gonzalez, and
“Suyuan sa Tubigan” by Macario Pineda.
Summary
The American occupation of the Philippines spurred the writing of Filipinos in English. On the
other hand, the Japanese occupation censored literary works yet contributed to the maturity of
the Tagalog short story.
Lesson 4- Philippine Literature in the Postwar and Contemporary

Period
Postwar and Contemporary Literature
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Postwar and contemporary literature include all literary works written and published
in the Philippines from 1946.
After World War II, the Philippines had to deal with the economy and the need for rehabilitation
and reconstruction of infrastructures. There was political, economic, and social confusion, as
well as great poverty, and these issues found their way into the short stories and novels during
that time.
During the postwar period, Filipino writers got their inspiration from American teachers and
were able to learn their techniques, which also helped in mastering the English language.
Writers wrote fiction that focused on courageous deeds as well as the sacrifices and suffering
in the lives of Filipinos. It was also common for writers to write about the experiences of the
Filipino people under the Spanish and American rule and the Japanese Occupation. Other
subjects and themes include:
 religious faith
 superstitions
 fantasy
 social problems
 poverty
 politics
 nationalism
 morality
Literary Works
Philippine literature flourished even more during the postwar and contemporary period. Writers
were able to produce short stories, novels, essays, and poems that continue to be read by
Filipinos today.
Examples:
Some works written in the postwar and contemporary period are:
May Day Eve by Nick Joaquin, 1947

Waywaya by F. Sionil Jose, 1983
We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers by Alejandro Roces, 1948
The Return by Edith L. Tiempo
History and Philippine Culture by Horacio de la Costa, 1965
Without Seeing the Dawn by Stevan Javellana, 1947
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Explanation:
Nick Joaquin, a National Artist for Literature awardee, wrote articles under the name of
Quijano de Manila. His short story "May Day Eve," published in 1947, is about love in a
patriarchal society. It also made use of magic realism.
F. Sionil Jose, one of the most widely read Filipino writers in English, wrote the short story
"Waywaya," which is about pre-Hispanic society and the people’s struggle for moral order.
Alejandro Roces, a Filipino author, essayist, and dramatist, wrote the short story "We
Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers." This story focuses on the drinking habits and culture of Filipinos
and Americans.
Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return" is a sentimental piece that talks about life in old age.
Horacio de la Costa wrote the essay "History and Philippine Culture," which emphasizes the
importance of understanding and presenting a nation’s culture.
Stevan Javellana wrote the first postwar Filipino novel in English, Without Seeing the Dawn.
This novel narrates what people experienced during World War II under the Japanese rule in
the Philippines.
Tip
To be able to fully appreciate literature in the Philippines, as a reader and a critic, you must
also be aware of the country’s history, culture, society, and psyche (human spirit).
Lesson 5- Life and Works of Jose Garcia Villa
Jose Garcia Villa (Doveglion)

 Man Songs
 Mir-i-nisa
 Footnote to Youth.
 He gained both local and international recognition for his works. He was named as the
National Artist for Literature in 1973, and he was also a recipient of the Guggenheim
Fellowship.
 During his college years, he wrote Man Songs, a collection of controversial poems that
was considered too bold by the University of the Philippines and became the ground for
his suspension from the said institution.
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 Some of his well-known literary works are "Mir-i-nisa" (won in the Philippines Free Press
in 1929), and "Footnote to Youth" (published in 1933).
Jose Garcia Villa as a Poet

 As a poet, Jose Garcia Villa is known for introducing the reversed consonance rhyme
scheme. According to Villa, in this method, the last sounded consonants of the last
syllable, or the last principal consonant of a word, are reversed for the corresponding
rhyme. Thus, a rhyme for light would be words such as tile, tall, tale, etc.
 He is also known for his comma poems, where he employed a comma after every word.
 He used the pseudonym Doveglion, which is derived from dove, eagle, lion.

 He died on July 7, 1997.
a. Setting
The short story is set in a small town.
b. Plot
 Exposition
Dodong, a seventeen-year-old boy, tells his parents that he wants to marry his girlfriend
Teang.
 Rising Action
Teang secretly regrets marrying Dodong at a young age. She wonders what can
happen if she has married Lucio, who is nine years older than Dodong.
 Climax
Dodong wonders why life does not get to fulfill all of a youth’s dreams.
 Falling Action
Blas tells Dodong about his plan to marry Tona.
 Conclusion
Dodong wants to keep Blas from marrying Tona, but he cannot do anything about it. He
feels sorry for Blas.
c. Theme
The story focuses on the consequences of marrying at an early age and starting a family.
Explanation:
In the story "Footnote to Youth," Dodong is the symbol for the Filipino youth. His decision to
marry his love interest, Teang, at the age of seventeen demonstrates the passion of teenagers
when it comes to relationships.
Those of the younger generation usually strive for new pursuits to learn things on their own,
often rejecting their elders’ guidance. From the story, it is depicted that lessons are learned
through experience. Dodong, as well as Teang, had many realizations when he became a
parent.
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Tips
 In analyzing a literary work, make sure that you read it thoroughly and analyze it well.

 Study the background of the author, as this will give you insights regarding the
setting of the story and the historical and/or social influences of the time and place in
which the author lived.
 Analyze the concepts presented in the literary work by relating them to practices and
traditions in the Philippines or in the place used as the setting of the story.
Lesson 6- Life and Works of Carlos P. Romulo

Carlos P. Romulo
o "I am a Filipino"
o I Saw the Fall of the Philippines
o I See the Philippines Rise
o Mother America: A Living Story of Democracy
o I Walked with Heroes
 Carlos P. Romulo was a Filipino diplomat, statesman, journalist, and soldier. He was
born on January 14, 1898 in Intramuros, Manila and grew up in Camiling, Tarlac.
 He was the first Filipino journalist who was awarded with the Pulitzer Prize in
Journalism. He was also the first Asian who served as the president of the United
Nations General Assembly.
 "I am a Filipino" is one of the many essays written by Carlos P. Romulo. It was
published in The Philippines Herald in August 1941.
 He also wrote the book entitled I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, in which he narrated
his personal experiences as an aide-de-camp to General Douglas MacArthur in
Corregidor. This book was followed by a sequel, I See the Philippines Rise, a
journalistic account of the Philippine War in 1944.
 Among his other famous literary works are Mother America: A Living Story of
Democracy, a discussion of his political ideals about American democracy in the
Philippines, and I Walked with Heroes, his autobiography.
 He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 1982.
 He died on December 15, 1985.
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About the Essay I am a Filipino
 I am a Filipino is one of the valuable contributions of Carlos P. Romulo to Philippine
literature. Analyzing it would help one understand what he thinks of the Filipino and
what it means to be one.
 In the essay, the author speaks of the pride and dignity of the Filipino race, which is
something he wants the future generation to uphold and cultivate.
 The essay also explains the Filipino identity as a product of the fusion of Western
culture (Spanish and American) and Eastern culture (Japanese occupation and
Malayan roots).
 Carlos P. Romulo stresses that the fight for freedom sprung up from one’s pride of
being a Filipino. He takes pride in the bravery and sacrifices of the heroes who fought
for freedom like Lapu-Lapu , Diego Silang, Jose Rizal , Gregorio del Pilar, Antonio Luna,
and Manuel L. Quezon.
 He also emphasizes the beauty of the Philippines as blessed with bountiful natural
resources and colorful history and culture.
Summary
Carlos P. Romulo is a profound writer who wrote the essay I am a Filipino, which is one of the
great contributions to Philippine literature not only because it shows one’s love for his country
and freedom but also of being proud as a Filipino.
Lesson 7- Life and Works of Francisco Arcellana
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the contributions of Francisco Arcellana
to Philippine literature by analyzing his literary works.
Who is Francisco Arcellana? What are his contributions to Philippine literature?
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Learn about it!
Francisco Arcellana
 Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino teacher and a contemporary writer. He is one of the
prominent Filipino fictionists in English.
 He is known for innovating and exploring new literary forms and experimenting with
different techniques in short story writing.
 He was a member of the group The Veronicans, which was composed of influential
Filipino writers who aimed to use sensible literature in order to create a greater impact
on the Philippines.
 He was also the first director of the University of the Philippines Creative Writing Center.
 Some of his well-known literary works are the short stories "The Man Who Would Be
Poe," "Death in a Factory," "A Clown Remembers," "The Mats," and "Lina."
 In 1990, he was awarded as the National Artist for Literature.
 His short stories "Flowers of May," "Christmas Gift," and "The Mats," were adapted as
screenplays.
Analyzing a writer's literary works will help in identifying his contributions to Philippine
literature.
Example:
Below are details regarding Francisco Arcellana's "The Mats."
a. Setting
The short story is set in the afternoon until evening at the house of the Angeles family.
b. Plot
 Exposition
Mr. Angeles comes from a periodic inspection trip in Mariveles. During the trip, he writes
to his family and gets them excited about the exceptionally beautiful and colorful mats
he bought from an artist.
 Rising Action
Upon arriving, he gives the mats one by one to his children. Each mat is woven with his
child’s name and symbols. They are all happy to receive the mats.
 Climax
There are three mats that are to be unfolded. In a loud voice, he offers the three mats to
his dead children named Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion.
 Falling Action
Nana Emilia, anguished, said he should not have bought mats for them, but Mr. Angeles
insists that they must be remembered.
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 Conclusion
The children feel the tension and see the grief in the face of Mr. Angeles and the
sadness of Nana Emilia. The father unfolds the three mats in silence.
 c. Theme
Coping with the death of a loved one is a struggle. Commemorating his or her life is
painful, but it must be faced with courage and faith.
 Explanation:
 Francisco Arcellana presented the story using a distinct style. He focused on the
characters' actions and dialogues to reveal the innermost feelings and motives of the
characters, which set the dramatic tone of the short story.
Summary
Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino fictionist who demonstrated his craftsmanship in writing

great literary pieces such as "The Mats," a story that highlights Filipino family values and
pictures an interesting character coping with the death of loved ones. In this short story, he
uses writing techniques such as emphasizing the characters’ actions and dialogues to reveal
their inner motives and emotions.
Lesson 8- Life and Works of Nestor Vicente Madali (N.V.M.)

Gonzalez
Objective
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At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze literary works by N.V.M. Gonzalez and
name his contributions to the development of Philippine literature.
What are N.V.M. Gonzalez's contributions to the development of Philippine literature?
Learn about it!
N.V.M. Gonzalez
 Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez is an award-winning Filipino poet, essayist, fictionist,
journalist, editor, and teacher of creative writing.
 He is the first president of the Philippine Writers’ Association.
 He is also honored as one of the great Filipino writers who advanced literary traditions
and culture.
 He was a recipient of the following awards: The Republic Cultural Heritage Award, the
Jose Rizal Pro-Patria Award, the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature, and the
National Artist Award for Literature in 1997.
 Some of his published works are Seven Hills Away (1947), Children of the Ash-Covered
Loam and Other Stories (1954), and The Bamboo Dancers (1949), which appeared in
Russian translation in 1965 and 1974.
 Seven Hills Away is a collection of short stories that sketch the daily lives of the Filipino
kaingeros in his hometown province, Mindoro.
 The Bamboo Dancers is a diasporic novel that features the challenges faced by
Filipinos in America.
Carefully analyzing the works of a writer will help in determining what his works have
contributed to literature.
Example:
"Children of the Ash-Covered Loam" is a short story that depicts Filipino family practices and
beliefs in a rural setting.
a. Setting
The story is set in a provincial place where kaingin is a common practice.
b. Plot
 Exposition
The story begins one sunny afternoon when Tarang’s father arrives with a pig to be
taken care of by Tarang, a seven-year-old boy.
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 Rising Action
Tia Orang, an old midwife, sees Tarang and tells him to inform his mother of her
passing by.
 Climax
Tatay and Nanay, Tarang’s parents, together with their neighbors are all set for
performing religious rites after kaingin (burning of trees). They believe that these
practices will take away all evil spirits and will give them a bountiful harvest. Tatay lays
the pullet’s neck and lets the streaks of blood drop on the ash-covered loam.
 Falling Action
After the clearing of the land, Tia Orang visits the family and performs hilot on Nanay
and tells her that she is ready to bear a child. She also shares stories of evil ones and
spirits.
 Conclusion
Tarang, half-awake, hears the noise outside, gets up, and accidentally strikes a tree
stump with his big toe. The hurt does not concern him, for he is more interested in
seeing how life emerge from the land as the rice grains peek through the dirt.
 c. Theme
Death forms new life. Death and new formations of life are recurring motifs in the story.
When a living thing dies, a new life emerges. The story paints a cycle of life and death
for the family. The kaingin practice and the killing of the pullet as a ritual are some forms
of deaths that the family believes will bring new life like a bountiful harvest and another
child.
Explanation:
 The use of words such as kaingin, hilot, Nanay, and Tatay is part of N.V.M. Gonzalez's
writing style, as even his other works showcase terms that are unique to the setting of
the story. Analyzing a story will help readers see details such as this that will give them
ideas regarding the writer's contributions to Philippine literature.
 N.V.M. Gonzalez is known as a local colorist writer. Local color is a literary technique
that features the unique regional traditions of people and emphasizes the ordinary
events in their lives. This is used by N.V.M Gonzalez to present the sociocultural
dimensions of Filipino families and farmers in the provinces. In "Children of the Ash-
Covered Loam," words that show local color include kaingin, hilot, Nanay, and Tatay.
Tip
Since the terms used by local colorists may be unfamiliar to you, you should analyze and infer
their meaning by taking note of context clues in the story.
Lesson 9- Life and Works of Edith L. Tiempo

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Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Edith L. Tiempo's contributions to
Philippine literature by analyzing her literary works.
Who is Edith L. Tiempo? What are her contributions to the development of Philippine
literature?
Learn about it!
Edith L. Tiempo
 Edith L. Tiempo was a Filipino writer in English. She was a poet, fiction writer, and
literary critic.
 She was known for using intricate and witty representations to portray significant human
experiences.
 Some of her well known poems are "The Return," a poem that describes the
characteristics of old age, "Lament for the Littlest Fellow," a poem that presents a
metaphor to describe the plight of a submissive wife under her domineering husband,
and "Bonsai," a poem that gives a look at how tangible objects could be keepers of
memories and emotions.
 As a fictionist, she was known for her moral profoundness. One of her remarkable short
stories, "The Black Monkey," won third prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award.
"The Black Monkey," which is set during the time when guerrillas were fighting against
the Japanese during World War II, narrates the tormenting encounter of a woman with a
monkey.
 She also wrote the novel A Blade of Fern, which depicts the problems of Filipino miners
of Nibucal in southern Philippines.
 She was awarded as the National Artist for Literature in 1999.
 She founded with her husband the Silliman University National Writers Workshop, which
produced great young writers of her time.
 Analyzing the literary work of a writer would help in determining what her contributions
are to literature.
Example:
 Below is an excerpt of Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return."
The Return
If the dead years could shake their skinny legs and run
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As once he had circled this house in thirty counts,
he would go thru this door among those old friends and they would not shun
Him and the tales he would tell, tales that would
bear more than the spare
Testimony of willed wit and his grey hairs.
And he would live in the whispers and locked heads.

Wheeling around and around turning back was where he started:
The turn to the pasture, a swift streak under a boy’s running;
The swing, up a few times and he had all the earth he wanted;
The tower trees, and not so tall as he had
imagined;
The rocking chair on the porch, you pushed it and it started rocking,
Rocking, and abruptly stopped. He, too, stopped in the doorway, chagrined.
He would go among them but he would not tell, he could be smart,
He, an old man cracking the bones of his embarrassment apart.
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ensures that the use of these works has permission from their authors and this effort is
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Explanation:
Old age is the subject of the given poem. This poem describes the life of an old man who loved
to travel in his youth. The phrases dead years, skinny legs, and thirty countsdenote the
physical weakness and isolation that the old man feels. The old man wants to visit his friends
to bond with them and share to them his travel stories and experiences. Hopelessly, he sees
only the things associated with old age: irritability and illness, rocking chair, pasture, and the
tower tree.
The themes or messages of the poem are:
 Time is irreversible, and memories can only be remembered and cherished.

 Old people face physical weakness and emotional challenges such as feelings of
isolation, sadness, and frustration.
 Old age is an inevitable period in human growth and development.
Author’s Style
Edith L. Tiempo used a very contemplative style in writing the poem "The Return." The theme
and the subject of the poem are very serious. Her narrative tone and vivid visual imagery allow
readers to think deeply about old age and evoke emotions of nostalgia and sadness from the
old man’s perspective.
Edith L. Tiempo is one of the foremost Filipino contemporary writers in English who is known
for her style and substance. Her language is considered descriptive but without scrupulous
detailing. Her literary works are hailed for their artistic representation of significant human
experiences.
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Tips
 In analyzing and interpreting a poem, a reader must not confuse the subject and the
theme of the poem. The subject is what the poem is about whereas the theme is the
poem's underlying idea or message.
 A poem could have two or more themes.
Lesson 10- Life and Works of F. Sionil Jose

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Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify F. Sionil Jose’s contributions to the
development of Philippine literature.
Who is F. Sionil Jose? What are his contributions to the development of Philippine literature?
Learn about it!
F. Sionil Jose
 Francisco Sionil Jose, widely known as F. Sionil Jose, was born on December 3, 1924
in Rosales, Pangasinan.
 His life and most of his works are influenced by Dr. Jose P. Rizal.
 He edited various literary and journalistic publications, and he founded the Philippine
PEN, an organization of poets, playwrights, and novelists.
 He opened Solidaridad Publishing House in 1965. A year after, he founded Solidarity, a
magazine that produces content mainly focused on "current affairs, ideas, and the arts."
 He was a recipient of numerous awards. Some of which are the Ramon Magsaysay
Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communications in 1980, the Pablo
Neruda Centennial Award in 2004, and the Officer in the French Order of Arts and
Letters in 2014.
 He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2001.
F. Sionil Jose's Literary Works

 F. Sionil Jose’s are generally written in English and are translated to more than twenty
languages and produced worldwide.
 Among his most celebrated works is the Rosales Saga. It is a series of novels that are
set from the Spanish colonial period to the proclamation of Martial Law in the 1970s.
This saga includes the following novels: Po-on, Tree, The Pretenders, Mass,and My
Brother, My Executioner.
 He has also written several short stories, including the notable "The God Stealer". It is a
story about the friendship of Philip Latak, an Ifugao, and Sam Christie, an American
who wanted to buy a bulol, a sculpture of an Ifugao god. The story depicts the
relationship and truths about the colonizer and the colony.
 Waywaya: Eleven Filipino Short Stories is a compilation of short stories about pre-
Hispanic Philippine society.
 In 2004, he published the children’s book The Molave and Other Children’s Stories.
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 To identify a writer's contributions to Philippine literature, it is important to analyze and
take a close look at his literary works.
Example:
 In a nutshell, F. Sionil Jose’s "The God Stealer" tells the story of Philip Latak and Sam
Christie. Philip was residing in the city for years against his family’s wishes. Sam, his
colleague, was an American who wanted a bulol, an Ifugao god sculpture, as a souvenir
before he gets back to Boston. Philip stole his grandfather’s bulol for Sam, as he felt
indebted to repay Sam’s kindness. Then Philip’s grandfather died, and he no longer
wanted to come with Sam back in the city.
Explanation:
 The story tackles one of the many effects of colonization, that is, losing one’s identity.
Philip represents the Philippines, while Sam represents America. Philip’s way of offering
the bulol to Sam out of gratitude shows how he tried to denounce his roots by
embracing a new one, thus losing himself in the process.
Summary
F. Sionil Jose is among the most widely read Filipino writers in English whose novels and short
stories depict a wide scope of social underpinnings and struggles of the Filipino masses. He is
the country’s most influential living writer who employs realism through his narrative
techniques and styles.
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Lesson 11- Life and Works of Virgilio S. Almario
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 identify the valuable contributions of Virgilio S. Almario to Philippine Literature; and

 analyze one of his poems.
Who is Virgilio S. Almario?

What are his contributions to Philippine Literature?
Virgilio S. Almario
Virgilio S. Almario, popularly known by his pen name Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist known for
his poetry and literary criticism. He was proclaimed National Artist for Literature in 2003.
Almario, together with poets Rogelio Mangahas and Lamberto E. Antonio, pioneered the
second modernist movement in Filipino poetry. In his own words, he defines modernist poetry
as sparing, suggestive, and restrained in emotion; its vocabulary and subject are immersed in
the now. Among his poetry collections are Makinasyon at Ilang Tula (1968), his very first
collection; Peregrinasyon at Iba Pang Tula (1970), which won first prize in poetry in the Carlos
Palanca Memorial Awards; Doktrinang Anakpawis(1979); Mga Retrato at Rekwerdo (1984);
and Muli Sa Kandungan ng Lupa (1994).
Almario’s earliest works of literary criticism were published in the Dawn, the weekly organ of
the University of the East. Some of those works were later included in Ang Makata sa
Panahon ng Makina (1982), now considered as the first book of literary criticism in Filipino. His
other critical works include Taludtod at Talinghaga (1965), which tackles the traditional
Tagalog prosody; and Balagtasismo Versus Modernismo (1984), in which he presents the two
main directions of the Tagalog Poetry.
Almario performed significant deeds in the field of Philippine literature. He founded the Galian
sa Arte at Tula (GAT) with the other poets Teo Antonio and Mike Bigornia in 1970; and the
Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika, at Anyo (LIRA), an organization of poets who write in Filipino,
in 1985. From 1986 to 1992, he served as chairman of the Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa
Pilipinas (UMPIL), considered to be the biggest umbrella organization of writers. From 1998 to
2001, he served as executive director of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts
(NCCA). In 2013 he became the chairman of the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF).
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Example:
High Zoociety
Ni Rio Alma
Masdan ang tagak sa likod ng kalabaw,

Parang birheng-birheng manang
Na di-madapuan ng langaw
Sa ibabaw ng karosa patungong simbahan;
At ang mga dekadenteng gansa sa gilid ng lawa,

Maluluma ang mga donyang nakahilata
Habang ibinibilad ang kuto at muta.
Hayun ang mga maryakaprang paawit-awit,

Parang mga binibining umiikot ang puwit,
Sa bulwagang hitik sa masalapi’t makikisig;
At ang mga burukratang unggoy

Sa tuktok ng mala-palasyong kahoy,
Pulu-pulutong kung magpulong
Kung paanong mas lalapad ang papel at tumbong.
Naghahari’t matitikas na oso’t agila,

Nagkikikil lang ng kuko’t pangil tuwing umaga
Para isakmal sa karne’t isuob na barya
Kaya tumatambok ang tiyan at bulsa.
Samantala, matatalinong kuwago’y naghihilik,

Malalaki nga ang mata’y lagi namang pikit,
Marahil, bagong paraiso ang laman ng panaginip.
Di tulad ng buwayang laging abala

Sa paghanap ng kahit butiking mabiktima,
Bundat na’y lagi pa ring nakanganga.
Pero higit na mag-ingat sa hunyango’t ahas

Na sa damuhan ay nagkalat;
Tuwing maghuhunos ng kulay at balat,
Pakay ay kay-hirap madalumat.
(Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Virgilio S. Almario)
The excerpts cited in this material are copyrighted by their respective authors. Quipper
ensures that the use of these works has permission from their authors and this effort is
ongoing. Should you have concerns regarding the proper use of these works, or if you have
not received communication from us regarding this matter, please let us know immediately.
21
Explanation:
The poem "High Zoociety" is part of the collection Doktrinang Anakpawis (1979). Published
during the martial law years (1972–1981), the poem and the rest of the collection are
considered committed poetry, that is, of social awareness and concern. The title is a play on
the term "High Society," which refers to the rich and powerful.
"High Zoociety" has eight stanzas following this pattern of number of lines: 4-3-3-4-4-3-3-4. It
uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as "tugmang karaniwan," wherein the last word of each
line has the same sound. The second, fifth, and seventh stanzas use "tugmang patinig,"
wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel wound. On the other hand, the rest of
the stanzas use "tugmang katinig," wherein the last words of the lines end in a consonant
preceded by the same vowel sound. However, the poem has no regular meter.
Key Points
Virgilio S. Almario, or Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist known for his works of modernist poetry
and literary criticism on Filipino poetry, which are valuable contributions to Philippine literature.
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Lesson 12- Life and Works of Alejandro Roces
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Alejandro R. Roces’s contributions to
the development of Philippine literature.
Who is Alejandro R. Roces?

What are his contributions to the development of Philippine Literature?
Learn about it!
Alejandro R. Roces as a Filipino Writer

 Alejandro R. Roces was a Filipino literary writer. He was born on July 13, 1924.
 He was a playwright, an essayist, and a short story writer. He was also a columnist at
the Philippine Star, the Manila Times, and the Manila Chronicle.
 He attended the Ateneo de Manila University for his primary and secondary education
and the University of Arizona where he earned his degree in fine arts. He pursued
further studies at the following institutions: Far Eastern University (master’s degree);
Ateneo de Manila University, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, St. Louis
University, and Tokyo University in Japan (doctorate).
 Alejandro R. Roces was known for his short story "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers," a
story about an American soldier in the Philippines who brags about his drinking habits,
but becomes overly drunk after drinking lambanog offered by a Filipino farmer.
 From 1961 to 1965, he served as the Secretary of Education under the regime of former
president Diosdado Macapagal. He has also served as chairman of the Movie and
Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) in 2001.
 His other literary works are "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken," a story which talks about
two brothers who were arguing whether the chicken they caught was a hen or a
rooster; Something to Crow About, the first Filipino zarzuela in English about a man
named Kiko who earns a living by means of cockfighting; and Fiesta, a collection of
essays about various Philippine festivals.
 Alejandro R. Roces was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2003.
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 He died on May 23, 2011.
Read the synopsis of “My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken” below, one of Alejandro R. Roces’
notable works.
Synopsis:
Kiko and his brother found a peculiar chicken. They argued whether it was a hen or a rooster.
Kiko believed that it was a rooster, while his brother thought otherwise. Kiko’s brother
emphasized that it could not be a rooster as the chicken has neither wattles nor comb. Their
parents took turns in looking at the chicken and had different thoughts about it; thus, they
ended up arguing like their children. Kiko and his brother asked the chieftain about it, and he
thought that it was a bird of a different kind. They also asked Mr. Eduardo Cruz, someone who
studied poultry raising, and he suggested examining the insides of the chicken, to which Kiko
refused. They both agreed to bring the chicken to a cockpit and have it fight with a rooster from
Texas. However, the rooster performed a love dance around the peculiar chicken. It turned out
that the peculiar chicken was waiting for a chance to attack. It stubbed its spur into the rooster,
and won. Kiko’s brother was convinced that the chicken was a rooster. However, when he was
holding the chicken, it suddenly quivered and laid an egg.
Humor is a literary device which aims to make the audience or readers laugh or be amused.
Alejandro R. Roces employed humor in most of his works. There are various types of humor.
Some of which are exaggeration/hyperbole, surprise, and sarcasm.
 Sarcasm – is a literary device used to mock. In the story, the chicken crowed and Kiko
triumphantly asked his brother if he heard it. Kiko then mocked his brother by saying “I
suppose you are going to tell me now that hens crow and that carabaos fly.”
 Exaggeration/Hyperbole – is a literary device used to make an event appear better or
worse than what it really is. In the story, Kiko’s brother shared how they were almost
whipped for arguing too much.
 Surprise – is a literary device commonly found in unlikely situation or an unexpected
turn of events. As the brothers ran from the mob, Kiko’s brother was convinced that the
chicken was a rooster based on how it defeated its opponent, until it laid an egg.
Summary
Alejandro R. Roces was best known for his short stories, "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken" and
"We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers." He employed humor in most of his works, usually tackling the
Filipinos’ fascination of cockfighting.
Lesson 13- Life and Works of Bienvenido S. Lumbera
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Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the valuable contributions of
Bienvenido S. Lumbera in the development of Philippine literature, and analyze two of his
poems.
Who is Bienvenido S. Lumbera?

What are his important contributions to the Philippine Literature?
What theme do his works have in common?
Personal Life
 Lumbera, who was called Beny when he was a young boy, was born in Lipa, Batangas
on April 11, 1932. His parents had passed away before he turned five.
 Beny and his older sister were raised by Eusebia Teru, their paternal grandmother.
 When Eusebia died, Beny came to live with his godparents, Enrique and Amanda
Lumbera.
 Beny showed natural aptitude for English. In sixth grade, his writing impressed his
teacher so much that she once asked him, in an accusatory tone, if he did write his
composition himself. In his third year in high school, his teacher gave him difficult works
of literature to read.
 Lumbera took a degree in journalism at the University of Santo Tomas in 1950 and
graduated cum laude in 1954. A year before his graduation, his first published work, the
poem “Frigid Moon,” appeared in the Sunday magazine of the Manila Chronicle.
 On a full scholarship granted by the Fulbright Committee, Lumbera obtained his
masters and doctorate degrees at Indiana University.
Literary Background
Lumbera writes in English and Filipino. Below are some of his works.
Poetry Collections
Likhang Dila, Likhang Diwa (1993)
Balaybay: Mga Tulang Lunot at Manibalang (2002)
Critical Works
Abot Tanaw: Sulyap at Suri sa Nagbabagong Kultura at Lipunan (1987)
Writing the Nation/Pag-Akda ng Bansa (2000)
Tagalog Poetry, 1570–1898: Tradition and Influences in Its Development (2001)
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Librettos
Tales of the Manuvu (1977)
Rama Hari (1980)
Sa Sariling Bayan: Apat na Dulang May Musika (2003)
 Lumbera is a strong advocate of the Filipino language. According to him, the gap
between the well-educated Filipinos and the majority cannot be bridged until Filipino
becomes their true lingua franca.
 Lumbera has received numerous awards for his work. The most notable ones were the
Special Prize from the Palanca Awards for his poetry collection Sunog sa Lipa at Iba
Pang Tula in 1975, the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and
Creative Communication Arts in 1993, and the Philippine Centennial Literary Prize for
Drama in 1998.
 Lumbera received the title of National Artist for Literature in 2006.
A Eulogy of Roaches
by Bienvenido Lumbera
Blessed are the cockroaches.
In this country they are

the citizens who last.
They need no police
to promulgate their peace
because they tolerate
each other’s smell or greed.
Friends to dark and filth,

they do not choose their meat.
Although they neither sow
nor reap, a daily feast
is laid for them in rooms
and kitchens of their pick.
The roaches do not spin,

and neither do they weave.
But note the russet coat
the sluggards wear: clothed
at birth, roaches require
no roachy charity.
They settle where they wish

and have no rent to pay.
Eviction is a word
quite meaningless to them
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who do not have to own
their dingy crack of wall.
Not knowing dearth or taxes,

they increase and multiply.
Survival is assured
even the jobless roach;
his opportunities
pile up where garbage grows.
Dying is brief and cheap

and thus cannot affright.
A whiff of toxic mist,
an agile heel, a stick
—the swift descent of pain
is also final death.
Their annals may be short,

but when the simple poor
have starved to simple death,
roaches still circulate
in cupboards of the rich,
the strong, the wise, the dead.

(Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Dr. Bienvenido S. Lumbera.)
Analysis of the Poem
Published in 1965, “A Eulogy of Roaches” is a piece of Bagay poetry. Its subject, the roaches,
represents a deeper meaning. However, the poet merely focuses on giving precise visual
images of the subject and not on explicitly stating its representations.
The poet uses imagery, a literary technique in which figurative language is used to appeal to
the reader’s physical senses. An example is the poet’s description of roaches as “friends to
dark and filth.”
Also, the poet uses juxtaposition, a literary technique in which two (or more) ideas are placed
side by side for comparison and contrast. In the last two stanzas, the poet draws both a
comparison and a distinction between the roaches’ life and the life of the poor: that the poor
die simply of starvation, but the roaches still go on living their short lives in the “cupboards of
the rich, the strong, the wise, the dead.”
Summary
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Bienvenido S. Lumbera is a poet, critic, and librettist. He has made valuable contributions in
the development of Philippine literature especially in the vernacular language. He has
published works in English and Filipino and received numerous awards including the National
Artist for Literature title in 2006.
UNIT II- LITERARY TEXTS OF DIFFERENT REGIONS AND GENRES
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Lesson 14- Poetry
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to compare and contrast two poems published in
different periods.
What do the poems published in different periods have in common?

How are they different from one another?
Let’s Review!
Philippine Literature during the American Occupation of the Philippines (1898–1940)

With English as the medium of instruction in public schools, Filipino literary works in English
were produced. In the first decade, poetry and prose in English appeared in student
publications like the UP College Folio and The Coconut of Manila High School. By the 1930s
and 1940s, Filipino writers in English came into their own.
Philippine Literature in the 21st Century (2001 up to the present)

This body of literature includes digital writings, graphic novels, textula, hypertext, and other
emerging literary genres at present.
Learn about it!
In this lesson, you will compare and contrast Amador T. Daguio’s poem “Man of Earth” and a
piece of textula by Frank Rivera.
At 20, the poet Amador T. Daguio wrote “Man of Earth” in 1932. According to Dr. Gemino
Abad, a well-known Filipino poet and critic, “Man of Earth” marks a turning point in Filipino
poetry. Daguio’s poem words in English are reinvented to establish a native idiom.
Textula is poetry written and read on a mobile phone. It is popularized by the playwright Frank
Rivera, who came to be known as the “makata sa cell phone.” His works of textula and other
29
poems are performed in different occasions, such as rallies, school programs, and contests;
published in newspapers; heard on radio; and shared on social media or through text
messaging.
Poetic Terms
Allusion – Using this literary device, the writer refers to a significant person, place, thing, or
idea in culture, history, literature, or politics briefly and indirectly.
Apostrophe – With this literary device, the writer addresses someone or something that is not
present in his work.
End rhyme – This rhyme occurs in the last syllables of verses.
Lyric poetry – This traditional poetry is characterized by its brevity, emotional intensity, and
musical quality.
Example 1:
Man of Earth
By Amador T. Daguio
Pliant is the bamboo;

I am man of earth.
They say that from the bamboo
We had our first birth.
Am I of the body,
Or of the green leaf?
Do I have to whisper
My every sin and grief?
If the wind passes by,

Must I stoop, and try
To measure fully
My flexibility?
I might have been the bamboo,

But I will be a man.
Bend me then, O Lord,
Bend me if you can.
Explanation:
 The lyric poem has a varied rhythm. It is composed of four stanzas, each one with five
to seven syllables.
 The poem contains end rhymes.
 The poem contains an allusion to a Philippine creation myth that tells that the first man
and woman came from a bamboo. The speaker is aware of his own pagan heritage.
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 The poem uses apostrophe. The speaker addresses a spiritual being he calls “Lord” in
the last two lines of the fourth stanza.
Example 2:
A Textula
By Frank Rivera
Merong himala, hindi totoong wala

Ituro ma’y mali, alam nati’y tama
Kahit walang sagot itong panalangin
Hindi tumitigil ang ating paghiling.
Walang nagturo na tayo’y makibaka

Ngunit sulirani’y ating binabata
Kahit may pangakong laging napapako
Sa anumang init, handa ring mapaso.
Sa ating puso’y may awit ng pag-asa

Kahit titik nito’y hindi makabisa
Ang katotohana’y lalaging totoo
Basta maniwalang mayroong milagro.
(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)
Explanation:
 The poem is a piece of lyric poetry. It is composed of three stanzas, and each stanza
has four lines. It has a regular meter; each line consists of twelve syllables.
 The poem uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as “tugmang karaniwan,” wherein the
last word of each line has the same sound. Except the last two lines of the first stanza,
the rest of the poem uses “tugmang patinig,” wherein the last words of the lines have
the same vowel sound.
Summary
Both Amador T. Daguio’s and Frank Rivera’s poems are lyric poetry, and they show traditional
elements. Both poems use end rhymes. However, Daguio’s poem has no regular meter, while
Rivera’s poem has.
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Lesson 15- Fiction
Objectives
 define literary meaning, and

 determine how the literary devices of a work of fiction work together to convey its literary
meaning.
What is "literary meaning"?

How does one determine the "literary meaning" of a work of fiction?
Let’s Review
Literary elements – These devices are inherent in a literary text. Some examples are the
characters, setting, conflict, plot, and theme of a short story.
Literary techniques – These devices are used deliberately by a writer in his or her work to
convey a particular meaning. Dialogue is an example.
Learn about it!
The literary meaning of a work is conveyed through its elements and the literary techniques
that the writer used. In a short story, for instance, the writer weaves a story, putting elements
and techniques together in a specific arrangement to convey its meaning.
Consider Francisco Arcellana’s short story "The Mats." Arcellana focused on the character’s
actions and dialogues to reveal their innermost feelings, which can be clues to the literary
meaning of the work.
"The Mats" (A Summary)

By Francisco Arcellana
The short story "The Mats" is about the Angeles family. As the title suggests, their story
unfolds like the unfolding of a sleeping mat. It begins with Emilia and her children waiting
excitedly for Mr. Jaime Angeles’s return from a business trip. In a letter, Mr. Angeles told his
wife that he had asked a mat weaver to make decorative sleeping mats for each one in the
family. To some degree, the children knew what those mats would look like because their
32
mother kept one herself. This mat was a gift from Emilia’s mother. It had been a witness to the
couple’s wedding night as well as to the illnesses and even deaths in the family. Then the day
came when Mr. Angeles arrived home at last. The family had a long dinner. The table was
cleared right after, and Mr. Angeles had a cigar. When it was time to untie the mats, Mr.
Angeles cut the cord that held the bundle with scissors. He began unfolding the mats one by
one. He handed the first one to Emilia; the second one to himself; the third one to his eldest,
Marcelina; the fourth one to his son, Jose; and three more to his children Antonia, Juan, and
Jesus. Each mat had the name of the family member on it as well as something special like
the cadena de amor on Emilia’s mat, a lyre on Marcelina’s, and the symbol of Aesculapius on
Jose’s. Then Emilia noticed the other three mats that were not yet unfolded. In a different
voice, Mr. Angeles told her that they were for those who were not there. Emilia was
speechless, and the children fell silent. Mr. Angeles unfolded the first of three remaining mats;
it revealed a name that the children knew, but it seemed strange to them. Nana Emilia told her
husband, "You know, Jaime, you didn’t have to. You didn’t have to." To this Mr. Angeles only
said, "Do you think I’d forgotten? Do you think I had forgotten them? Do you think I could
forget them?" Then he called out the names of his dead children, namely, Josefina, Victoria,
and Concepcion, as if they were there to get the mats themselves. Emilia pleaded with him to
stop. To this he only said, "Is it fair to forget them? Would it be just to disregard them?" The
children wanted to turn away from their father, but they did not. Emilia held back her
frustration. Mr. Angeles unfolded the remaining mats in silence.
Literary Meaning of "The Mats"
It is shown through the characters Emilia and her husband that coping with the death
of loved ones is a struggle. Emilia seemed to lead a normal life from the beginning of the
story until the moment her husband told her that he had the mat weaver made three mats for
their three dead children. Forced to remember their dead children, she could only hold back
from feeling frustration perhaps with her husband. On the other hand, Mr. Angeles dealt with
the death of his children in a way that he knew how, that is, remembering them on special
occasions even if that made his wife and children uncomfortable.
Summary
The literary devices, elements and techniques, that are present in a work like a short story,
bring about the literary meaning of the work. This meaning can be about people or life in
general.
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Lesson 16- Drama
Objectives
 identify the Filipino dramatists or playwrights in English during the Postwar Period in the
Philippines (1946–1960); and
 analyze a Filipino drama or play in English published during that period.
What is a drama?
What are the elements of a drama?
Who are the Filipino dramatists in English that emerged during the Postwar Years?
Drama
Drama is a literary work that tells a story through actions and dialogues. It is usually performed
on stage.
Elements
Characters – These actors set the scene and flow of the story.
Dialogues – These are conversations between the characters.
Plot – This is the series of events that take place.
Stage directions – These statements tell the actors how they should look, move, and speak.
They also give the director a picture of how the setting looks like, and what music and other
sounds would set the mood of the play.
Philippine Drama in English During the Postwar Period (1946–1960)

By the 1940s and 1950s, dramas in English had been performed on stage in the Philippines.
During that time, three notable Filipino dramatists emerged. They were Severino Montano,
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, and Alberto S. Florentino.
Severino Montano (1915–1980) established the Arena Theatre at the Philippine Normal

College in 1952. Almost two hundred performances were staged there from 1953 to 1964.
Among those performances were the staging of Montano’s four major dramas, namely, Parting
at Calamba (1953), Sabina (1953), The Ladies and the Senator(1953), and The Love of
Leonor Rivera (1954).
34
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero (1910–1995) was a prolific playwright. He wrote over a hundred plays;
most of them were staged. His plays portray the educated middle class. Among his popular
works are Wanted: A Chaperone (1940), The Three Rats (1948), and Condemned (1943).
Alberto S. Florentino (1931– ) became known for his drama The World Is An Apple. It won
first prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature in 1954 and was published in
the Sunday Times Magazine that same year. The play as well as the others like Cavort with
Angels (1959) and Oli Impan (1959) is set in Tondo slums.
During the period, the theater was moribund in the cities, however. One reason is that the
language used, which was English, made the plays only accessible to the educated Filipinos.
"The World Is an Apple" by Alberto S. Florentino is a one-act play. As the term suggests, a
one-act play is composed of only one act or part. Its story has a few characters; it is
condensed and has a single effect.
Florentino’s play only has three characters, namely, Gloria, Mario, and Pablo. The story takes
place one evening in an improvised home in Intramuros. Gloria and Mario are a poor couple.
Their poverty forces Mario’s hand both literally and figuratively. So, he returns to his old life of
stealing and joins his old friend Pablo for a heist.
The World Is An Apple: A Synopsis
It is payday, and Mario comes home without any money to give his wife Gloria for their sick
daughter named Tita. At first, he tells his wife that he spent all of his money on a few drinks
with his friends. However, Gloria does not believe him because he does not look intoxicated.
Then Mario attempts to lie the second time by telling her that he spent it all on a woman. Once
again, Gloria does not believe him because she knows Mario loves their daughter very much
that he could not have done it. Finally, Mario tells her that he lost his job a week ago and that
he has been looking for a new one ever since. Gloria is shocked to hear the news and worried
that Mario would not be able to find a job soon. Mario, however, assures her that it will not take
long for him to get a new job.
Gloria then asks Mario why he lost his job. Mario relates that he was accused of pilfering
(stealing a small amount of something) at work. He took an apple that rolled out of a broken
crate and thought of giving it to their child. The people at his work kept the apple, though, for
evidence. Gloria wants Mario to ask those people for a second chance, but Mario is convinced
that they want to throw him out so that they could bring their own men into the job. When
Gloria suggests that Mario complain, he does not want to do so for fear of those people finding
out about his police record. Then he tells Gloria that he has found a good job. He is to be a
night watchman for a company. Gloria is thankful to God, though she feels uncertain because
she will be alone at night without Mario by her side.
Then comes Pablo, Mario’s friend. Mario becomes nervous, and Gloria is not very happy to
see him. Pablo asks about their child’s condition and offers money to Gloria so that she can
take her to a doctor, but Gloria refuses it. She is convinced that Pablo has come to lead Mario
back to his old ways. Soon enough, she discovers that Mario has indeed decided to go back to
stealing for their sake. She tries to stop him from going, but Mario leaves with Pablo anyway.
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Before he leaves, he tells Gloria to take care of their daughter and herself, and he will take
care of himself. The story ends with Gloria shouting Mario’s name as she watches him walk
away with Pablo.
Summary
The three notable Filipino dramatists in English of the Postwar Years are Severino Montano,
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, and Alberto Florentino. They produced relevant dramas during the
period. However, because their works were written in English, they could only reach out to the
educated class.
Lesson 17- Creative Nonfiction

36
Objectives
 identify some Filipino writers of creative nonfiction and their works; and
 analyze a few selected Filipino works of creative nonfiction.
What makes a work of creative nonfiction?

What are the different kinds of creative nonfiction?
Learn about it!
In this lesson, you will learn more about creative nonfiction in general and the Philippine
creative nonfiction. Also, you will read a few selected works by Filipino writers.
Creative Nonfiction
It is a major genre of literature. It refers to narratives of real events told in a literary style.
Kinds of Creative Nonfiction

 Memoir - This account is narrowly focused on a single event in a person’s life.
 Biography - This is a detailed account of a person’s life written by another person.
 Autobiography - This is a written account of the life of a person written by the subject
himself or herself.
 Diary - This is a collection of discrete accounts of a person’s experiences and thoughts
each day.
 Essay - This writing features any subject that the writer personally comments about or
describes.
Philippine Creative Nonfiction
The American Occupation (1898–1940)

The essay in English proved to be an influential medium. The first volume of essays was Life
and Success (1921) by Zoilo Galang. The earliest travel writing was Notas de Viaje(1930) by
Maria Paz Mendoza-Guazon. The essay “Literature and Society” by Salvador Lopez sparked a
37
debate on socially relevant literature versus aesthetic value. It won in the first Commonwealth
Literary Awards in 1940.
The Japanese Occupation (1941–1945)

Because of censorship, only a few essays in English were published. Horizons from My Nipa
Hut, published in 1941, is a collection of humorous essays by Francisco B. Icasiano. I Am a
Filipino, the most famous essay of Carlos P. Romulo, was published the same year.
1960s and 1970s

Literary journalism came into its own. It appeared in some publications like the Philippines
Free Press and the Philippine Graphic. It attracted some of the best Filipino writers. Nick
Joaquin, who sometimes used the pen name Quijano de Manila, was the most prolific among
those writers.
1990s
A few autobiographies and memoirs were published like Memory’s Fictions: A Personal
History (1993) and Postscript to a Saintly Life (1994) by Bienvenido Santos. Also, there were
works on wars like Living With the Enemy: A Diary of the Japanese Occupation(1999) by
Pacita Pestaño-Jacinto, and Breaking the Silence (1996) by Lourdes Reyes Montinola.
Also, published in this period were travel writings by Filipino women like Sylvia
Mayuga’s Earth, Fire & Air (1992) and Kerima Polotan’s Adventures in a Forgotten
Country (1999).
Early 21st Century

This period saw the publication of collections of short essays and narratives of young writers.
Their works were Wala Lang (2004) by Bud Tomas; Love, Desire, Children, Etc.: Reflections
of a Young Wife (2005) by Rica Bolipata-Santos; The King of Nothing To Do(2006) by Luis
Katigbak; and Stressed in the City (2007) by April T. Yap.
Summary
Creative nonfiction refers to narratives of real events told using a literary style of writing.
Some of its forms are the memoir, the biography, the autobiography, the diary, and the essay.
In Philippine Literature, the essay is the most common form of creative nonfiction.
Lesson 18- Popular Fiction
Objective
38
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to name some genres of the popular fiction.
What makes a piece of fiction popular?

What are the different genres of the popular fiction?
Learn about it!
In this lesson, you will learn about popular fiction and three of its genres, namely, the science
fiction, chick literature, and ghost stories.
Popular fiction, also called genre fiction, refers to works of literature that are intended for the
masses or large audience. Its main purpose is to appeal to the general public. Below are a few
features of popular fiction:
 Its story is plot-driven.

 Its characters are mostly stock figures.
 Its setting is either familiar or exotic.
 Its language is closer to everyday spoken language.
 It contains a lot of dialogues.
Science fiction, also called sci-fi, at its core, deals with science and technology. It is often
lumped with the fantasy and horror genres under the broader term “speculative fiction.” As this
term suggests, sci-fi writers are often preoccupied by the question “what if.”
Pocholo Goitia’s short story “An Introduction to the Luminescent” is an example of science
fiction. It was published in Philippine Speculative Fiction volume 1 in 2005. The story is set in
the year 2105 in a mall described as an “ultrasaur,” a massive structure that towers at two
kilometers and stretches at half kilometer. Magenta, one of the characters, is a member of La
Luminosa, a group of biogenetically engineered people that live in the mall. This mall is
protected by “clone warriors” that hover in the air using devices called gravity disruptors.
Chick literature, or chick lit, is written by women who write for women. The usual target
readers are young and single women, especially in their 20s or 30s. The stories deal with real
life, usually love and relationships, and they are written in a light-hearted tone.
Tara Sering’s Getting Better is an example of chick literature. The novella was published in the
October 2002 issue of Cosmopolitan Philippines, a magazine that targets contemporary
women and that mostly features topics regarding relationships, beauty, fashion, and health.
39
Told in the second person point of view, the story tackles the life of a single woman named
Karen—how she was as a girlfriend, how she dealt with cheating, and how she moved on.
Ghost stories are part of Filipino pop culture. They are a specific kind of stories in the horror
fiction genre. As the name suggests, a ghost story features a ghost as one of its characters.
Like any story in the horror fiction genre, a ghost story is meant to scare its reader.
Joel P. Salud’s “The Haunting at Concha Cruz Drive” is an example of a ghost story. It was
published in True Philippine Ghost Stories Book 1 in 2002. It tells the story of three friends
driving along a road named Concha Cruz Drive which is known to be haunted by ghosts of a
young couple who were victims of drag racing accident.
Summary
Popular fiction refers to works of literature whose main purpose is to appeal to the general
public. It includes the science fiction genre, chick literature, and ghost stories.
Lesson 19- New and Emerging Literary Forms in the 21st Century
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Objectives
 identify new and emerging literary forms at the present time, and
 analyze some selected works written by present-day Filipino writers.
What new literary forms are emerging at present?

What are the distinct qualities of such literary forms?
Let's Review!
Literary Genre
This refers to a type or category of literature. It has a specific form, content, and style. The four
main genres of literature are poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and drama. Under each of those genres
are different genres. For example, fiction includes speculative fiction, fantasy, and science
fiction.
Literary Technique
This is a literary device deliberately used by a writer to convey a specific idea or meaning. An
example is motif, an object or idea that is repeated in a literary work. Another literary
technique is the use of figurative language, an example is personification, a figure of speech
in which an inanimate object is given human qualities.
Introduction
Many works of literature produced at present are characterized by the writers’ use of
unconventional techniques. For instance, the illustrated novel, the graphic novel, and doodle-
fiction present narratives using pictures or images. The illustrated novel presents images that
tell some parts of the story, while the other parts are told in words. The graphic novel tells a
story in comic book format. A work of doodle fiction contains doodles and hand-written
graphics.
Besides the illustrated novel, the graphic novel, and doodle-fiction, there are other literary
forms or genres emerging at present, such as the flash fiction, slipstream, metafiction, and
magic realism.
Flash Fiction
Flash fiction is known for its extreme brevity. A typical work of flash fiction is only a few
hundred words long. Examples are the stories in Fast Food Fiction: Short Short Stories To
Go (2003), edited by Noelle Q. de Jesus. The collection features stories written by well-known
41
Filipino writers like Gemino H. Abad, Gregorio Brillantes, Jose Dalisay, Jr., Jessica Zafra, and
Lakambini Sitoy.
Slipstream
Slipstream, or the “fiction of strangeness,” features elements of fantasy, science fiction, and
serious fiction. For many, works of slipstream are difficult to categorize because of their
similarities with speculative fiction. The collection Philippine Speculative Fiction, edited by
Dean Francis Alfar and Nikki Alfar, contains stories that are slipstream fiction.
Metafiction
Metafiction is about fiction itself. A work of metafiction can be a story about a writer who
writes a story or a story about another work of fiction. Some works of metafiction by Filipinos
are the novel Ilustrado (2010) by Miguel Syjuco and Hari Manawari (2011) by German
Gervacio.
Magic Realism
Magic realism is a fiction genre in which magical elements are blended with reality. It is
characteristic of the stories by Latin American writers like Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Jorge Luis
Borges, and Isabel Allende. The short story “The Death of Fray Salvador Montano,
Conquistador of Negros” by the Filipino writer Rosario Cruz Lucero has elements of magic
realism.
Summary
Many works of literature at present are characterized by the writers’ use of unconventional
techniques. They can be categorized under different genres like flash fiction, slipstream,
metafiction, and magic realism.
Lesson 20- Literary Works by Writers from Luzon
Objectives
42
 analyze selected literary works by writers from Luzon,

 identify the context of a given literary text,
 relate the context of a literary text to its meaning, and
 situate or place the literary text in the context of the region where the writer is from and
of the nation.
As a reader, why do you have to make sense of the context of a literary work?
How is each literary work representative of the region where the writer is from and of the
nation?
Learn about it!
The literary works in this lesson are by writers from Luzon. The writers used the Filipino
cultural elements below:
 Kundiman - This is a genre of Tagalog folk love songs that express an intense longing
for a beloved, a cause, or the motherland. They are usually played in minor chord,
giving them a sad, melancholic sound.
 Kambubulag - This is the Kapapampangan term for a type of native moth. It comes
from the root word “bulag” meaning “blind,” and there are Filipino superstitions about
becoming blind after encountering moths.
Mikael de Lara Co is a writer and musician. He was born in Makati City and graduated with a
degree in Environmental Science from Ateneo de Manila University. His English and Filipino
poetry collections have received awards including Palanca Awards and the Meritage Press
Holiday Poetry Prize. He was also a member of the Los Chupacabras band. At present, he
works for the Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office at the
Malacañang.
Example:
Kundiman (An Excerpt)
By Mikael de Lara Co
I ate alone. I grew old. I grew older.

I said hold in my own language
again and again, hawak, kapit,
tahan na, uwi na. Then strained
to hear all the engines in this city
droning in A minor. A knife
scraped against marble. A stick
rattled towards stillness. A minor.
43
All the lullabies ever hummed
coming together to vibrate
in the saddest of frequencies.
Your keys dangled by the sink.
Somewhere a chord is diminished
to static. Kundiman means
the opposite of if ever.
(Reproduced by permission of Mikael de Lara Co)
Explanation:
Co used diction to create a specific tone for “Kundiman” (2014). He used Tagalog words and
phrases: kundiman; hawak (hold); kapit (hold on); tahan na (stop crying); and uwi na (go home
now). These words, which have an emotional ring to them like the words in a kundiman, create
a mood reminiscent of Filipino sentimentality. Also, the mention of the A minor chord evokes
sad, longing feelings that contribute to the sentimental tone of the poem.
Catherine Batac Walder hails from Pampanga. She graduated from the University of the
Philippines and moved to Europe in 2005 to pursue a Master of Philosophy degree. Her works
have been featured in local publications including Inquirer’s Youngblood, Philippines Free
Press, and Philippine Speculative Fiction 8. Also an avid reader, her letters have been
published in international magazines like Reader’s Digest and Time. She is now a blogger and
a full-time mother based in South East England.
Example:
The Kambubulag (An Excerpt)
By Catherine Batac Walder
“I can’t believe that woman,” Delia said.
“What woman?” Odessa asked.

“Oh, one I met while smoking just now. Kept asking if we passed Kambubulag Road on the
way here. ‘Never heard of the road,’ I told her. She said it’s four kilometers from the hotel and
mentioned how we should be careful because we might encounter thekambubulag. ‘Most
residents here have resigned themselves to the fact that they have more chances of dying on
that road than any other non-resident. But as anyone would say, if it’s your time, then it is,’ she
said [. . .]”
(Reproduced by permission of Catherine Batac Walder)
Explanation:
In “The Kambubulag” (2013) the writer used a Filipino cultural symbol of bad luck,
the kambubulag, to create the fictional urban legend of the Kambubulag Road. Old folk
legends of the moth being a harbinger of death is prevalent in Luzon. It signals the reader to
regard the woman and her superstition as out of the ordinary.
44
Tips
To know the context of any literary work lets you gain a deeper insight into its theme and
meaning. Here are two ways to get the context of a literary work:
 by doing a close reading of the text

 by identifying sociocultural elements present in the text
Summary
Context is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s life,
language, society, and culture.
Diction is the choice of words that suit the writer’s intended purpose.
Kundiman and kambubulag folk tales are part of Filipino folk literature. They can be a source of
inspiration, or they can be used as literary devices. Also, writing a poem or a story around
those cultural symbols reawakens interest in those literary forms.
Lesson 21- Literary Works by Writers from Visayas and Mindanao
Objectives
45
 analyze selected literary works by writers from Visayas and Mindanao,
 identify the context of a given literary text,
 relate the context of a literary text to its meaning, and
 situate or place the literary text in the context of the region where the writer is from and
of the nation.
As a reader, why do you have to make sense of the context of a literary work?
How is each literary work representative of the region where the writer is from and of the
nation?
Learn about it!
Merlie M. Alunan was born in Dingle, Iloilo and graduated with a Creative Writing degree from
Siliman University. She is Professor Emeritus at the University of the Philippines and promotes
writing in the mother tongue. Her poems are in English, Cebuano, and Waray. At present, she
resides in Tacloban City.
Example:
Old Women in Our Village (An Excerpt)
By Merlie M. Alunan
Old women in my village say

the sea is always hungry, they say,
that’s why it comes without fail
to lick the edges of the barrier sand,
rolling through rafts of mangrove,
smashing its salt-steeped flood
on guardian cliffs, breaking itself
against rock faces, landlocks, hills,
reaching through to fields, forests,
grazelands, villages by the water,
country lanes, towns, cities where
people walk about in a dream,
deaf to the wind shushing
the sea’s sibilant sighing
Someday we come
someday we come
someday . . . .
Only the old women hear

the ceaseless warning, watching
the grain drying in the sun,
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or tending the boiling pot
or gutting a fish for the fire, fingers
bloody, clothes stained, scent of the ocean
rising from the mangled flesh into their lungs.
Nights, as they sit on their mats

rubbing their knees, waiting for ease
to come, and sleep, they hear the sea
endlessly muttering as in a dream
someday someday someday . . . .
Nudging the old men beside them,
their mates—empty-eyed seafarer,
each a survivor of storms, high waves,
and the sea’s vast loneliness,
now half-lost in their old age
amid the household clutter—
old women in my village
nod to themselves and say,
one uncharted day, the sea
will open its mouth and drink in
a child playing on the sand,
a fisherman with his nets,
great ships laden with cargo,
and still unsated, they say,
suck up cities towns villages—
one huge swallow to slake its hunger.
As to when or how it would happen,
who knows, the women say, but this much
is true—no plea for kindness can stop it—
nodding their heads this way and that,
tuning their ears to the endless mumbling . . . .
someday we come we come we come
someday we come we come we come
someday someday someday
(Reproduced by permission of Prof. Merlie M. Alunan)
Explanation:
The imagery in “Old Women in Our Village” (2012) is heightened through the use of sound
devices. For instance, the cacophony in the first stanza implies strong feelings, like in the line
“against rock faces, landlocks, hills.” Then euphony in the next stanza evokes pleasant
feelings as in the line “the sea’s sibilant sighing.” This suggests an impending disaster, which
is echoed in the rest of the poem.
Gutierrez Mangansakan II, an advocate of the Moro culture, is a filmmaker and writer from
Pagalungan, Maguindanao. In 2001, his film House under the Crescent Moon won the grand
prize for video documentary from the Cultural Center of the Philippines Prize for Independent
47
Film and Video. Since then, he has made films that focus on the plight of women and children.
Also, he was the editor of Children of the Ever-Changing Moon(2007), a collection of essays
by young Moro writers. He became a fellow at the University of Iowa’s International Program in
2008.
Mangansakan wrote a short story entitled “A Harvest of Sorrows” for the collection Peace
Mindanao edited by Jaime An Lim, a multi-awarded writer, it is also published by UST
Publishing House in 2013. The story features a narrator whose experience mirrors
Mangansakan’s experience in relief work. For him, the issue and images of refugees and
displacement have always been a consistent element in both his films and writing.
Example:
A Harvest of Sorrows
by Gutierrez Mangansakan II
“A Harvest of Sorrows” begins with the narrator’s arrival at an evacuation center at 9 AM in a

remote village in Mindanao. He has come to give away several sacks of rice to the refugees in
the center. The refugees have fled their homes because fighting broke out in their villages. At
the center he meets his friend Ayesha, the social worker who is in charge of supervising relief
operations. Ayesha tells him that a woman in the center gave birth to a stillborn child, and the
father does not know it yet. The father, together with the other men, has gone back to the
village to guard the rice fields, where crops are ready for harvest in ten days. Later, while the
narrator and Ayesha are having coffee, the latter announces that the father will be sent for and
that the child will be buried after the noon prayer.
Key Points
 Each writer in the lesson tackles a theme that situates his or her work in a context
specific to the region.
 Merlie Alunan’s poem “Old Women in Our Village” depicts sea, an important part of life
of the Visayans, as an agent of destruction and death. On the other hand, Gutierrez
Mangansakan II’s short story “A Harvest of Sorrows” highlights the plight of refugees
from war.
 Context – This is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the
author’s life, language, society, and culture.
 Imagery – This language awakens the reader’s sensory perceptions through words and
phrases.
 Cacophony – This sound device refers to words or phrases with harsh sounds that
create a disturbing tone.
48
 Euphony – This sound device refers to words or phrases with melodic sounds that
create a calming tone.
Tips
To know the context of any literary work lets you gain a deeper insight into its theme and
meaning. Here are two ways to get the context of a literary work:
 by doing a close reading of the text

 by looking at the history and culture of its place of origin
49
Lesson 22- Electronic Literature
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze two sample works of electronic
literature by Filipinos.
What is electronic literature?

What are the different kinds of electronic literature?
Electronic literature refers to works commonly published and shared on the Web. Unlike
traditional printed literature, it has features that could only be presented through multimedia.
Kinds of Electronic Literature

 Hyperpoetry – This is a kind of graphic poetry, which combines words with images. It
has no standard lines or verses, but its words are arranged in a way that it creates
meaning and visual effect.
 Hyperfiction – This contains hyperlinks. When readers click on a hyperlink, they go to
another Web page that contains the next part of a story.
 Photo poem – This uses real-life images or electronically generated images as
representation of the textual poem.
 Silent comics – These have no verbal dialogues. The dialogues are presented through
symbols.
 Textula – This poem is intended to be shared through the SMS.
 Blog – This Web site is where a person writes about his or her personal opinions,
activities, and experiences.
Vladimeir Gonzales
Filipino fictionist and playwright Vladimeir Gonzales is known for his short stories in Filipino, as
well as his works of nonfiction compiled in his books Isang Napakalaking Kaastigan and A-
side/B-side: ang mga Piso sa Jukebox ng Buhay Mo.
He has also published several hyperfiction works in his site, vladgonzales.net−−−−−−−−−−

−−−vladgonzales.net_. One of them is entitled “Mga Tala ng Buhay ni Edward Elric, Dating
State Alchemist, bilang State University Instructor 1.” A work of fan fiction, the story features
Edward Elric from the Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Elric is the youngest alchemist
working for the state of Amestris. In Gonzales’s story he has come to the Philippines through a
magical portal.
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Access to parts of the story is through the embedded hyperlinks on the human transmutation
circle, which is used by Elric in the original story to resurrect his mother. The hyperlinks are
signs of metals in alchemy. To begin reading the story, one clicks on the hyperlink of Tin and
goes clockwise.
The hyperlinks lead to these portions:
Example:
Ang Transmutation Circle (An Excerpt)
By Vladimeir Gonzales
Hindi kaagad naalala ni Ed ang mga huling naganap bago siya mapunta sa Pilipinas. Lumipas
pa ang ilang araw bago magkaroon ng saysay ang mga naganap sa kanya. Oo, napunta na
siya sa kabilang panig ng lagusan upang muling mabuhay ang kapatid niyang si Al sa orihinal
nitong katawan, at hindi ang katawang bakal na matagal nitong pinaglagian bilang kapalit sa
pagtatangkang resureksyon ng kanilang ina. Wala nang alchemy sa mundong nakita niya
51
pagkagising. Si Edward Elric na dati’y isang alchemist ay si Edward Aquino na, isang
estudyante ng Fine Arts sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas. Sa pamilyang Aquino, siya lang daw ang
nalinya sa kursong may kaugnayan sa Sining. Ito ang nakuha niya mula sa mga pira-pirasong
sermon ng kanyang ina sa mundong napuntahan niya. Ang kanyang ama, tulad ng sa
mundong pinanggalingan niya ay nawawala. Kapag tinatanong niya sa kanyang ina kung
nasaan ang kanyang ama, lagi lang siyang minumura nito. Malayo sa inang nakagisnan niya’t
tinangkang buhayin.
Naging katulad siya ng maraming mag-aaral. Mas nakaaangat nga lang ang hilig sa pag-aaral
lalo na sa kanyang mga major. Sa mga lumipas na taon ng kanyang buhay undergrad,
nakilala siya sa kanilang kolehiyo sa kanyang mga eskultura’t installation pieces.
Pinakapopular ang ginawa niyang serye ng mga installation art na gumagamit ng mga sipilyo,
kubyertos at picture frames na nakapaloob sa iba’t ibang baryasyon ng transmutation circles.
Para sa mga kritiko, ang kanyang mga piyesa’y isang dekonstruksyon ng kalikasan ng tao,
isang paghihimay ng mga batayang pagpapahalaga, ng mabuti’t masama, ng liwanag at dilim,
sa isang dinamikong mundong hinahati ng noon, ng ngayon, ng bukas; para kay Ed, simpleng
pagpapaalala lang ito ng mundong kanyang iniwanan, ng mundo kung saan naroon si Al, ang
kaibigang si Winry, ang mga kaibigang state alchemist. Magkaiba man ang mga dahilan, ito
ang nagbigay-daan kay Ed upang makalabas siya ng Pilipinas at makabisita sa iba pang mga
bansa sa kanyang bagong mundo. Naging laman siya ng mga diyaryo’t magasin, ng
telebisyon at radyo. Nabansagan siyang isa sa mga pinakamahusay na artista ng kanyang
panahon.
Nagtapos siya ng kanyang undergraduate degree nang walang karangalan. Dahil sa paglibot
ng kanyang installation pieces sa iba’t ibang bansa’y nakatanggap siya ng forced drop sa
ibang mga asignatura’t na-underload din nang ilang beses. Bukod doon ay hindi pa niya
maipasa-pasa ang kanyang Math 1 (naiwan din yata sa kabilang dimensyon ang kanyang
husay at interes dito). Pero kahit na walang anumang ‘laude’ na natanggap, nakapasok
naman siya sa kanilang kolehiyo bilang isang university instructor. Isang taon pa lang siyang
nagtuturo’y nagkaasawa na siya’t nagkaroon ng anak. Co-teacher niya sa departamento’t
isang fresh grad din ang kanyang naging kabiyak. Sa puntong ito’y nakaramdam nang
kaunting kapanatagan si Ed, halos katumbas ng ligayang naramdaman niya noong nagawaran
siya ng titulong state alchemist.
(Reproduced by permission of Vladimeir Gonzales)
Learn about it!
Frank Rivera
Frank Rivera, a playwright, received recognition for a number of his plays like Ambon, Ulan,
Baha: Sarsuwelang Pinoy (2003) and Oyayi, Ang Zarzuela (2004). Also, he received awards
for the Makata sa Cellphone (2005), a collection of poetry which includes his popular textula.
For his works of textula, he was dubbed as the “makata sa cell phone.”
52
Example:
A Textula (2013)
by Frank G. Rivera
Bayang mahilig sa ganda

Inuuna ang postura
Walang laman ang bituka
Kundi gasgas na pag-asa.
Si MEGAN YOUNG nang manalo

Nagbunyi ang Pilipino
May dala sanang asenso
Magkakapag-asa tayo.
Nagkagyera sa Mindanao
Kaban ng bayan ninakaw
Sa Bagyo’y daming pumanaw
MISS WORLD, salamat sa araw.
(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)
Explanation:
 This textula has three stanzas, each of which has four lines. Each line has eight
syllables, which set a regular rhythm.
 The poem uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as “tugmang karaniwan,” wherein the
last word of each line has the same sound. Also, the poem uses “tugmang patinig,”
wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel sound, and “tugmang katinig,”
wherein the last words of the lines have the same consonant sound.
Summary
Electronic literature refers to works commonly published and shared on the Web. Such
works have features that could only be presented through multimedia. Examples of those
works are hyperpoetry, hyperfiction, photo poems, silent comics, textula, and blogs.
53
UNIT III- LITERARY GENRES, TRADITIONS, AND FORMS FROM DIFFERENT CULTURES
Lesson 23- English Literature
54
Objectives
 name some well-known English writers and their works as well as the body of English
literature to which they belong; and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of English literature.
Who are some of the important writers in the English literature?

Why are they important?
What literary forms are prominent in English literature?
Let’s Review!
 Epic poem - This is a long narrative poem usually about a hero and his deeds. A well-
known example is Beowulf.
 Sonnet - This poem has fourteen lines that follow a rhyme scheme. A well-known
example is Sonnet 18 of William Shakespeare. It starts with the famous line, “Shall I
compare thee to a summer’s day?”
 Drama - This piece of writing tells a story through dialogue, and it is performed on
stage. A well-known example is The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde.
 Novel - This is a long prose narrative usually about fictional characters and events,
which are told in a particular sequence.
English Literature
English literature is one of the richest, most developed, and most important bodies of
literature in the world. It encompasses both written and spoken works by writers from the
United Kingdom.
Old English Literature (600 - 1100)

Old English, the earliest form of the English language, was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, a
Germanic tribe living in Britain during the fifth century. One significant work written in Old
English is Beowulf, the longest epic poem in Old English. It is known for its use of kennings,
which are phrases or compound words used to name persons, places, and things indirectly.
Middle English Literature (1100 - 1500)

Middle English is a blend Old English and Norman French, the French dialect spoken by the
Normans (people of Normandy). The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of
English literature, is a fine example of literature written in Middle English.
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Elizabethan Literature (1558 - 1603)
The Elizabethan period is the golden age of English literature. Also, it is the golden age of
drama. Known as the “Bard of Avon,” William Shakespeare wrote his plays during the period.
His best plays include Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Othello, and The Merchant of Venice. Also,
he wrote 154 sonnets, many of which are the best loved and the most widely-read poems in
the English literature.
The Romantic Period (1800 - 1837)

This period is the golden age of lyric poetry. Poetry became the expression of the poet’s
personal feelings and emotions. A few notable works of poetry of the period are Songs of
Innocence and of Experience by William Blake, Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems by John Keats, “Don Juan”
by Lord Byron, and “Ode to the West Wind” by Percy Bysshe Shelley.
The Victorian Period (1837 - 1900)

The period saw the rise of the novel. Charles Dickens, considered to be the greatest English
novelist of the 19th century, wrote Great Expectations. This novel was published as a serial in
a weekly periodical from December 1860 to August 1861.
Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning each wrote fine poetry during the period.
Tennyson’s In Memoriam A.H.H. is a requiem for his friend Arthur Henry Hallam. It is widely
considered to be one of the great poems of the 19th century. Browning, who is known for his
dramatic monologues, wrote the famous poem “My Last Duchess.” In a dramatic monologue,
the poet addresses an audience through an assumed voice.
Oscar Wilde is the best dramatist of the period. He wrote the masterpiece The Importance of
Being Earnest.
Twentieth Century (1900 - 2000)

William Butler Yeats and Thomas Stearns Eliot wrote Modernist poems during the period.
Yeats wrote The Tower, The Winding Stair, and New Poems, all of which are known to have
potent images. Eliot’s masterpieces are “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” and “The Waste
Land.”
Virginia Woolf in her story Mrs. Dalloway and James Joyce in his work Ulysses use stream of
consciousness, a literary technique in which the flow of thoughts of a character is described in
words.
Summary
English literature is a very large body of diverse literature that encompasses works by writers
from the United Kingdom.
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Lesson 24- American Literature
Objectives
 name some well-known American writers of the 19th and 20th centuries and their
works; and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of American Literature.
Who are some of the important American writers during the 19th and 20th centuries?
Why are they important?
What literary forms are prominent in American literature?
Learn about it!
American Literature
American literature refers to all works of literature in English produced in the United States.
The 19th Century

 William Cullen Bryant (1794 - 1878) became famous for “Thanatopsis” (1817). This
poem marked a new beginning for American poetry.
 Washington Irving (1783 - 1859) was known for “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of
Sleepy Hollow,” the first American short stories. They were part of his work The Sketch
Book, the first American work to become successful internationally.
 Edgar Allan Poe (1809 - 1849) became famous for his macabre stories like “The Fall of
the House of Usher” (1839) and “The Cask of Amontillado” (1846). Also, he wrote “The
Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1841), the first detective story, and the poem “Raven”
(1845), with which he achieved instant fame.
 Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 - 1864) became known for his symbolical tales like “The
Hollow of the Three Hills” (1830) and “Young Goodman Brown” (1835). Also, he wrote
the gothic romance The Scarlet Letter (1850).
 Walt Whitman (1819 - 1892) became well-known for Leaves of Grass, first published in
1855. In this poetry collection, Whitman showed the experiences of the common man.
 Emily Dickinson (1830 - 1886) wrote odd poems. She mostly used the imperfect rhyme
and avoided regular rhythms. A collection of her poems, Poems by Emily Dickinson,
came out in 1890.
The 20th Century
 Robert Frost (1874 - 1963) wrote poems with traditional stanzas and a blank verse, a
verse in iambic pentameter with no rhyme. His poems portray ordinary people in
everyday situations like “Mending Wall,” "The Road Not Taken," and “After Apple-
Picking,” both of which were published in 1914.
 E. E. cummings (1894 - 1962) was known for his unconventional punctuation and
phrasing. His poems were compiled in Complete Poems (1968).
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 Ezra Pound (1885 - 1972) was a leader of the Imagists, who emphasized the use of
direct and sparse language and precise images in writing poetry. Two of his works
are Ripostes (1912) and Lustra (1916).
 Sherwood Anderson (1876 - 1941) wrote prose using everyday speech. His best works
appeared in Winesburg, Ohio (1919) and Death in the Woods (1933).
 Ernest Hemingway (1899 - 1961) was known for his succinct writing, which was widely
imitated. His writing was very straightforward and objective - not verbose and
sentimental. Two of his finest stories are “The Killers” (1927) and “The Short Happy Life
of Francis Macomber” (1936).
 Allen Ginsberg (1926 - 1997) was known for his work “Howl” (1956), a poem with
incantatory rhythms and raw emotion. He was one of the Beat poets, who aimed to
bring poetry back to the streets.
 Anne Sexton (1928 - 1974) became known for her confessional poetry, a kind of poetry
that deals with the private experiences of the speaker. Her work Live or Die(1966) won
a Pulitzer Prize.
Summary
American literature is a rich body of literature. It refers to all works of literature in English
published in the United States, which has produced many great writers through the centuries.
Lesson 25- European Literature
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Objectives
 name some writers and their literary works under European Literature, and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of the literature it belongs.
What are some literary pieces included in European Literature?

Who are some of the major writers in each literature?
What important works did they produce?
Learn about it!
European Literature, also called Western Literature, refers to literature in the Indo-European
languages including Latin, Greek, the Romance languages, and Russian. It is considered as
the largest body of literature in the world.
Latin Literature
 Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 BCE–43 BCE) was the greatest Roman orator. The first
part of the Golden Age of Latin Literature (70 BC–AD 18) is named after him, the
Ciceronian period (70–43 BC). Using Latin as a literary medium, he was able to express
abstract and complicated thoughts clearly in his speeches. One of his well-known
speeches is Pro Cluentio.
 Virgil (70 BCE–19 BCE), the greatest Roman poet, was known for Aeneid, an epic
poem. He wrote it during the Augustan Age (43 BC–AD 18), the second part of the
Golden Age.
Greek Literature
 Homer is known for the The Iliad and the The Odyssey. These epics are about the
heroic achievements of Achilles and Odysseus, respectively.
 Sophocles (496 BC–406 BC) was a tragic playwright. He was known for Oedipus the
King, which marks the highest level of achievement of Greek drama.
Italian Literature
 Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch (1304–1374) perfected the Italian sonnet, a major

influence on European poetry. Written in the vernacular, his sonnets were published in
the Canzoniere.
 Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) is known for Decameron, a classic Italian
masterpiece. The stories were written in the vernacular.
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Spanish Literature
 Two well-known Spanish writers of Siglo De Oro (1500–1681) are Miguel de Cervantes
(1547–1616) and Lope de Vega (1562–1635).
 Miguel de Cervantes was known for his novel Don Quixote, one of the most widely
read works of Western Literature. Its titular character’s name is the origin of the word
“quixotic,” meaning hopeful or romantic in a way that is not practical.
 Lope de Vega, an outstanding dramatist, wrote as many as 1800 plays during his
lifetime, including cloak and sword drama, which are plays of upper middle class
manners and intrigue.
French Literature
 Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880), a novelist, was a major influence on the realist school.

His masterpiece, Madame Bovary (1857), marked the beginning of a new age of
realism.
 Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893) is considered as the greatest French short story
writer. A Naturalist, he wrote objective stories which present a real “slice of life.”
Russian Literature
 Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) is known for his novels War and Peace (1865–1869)

and Anna Karenina (1875–1877). A master of realistic fiction, he is considered as one
of the world’s greatest novelists.
 Anton Chekhov (1860–1904) is a master of the modern short story and a Russian
playwright. His works such as, "The Bet" and "The Misfortune" reveal his clinical
approach to ordinary life.
Summary
European Literature refers to literatures in the Indo-European languages. It is considered as

the largest body of literature in the world.
Lesson 26- Latin American Literature
Objectives
 name some well-known Latin American writers of the 20th century and their works, and
 analyze two selected literary works representative of the period.
What is Latin American literature?

Who are some well-known Latin American writers of the 20th Century and what did they write?
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Latin American Literature
Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries like
Chile, Argentina, Mexico, Cuba, Guatemala, Colombia, and Peru.
The Vanguardia
 The Vanguardia (avant-garde in English) took place in Latin America between

approximately 1916 and 1935. It collectively referred to different literary movements.
Four of those were the following:
o Creacionismo, founded by Vicente Huidobro (1893–1948), a Chilean poet, in
1916
o Ultraismo, introduced to South America by Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), an
Argentine writer, in 1921
o Estridentismo, founded in Mexico City by Manuel Maples Arce (1898–1981), a
Mexican writer, in 1921
o Surrealism, which is said to have started in Argentina when the Argentinian
poet Aldo Pellegrini (1903–1973) launched the first Surrealist magazine in 1928
 Surrealism, an art form that combines unrelated images or events in a very strange
and dreamlike way, became a major influence in Latin American Literature throughout
the 20th century.
 Pablo Neruda (1904–1973), a Chilean poet, wrote Residence on Earth (1933), a
collection of poetry inspired by surrealism.
 Octavio Paz (1914–1998), a Mexican poet, wrote poems with surrealist imagery. His
major works were published in Freedom Under Parole (1960).
 Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986) was known for his fantastic stories, published later as
a collection entitled Ficciones (1944).
 Alejo Carpentier (1904–1980), a Cuban writer, wrote The Kingdom of This
World(1949), a novel of the magic realism genre, in which elements of fantasy or myth
are included matter-of-factly in seemingly realistic fiction.
 Miguel Angel Asturias (1899–1974), a Guatemalan writer, wrote the novel The
President (1946). This novel along with Carpentier’s novel introduced magic realism.
The Boom Novels

These were essentially modernist novels, which appeared in the second half of the 20th
century. They had features that were different or absent from the works of the regionalist
writers of the past. (Regionalist writers were those that used local color, which refers to
interesting information about a particular place or its people.)
The boom novels were the following:
 The Death of Artemio Cruz (1962) by Carlos Fuentes (1928–2012), a Mexican writer

 Hopscotch (1963) by Julio Cortazar (1914–1984), an Argentine fictionist
 The Time of the Hero (1963) by Mario Vargas Llosa, a Peruvian writer
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 One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1927–2014), a
Colombian fictionist
“Post-Boom” Writers
These writers included a host of women who published works in the last twenty years of the
20th century. Three of them were Isabel Allende, a Chilean writer who wrote The House of
Spirits (1982); Diamela Eltit, a Chilean writer who wrote E. Luminata(1983); and Luisa
Valenzuela, an Argentine writer who wrote Black Novel with Argentines (1990).
Summary
Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries. The
20th century saw some of its best writers.
Lesson 27- Asian Literature

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Objectives
 name some major works and their writers in three major national literatures of Asian
literature, namely, Chinese, Japanese, and Indian, and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of the literature it belongs.
What is Asian literature?

What are some of the major works in Chinese, Japanese, and Indian literatures and who wrote
them?
Learn about it!
Asian Literature
 Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia.
Chinese Literature
 This body of works is in Chinese. It has more than 50 000 published works in a wide
range of topics.
 Du Fu (712–770) is considered as China’s greatest poet. He was known for his works of
lüshi. A lüshi has eight lines, each of which has five or seven syllables following a strict
tonal pattern. It became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), the
golden age of art and literature in Chinese history.
 Li Bai (701–762), also called Li Po, rivaled Du Fu for the title of China’s greatest poet.
Unlike Du Fu, he wrote less formal verse forms. A famous drinker, he frequently
celebrated drinking in his poetry.
Japanese Literature
 This body of works is mostly in Japanese, except the early writings which were written
in Chinese.
 Kakinomoto Hitomaro, Japan’s first literary figure, was known for his works of tanka
and chōka. The tanka, the basic form of Japanese poetry, has five lines in five-seven-
five-seven-seven syllable pattern. On the other hand, the chōka has alternating lines of
five and seven syllables and ends with an extra line of seven syllables. Having no
definite length, it can have from seven lines to 150. Hitomaro’s works were included
in Man’yōshū, the oldest anthology of Japanese poetry which was produced during the
Nara Period (710–784).
 Matsuo Bashō (16441694) was regarded as the supreme haiku poet. Emerged from
the early Tokugawa period (16031770), the haiku is composed of three lines with five-
seven-five syllable pattern. It originated from the hokku, the first three lines of a renga, a
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poem usually with a hundred linked verses. Bashō’s verses appear with his travel
accounts like The Narrow Road to the Deep North (1694).
Indian Literature
 This body of works is produced in India in a variety of vernacular languages like
Sanskrit, Hindi, Punjabi, Tamil, and Urdu.
 The Mahabharata is an Indian epic written in Sanskrit. It is the longest poem in history
with about 100 000 couplets. It is traditionally ascribed to an Indian sage named Vyasa.
The Hindus regard the epic as both a text about dharma (the Hindu moral law) and a
history. Bhagavadgītā, the most celebrated of its episodes, gives spiritual guidance.
 The Ramayana is another Indian epic in Sanskrit. The sage Valmiki was traditionally
regarded as its author. It is shorter than Mahabharata, with some 24 000 couplets.
 The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian animal fables. Originally written in Sanskrit, it
is a mixture of prose and verse. The stories are attributed to Vishnusharman, a learned
Brahmin.
Summary
Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia, which
includes the Chinese, Japanese, and Indian literatures.
Lesson 28- African Literature
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Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to name some well-known African writers in
English and their works.
What is African literature?

Who are some of the African writers in English?
What did they write about?
Learn about it!
In this lesson, you will learn about some well-known African writers in English and their works.
African Literature
The literary works of African writers in English are part of the African literature. This body of
works refers to the ones not only produced in Afro-Asiatic and African languages, but also to
those works by Africans in English, French, and other European languages.
A few of the common themes in the works of African writers are the oppression of African
people by the colonizers, the European influences on the native African culture, racial
discrimination, and pride in African past and resilience.
Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) – This Nigerian writer was known for his novel Things Fall
Apart (1958), considered as the best known African novel of the 20th century. It deals with
emergent Africa, where native communities, like Achebe’s Igbo community, came in contact
with white missionaries and its colonizers. The novel is the first in sometimes called The
African Trilogy. It was followed by No Longer at Ease, published in 1960, and then Arrow of
God in 1964.
Wole Soyinka – This Nigerian writer received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986, becoming
the first black African to receive such award. As a playwright, he wrote the satire A Dance of
the Forests (1963), his first important play that depicts the traditions of his people, the Yoruba.
It was staged in 1960 during the Nigerian independence celebrations. Also, he wrote fiction
and poetry.
Example
“The Telephone Conversation” by Wole Soyinka
Wole Soyinka’s poem “The Telephone Conversation” first appeared in his collection Modern
Poetry from Africa (1963). As the title suggests, the poem is about a telephone conversation
between an African man and a white woman. Considering to rent the apartment owned by the
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white woman, the African man confesses, saying “I hate a wasted journey—I am African.”
Then as the conversation goes, the woman shows her true colors. She asks, “HOW DARK?”
then follows it up with another question, “ARE YOU LIGHT/ OR VERY DARK.” Then asks
again, “ARE YOU DARK? OR VERY LIGHT?” Then the African man clarifies the question,
saying “You mean—like plain or milk chocolate?” Then he settles on this response “West
African sepia... Down in my passport.” Perhaps, out of ignorance, the woman says that she
does not know the color. To simplify, the African man says, “Like brunette.” Confirming what
she already thinks about the African man, the woman says “THAT’S DARK, ISN’T IT?”
Towards the end of the poetry, the African man tries to describe the colors of the different
parts of his body to the woman. The poem ends with an invitation from the African man for the
white woman, saying “Madam . . . wouldn’t you rather/ see for yourself?”
Nadine Gordimer (1923–2014) – This South African writer received the Nobel Prize for
Literature in 1991. She was known for her works that dealt with the effects of apartheid on her
country. Apartheid was a system in which people of color had less political and economic
rights than that of the white people, so the former was forced to live separately from the latter.
An ardent opponent of such system, she wrote novels that focused on the oppression of
nonwhite characters like A World of Strangers (1958), The Late Bourgeois
World (1966), Burger’s Daughter (1979), and July’s People (1981), all of which were banned in
her country.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie – This Nigerian writer is known for her widely-acclaimed
novels Purple Hibiscus (2003), Half of a Yellow Sun (2006), and Americanah (2013), all of
which won awards. The story of Purple Hibiscus is told through a fifteen-year-old girl named
Kambili as she together with her family endured domestic violence in the hands of her father.
The story of Half of a Yellow Sun took place during the Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War
(1967–1970). Lastly, Americanah tells the story of a young Nigerian woman that came to the
US to study and to stay for work.
Example:
“A Private Experience” by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
“A Private Experience” is one of the short stories in the author’s collection The Thing Around
Your Neck published in 2009. It tells the story of two women, one named Chika and the other
unnamed. Chika is an Igbo, one of the largest ethnic groups of Africa, and an outward
Christian (she wears a rosary that her mother gave her, but she does not pray or believe in
God). On the other hand, the unnamed woman is a Hausa, another large African ethnic group,
and a devout Muslim. They cross paths during a riot at a market in the city of Kano, northern
Nigeria. Both confused and scared, they ran away from the market and hid in a small,
abandoned store. Stuck together, the two women start to talk and eventually learn more things
about each other. Chika tells the woman that her sister Nnedi was with her at the market and
that they are both university students. She learns that the woman sells onions for a living. The
two women become closer when the woman shows Chika her breasts with cracked nipples.
Chika, who is studying medicine, examines the breasts and learns that the woman has just
had her fifth child. She then advises the woman to rub some lotion on her nipples after feeding
her baby and to put the nipple and the areola into the baby’s mouth while it feeds. The
woman’s eldest daughter, Halima, was at the bus stop selling groundnuts when the confusion
began. At the mention of her daughter’s name, the woman cries. As she wipes her tears away,
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she says, “Allah keep your sister and Halima in safe place.” After more than three hours, Chika
ventures out into the street to go home, anxious to see her sister and her auntie. She leaves
the woman and promises to come back for her and her daughter. However, when she sees
and smells a recently burned body in the street, she gets terrified and runs back to the small
store, accidentally cutting her leg. The woman at the store cleans the wound and wraps it with
her scarf. Chika stays there with the woman until morning when it is safe to leave the store.
Explanation:
In different parts of the narrative, the narrator gives a brief glimpse of what happens in the
future. For instance, after Chika shuts the windows of the small store where she and the
unnamed woman are hiding, the narrator tells the reader what Chika will find out eventually—
that Chika will see the burned cars and will learn that the riot started when some Muslims
chopped off an Igbo man’s head for driving over a Koran with his car. Another instance is that
after Chika mentions her sister’s name to the woman, the narrator tells the reader what Chika
will later do—that Chika will go to hospital mortuaries to look for her sister, but she will never
find her.
Summary
Literary works by African writers in English like Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Chimamanda
Adichie, and Nadine Gordimer are part of African literature, a body of works produced in
Afro-Asiatic and African languages as well as those made by Africans in English, French, and
other European languages.
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UNIT IV- BASIC TEXTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL READING APPROACHES
Lesson 29- Figures of Speech
Objective
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At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the different figures of speech.
What are figures of speech?

Why do literary writers use figures of speech?
Learn about it!
Figures of Speech
Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or phrases that
express meanings in a nonliteral way. These expressions are often used for comparison and
for conveying emotion.
Literary writers use figures of speech to enhance the artistic quality of their works. Figures of
speech bring vividness and liveliness to the work, and they also emphasize the message that
the writer wants to convey. The use of these expressions also allows readers to feel a
connection with the literary work by sparking their imagination and arousing their emotions.
There are numerous figures of speech, and these can be classified into different categories.
Among these categories are the following:
 Figures of relationship
 Figures of emphasis
 Figures of sound
Figures of Relationship
Figures of relationship include simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche.
 Simile
A simile compares two unlike things with a common quality. The comparison is done
using words such as like or as.
Example:
O my Luve's like a red, red rose,
That's newly sprung in June;
–from "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns
Explanation:
The persona in the poem compares his love to a red rose that blooms in springtime.
 Metaphor
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A metaphor is a comparison that is done by stating that one thing is another in order to
suggest their similarity or shared qualities.
Example:
Trees are poems the earth writes upon the sky.
–Khalil Gibran
Explanation:
In the given quote, trees are likened to poems, and the comparison does not use words
such as like or as.
 Metonymy
Metonymy refers to using a thing or idea that is not referred to by its own name but by
a different one, a name of something with which it is closely associated.
Example:
I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it seceded or it would have
ruined the Christmas parties.
–from Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell
Explanation:
In the given line, Georgia is not used to refer to the place or state but rather the people
making up the state: its citizens and government officials.
 Synecdoche
A synecdoche uses a part of something to represent the whole or the whole to

represent a part.
Example:
His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of
anxious faces about her.
–from "The Lady, or the Tiger?" by Frank Stockton
Explanation:
The word faces is used to refer to people.
Figures of Emphasis
Among the common figures of emphasis are hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox.
 Hyperbole
Hyperbole uses intentional exaggeration to achieve emphasis or produce a comic

effect.
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Example:
I had to wait in the station for ten days–an eternity.
–from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad
Explanation:
The use of the word eternity to describe a wait of ten days is an exaggeration. It simply
emphasizes that the persona feels that he waited for so long.
 Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a word or a combination of words with contradictory meanings, as

in bittersweet and open secret.
Example:
Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!
O anything, of nothing first create!
–from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
Explanation:
The phrase loving hate is an oxymoron, as it makes use of two contradictory terms.
 Paradox
A paradox is a statement that appears to hold contradictory ideas but may actually be
true.
Example:
The Child is father of the Man.
–from "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold" by William Wordsworth
Explanation:
The given statement may appear silly at first, but what it conveys is that the experiences
of the child shape who he/she becomes and how he/she acts as an adult.
Figures of Sound
Among the figures of sound are alliteration and onomatopoeia.
 Alliteration
Alliteration refers to the use of closely spaced words that have the same initial sounds.
Example:
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before
–from "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe
Explanation:
The neighboring words doubting, dreaming, dreams, dared, and dream begin with
the d sound, giving the line a musical quality.
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 Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sound of what they are referring to.
Example:
ARIEL:
Hark, hark!
Bow-wow.
The watch-dogs bark!
Bow-wow.
Hark, hark! I hear
The strain of strutting chanticleers
Cry, ‘cock-a-diddle-dow!’
–from The Tempest by William Shakespeare
Explanation:
The words bow-wow and cock-a-diddle-dow are examples of onomatopoeia, as they are
animal sounds.
Key Points
 Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or phrases that
express meanings in a nonliteral way.
 Figures of relationship include simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche.
 Some figures of emphasis are hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox.
 Among the figures of sound are alliteration and onomatopoeia.
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Lesson 31- Literary Techniques
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify different literary techniques.
What are literary techniques?

Why do writers use literary techniques?
Learn about it!
Literary Techniques
 Literary techniques or devices refer to specific methods writers employ in their works

to convey messages. Readers, on the other hand, look for several literary techniques
when examining or analyzing a text or simply evaluating a text’s artistic value.
 Keep in mind that literary techniques or devices are different from literary elements.
Literary elements are essential to a narrative as writers make use of these components
to serve as the structure of and to develop a story. These elements refer to the plot,
setting, characters, point of view, and theme, among others.
Here are some literary techniques that writers make use of in their works.
Anaphora
Anaphora, sometimes called epanaphora, refers to the repetition of a word or phrase

at the beginning of a sentence to create an artistic or heightened effect. It adds rhythm to a
particular line or paragraph, making it easier to memorize or remember. Anaphora is also used
for emphasis or to stir emotions among the audience.
Example:
Hamlet (An Excerpt)
By William Shakespeare
'Tis a fault to heaven,

A fault against the dead, a fault to nature
To reason most absurd. . . .
(Hamlet by Shakespeare, Act 1 Scene 2)
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Explanation:
The line above was delivered by Claudius while talking to Hamlet. Claudius was trying to
convince his nephew to end his mourning for his father, emphasizing that it is “a fault” against
heaven, the dead, and nature to do so since death is inevitable.
Antihero
An antihero is a fictional character who does not possess the traits, such as pride and
valor, expected of a hero. Often, antiheroes are portrayed as foolish and usually find
themselves in mischief.
Example:
Don Quixote (An Excerpt)
By Miguel Cervantes
One of those, however, that stood near him, fancying he was mocking them, lifted up a long
staff he had in his hand and smote him such a blow with it that Sancho dropped helpless to the
ground. Don Quixote, seeing him so roughly handled, attacked the man who had struck him
lance in hand, but so many thrust themselves between them that he could not avenge him. Far
from it, finding a shower of stones rained upon him, and crossbows and muskets unnumbered
levelled at him, he wheeled Rocinante round and, as fast as his best gallop could take him,
fled from the midst of them, commending himself to God with all his heart to deliver him out of
this peril, in dread every step of some ball coming in at his back and coming out at his breast,
and every minute drawing his breath to see whether it had gone from him.
Explanation:
The passage above shows that Don Quixote, despite considering himself as a knight-errant, is
a coward. Instead of helping his squire Sancho from the mob, he fled to save himself.
Cliff-hanger
Cliff-hanger is a literary technique used by the author to arouse curiosity among
readers by ending a chapter or story abruptly. Most of the time, the characters are confronted
with a difficult or an unsettling situation. Instead of providing a resolution, the author would end
it. Furthermore, this technique is often found in serialized works. Writers utilize cliff-hangers in
their works to keep the readers focused and interested as to what will happen next.
Example:
Divergent (An Excerpt)
By Veronica Roth
I turn the gun in my hands and press it into Tobias’s palm.
He pushes the barrel into my forehead. My tears have stopped and the air feels cold as it
touches my cheeks. I reach out and rest my hand on his chest so I can feel his heartbeat. At
least his heartbeat is still him.
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The bullet clicks into the chamber. Maybe it will be as easy to let him shoot me as it was in the
fear landscape, as it is in my dreams. Maybe it will be just a bang, and the lights will lift, and I
will find myself in another world. I stand still and wait.
(Roth, Veronica. Divergent. New York: Katherine Tegen Books, 2011)
Explanation:
The main character Tris Prior was in an intense situation as Tobias, under a simulation, was
about to shoot her. However, the author did not divulge whether Tobias did it or not until the
next chapter.
Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is a technique authors use in their works to compare two different things,
or two contrasting ideas to be able to emphasize their differences, such as good and evil, life
and death, truth and lies, among others. This technique is also used to develop a character,
resolve a conflict, or clarify various concepts.
Example:
The Cask of Amontillado (An Excerpt)
By Edgar Allan Poe
It was about dusk, one evening during the supreme madness of the carnival season, that I
[Montresor] encountered my friend [Fortunato]. He accosted me with excessive warmth, for he
had been drinking much. The man wore motley. He had on a tightfitting parti-striped dress,
and his head was surmounted by the conical cap and bells. I was so pleased to see him, that I
thought I should never have done wringing his hand. . . .
At the most remote end of the crypt there appeared another less spacious. Its walls had been
lined with human remains, piled to the vault overhead, in the fashion of the great catacombs of
Paris. Three sides of this interior crypt were still ornamented in this manner. From the fourth
the bones had been thrown down, and lay promiscuously upon the earth, forming at one point
a mound of some size. Within the wall thus exposed by the displacing of the bones, we
perceived a still interior recess, in depth about four feet, in width three, in height six or
seven. . . .
Explanation:
Edgar Allan Poe used juxtaposition in “The Cask of Amontillado.” In the first paragraph, the
carnival season, including Fortunato’s motley, symbolizes life and merrymaking. Meanwhile,
the catacombs and bones symbolize what would become of Fortunato.
Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing refers to lines or dialogues in a story which give the reader an idea of

what is about to happen without spoiling or explicitly stating the plot’s entirety. When writers
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use this technique, especially in mystery or thriller novels, they provide “red herrings”
(misleading or false clues) to divert the readers’ expectations.
Example:
The Iliad (An Excerpt)
By Homer
Then Thetis spake unto him, shedding tears the while: “Doomed then to a speedy death, my
child, shalt thou be, that thou spakest thus; for straightway after Hector is thine own death
ready at hand."
Explanation:
Achilles was devastated upon learning about Patroclus’ death in the hands of Hector. He
wished to avenge his fallen comrade, but his mother, Thetis, warned him of his impending
death should he kill Hector in battle.
Catharsis
Catharsis is derived from the Greek word katharsis, which means “purification” or

“purgation.” It refers to the emotional release or cleansing of the characters, or audience or
readers, from strong emotions usually brought by learning of the truth or when confronted with
difficult situations. This technique is commonly found in tragedies, such as
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and Sophocles’ Oedipus the King.
Example:
Oedipus the King (An Excerpt)
By Sophocles
Second Messenger:
(. . . .) Guided his footsteps; with a terrible shriek,

As though one beckoned him, he crashed against
The folding doors, and from their staples forced
The wrenched bolts and hurled himself within.
Then we beheld the woman hanging there,
A running noose entwined about her neck.

But when he saw her, with a maddened roar
He loosed the cord; and when her wretched corpse
Lay stretched on earth, what followed—O 'twas dread!
He tore the golden brooches that upheld
Her queenly robes, upraised them high and smote
Full on his eye-balls, uttering words like these:
"No more shall ye behold such sights of woe,
Deeds I have suffered and myself have wrought;
Henceforward quenched in darkness shall ye see
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Those ye should ne'er have seen; now blind to those
Whom, when I saw, I vainly yearned to know."
Explanation:
The excerpt above pertains to the scene where it was revealed that Oedipus married his
mother Jocasta and killed his father Laius. Upon learning of the truth, Jocasta committed
suicide while Oedipus thrust his mother’s golden brooches into his eyes, thus causing him to
become blind.
Stream of Consciousness
Stream of consciousness, sometimes referred to as interior monologue, is a literary

technique that is usually associated with Modern writers. The plot is developed based on the
characters’ reminiscence or recollection of events and thought fragments. Instead of using
dialogues to show the characters’ reaction or emotion, writers make use of stream of
consciousness to show each character’s complex nature. More so, readers are taken into the
depths of the characters’ mind and witness how these characters process their thoughts when
faced with a particular situation or emotion.
Example:
Mrs. Dalloway (An Excerpt)
By Virginia Woolf
Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself. . . .
For Lucy had her work cut out for her. The doors would be taken off their hinges;
Rumpelmayer's men were coming. And then, thought Clarissa Dalloway, what a morning--
fresh as if issued to children on a beach.
What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little squeak of
the hinges, which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows and plunged at
Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the
early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of
eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as she did, standing there at the open window, that
something awful was about to happen; looking at the flowers, at the trees with the smoke
winding off them and the rooks rising, falling; standing and looking until Peter Walsh said,
"Musing among the vegetables?"--was that it?--"I prefer men to cauliflowers"--was that it? . . .
Explanation:
From the passage above, we see how Mrs. Dalloway’s thoughts wandered from present to
past. All these came into her head while she was on her way to buy flowers.
Hamartia
Hamartia, or tragic flaw, is a technique commonly found in Greek tragedies. It refers to

the tragic hero’s error in judgment, which leads to his or her downfall. Most of the time, this
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error is committed unknowingly, such in the case of Oedipus when he killed his father Laius
and married his mother Jocasta. Hamartia is used to have the audience identify themselves
with the protagonist (that he or she has weaknesses too) and to provoke pity because of the
miserable turn of events he or she went through. Additionally, it is used to impart a moral
objective among readers or audience to improve or change for the better so as to avoid the
tragedy that has befallen the protagonist.
Example:
Medea (An Excerpt)
By Euripides
An easy answer had I to this swell

Of speech, but Zeus our father knoweth well,
All I for thee have wrought, and thou for me.
So let it rest. This thing was not to be,
That thou shouldst live a merry life, my bed
Forgotten and my heart uncomforted,
Thou nor thy princess: nor the king that planned
Thy marriage drive Medea from his land,
And suffer not. Call me what thing thou please,
Tigress or Skylla from the Tuscan seas:
My claws have gripped thine heart, and all things shine.
Explanation:
Medea’s hamartia or tragic flaw was her excessive love for Jason, who left her and their
children to marry Creon’s daughter, Glauce. This led Medea to cast her revenge to Glauce,
poisoning her, and to kill their children as she knew how greatly it would hurt Jason.
Summary
Writers make use of literary techniques or devices to convey messages or to simply add an
artistic value to a text. Readers look for these techniques to help them analyze or interpret a
specific body of work.
Some of the literary techniques are anaphora, antihero, cliff-

hanger, juxtaposition, foreshadowing, stream of consciousness, catharsis,
and hamartia.
Lesson 32- Literary Reading through a Biographical Context
Objective
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At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze a literary text through a biographical
context.
What is a biographical context?

How do we analyze a literary text through its biographical context?
Learn about it!
Biographical Context
 A biographical context refers to the author’s life and the factors that influenced and
shaped it, such as social, political, and economic conditions during his or her time. This
also includes his or her educational background, religion, ethnicity, among others. When
you read based on a biographical context, you employ a biographical criticism.
 In analyzing a text based on its biographical context, you should consider not only how
the factors mentioned earlier have caused an impact to the author, but also how these
factors were reflected in, and have helped shape, his or her work(s).
 It is important to take into consideration the literary background of the author. You must
research about who and which the author reads as these may have also influenced him
or her and his or her work(s).
However, one should not mistake a biographical analysis from a biography. Remember that
when you analyze a text based on the biographical context, you gather information about the
author’s life as it can help you understand some difficult concepts or extract profound
meanings in an author’s work. Moreover, a biographical analysis helps you understand the
relationship of the author and his or her work(s), not produce a detailed account of his or her
life–thus, a biography. Literature, aside from being form of expression, can be based on real or
orchestrated events. These events included by the author in his or her work(s) are sometimes
different from what really transpired in real life. Sometimes these events are a reimagination,
exaggeration, or wishful thinking.
Example:
Manuel E. Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” is a story told through
Baldo’s, Leon’s brother, point of view. He narrated how Leon brought his soon-to-be wife,
Maria, in their hometown (Nagrebcan, La Union) to meet his family. To analyze this story, let
us first consider some facts about Arguilla:
 Arguilla was born on June 17, 1911 in Bauang, La Union to Crisanto Arguilla and
Margarita Estabillo.
 He was the fourth child and his family owned a small piece of land in their town.
 He was married to Lydia Villanueva, who was from Ermita, Manila.
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Explanation:
Based on the facts presented above, we can infer that Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon
Brought Home a Wife” was a creative retelling of how his then girlfriend Lydia Villanueva met
his folks in La Union. Moreover, Maria fondly calls Leon “Noel,” which also reads as Leon in a
reverse manner or simply referring to the author since his first name was “Manuel.”
The Ilocano culture of calling an older woman or man manang or manong respectively was

also evident. Additionally, this story was published during the American occupation in the
country. Since the country as a whole was transgressing from its conservative roots, not to
mention that the English language was widely used then (which also lacks words to describe
an elder sibling such as ate or kuya), perhaps this was Arguilla’s way of preserving his Ilocano
upbringing.
Summary
Reading through a biographical context entails that readers understand the text better upon
learning about the author’s life. Keep in mind that even when engaging in a biographical
criticism, your interpretation must still come from how the text made an impact on you.
Analyzing a text based on the biographical context adds substance to that “impact” and does
not distort it.
Lesson 33- Literary Reading through a Linguistic Context
Objective
80
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to survey the English language situation in
Philippine Literature in English during the American Colonial Period of the Philippines.
How did the Filipino writers in English during the American Colonial Period of the Philippines
handle English in their writing?
How successful are the Filipino writers in infusing Filipino sensibilities in their works?
Learn about it!
English is a legacy of the American colonization of the Philippines. In this lesson, you will see
how Filipino writers were able to use English to create a new body of Philippine literature.
The English Language Situation during the American Colonial Period (1898–1945)
In 1901, the Americans established public education in the Philippines with English as the
medium of instruction. This exposed Filipino writers to Anglo-American literature, culture, and
ways of looking at the world. Hence, a period of apprenticeship in the development of a new
body of literature took place. The period of apprenticeship (1910–1935) was characterized by
writers imitating Western writers. The succeeding “period of emergence” (1935–1945) saw
writers gaining full command of English and finally giving shape to what is now the Philippine
Literature in English.
Example 1:
Dead Stars (An Excerpt)
By Paz Marquez-Benitez
Under straight recalcitrant hair, a thin face with a satisfying breadth of forehead, slow,
dreamer's eyes, and astonishing freshness of lips--indeed Alfredo Salazar's appearance
betokened little of exuberant masculinity; rather a poet with wayward humor, a fastidious artist
with keen, clear brain.
Explanation:
“Dead Stars” (1925) by Paz Marquez-Benitez is considered as the first modern Philippine short
story in English for its maturity in subject and language. The prose is rich, a characteristic
found in Western literature, which is often verbose and elaborate. It uses deep words and
figures of speech (e.g., “recalcitrant hair”). The sentence is quite long; the author plays with the
language, creating a more vivid characterization of Alfredo.
Example 2:
How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife (An Excerpt)
By Manuel E. Arguilla
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She stepped down from the carretela of Ca Celin with a quick, delicate grace. She was lovely.
She was tall. She looked up to my brother with a smile, and her forehead was on a level with
his mouth.
"You are Baldo," she said and placed her hand lightly on my shoulder. Her nails were long, but
they were not painted. She was fragrant like a morning when papayas are in bloom. And a
small dimple appeared momently high on her right cheek. "And this is Labang of whom I have
heard so much." She held the wrist of one hand with the other and looked at Labang, and
Labang never stopped chewing his cud. He swallowed and brought up to his mouth more cud
and the sound of his insides was like a drum.
Explanation:
In “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” (1941), Arguilla writes in a simple and very
fluid language, which is easy for the readers to follow. He used simple figures of speech (e.g.,
“fragrant like a morning when papayas are in bloom”). He also used borrowed Spanish words
to express meanings more accurately. For example, he used “carretela of Ca Celin” instead of
“Mr. Celine’s carriage.” It places the story in a rural setting and gives it a distinct native quality.
Tip
Check the period that a literary work belongs to in order to understand the language used in
the text.
Key Points
The American Colonial Period (1898–1945) saw the birth of Philippine Literature in English.
The "period of apprenticeship" is characterized by Filipino writers following Western writers.
Then the short story “Dead Stars” by Paz Marquez-Benitez, with its maturity in subject and
language, made its mark as the first modern Filipino short story in English. The succeeding
“period of emergence” saw writers like Manuel Arguilla gain full command of English to
express the Filipino sensibility.
Context – This is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s
life, language, society, and culture.
Figure of Speech – This word or phrase has a different meaning from its literal meaning.
Setting – This refers to the time and place where the events in a story take place.
Lesson 34- Literary Reading through a Sociocultural Context
Objective
82
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify and examine the sociocultural context
in the works of two major Filipino writers, Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez.
What did Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez write about mostly?

How did they present the Filipino in their works?
Learn about it!
Bienvenido Santos (1911–1996) became an exile twice. In 1941, he was studying in

the US on government scholarship when the Japanese attacked Manila in December; he was
cut off from his family. During that time, he wrote stories that later on appeared in his short
story collections You, Lovely People (1955), The Day the Dancers Came (1967), and Scent of
Apples (1979). He was only able to return to the country in February 1946. Then in 1972, he
was with his wife Beatriz in San Francisco when President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial
law. His novel The Praying Man (1982), which is about the political corruption of the
government, was banned by the government. From 1973 to 1982, he was a writer-in-residence
at Wichita State University. In 1976, he became a US citizen. He returned to the Philippines for
a visit in 1981.
Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez (1915–1999), simply known as “N. V. M.,” became a

Rockefeller Foundation fellow in 1948 and attended Stanford University in California and
Columbia University in New York City. In 1950, he returned to the country and began his
teaching career. Then he went back to California in the 1960s to teach and stayed there until
1983. Despite those travels, though, he never gave up his citizenship. Throughout his teaching
career, he produced fourteen books, including the short story collections Children of the Ash-
Covered Loam (1954) and The Bread of Salt and Other Stories (1993). He received many
awards for his achievements including the National Artist of Literature in 1997.
Example 1:
“Immigration Blues”
by Bienvenido Santos
“Immigration Blues” tells the story of Alipio Palma, a Filipino old-timer and a naturalized
American citizen. A widower, he lived alone in an apartment in San Francisco. One day during
the summertime, two women came to his home. The women were Antonietta Zafra and her
sister Monica. Antonietta introduced herself to Alipio as the wife of Carlito. At the mention of
the name of his old buddy, Alipio became familiar. In their conversation, he talked about his
late wife Seniang. One of his fond memories of her is when he came home to see her wearing
his jacket and slippers. Also, she went to see him in his apartment and asked him without
hesitation to marry her. She had to marry an American citizen like Alipio at that time so that
she could stay in the country. In return, she would take care of him. At first, Alipio was not
interested. Eventually, he agreed to marry her. By doing so, he thought that he would become
83
more sensible with his time and money and that he would be happier, and he would live
longer.
For the same reason as Alipio’s late wife, Antonietta and her sister Monica came to see Alipio.
At first, it was only Antonietta who was working on Alipio for Monica. She was dropping hints
during their conversation. The most obvious one was when Alipio was telling the two women
how he and Carlito had impressed women before with their gallantry and that they were “fools
on fire.” Antonietta responded with less subtlety by saying, “I’m sure you still got some of that
fire.” From that moment, Monica took her turn to work on Alipio herself. The story ends with
Antonietta leaving Alipio and Monica alone to go to a nearby grocery store for their dinner.
 In 1977, the short story won the best fiction award given by New Lettersmagazine. In
1980, it was included in Scent of Apples, published by the University of Washington
Press. The next year, Santos won the American Book Award for that collection from
Before Columbus Foundation.
Example 2:
“The Tomato Game”
by N. V. M. Gonzalez
“The Tomato Game” is written in an epistolary style. The narrator, a lecturer at a university
called Transpacifica University in the US, is writing to a man named Greg. In the letter, he tells
about a colleague named Sophio Arimuhanan, whom he refers to as Sopi, and his modus
operandi. Sopi calls himself “Importer-Exporter of Brides,” that is, he makes arrangements for
people who wanted to get married. He is called “Attorney,” but he is not legally allowed to
practice law. One Sunday in the summertime, the narrator and Sopi went to a tomato farm. At
first the narrator thought they were going to watch a cockfight, but he soon found out that they
were meeting an old man whom Sopi referred to as “Lolo.” This old man was arranged by Sopi
to marry a young Filipina named Alice. In their arrangement, the old man would take Alice as
his wife and some young man named Tony as his nephew. Then the old man would send
Tony to school. Hearing about the arrangement made the narrator angry. Later on, when the
narrator realized his role in Sopi’s scheme, he felt terrible. As hinted by Sopi, he would need
the narrator’s help as he was a lecturer at Transpacifica. The old man had already paid eight
hundred dollars for Tony’s tuition in advance. Towards the end of the letter, the narrator tells
Greg what Sopi said to him when they left the farm. Sopi said, “To think that that old man
hasn’t even met the boy.”
 In 1972, the short story “The Tomato Game” won the first prize in the Carlos Palanca
Memorial Awards for Literature. In 1993, the short story was published along with other
works in the collection The Bread of Salt and Other Stories.
Explanation:
Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez presented different facets of the Filipino immigrant
experience. In “Immigrant Blues,” Santos portrayed a lonely old-timer who wanted a
companion and a woman who chose to marry an old-timer out to avoid deportation. In “The
Tomato Game,” Gonzalez portrayed Filipinos trying to make it in the US. One is a lecturer who
84
regrets to be part of a scheme that deceives an unsuspecting old man, while another, an
unlicensed lawyer, deceives people for a living.
Tip
Society and culture strongly influence a writer’s work. To understand the text better then,
identify its sociocultural context.
Key Point
Context is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s life,
language, society, and culture.
Lesson 35- Critical Reading Strategies in Literature
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explore and apply different reading strategies
in literature.
85
What is critical reading?
Why is it important?
What are the different critical reading strategies in literature?
Learn about it!
Critical Reading
Critical reading has an academic or professional purpose. Unlike reading for pleasure, it
requires critical thinking skills like doing analysis, developing an argument, and doing an
evaluation.
Critical reading strategies in literature vary in purpose and focus.
Previewing a Text
Previewing a text enables a reader to get the sense of what the text is all about and how its
parts are organized. A reader can take a look at the facts about the author and the work and
the title of the work.
Example:
Consider the book Tales from the Jazz Age by F. Scott Fitzgerald. You can find out more
about the Jazz Age and F. Scott Fitzgerald. By checking the Table of Contents, you can see
how the author classifies the stories and what inspired him to write each one.
TALES FROM THE JAZZ AGE
BY :F. SCOTT FITZGERALD, 1922
A TABLE OF CONTENTS
FANTASIES
THE DIAMOND AS BIG AS THE RITZ.
These next stories are written in what, were I of imposing stature, I should call my "second
manner." "The Diamond as Big as the Ritz," which appeared last summer in the "Smart Set,"
was designed utterly for my own amusement. I was in that familiar mood characterized by a
perfect craving for luxury, and the story began as an attempt to feed that craving on imaginary
foods.
One well-known critic has been pleased to like this extravaganza better than anything I have
written. Personally, I prefer "The Offshore Pirate." But, to tamper slightly with Lincoln: If you
like this sort of thing, this, possibly, is the sort of thing you'll like.
86
Contextualizing
Contextualizing a text is considering the time and place in which the text was produced.
A reader can read about the writer’s life to see how his or her experiences shape the writing.
Also, a reader can examine how a text reflects the society or culture. Lastly, a reader can
consider the significant events in history that influence the text.
Example:
Again, consider the book Tales from the Jazz Age by F. Scott Fitzgerald. As the title suggests,
the stories in the collection were written during the Jazz Age. A reader may consider the
society or culture in that period of time in reading the stories.
Asking Questions
Asking questions about a text allows one to understand and remember the content of a piece
of literature. A reader asks questions about the main ideas or literary elements; and such
questions are answered in his or her own words.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Who are the main characters in the short story?

2. What is the plot of the short story?
3. What is the conflict?
4. What are the theme, motifs, and symbols used by the writer?
Reflecting
Reflecting on a text involves examination of the reader’s personal responses to the text.
The reader relates the new learning to his or her previous learning as well as to his or her own
beliefs.
REFLECTION QUESTIONS
1. Have you had experiences similar to that of the character of the story?
2. What feelings did you have as you read the story?
3. Which character do you feel a connection with and why?
4. Is there any part of the story that you find difficult to understand?
5. How did the story change your way of thinking?
87
Making an Outline and a Summary
Making an outline and a summary of a text involves identifying its important ideas. An outline is
a list of the main ideas and supporting ideas of the text, while a summary is a brief statement
of the most important information of the text.
Evaluating the Argument

Evaluating the argument made in a text involves assessing the validity of its claim and support.
A reader examines the main idea, opinion, or point of view of the writer if it is well supported by
enough credible evidence or proof.
Making a Comparison and Contrast of Related Texts

Making a comparison and contrast of related texts is the strategy of identifying the similarities
and differences between texts of similar issue or approach.
Summary
Critical reading requires different critical thinking skills. In reading a piece of literature

critically, you can preview it, contextualize it, ask questions about it, reflect on it, make an
outline of its ideas and a summary, evaluate its argument, or compare and contrast it with
another text.
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Unit I-21 Literature in Various Regions: Lesson 1 - Philippine Literature During The Precolonial Period

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Unit I-21 Literature in Various Regions: Lesson 1 - Philippine Literature During The Precolonial Period

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UNIT I- 21ST LITERATURE IN VARIOUS

Lesson 1- Philippine Literature during the Precolonial Period

1. Folktale – This is a characteristically anonymous, timeless, and placeless tale

Lesson 2- Philippine Literature during the Spanish Colonial

Francisco Baltazar (1788-1862), the master of traditional Tagalog poetry, became well-known

Pedro Paterno (1857–1911) wrote Sampaguitas y poesias varias (1880), the first poetry

Leona Florentino (1849–1884), known as the “mother of Philippine women’s literature,” was a

Lesson 3- Philippine Literature during the American and the

Notes on the American Occupation

Literary Works Produced

Notes on the Japanese Occupation

Literary Works Produced

Lesson 4- Philippine Literature in the Postwar and Contemporary

May Day Eve by Nick Joaquin, 1947

Lesson 5- Life and Works of Jose Garcia Villa

Jose Garcia Villa (Doveglion)

Jose Garcia Villa as a Poet

 He used the pseudonym Doveglion, which is derived from dove, eagle, lion.

 In analyzing a literary work, make sure that you read it thoroughly and analyze it well.

Lesson 6- Life and Works of Carlos P. Romulo

Lesson 7- Life and Works of Francisco Arcellana

Who is Francisco Arcellana? What are his contributions to Philippine literature?

Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino fictionist who demonstrated his craftsmanship in writing

Lesson 8- Life and Works of Nestor Vicente Madali (N.V.M.)

What are N.V.M. Gonzalez's contributions to the development of Philippine literature?

Learn about it!

Lesson 9- Life and Works of Edith L. Tiempo

Learn about it!

 Below is an excerpt of Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return."

And he would live in the whispers and locked heads.

The themes or messages of the poem are:

 Time is irreversible, and memories can only be remembered and cherished.

Lesson 10- Life and Works of F. Sionil Jose

Learn about it!

F. Sionil Jose's Literary Works

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify the valuable contributions of Virgilio S. Almario to Philippine Literature; and

Who is Virgilio S. Almario?

Masdan ang tagak sa likod ng kalabaw,

At ang mga dekadenteng gansa sa gilid ng lawa,

Hayun ang mga maryakaprang paawit-awit,

At ang mga burukratang unggoy

Naghahari’t matitikas na oso’t agila,

Samantala, matatalinong kuwago’y naghihilik,

Di tulad ng buwayang laging abala

Pero higit na mag-ingat sa hunyango’t ahas

Who is Alejandro R. Roces?

Learn about it!

Alejandro R. Roces as a Filipino Writer

Lesson 13- Life and Works of Bienvenido S. Lumbera

Who is Bienvenido S. Lumbera?

Blessed are the cockroaches.

In this country they are

Friends to dark and filth,

The roaches do not spin,

They settle where they wish

Not knowing dearth or taxes,

Dying is brief and cheap

Their annals may be short,