FINAL THESIS FOR PRINTing

Assessment of quality control on production of hollow concrete block in building
construction (in case of Adigrat city)
Declaration
We declare that this thesis entitled “Assessment of quality control in production of hollow
concrete block in Adigrat city from the beginning of the study period, we actively participate in
all work which is required for this study. We attempted to ask our advisor and other peoples in the
town about our study. Furthermore, we have developed satisfactory skills on research preparation.
Generally this study is our striving result of the stay.
Name of Researcher:
1. ABEL ZENEBE Signature: _________ Date: ___________
2. ROBEL G/EZGHER Signature: _________ Date: ___________
3. SAMSOM GIDEY Signature: _________ Date: ___________
Name of Advisor: Kiflom D (MSc) Signature: _________ Date: ___________
Name of examiners
Examiner 1 Signature: _________ Date: ___________
Examiner 2 Signature: _________ Date: ___________
Department Head Signature: _________ Date: ___________
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management i

Acknowledgements
Above all, we praise Almighty God who has blessed our work with His Mother and for giving us
the health, strength and endurance until this time. In the preparation of this thesis many have
contributed priceless data, idea, as well as moral support. First and foremost, we would like to
thank our advisor, instructor kiflom d (MSc), for his valuable and constructive ideas as well as all
his precious time spent in reviewing and improving the quality of the thesis work. We are deeply
grateful to all who have given us assistance in obtaining the information and data related to this
work. Particular thanks also go to the hollow concrete producers in Adigrat area for their
willingness to provide us with all the necessary data so that the research work could be carried out.
We are also thankful to those people, especially professional Engineers from the contractor and
consultant, who took time out of their busy schedules to fill the questionnaires.
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management ii

Table of Contents
Declaration.................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................................... ii
List of tables................................................................................................................................................ vi
List of figures ............................................................................................................................................. vii
List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ viii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objective of the Research ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 General Objective of the research ........................................................................................ 1
1.2.2. Specific Objective of the research........................................................................................ 2
1.3 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study .............................................................................................. 2
1.6 The Structure of the Thesis .......................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Basic Terminology......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Raw Materials (Ingriendent’s) For HCB Production ................................................................ 6
2.3.1 Portland cement (OPC or PPC) ............................................................................................ 6
2.3.1.1 Physical Properties of Cement ....................................................................................... 6
2.3.1.2 Chemical properties of cement ...................................................................................... 9
2.3.1.3 Types of cement used for hollow concrete blocks production ..................................... 9
2.3.1.3 How to check quality of cement on site? ..................................................................... 10
2.3.1.4 Handling and Storage of Cement ................................................................................ 10
2.3.2 Aggregates ............................................................................................................................ 11
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of aggregates ....................................................................................... 11
2.3.2.2 Classification of aggregates .......................................................................................... 14
2.3.2.3 Deleterious substances in Aggregates .......................................................................... 15
2.3.2.4 Handling and storing of aggregates ............................................................................. 16
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management iii

2.3.3 Water..................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3.1 Quality of mixing water ................................................................................................ 17
2.3.3.2 Effects of mixing water from different sources .......................................................... 18
2.4 Concrete Blocks (Concrete Masonry Units) ............................................................................. 18
2.4.1 Types of Concrete blocks ..................................................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Classifications of hollow concrete blocks ........................................................................... 20
2.4.3 Advantages of hollow concrete blocks ................................................................................ 22
2.4.4 Limitations of application of hollow concrete blocks........................................................ 23
2.4.5 Hollow concrete blocks for wall construction .................................................................... 23
2.4.6 Hollow Concrete Blocks Production Process .............................................................. 24
2.4.6.1 Batching and Mixing ..................................................................................................... 24
2.4.6.2 Placing and Compaction ............................................................................................... 25
2.4.6.3 Moulding ........................................................................................................................ 25
2.4.6.5 Drying............................................................................................................................. 26
2.4.6.6 Surface texture and finish ............................................................................................ 26
2.4.7 Physical Requirements of HCB .......................................................................................... 27
2.5 Quality Control in the Manufacture of Hollow Concrete Blocks ....................................... 30
2.5.1 Objectives of Quality Control ......................................................................................... 31
2.5.2 Types of techniques available in inspection ................................................................... 31
2.5.3 Factors influencing the quality of hollow concrete blocks............................................ 32
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 36
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 36
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 36
3.2 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 36
3.3 Sources of Data and Research Instruments .............................................................................. 37
3.3.1. Primary Data ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.2 Secondary data ..................................................................................................................... 38
3.4 Research Population and Sampling........................................................................................... 38
3.5 Method of Data Analysis: ........................................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................................... 39
4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................... 39
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 39
4.2 Questionnaire Response Rate .................................................................................................... 39
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management iv

4.2.1 Respondent's Position in the Site ........................................................................................ 39
4.2.2 Educational Level of Respondents...................................................................................... 40
4.3 Hollow concrete block production ............................................................................................. 41
4.3.1 Raw materials ....................................................................................................................... 42
4.3.1.1 Cement: .......................................................................................................................... 42
4.3.1.2 Aggregate ....................................................................................................................... 45
4.3.1.3 Water .............................................................................................................................. 47
4.3.2 Production Process ............................................................................................................... 47
4.3.2.1 Batching and Mixing ..................................................................................................... 49
4.3.2.2 Placing and Compaction ............................................................................................... 51
4.3.2.3 Curing ............................................................................................................................ 52
4.3.2.4 Drying............................................................................................................................. 55
4.3.2.5 Surface texture and finish ............................................................................................ 55
4.3.3 Handling and storage of hollow concrete blocks ............................................................... 56
4.3.4 Compressive strength test for Hollow concrete blocks ..................................................... 57
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................. 59
5.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 60
References .................................................................................................................................................. 62
ANNEXE I ................................................................................................................................................. 64
ANNEX II .................................................................................................................................................. 69
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management v

List of tables
Table 1: compressive strength of cement (ES1177-1:2005) ........................................................... 8
Table 2: classification of aggregates based on unit weight ........................................................... 12
Table 3 : Grading requirements for fine aggregates (ES C.D3.201) ............................................ 13
Table 4 Permissible limits for deleterious substances in fine aggregates [ES 81:2001] .............. 16
Table 5: chemical requirement of water for block production (ES 2310:2005) ........................... 17
Table 6: difference between hollow and solid blocks (Global shelter cluster , 2011) .................. 19
Table 7: the nominal dimensions of HCB: (ESC.DC.301) ........................................................... 21
Table 8: the minimum compressive strength for HCB according to ESC D3.301 ....................... 21
Table 9: weight classification of hollow concrete block [ASTM C90-70]................................... 23
Table 10: mix proportions for different class of Hollow concrete blocks .................................... 24
Table 11: Minimum face-shell and web thickness [ASTM C90-70] ............................................ 27
Table 12: Minimum face-shell and web thickness [IS: 2185-1979] ............................................. 27
Table 13: Nominal dimensions of hollow concrete blocks [ES 596:2001] .................................. 27
Table 14 : density classification of concrete masonry units [ES 596:2001] ................................. 28
Table 15 : compressive strength of different class of blocks at 28 days ....................................... 29
Table 16 : Comprehensive strength of hollow concrete blocks [IS: 2185-1979] ......................... 29
Table 17 : Response Rate of the Questionnaire ............................................................................ 39
Table 18 : Respondent’s Position in the Site ................................................................................ 40
Table 19 : mix proportions used at site ......................................................................................... 50
Table 20: Duration of curing at site .............................................................................................. 54
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management vi

List of figures
Figure 1: hollow concrete block ..................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2: sample size selection ..................................................................................................... 38
Figure 3: Educational background of respondent’s ...................................................................... 40
Figure 4: Portland pozzolana cement (ppc) grade 32.5 ................................................................ 42
Figure 5 : production of HCB per one bag cement ....................................................................... 43
Figure 6: storage of cement at site ................................................................................................ 44
Figure 7: sand and aggregate storing at site .................................................................................. 46
Figure 8: source and storage of water at site................................................................................. 47
Figure 9: batching and mixing of ingredients at site..................................................................... 51
Figure 10: placing of concrete mix on the mould ......................................................................... 52
Figure 11: Water for curing at site ................................................................................................ 53
Figure 12: Curing of hollow concrete blocks at site ..................................................................... 53
Figure 13: Drying of hollow concrete blocks at site ..................................................................... 55
Figure 14: Poor surface texture at site. ......................................................................................... 56
Figure 15: Poor handling of hollow concrete blocks .................................................................... 56
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management vii

List of abbreviations
CMU concrete masonry unit

HCB hollow concrete block
ES Ethiopian standard
EBCS Ethiopian building and code of standards
IS Indian standard
BS British standard
ASTM American society for testing of materials
OPC ordinary Portland cement
PPC Portland pozzolana cement
F.M Fineness modulus
PPM Parts per million
Cm centimeter
Mm millimeter
Kg kilogram
Mpa mega pascal
AQL Acceptable quality level
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management viii

ABSTRACT
Quality of hollow concrete block mainly depends up on the quality of raw materials available for
production which includes the source in which they are obtained from, their transport and storage
mechanism and other factors plays a vital role on the appearance as well as performance of a
finished HCB product. And the another huge factor is the process in which the hollow concrete
blocks are produced starting from ingredients proportioning careful inspection and supervision in
mixing, placing and compaction, molding ,curing and drying processes have a considerable effect
in quality of HCB.
Quality control comprises a combination of action and decision taken in compliance with
specification and checks that these are satisfied. Considering this, investigations focusing on
quality control in hollow concrete block production has been conducted in kebele 01, kebele 02,
kebele 03, kebele 04 and kebele 05 of hollow concrete block producers as well as contractors and
consultants found in Adigrat city.
The research has been carried out by preparing questionaries’ to the hollow concrete producers
and contractors as well as consultants which focuses on their material selection the production
techniques and their quality control mechanism during production. In addition to the
questionnaires, site observations and interviews has been conducted in order to gain more
knowledge and technical terms in the production process and to check the answer for the
questionaries’ are valid or not.
Based on the results and findings test for raw material is not carried out in accordance with
Ethiopian, Indian or American standards these standards specifies the type and methodology for
each ingredient’s to be carried out before proceeding to work but at production site actual work is
far different from scientific approaches. The way ingredients are stored and handled is very poor,
cement is stored in a way that does not give enough ventilation and directly putted on the ground,
no field tests are carried out for cement as well aggregate fine and coarse aggregates are stockpiled
together in most sites care is not given for stockpiling of aggregate sometimes rests on damp
ground, only 25% of production sites perform sieve and gradation tests but the remaining does not
perform tests at all. Similarly for water no test is done and it is not potable type of water used for
mixing and curing at production sites.
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management ix

According to the findings way of production process is practiced different from the scientific
standard the mix design and proportion is different from what the standard says and varying in
different production sites the vibration of mix while in the mold is not limited to a constant duration
which can cause under or over vibration the method of curing is somehow satisfactory but how the
HCB cured is a big question. Drying of hollow concrete is another problem at production sites the
HCB after demolding is immediately taken to be dried on the sun but that is not what the standard
specify, it should be dried under the shade for at least 24 hrs.
Therefore based on the assessment on the quality problems on production of hollow concrete
blocks have been identified major causes for such quality problem are quality of raw materials and
quality of production this factors plays a vital role in unsatisfactory quality on production of hollow
concrete blocks.
Keywords: -cement, aggregate, water, HCB, Quality control, mixing, compaction, and
moulding
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management x

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of walls. It is
sometimes called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). A concrete block is one of several precast
concrete products used in construction. The term precast refers to the fact that the blocks are
formed and hardened before they are brought to the job site. Most concrete blocks have one or
more hollow cavities, and their sides may be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete blocks
are stacked one at a time and held together with fresh concrete mortar to form the desired length
and height of the wall.
Concrete mortar was used by the Romans as early as 200 B.C. to bind shaped stones together in
the construction of buildings. During the reign of the Roman emperor Caligula, in 37-41 A.D.,
small blocks of precast concrete were used as a construction material in the region around present-
day Naples, Italy. Much of the concrete technology developed by the Romans was lost after the
fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century. It was not until 1824 that the English stonemason
Joseph Asp din developed Portland cement, which became one of the key components of modern
concrete.
The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon S. Palmer in the United States.
After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer patented the design in 1900. Palmer's blocks were 8 in
(20.3 cm) by 10 in (25.4 cm) by 30 in (76.2 cm), and they were so heavy they had to be lifted into
place with a small crane. By 1905, an estimated 1,500 companies were manufacturing concrete
blocks in the United States. These early blocks were usually cast by hand, and the average output
was about 10 blocks per person per hour. Today, concrete block manufacturing is a highly
automated process that can produce up to 2,000 blocks per hour.
1.2 Objective of the Research
1.2.1 General Objective of the research
The objective of the research is to undertake assessments on quality control on production of
hollow concrete block in building construction in Adigrat city by comparing with engineering
standards. This objective is achieved through:
B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management 1

1.2.2. Specific Objective of the research
1. Investigating the current practices of quality control in production sites and
looking at whether or not there is a gap between the existing practice on site and
the recommended scientific approaches stipulated on literatures and code of
standards.
2. Assessing the level of quality control being undertaken after performing site
observation, interviews and distributing questionaries’ and Checking if the actual
practice compliance with the standards.
Finally; after making the above assessments on the quality control for production of hollow
concrete block, conclusions and recommendations are drawn.
1.3 Statement of the Problem

In the process of HCB production there are two distinct but equally important activities one is
related to material and the other is related to the process involved in its production. In order to
produce good quality of products care has to be taken for both steps.
Factors that bring variations on HCB product quality are quality of ingredients, variation in HCB
production processes and these bring quality problems such as low strength, poor appearance of
completed HCB sections, poor ingredient material, poor HCB construction etc.
Therefore; identifying quality problems in production of HCB in Adigrat and suggest solution in
improving the quality of HCB there by benefiting the users in; is the main target that this thesis
under taken.
1.4 Significance of the Study

This research expected to give benefits for HCB manufacturers, supervisors, construction owners
and researchers regarding to quality problems with HCB production.
And this helps the consultants in specifying the effective and suitable quality control system.
Because quality control is one of the significant factors that affect the quality of products.
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The research addresses the objectives and tries to investigate the quality control on production of
hollow concrete block in ADIGRAT TOWN. Investigation is undertaken on randomly selected sites
located in ADIGRAT. The sites in which the research is conducted are, kebele 01, kebele 02, kebele
03, kebele 04 and kebele 05

Due to financial problems and lack of willingness by consultants, the research hasn’t been
done in all production sites. Therefore the effectiveness of quality control assessed for
specific production sites those are listed above.
Contractors and consultants were not cooperate in providing different test results of
hollow concrete blocks which limits the scope of the thesis in order not include any test
samples and results.
1.6 The Structure of the Thesis

The thesis consists of five chapters,
 Chapter 1: gives a general introduction, the objective for which the research has been
undertaken, statement of the problem, it addresses the parties that could be benefited from the
results, the scope as well as limitation of the study.
 Chapter 2: gives the literature review on the production of hollow concrete blocks, it
encompasses previously carried out researches, journals, periodicals, books and standards.
 Chapter 3: this chapter deals with the methodologies we have been using through the course
of the research.
 Chapter 4: result and discussion here the findings from our observation and other
methodologies will be illustrated and compared against the literature review.
 Chapter 5: this chapter deals with conclusions and recommendations from the results we have
obtained. At last references and appendices are listed.

CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
Construction industry is one of the most booming industries in the whole world. Building is one
typical area of construction industry and consists of an assembly of materials and components,
joined together in such a way as to allow the building to fulfill its primary purpose.
Hollow concrete block is one of the most commonly used construction materials in building
construction. It is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water, combined together in the correct
proportions to give a strong, dense, homogeneous material. (V.M.Throat)
Now days, hollow concrete blocks are becoming very popular. These blocks are being widely used
in construction of residential buildings, factories and multi-storied buildings. These hollow blocks
are commonly used in compound walls due to its low cost. These hollow blocks are more useful
due to its lightweight and ease of ventilation. The blocks are made out of mixture of cement, sand
and water. Hollow blocks construction provides facilities for concealing electrical conduit, water
and soil pipes. It saves cement in masonry work, bringing down cost of construction considerably
(thecno economic feasiblity report on concrete hollow and solid block).
Hollow concrete block” have become a regular or frequent choice today in construction Activities
as these blocks offer various benefits, simplicities in their use as building Elements, strength
comparable with the conventional blocks like bricks, facilities to get Reinforced thereby increasing
the strength of constructed units, facility for better Finish, adoptability for getting desired
architectural shapes and beauty and above all Rendering economy in construction. (V.M.Throat)
According to Ethiopian standards[ES 596],2001) Hollow concrete blocks defined as building
materials, these materials requires more cost, time and labor force for their production as compared
to other construction materials employed for building construction. And their maintenance is
difficult when certain problems such as cracking in hollow concrete blocks occur to extreme
condition failure may happen.
There are various factors that brings quality problems. These factors are quality of ingredients and
variation in production process.as a result proper quality control is necessitated.
According to EBCS 2, 1995 quality control comprises a combination of actions and decisions
taken in compliance with specifications and checks to ensure that these are satisfied. It’s a means

Checking the raw materials and production process are in compliance with requirements stated in
code of practices. It contain two parts namely production control and compliance control.
Quality control has cost in it, however if the contractor is not willing to pay the controlled cost of
Quality during production he will pay cost and time for correcting the defective works and
reworking of un acceptable works.
2.2 Basic Terminology
 Face Shells - The two outer plates of the hollow concrete block. These are connected
together by webs. . .
 Gross Area - The total area occupied by a block on its bedding Face, including areas of
the cavities and end recesses.
 Height - The vertical dimension of the exposed face of a block, excluding any tongue or
other device designed to provide mechanical Keying.
 Hollow ( Open or Closed Cavity ) Block - A block having one or more large holes or
cavities which either pass through the block ( open cavity ) or do not effectively pass
through the block ( closed cavity ) and having the solid material between 50 and 75 percent
of the total volume of the block calculated from the overall dimensions.
 Length - The horizontal dimension of tile exposed face of a block, excluding any tongue
or other device designed to provide mechanical Keying.
 Moisture Movement - The difference between the length of the Specimen when dried to
constant length and when subsequently immersed In water, all under specified conditions,
expressed as a percentage of the Dry length of the specimen.
 Solid Block - A block which has solid material not less than 75 percent of the total volume
of the block calculated from the overall dimensions.
 Webs- The solid sections of the hollow concrete blocks which connect the face shells.
 Width - The external dimension of a block at the bedding plane, measured at right angles
to the length and height of the block.

Web
20cm
Face shell
40cm edges
20cm, 15,10cm End shell
Figure 1: hollow concrete block
2.3 Raw Materials (Ingriendent’s) For HCB Production

Hollow concrete block is an alternative wall and floor making material in the building
construction having one or more large holes with the solid material between 50 and 75
percent of the total volume of the block calculated from the overall dimensions [ES
596:2001]. Most hollow concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavity manufactured
from a zero-slump mixture of Portland cement (and possibly other cementitious
materials), aggregates, water and sometimes admixtures.
2.3.1 Portland cement (OPC or PPC)

Cement may be defined as a product obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by Calcining
to incipient fusion, an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of argillaceous and calcareous
materials. Care must be exercised in proportioning the raw materials so that the Clinker of proper
constitution may be obtained after burning (Duggal, 2000).
2.3.1.1 Physical Properties of Cement
Specifications for cement place limits on both its physical properties and often chemical
composition of cement. Tests of the physical properties of the cements should be used to evaluate
the properties of the cement, these tests are; fineness test, setting time test, soundness test,
consistency test, strength test etc.
A. Fineness:
The reaction between the water and cement starts on the surface of the cement particles. So the
greater the surface area of a given volume of cement the greater the hydration. A fine cement will
develop strength and generate heat more quickly than a coarse cement (civil 284) .Besides this as
cement is more finer it reacts more strongly in alkali reactive aggregate and it require higher water
requirement and workability will be more leading to higher drying shrinkage and cracking.

When the cement particles are coarser, hydration starts on the surface of the particles. So the
coarser particles may not be completely hydrated. This causes low strength and low durability.
For a rapid development of strength a high fineness is necessary. There are various methods for
determining the fineness of cement particles. The Blaine air-permeability method is the most
commonly used method (T.rickets, 2000).
B. Soundness:
When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to
retain its volume after setting without delayed expansion. This expansion is caused by excessive
amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland cement specifications limit
magnesia content and soundness or expansion of cement is limited to 10 mm (Ethiopian
standards(ES1177-1), 2005).
The cement paste should not undergo large changes in volume after it has set. However, when
excessive amounts of free CaO or MgO are present in the cement, these oxides can slowly hydrate
and cause expansion of the hardened cement paste. Soundness is defined as the volume stability
of the cement paste (Indian standard (IS269:), 1989).
C. Setting time
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness, water-
cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and admixtures. For construction
purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Normally, two
setting times are defined: (civil 284).
▪ Initial set: Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably. Initial setting time is
regarded as the time elapsed between the moments that the water is added to the cement,
to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.
▪ Final set: Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some
load. The final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added to
the cement, and the time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained
sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure. Setting is mainly caused by C3A and
C3S and results in temperature rise in the cement paste.
Setting time is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency
defined as that percentage water requirement of the cement paste, the water requirement for various
tests such as soundness and setting time of cement depend upon the compound composition and

fineness of the cement. According to Ethiopian standard Specify minimum initial setting time of
75, 64 and 45 minutes for cements 32.5, 42.5 and 52.5 classes of standard strengths (Ethiopian
standards(ES1177-1), 2005).
D. Compressive Strength
Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and flexural. These
strengths can be affected by a number of items including: water cement ratio, cement-fine
aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, curing conditions, size and shape of specimen,
loading conditions and age (civil engineers association).
Strength of the mortar and concrete depends on the type and nature of cement because it binds
together aggregates by adhesion. So that it should develop a minimum specified strength
(compressive and tensile) if it is to be used in structures. The strength of cement is greatly
influenced by the degree of burning, the fineness of grinding, and the aeration it receives
subsequent to final grinding. An under burnt cement is likely to be deficient in strength. Ethiopian
Standard ES1177-1:2005 specify three classes of standard strength having two types of early
strength such as N type (ordinary early strength) and R type (high early strength). The standard
compressive strength of cement shall conform the requirements in the Table 1 below
Table 1: compressive strength of cement (ES1177-1:2005)
Class Compressive strength MPa

Early strength Standard strength
2 days 7 days 28 days

32.5N - > 16 > 32.5 < 52.5
32.5R > 10 -
42.5N > 10 - > 42.5 < 65.8
42.5R > 20 -
52.5N > 20 - > 52.5 -
52.5R > 30 -
E. . Loss on Ignition (LOI)

Heating a cement sample at 900-1000°c (that is until a constant weight is obtained) causes weight
loss. This loss of weight up on heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged
storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre hydration and carbonation both

of which might be indicated by increased loss of ignition. The test for loss on ignition is performed
in accordance with ES1177-1:2005 is limited to 5%.
F. Bulk density
When cement is mixed with water the water replaces areas where there would normally be air.
Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying range of
density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere
from 62-70 cubic meter (T.rickets, 2000).
2.3.1.2 Chemical properties of cement

The three constituents of hydraulic cements are lime, silica and alumina. In addition, most cements
contain small proportions of iron oxide, magnesia, Sulphur trioxide and alkalis. There has been a
change in the composition of Portland cement over the years, mainly reflected in the increase in
lime content and in a slight decrease in silica content. An increase in lime content beyond a certain
value makes it difficult to combine completely with other compounds. Consequently, free lime
will exist in the clinker and will result in an unsound cement. An increase in silica content at the
expense of alumina and ferric oxide makes the cement difficult to fuse and form clinker (Duggal,
2000).
2.3.1.3 Types of cement used for hollow concrete blocks production
1. Ordinary Portland cement (Indian standards IS 269: 1989).
The manufacture of OPC is used for general construction work when the special properties of the
other types are not required. Normally used for reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, pavements
and sidewalks when the soil conditions are normal, for concrete masonry units, and for all uses
where the concrete is not subjected to special sulfate hazard, heat of hydration is not objectionable,
where freezing-thawing is not expected.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement – (Indian standards IS 1489 (Part I)).

Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured by the inter grinding of OPC clinker with 10 to
25 per cent of pozzolanic material. A pozzolanic material is essentially a siliceous or aluminous
material which while in itself possessing no cementitious properties, which will, in finely divided
form and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide. The pozzolanic materials

generally used for manufacture of PPC are calcined clay (IS 1489 part 2 of 1991) or fly ash (IS
1489 part I of 1991).
2.3.1.3 How to check quality of cement on site?
It is necessary to check the quality of cement on site at the time of preliminary inspection. It is not
possible to check all the engineering qualities of cement on site but there exist some field test
which gives us a rough idea of quality of cement. While on site we can perform these field tests to
judge the quality of cement. These field tests are as follows: (Adhikari, 2016).
 Date of packing: Date of manufacture should be seen on the bag. It is important because
the strength of cement reduces with age.
 Color: The cement should be uniform in color. In general the color of cement is grey with
a light greenish shade. The color of cement gives an indication of excess lime or clay and
the degree of burning.
 Rubbing: Take a pinch of cement between fingers and rub it. It should feel smooth while
rubbing. If it is rough, that means adulteration with sand.
 Hand insertion: Thrust your hand into the cement bag and it should give cool feeling. It
indicates that no hydration reaction is taking place in the bag.
 Float test: Throw a small quantity of cement in a bucket of water. It should sink and should
not float on the surface.
 Smell test: Take a pinch of cement and smell it. If the cement contains too much of
pounded clay and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.
 Shape test: Take 100g of cement and make a stiff paste. Prepare a cake with sharp edges
and put on the glass plate. Immerse this plate in water. Observe that the shape shouldn’t
get disturbed while settling. It should be able to set and attain strength. Cement is capable
of setting under water also and that is why it is also called ‘Hydraulic Cement’.
2.3.1.4 Handling and Storage of Cement

Most Portland cements are transported by truck. Cement is a moisture-sensitive material; if kept
dry, it will retain its quality. The storage of cement is entirely a matter of keeping it dry, and it is
necessary to stack the bags in a shed or under whatever cover is available. On small projects where
storage without a shed is required for a few days, the cement should be placed on a raised platform

and covered with tarpaulins, polyethylene film (0.2mm thick) or water proof building paper (Indian
standards is 8062 , 1989).
Even when stored under good conditions bagged cement may lose 20 percent of its strength after
2 months of storage, and 40 percent after 6 months of storage. Cement can be stored in air tight
bins indefinitely without deteriorating in any way, but this is not practicable for site use. Cement
which is 4 months old should be classified as "aged" and be retested for use (Taylor, 2001).
Handle cement bags carefully. While handling the cement bags Make sure the cement bags are not
dropped. This can weaken and damage the packaging Roll the cement bags over before lifting.
This helps to loosen up the cement, and reduces the chances of the bag from splitting. When
carrying individual cement bags, do not carry them by holding at the ends. Make sure the bag is
held by supporting on the underside. This will help to prevent the bag from sagging in the middle
and splitting, and also reduce the strain on the shoulders and back (T.rickets, 2000).
2.3.2 Aggregates
Aggregate represent the major proportion of concrete block by volume. Hence it has significant
importance on the quality of concrete block, especially on strength. This is because good aggregate
are known to have better crushing strength and better resistance to impact. Not only that aggregates
affect the strength of concrete block, but the properties of aggregates such as its size and shape
affect the durability and structural performance of concrete blocks. Aggregate is cheaper than
cement. It is, therefore, economical to put in to the mix in as much proportion as possible (Nevielle,
1985).
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of aggregates

The properties to be considered while selecting aggregate for concrete are strength, particle
Shape, specific gravity, bulk density, moisture content and bulking.

A. Specific gravity
The specific gravity of most of the natural aggregates lies between 2.6-2.7. The specific gravity
and porosity of aggregates greatly influence the strength and absorption of concrete blocks.
Specific gravity of aggregates generally is indicative of its quality. A low specific gravity may

indicate high porosity and therefore poor durability and low strength. The concrete block density
will greatly depend on specific gravity (Duggal, 2000).
B. Bulk unit weight
Aggregates are classified as normal-weight, heavy-weight and light-weight aggregate depending
On weight and specific gravity as given in Table 2 (Duggal, 2000)
Table 2: classification of aggregates based on unit weight
Aggregate Specific gravity Unit Bulk Examples

weight(kg/m3) density(kg/m3
Normal weight 2.5-2.7 23-26 1520-1680 Sand,gravel,granite
Heavy weight 2.8-2.9 25-29 >2080 Magnetite,bayrite
Light weight 12 <1120 Dolomite pumice
C. Bulk density
The bulk density of aggregate depends upon their packing, the particles shape and size, the grading
and the moisture content. For coarse aggregate a higher bulk density is an indication of fewer voids
to be filled by sand and cement. The void ratio is calculated as (T.rickets, 2000).
Void ratio = 1 – Bulk density
Apparent specific gravity
D. Moisture content
The surface moisture expressed as a percentage of the weight of the saturated surface dry aggregate
is known as moisture content. Aggregate exposed to rain collects a considerable amount of
moisture on the surface of the particles, and, except at the surface of the stockpile, keeps this
moisture over long periods.
A high moisture content increases the effective water/cement ratio to an appreciable extent and
may render the concrete block weak (Nevielle, 1985) (Taylor, 2001).
E. Fineness modulus
It is a numerical index of fineness, giving some idea about the mean size of the particles in the
aggregates. The fineness modulus (F.M.) varies between 2.0 and 3.5 for fine aggregate, between
5.5 and 8.0 for coarse aggregate, and from 3.5 to 6.5 for all-in aggregate. Aggregate, whose F.M.
is required, is placed on a standard set of sieves (80, 63, 40, 20, 12.5, 10, 4.75, 2.36, 1.18 mm and

600, 300, 150 _m) and the set vibrated (Duggal, 2000). The material retained on each sieve after
sieving represent the fraction of aggregate coarser than the sieve in question but finer than the
sieve above. The sum of the cumulative percentages retained on the sieves divided by 100 gives
the F.M. A fineness modulus of 3.0 can be interpreted to mean that the third sieve i.e., 600 _m is
the average size. The test procedure is given IS: 2386 (Part I). The object of finding F.M. is to
grade the given aggregate for the required strength and workability of concrete mix with minimum
cement. Higher F.M. aggregate result in harsh concrete mixes and lower F.M. result in
uneconomical concrete mixes (Steven H, 2008).
F. Grading of aggregates
Requirements of (ES C.D3.201) permit a relatively wide range in fine-aggregate gradation, but
specifications by other organizations are sometimes more restrictive. The most desirable fine-
aggregate grading depends on the type of work, the richness of the mixture, and the maximum size
of coarse aggregate. In leaner mixtures, or when small-size coarse aggregates are used, a grading
that approaches the maximum recommended percentage passing each sieve is desirable for
workability. In general, if the water-cement ratio is kept constant and the ratio of fine-to-coarse
aggregate is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without measurable effect on
strength. However, the best economy will sometimes be achieved by adjusting the concrete block
mixture to suit the gradation of the local aggregates. Fine-aggregate grading within the limits of
(ES C.D3.201) is generally satisfactory for most concretes. The limits (ES C.D3.201) with respect
to sieve size are shown in Table 3
Table 3 : Grading requirements for fine aggregates (ES C.D3.201)
Sieve size Percent passing by mass

9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) 100
4.75 mm (No. 4) 95 to
100
2.36 mm (No. 8) 80 to
100
1.18 mm (No. 16) 50 to 85
600 μm (No. 30) 25 to 60
300 μm (No. 50) 5 to 30
150 μm (No. 100) 0 to 10

G. Soundness of aggregates
Soundness is the resistance of aggregates changes in volume as a result of changes in physical or
environmental conditions such as freezing and thawing, thermal changes at temperatures above
freezing, and alternating wetting and drying. The aggregate is said to be unsound when volume
changes result in deterioration of the concrete blocks. This may range from local scaling and so-
called pop-outs to extensive surface cracking and to disintegration over a considerable depth, and
can thus vary from no more than impaired appearance to structurally dangerous situation.
Aggregates used for concrete block production are tested for its soundness and it should comply
with the requirement set in the specification (Nevielle, 1985).
2.3.2.2 Classification of aggregates
On the basis of Aggregate size and shape
According to size aggregates are classified as coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and all-in-
aggregate.
In accordance with the Ethiopian standard aggregates are classified as course and fine depending
on their size. The Ethiopian standard has adopted the requirement set on the parts of the American
standard (ASTM C33).
a) Course aggregates
Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are identified as course. They are obtained by natural
disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks. The maximum size of aggregate can be 80 mm.
b) Fine aggregate
Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve are defined as fine. They may be natural sand deposited
by rivers, crushed stone sand—obtained by crushing stones and crushed gravel sand. The smallest
size of fine aggregate (sand) is 0.06 mm. depending upon the particle size, fine aggregates are
described as fine, medium and coarse sands.
In the size classification of aggregates by the British Standard (BS 882), there is an additional size
group called all in aggregate that contains mixed coarse and fine aggregate. But all in aggregate is
recommended for the production of low grade concrete blocks.

Shape of aggregates has an effect on the degree of packing particles and on the surface area to
volume ratio of particles. Well packed aggregates have less void content. This is important in
concrete blocks as it reduces the void content resulting in better strength concrete block. Particles
with high ratio of surface area to volume lower the workability of the mix; however, it has an
advantage of providing larger bond surface area. Flaky and elongated particles affect the durability
of concrete in that, as they tend to be oriented in one plan, with water and air voids forming
underneath. As a result, the presence of elongated or flaky particles in excess of 10 to 15% of the
weight of course aggregate is undesirable (Duggal, 2000).
The rounded aggregate requires lesser amount of water and cement paste for a given workability.
The amount of mixing water could be reduced by 5 to 10 percent, and the sand content by 3 to 5
percent by the use of rounded aggregate. On the other hand, the use of crushed aggregate may
result in 10 to 20 percent higher compressive strength due to the development of stronger aggregate
mortar bond (Duggal, 2000).
2.3.2.3 Deleterious substances in Aggregates

Materials in aggregates, which may affect adversely the strength or durability of concrete block,
are termed deleterious materials. There are three broad categories of deleterious substances, these
are: -
 Impurities interfering with the process of hydration of cement.
 Coatings preventing the development of good bond between aggregate and the cement
paste,
 Unsound particles which are weak or bring about chemical reaction the impurities in the
form of organic matter interfere with the chemical reactions of hydration. These impurities
are generally consisting of decayed vegetable matter (mainly tannic acid and its
derivatives) and appearing in the form of humus or organic loam are more likely to be
present in fine aggregate Than coarse aggregate, which is easily washed (Nevielle, 1985).
Clay and other fine materials in aggregate may affect the quality of concrete block if present in
excess amount. Clay may be present in the form of surface coatings which interfere with the bond
between aggregate and the cement paste. Since good bond is essential to ensure a satisfactory
strength and durability of concrete block, the problem of clay coating is an important one. The

other two fine materials which can be present in aggregate are silt and crusher dust. Silt is a material
between 2𝜇m and 60 𝜇m reduced to this size by natural process of weathering; silt may thus be
found in aggregate obtained from natural deposits. On the other hand, crusher dust is a fine material
formed during the process of crushing rock into crushed coarse and fine aggregate. The soft or
loosely adherent coatings can be removed by washing (Gambhir, 2002).
Table 4 Permissible limits for deleterious substances in fine aggregates [ES 81:2001]
Maximum
deleterious substances percent by mass
Friable particles Clay 1.0
fine silt (passing 63 μm sieve) 3.0
Concrete block subject to abrasion 5.0
All other concrete coal and lignite 1.0
2.3.2.4 Handling and storing of aggregates

Unless care is taken in handling and storing of aggregates, there is a marked tendency for
segregation of the fine and coarse particles to occur that affects the gradation. In addition to
segregation, contamination of stockpiles could also occur due to poor handling and storage
(Gambhir, 2002). The most economical and acceptable method of forming aggregate stockpiles is
the truck-dump method, which discharges the loads in a way that keeps them tightly joined. The
aggregate is then reclaimed with a front-end loader. The loader should remove slices from the
edges of the pile from bottom to top so that every slice will contain a portion of each horizontal
layer. Indian standard recommended to stock fine aggregate and coarse aggregate separately on
hard dry and level pitch of ground if such surface is not available a platform of planks or old
corrugated iron sheets or floor of bricks or thin layer of lean concrete shall be made to prevent the
admixture of clay, dust and vegetables or other vegetable matter specially fine aggregates must
stocks in a place where loss due to the effect of wind is minimum (Steven H, 2008).
2.3.3 Water
Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor, also called potable
water, can be used as mixing water for making concrete block .However, some waters that are not
fit for drinking may be suitable for use in concrete mix (Duggal, 2000).
The amount of water must therefore be limited to produce quality concrete required for a job. For

Instance excess water weakens bond between the successive lifts of concrete mix, produce
honeycombed concrete and make concrete porous. On the other hand lesser water makes it
Difficult to work with concrete (Duggal, 2000).
2.3.3.1 Quality of mixing water

The water used for mixing and curing of concrete blocks should be free of materials that
significantly affect concrete block quality like rate of hardening, strength and durability of concrete
blocks, or which promote efflorescence. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for
mixing concrete. In the case of doubt about the suitability of water particularly in Remote areas,
where water is derived from sources of normally utilized for domestic purpose, water should be
tested (Gambhir, 2002). In addition to this British standard BS 3148 recommends surface water
for concrete block works by infiltration or impounding to allow suspended matter to settle if it is
free from undesirable organic contents or an acceptable content of inorganic salts.
According to Ethiopian Standard ES 2310:2005 water used for production of concrete blocks shall
fulfill chemical requirement listed on the Table below for chlorides, sulfates and alkali and other
harmful contamination (sugar, phosphates, nitrates, lead and zinc).
Table 5: chemical requirement of water for block production (ES 2310:2005)
Chemicals Mg/l
- Maximum Chloride 6000
content
- Maximum sulphates
2000
content
- Maximum
alkalis(sodium oxide 1500
content)
- Harmful contamination
maximum
▪ Sugar 300
▪ phosphates
expressed as 30-50
P2O5

▪ nitrates 30
Expressed as NO3
▪ lead expressed 10-15
As pb2+
2.3.3.2 Effects of mixing water from different sources

Ground water
Natural ground waters seldom contain more than 20 to 30 ppm of iron. However, acid mine waters
may carry rather large quantities of iron. Iron salts in concentrations up to 40,000 ppm do not
usually affect mortar strengths adversely.
Tap water
Water from pipe of municipal distribution usually drinkable and potable water is highly
recommended for concrete mix than other sources of water (Duggal, 2000).
Curing water
Water fit for making concrete block can be used for curing. Waters containing impurities and
leading to stains is objectionable. When concrete block is subjected to prolonged wetting, even a
very low concentration of iron and organic matter may cause staining. Water containing more than
0.08 ppm of iron is not recommended for curing (Duggal, 2000).
2.4 Concrete Blocks (Concrete Masonry Units)
A concrete masonry unit (CMU) is a standard size rectangular block used in building construction.
CMUs are some of the most versatile building products available because of the wide variety of
appearances that can be achieved using concrete masonry units. Concrete blocks are made from
cast concrete (e.g. Portland cement and aggregate, usually sand and fine gravel, for high-density
blocks). Lower density blocks may use industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash, as an
aggregate. Recycled materials, such as post-consumer glass, slag cement, or recycled aggregate,
are often used in the composition of the blocks (michael, 2012).
2.4.1 Types of Concrete blocks

Depending up on the structure shape, size and manufacturing processes concrete blocks are mainly
classified in to two types they are: (Anupoju, 2016).
 Solid concrete blocks

 Hollow concrete blocks
a. Solid Concrete Blocks
Solid concrete blocks are commonly used, which are heavy in weight and manufactured from
dense aggregate. They are very strong and provides good stability to the structures. So for large
work of masonry like for load bearing walls these solid blocks are preferable. They are available
in large sizes compared to bricks. So, it takes less time to construct concrete masonry than brick
masonry.
b. Hollow Concrete Blocks
Hollow concrete blocks contains void area greater than 25% of gross area. Solid area of hollow
blocks should be more than 50%. The hollow part may be divided into several components based
on our requirement. They are manufactured from lightweight and normal weight aggregates. They
are light weight blocks and easy to install. This type of concrete block is the most common type
and widely used type that have one or two hollow cores. They are light weight, economical and
needs semiskilled laborers. Hollow concrete blocks are weak against lateral loads.
Difference between solid and hollow concrete blocks
The following table summarizes the difference between solid and hollow concrete blocks.
Table 6: difference between hollow and solid blocks (Global shelter cluster , 2011)
Hollow blocks Solid Blocks

The size and shape of hollow blocks are There is a variation in size and shape i.e. one side
uniform and there is no variation. We can of the wall is in line. Plastering on both sides is
avoid plastering to have even look. essential. Excessive plaster is done on one side to
have even look
Less number of hollow blocks are More number of blocks are used. i.e.(1100
required for the given area e.g. (130 for100sq.ft wall)
blocks for 100sq.ft walls).
Work is speedy in about 30% more Work is slower so it needs expensive labor cost
Less number of joints are found. More number of joints
If it is room temperature is less due to Inside a room temperature is high
cavity in blocks.

The structure is purely concrete The structure is purely mud
7% extra floor space available without The structure is purely mud
compromising on strength of wall.
Fixing of fencing angle is easy. Wall has to be cut for fixing angle of fencing.
2.4.2 Classifications of hollow concrete blocks

Based on their function (Anupoju, 2016)
 Concrete Stretcher Blocks
Concrete stretcher blocks are used to join the corner in the masonry. Stretcher blocks are widely
used concrete hollow blocks in construction. They are laid with their length parallel to the face of
the wall.
 Concrete Corner Blocks

Corner blocks are used at the ends or corners of masonry. The ends may be window or door
openings etc. they are arranged in a manner that their plane end visible to the outside and other
end is locked with the stretcher block.
 Concrete Pillar Blocks
Pillar block is also called as double corner block. Generally these are used when two ends of the
corner are visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used
 Jamb Concrete Blocks
Jamb blocks are used when there is an elaborated window opening in the wall. They are connected
to stretcher and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows, jamb blocks are very
useful to provide space for the casing members of window.
Based on their size

 Standard Dimensions to ESC.DC.301
a. 10 cm x 20 cm x 40 cm
b. 20 cm x 20 cm x 40 cm
c. 15 cm x 20 cm x 40 cm

Table 7: the nominal dimensions of HCB are indicated below: (ESC.DC.301)
width (b)
Height (h) Length (l) Face shell (d) Web (e) Weight
(mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kg/m³)
100 200 400 20 20 1,200
150 200 400 25 25 1,200
200 200 400 30 25 1,200
250 200 400 35 30 1,200
300 200 400 40 30 1,200
Based on their class

According to Ethiopian standards (ESC D3.301): hollow concrete block shall conform three classes
Depends on their strength, as Class A, B, C and their requirements are defined below and their
minimum comprehensive strength listed in Table 10.
a. Class A and B: are load bearing HCB units and shall have a minimum Block density of
1500 kg/m3. Minimum average compressive strengths of blocks shall be as per table.
Suitable for:
 External walls pointed, rendered and plastered
 The inner leaf of cavity walls or stone masonry
 Internal walls or partitions
 Panels in steel framed and reinforced steel framed buildings
b. Class C: are non- load bearing HCB units Their density should be between 900 – 1200
kg/m3 on the other hand Indian standard IS:2185 (Part I) – 1979 recommended minimum
density within the range of 1000-1500 kg/m3.Suitable for:
 Non- load bearing internal panels in steel framed and reinforced concrete buildings
 Damp Proof course in exterior walls that are treated with suitable weather protective
coating.
Minimum compressive strength:
Table 8: the minimum compressive strength for HCB according to ESC D3.301 is
indicated below:

Average of 6 HCB Individual HCB

Class
Mpa kg/ m³ Mpa kg/ m³
A 4.2 42 3.8 38
B 3.5 35 3.2 32
C 2.0 20 1.8 18
2.4.3 Advantages of hollow concrete blocks

Economy in design of super-structure due to reduction of loads
Saving in mortar for lying of blocks as compared to ordinary brick work. Saving in mortar for
plasterwork. Uniform Plaster thickness of 12 mm can be maintained due to precision of the
size of blocks as compared to brick work where plaster thickness of average 20 mm is required
to produce uniform and even plastered surface due to variations in the sizes of bricks. Insulation
of walls is achieved due to cavity, which provides energy saving for all times. Similarly
hollowness results in sound insulation.
Paint on finished walls can be applied due to cavity, which provides energy saving for all times.
Similarly hollowness results in sound insulation.
No problem of the appearance of salts. Hence great saving in the maintenance of final finishes
to the walls.
Laying of Blocks is much quicker as compared to brickwork hence saving in time
Hollow blocks are the most common types of concrete blocks, having one or more holes that
are open at both sides. The total void area can amount to 50 % of the gross cross-sectional area,
and - according to British Standards - the external wall thickness must be at least 15 mm or
1.75 x nominal maximum size of aggregate, whichever is greater.
They can be made larger than solid blocks, and if lightweight aggregate is used, can be very
light, without forfeiting much of their load-bearing capacity;
They require far less mortar than solid blocks (because of the cavities and less proportion of
joints, due to large size), and construction of walls is easier and quicker;
The voids can be filled with steel bars and concrete, achieving high seismic resistance;
The air-space provides good thermal insulation, which is of advantage in most climatic regions,
except warm-humid zones; if desirable, the cavities can also be filled with thermal insulation
material;

The cavities can be used as ducts for electrical installation and plumbing (V.M.Throat).
Concrete block construction is also economical because of the following aspects: (Indian
Standard concrete masonry stone, (2005)).
a) The units are relatively large and true in size and shape. This ensures rapid construction so that
more wall is laid per man-hour than in other types of wall construction;
b) Fewer joints result in considerable saving in mortar-as compared to normal masonry
constructions, and also in increasing the strength of the wall; and
c) The true plane surfaces obtained obviate necessity of plaster for unimportant buildings situated
in low rainfall areas; even when plaster is used for any reason, the quantity of mortar required for
satisfactory coverage is-significantly small.
2.4.4 Limitations of application of hollow concrete blocks
 Raw material must be locally available, of good quality and economically viable.
 Relatively large amount of cement needed which can be expensive and difficult to obtain.
 Special knowledge and experience of the production process is required (evans, 2015).
2.4.5 Hollow concrete blocks for wall construction
Hollow concrete blocks used for wall construction classified as load bearing and non-load bearing
depends on their structural function. According to ASTM C90-70 hollow load bearing concrete
blocks have three weight classifications those are normal weight, medium weight and light weight
blocks as listed in Table and shall conform two grades those are grade N and grade S. Grade N
blocks are suitable for general use such as in exterior walls below and above grade level That may
or may not be exposed to moisture penetration. But grade S blocks limited to use above grade level
for walls not exposed to weather and for exterior walls with weather protective Coating.
Table 9: weight classification of hollow concrete block [ASTM C90-70]
Classification of hollow kg/m3

block
Light weight Less than 1682
Medium weight 1682-2002
Normal weight 2002 or more

2.4.6 Hollow Concrete Blocks Production Process
2.4.6.1 Batching and Mixing
The estimation of the proportionate mix of the materials is known as batching. This involves two
methods and those are weight batching and volume batching. Aggregates can be batched by
volume or by weight, but the latter is more accurate. For this reason, cement should only be batched
by weight, or preferably by using only whole bags of 50 kg. In backyard block production, with
less stringent quality standards, batching by volume using buckets, tins, wooden boxes or
wheelbarrows is quite acceptable, if done with care to ensure uniform proportions of mix
(T.Reuters, 2015).
The concrete mix used for blocks shall not be richer than one part by volume of cement to 6 parts
by volume of combined aggregates before mixing. Since concretes begin to set within 30 to 60
minutes, depending on the type of cement and ambient temperature, only so much concrete must
be prepared as can be used up before that happens. In hot climates, the fresh mix must be shaded
from the sun to avoid premature setting (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
Concrete shall normally be mixed in a mechanical mixer. Mixing shall be continued until there is
a uniform distribution of the materials, and the mass is uniform in color and consistency. When
hand mixing is permitted by the, engineer-in-charge, it shall be carried out on a water-tight
platform and care shall be taken to ensure that mixing is continued until the mass is uniform in
color and consistency. Ten percent extra cement may be added when hand-mixing is resorted to
(Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
Mixing proportions for HCB production:
The following mixing proportions for the production of hollow concrete blocks are used in
accordance to ESC D3.301:
Table 10: mix proportions for different class of Hollow concrete blocks
Proportions by volume of
Class Red ash or
Sand Gravel 00 Gravel 01 Cement
pumice
A 2 1 1 1
2 1 1 1
B 2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1

C 3 1 2 1
3 1 2 1
2.4.6.2 Placing and Compaction

In the case of manual compaction, the mixture shall be placed into the mould in layers of about 50
to 75 mm and each layer thoroughly tamped with suitable tampers until the whole mould is filled
up and struck off level with a trowel and specify to vibrate the mixture for 15 second before
extruded as hollow concrete block (affairs, 2006).
In the case of mechanical compaction, the mould shall be filled up to overflow, vibrated or
mechanically tamped and struck off level. After demolding the blocks shall be protected until they
are sufficiently hardened to permit handling without damage (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
2.4.6.3 Moulding
Concrete blocks can be molded by several methods, ranging from manually tamping the concrete
in wooden or steel would boxes to large-scale production with 'egg-laying' mobile machines and
fully automatic stationary machines. The quality of blocks generally increases with the degree of
mechanization, but medium standards are normally adequate for most construction purposes. In
all cases, the blocks are demolded immediately after compaction, so that they have to maintain
their shape even before the concrete hardens (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
In case of hand-moulded block where compaction is done manually, concrete mix should be
sufficiently consistent to enable demoulding immediately after casting. The consistency of the mix
should be such that it may cohere when compressed in the hand without free water being visible.
Too little water causes the mix to be friable, while too much water causes difficulty in the
immediate withdrawal of the mould (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
In case of machine-moulded blocks, the web markings on the units as they come from the machine
give a good indication as to whether the proper consistency of concrete has been used. In addition
to the grading of the aggregate and the quantity of cement, the amount of water required for mix
will depend to an extent on the type of machine on which blocks are produced. It is possible to
judge the proper consistency by squeezing a handful of concrete mixture. When traces of moisture
show on the outside of the squeezed mass it is usually considered to be Suitable (Indian standards
2185-part 1, 1979).

2.4.6.4 Curing
Curing is the process of maintaining a satisfactory moisture content and a favorable temperature
in the blocks, to ensure complete hydration of the cement and development of required strength. It
is normally sufficient to cover blocks with plastic sheeting to prevent moisture loss (or to spray
blocks with water, provided block surfaces do not dry out and the water does not freeze)
(T.Reuters, 2015).
The blocks are either left to set and harden where they were molded, or carried away on pallets to
the curing place. In all cases it is important to keep the concrete moist, for example, by regularly
spraying with water, until the concrete has obtained sufficient strength. This can take 7 days or
more, depending on the type and quality of cement. Quicker strength development is achieved by
exposing the blocks to steam, but this is only viable in large scale factory production.
The blocks hardened in accordance with shall then be cured in a curing water tank or in a curing
yard and shall be kept continuously moist for at least 14 days. When the blocks are cured in an
immersion tank, the water of the tank shall be changed at least every 4 days (Indian standards
2185-part 1, 1979).
2.4.6.5 Drying
After curing the blocks shall be dried for a period of 4 weeks before being used on the work. They
shall be stacked with void horizontal to facilitate through passage of air. The blocks shall be
allowed to complete their initial shrinkage before they are laid in a wall (Indian Standard concrete
masonry stone, (2005)).
2.4.6.6 Surface texture and finish
Concrete block units can be given a variety of surface texture ranging from a very fine close texture
to a coarse open texture by the proper selection grading, and proportioning of aggregates at the
time of manufacture. Textures may also be developed by treating the face of the units while still
green by wire brushing or combing, by slightly eroding the surface by playing a fine spray of water
upon it, and by splitting ( split block ). Color may be introduced by incorporating nonfading
mineral pigments in the facing concrete, or by applying a colored cement grout or paint to the fare
of the units soon after they are removed from the moulds. Selected colored aggregates may also
be used in the facing and exposed by washing with water or dilute hydrochloric acid (curtain,
1989).
Well-made concrete block may not require plaster in case of unimportant buildings in low rainfall
areas; two or three coats of a cement paint being sufficient to render it resistant to rain water. If,
however, it is intended to plaster concrete masonry, the block shall have a sufficiently rough
surface to afford a good key to the plaster. Waterproofing admixtures may be used for preparing
the plaster (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
2.4.7 Physical Requirements of HCB
a. Dimension and Tolerance of Hollow concrete block
Different standards specify their own limits on the permissible variations in the dimensions of
Standard hollow concrete block masonry units. These limits make easy laying of the units, assist
the mason to construct the masonry within the suitable tolerances and help to offer an aesthetic
Finish and appearance of the constructed masonry.
Table 11: Minimum face-shell and web thickness [ASTM C90-70]
Nominal Face shall Web min

width (mm) thickness (mm) (mm)
102 19 19
152 25 25
203 32 25
Table 12: Minimum face-shell and web thickness [IS: 2185-1979]
Nominal block Face shall Web

width ( mm) thickness (mm) Min (mm)
Less than 100 mm 25 25
100 to 150 25 25
150 to 200 30 25
Table 13: Nominal dimensions of hollow concrete blocks [ES 596:2001]
Length (l) mm Breadth (b) mm Height (h) mm
100
400 150 200
200

500 100 100
120 150
150 200
200 250
100 100
120 150
600
150 200
200 250
b. Determination of block density

Three blocks shall be dried to constant mass in a suitable oven heated to approximately 1000C.
After cooling the blocks to room temperature, the dimensions of each block shall be measured in
centimeters to the nearest millimeter and the overall volume computed in cubic centimeters. The
blocks shall then be weighted in kilograms to the nearest 10 gm. The density of each block
calculated as follows: (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979)
Density in kg/m3 = Mass of block in kg/Mass of block in cm2 * 10∗ 𝟔
Table 14 : density classification of concrete masonry units [ES 596:2001]
Class of Hollow Ethiopian standard

concrete block ES 596:2001
(kg/m3)
A 900-1200
B 900-1200
C 900-1200
D 600-900
c. Determination of water absorption

Three full size blocks shall be completely immersed in clean water at room temperature for 24
hours. The blocks shall then be removed from the water and allowed to drain for one minute by
placing them on a 10 mm or coarser wire mesh, visible surface water being removed with a damp
cloth, the saturated and surface dry blocks immediately weighed. After weighing all blocks shall

be dried in a ventilated oven at 100 to 115°C for not less than 24 hours and until two successive
weighing at intervals of 2 hours show an increment of loss not greater than 0.2 percent of the last
previously determined mass of the specimen. (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979) The water
absorption calculates as given below:
Absorption % = (A-B)/B * 100
Where, A = wet mass of unit in kg. B = dry mass of unit in kg.
d. Testing blocks for compressive strength
The following are the minimum compressive strength requirements for blocks at the age of 28
days. The mix proportions of the material components are to be adjusted as required to obtain the
required compressive strength. (batcoda thecnical specification)
Table 15 : compressive strength of different class of blocks at 28 days
Class Average of 6 Blocks Individual Block
Class A 42kg/cm2 38kg/cm2
Class B 35kg/cm2 32kg/cm2
Class C 20kg/cm2 18kg/cm2
* Class AA 70kg/cm2 65kg/cm2
* Class AAA 50kg/cm2 46kg/cm2
Table 16 : Comprehensive strength of hollow concrete blocks [IS: 2185-1979]
Minimum comprehensive strength

(N/mm2)
Average of 8
Type of hollow Density of block units
concrete block Class kg/m3 Individual units
Load bearing 3.5 2.8
A Not less than 1500 5.5 4.4
7.5 5.6
2 1.6
B 1000-1500 3 2.4
5 4

Non load
bearing C 1000-1500 1.5 1.2
e. Drying Shrinkage
The drying shrinkage is defined as the change in linear dimension of test specimen due to drying
From saturated condition to an equilibrium weight and length under specified accelerated drying
Condition. Dimensional changes of units has a significant effect on cracking that may be takes
Place during the early curing and drying which leads to a reduction in volume due to loss of
moisture (Indian standard IS:2185(partII), 1985).
In addition to this the weather conditions at the job site also contribute to the dimensional changes
in concrete masonry. Clearly, there will be more shrinkage in hot, arid climates as the amount of
moisture lost to the atmosphere is greater than in cooler, humid climates. Units when unrestrained
being the average of three units shall not exceed 0.1 percent [IS: 2185:1979]. The ‘drying
shrinkage’ shall be calculated for each specimen as the difference between the ‘original wet
measurement’ and the ‘dry measurement’ expressed as a percentage of the ‘dry length (Indian
standards 2185-part 1, 1979).
2.5 Quality Control in the Manufacture of Hollow Concrete Blocks
Quality control is the use of techniques and activities to achieve, sustain and improve the quality
of a product or service. It involves integrating techniques and activities such as specification of
what is needed. International standard organization, defines quality control as operational
techniques and activities that are used to fulfill requirement for quality (UCY.T, 2005).
In the block production, the quality control methods used for inspection and testing for quality
control are screening or 100% inspection, sampling or lot by lot inspection and process inspection.
The application of quality control in the block industry should cover the whole production process
right from the raw material stage to the finished product. The control areas should start with the
control of raw materials, in process control, control of finished products, visual control and
physical control which has to do with quality control tests. Proper control measures in the
manufacturing process should result in the following: (Okereke, (2003)).
 Decrease in reject rate and increase in product quality.
 Reduction in price of products hence better value for money.
 Increase in product yield which should make economic mass production possible.
 Reduction in production and distribution/delivery cost.

 Good reputation for the industry and improved.
2.5.1 Objectives of Quality Control
The objectives of quality control is not to eliminate all variability of the blocks produced which
would be an impossible task, but to constrain this variability to economically feasible limits. This
include the following: (Okereke, (2003)).
 To take necessary steps to keep the quality of the product from dropping below the desired
level during manufacture.
 To avoid as far as reasonable possible, having product which are of low quality than that
which is considered acceptable to reach the customer.
 To set up standard of quality that are readily acceptable to the customer and economical to
achieve and maintain.
 To analyze the trend and extent of quality deviation in a part or product during
manufacturing and to determine the cause of such deviation by statistical techniques when
it cannot be reasonably attributed to chance.
2.5.2 Types of techniques available in inspection
There are three type of testing for quality control processes in some of these selected block
industries.
a) Process inspection
b) Sampling or lot by lot inspection
c) Screening or 100% inspection
a. Process inspection: In this process inspection every stage or process that would be passed
through must be inspected from watering (curing) process, handling and storing processes
to the time of delivery.
The first type is process control. When creating any type of product there is a process,
meaning all products start with pieces and end with a finished good. Process control is the
type of quality control that makes sure the processes within a block production are
functioning correctly. This means that all of the activities included in each process are
operating at a nice stable pace with little variation (A.G., (2005)).
b. Sampling or lot by lot inspection: This is a kind of statistical method of inspection. It is

a visible process where a representative sample is drawn from a lot size of production lot

in order to access the acceptability of the whole lot. The numbers of defects are compared
with appropriate acceptability quality level (AQL) drawn from sampling plans. In practice,
an AQL percentage for acceptance number and rejection number depends on the
classification of defects such as critical major and minor defects, where quality level
percentage for rejection or acceptance depends on the type of defect (Okereke, (2003)).
c. Screening or 100% inspection
This technique involves the examination of all component one by one. It is a visible test
used in these selected block producers to sort at defective used ones from the production
line. Screening is used on the production line and during re-inspection. Inspection of
finished production on a screening basis is a technique with proper control which
theoretically should be one of the surest way to eliminate defective products from being
shipped out (A.G., (2005)).
2.5.3 Factors influencing the quality of hollow concrete blocks
The major factors affecting the strength of hollow concrete block include:
 Type of cement
 Degree of compaction
 Curing method
 Quality of the aggregates.
i. Types of cement
Cement has a considerable effect on quality of hollow concrete block since it is one of the
ingredients for HCB production therefore the type of cement we use for production should be the
required quality. When we say type whether it could be ordinary Portland cement (opc) or
Portland pozzolana cement) or any other kind of cement which has essential chemical
composition and rate of hydration when react with water. On the contrary types of cement also
deals with the place of manufacturing it means where the cement is produced the best cement
quality for HCB production quality should be used thus the cement manufacturer with such
provisions should be given priority. For example some cement manufacturers produces cement
with low composition of tricalcium silicate (c3s) which makes it the cement to set very slowly
and achieve 28 days compressive strength lately, where as other may produce cement with high
content of tricalcim silicate (c3s) which enables the cement to set fast so in such situations the
cement with early strength should be used for production. (A.G., (2005)).

ii. Compaction
Compaction ensures better bonding between the aggregates. The bonding to a greater extent
determines how strong or weak the product will be. During hollow blocks manufacturing, the
vibration which ensures the compaction is closely linked with the manner of placing the sand mix
into the mould and the subsequent drying down of the rammer against the mix in the mould.
Observations under this will be treated under latent factor methods of placing mix into the mould
(A.G., (2005)).
iii. Curing
Curing ensures the appropriate medium for hydration of the cement clinkers, which is the major
physicochemical reaction that produces setting and hardening of hollow concrete blocks. Curing
mechanism and program is a major determinant of strength of hollow concrete blocks.
iv. Quality of aggregates
The aggregates for the manufacture of hollow concrete blocks are sand or gravel. The ability of
the cement (binder) to hold and hold firmly the aggregates together determines also the degree of
the ultimate strength of the products. Sand of different geological formations will not only differ
in strength but also in the yield, aesthetic and other qualities of the products.
Latent factors affecting the strength of hollow concrete blocks
During hollow concrete blocks manufacturing certain factors not easily noticeable and which are
often ignored affect the immediate and ultimate strength of the product. After several months of
experimental observations and under controlled conditions, the outcomes of such factors will be
noticeable. (Anyanwu, (Sep. - Oct. 2013),)
 Type, quality and grade of aggregates
 Quality of mix
 Time lag between mixing and placing of mix into mould
 mode of placing mix into mould before compaction
 Curing mechanism/regime
 Measures under unfavorable weather condition.
a. Type quality and grade of aggregates
The properties of the aggregate that affect the strength of hollow concrete blocks include among
others cleanliness, size and the sharpness of the aggregate. Dirty and unclean aggregates will result
in side reactions with the cement. The acidic and other chemical contents of the dirty aggregate

will retard the gain in strength through the release by products of either soluble or amorphous
substances which greatly influenced the strength. Aggregates for hollow concrete blocks must be
very clean and most often from deep river water. White river sand, washed and pumped by
machines are recommended. The size of the aggregate must as much as possible lie within the
limits of the grade of aggregates called sand i.e. within 0.2-0.3mm in diameter. On no account will
silt be used. The use of silt has the disadvantage of low yield and low ultimate strength of the
hollow concrete block. Again the larger the aggregates the more the yield and the stronger the
HCB. Very sharp edged aggregates provide easy and favorable bonding surface for the cement
clinker and the aggregates. When aggregates are not sharp or are coated with thin films of dust the
bonding is restricted and this results in reduced ultimate strength of the hollow concrete block
(Anyanwu, (Sep. - Oct. 2013),).
b. Quality of mix and mixing method
These factors seem among others to have major influence on the ultimate performance every sand
grain since it must be properly mixed to come in contact with the cement clinker to ensure proper
bonding. To achieve this the cement is placed on the measured quality of sharp sand and a fresh
mould built up with each of the 5-6 cycles of mixing. In doing so shovel/spade scooping are placed
at the apex of the mould and on rolling sown the mould, cement and sand are properly mixed
together. When the mix is ready for placing into the mould it maintains a homogeneous color and
texture all through without a trace of the color of cement or sand. The quality of water added is
also determined by the color of cement or sand. The quantity of water added is determined by the
wetness or otherwise of the sand and also by the weather conditions. During dry hot (harmattan)
conditions a little excess water is added to reduce dry shrinkages during setting and hardening
before curing starts. Again the quantity of water added must be related to the conditions of
workability. Water used must be fit for drinking (A.G., (2005)).
c. Time lag between mixing and molding
This is the most essential in determining the ultimate strength. Hydration of cement clink which is
the major physicochemical process of setting and hardening of concrete starts immediately the
water gets in contact with the cement clinkers. To achieve optimal strength of each hollow concrete
blocks, the mixing must be fast and therefore immediately followed by molding. Delay in molding
after the fresh cement-sand-water mix is rarely a source of weakness in the blocks. The implication
of this is that the aggregate component is increased with very low cement sand ratio. The ultimate

result is a very weak product, which after the 28th-day period remains brittle and fragile (A.G.,
(2005)).
d. Placing and refilling of mould with mix
This salient factor could be responsible for reduced strength of masonry blocks if it is not properly
checked. When mix is placed on the mould and the vibration of each mould initiated, care must be
taken to ensure that the vibration mould overflows with the mix before the rammer is driven down
into the mould. In this circumstance, it is recommended to use the “protector” to remove the excess
mix on the mould rather than using the spade or by hand. Although this will prolong the “mature”
period of the vibration but it ensures that enough quality of the mix is compacted together to reduce
the existence of honey-combs and ensure greater strength (Okereke, (2003)).
e. Duration and degree of compaction
In concrete technology, degree of compaction is one of the major determinants of strength of the
concrete product, hence the need for the opportunities of this very factor. Maturity period of
vibration of hollow concrete blocks is reached when the rammer vibrates freely within the mould.
When this happens the vibrator is switched off and the mould is lifted up the fresh block with clear
and distinct lifter –strikes, correctly made to avoid DE vibration of the fresh compacted block
(Anyanwu, (Sep. - Oct. 2013),).
f. Measures under unfavorable weather conditions
During warm periods the fresh molds lose water very easily to the surrounding air and more often
than not, this results in drying shrinkages. There is need to guard against this effect. Fresh molds
must be attended to and measures taken to ensure that they are constantly humid/we at least for 3
days from the day of molding. The easiest way to achieve this, especially during massive
production of blocks is to constantly spray water on the hollow concrete blocks as against covering
them with wet sacks. Also during rainy season, it is common occurrence to experience rainfall
while molding just thereafter before the placed fresh masonry blocks from melting down by the
rain, light cellophane sheets are used to cover the blocks. For easy handling, the blocks are
arranged in rows of 10-15 blocks. Corridors are created after very 4 rows to create spaces for
unduly long periods, the strength of the blocks are reduced. Hence the sheets are to be removed
immediately the threats posed by the rain are over. Again the removal of the sheets must be guarded
so as not to deface the blocks (A.G., (2005)).

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter provides how to do the research with appropriate methods, which includes the
research approach, method, sampling design, sources of data, how to collect data from the target
population, analyze and present the analyzed data, so that enable the researcher to address the set
objectives.
3.2 Research Design

In this study, mixed method research approaches were used. Because, this approach is useful the
best to capture both qualitative and quantitative data. To employ mixed method, a questionnaire
survey was conducted and analyzed which was followed by an in-depth analysis from qualitative
data source.
In line with the above strategies the research was carried out using a three phased approach in
order to achieve the objectives of the research. The first was to undertake a literature search on
previous publications on hollow concrete blocks, especially quality related problems during
production. Although the review of related literature was carried out as a standing alone chapter.
In the second phase, questionnaires were developed and distributed to two groups: a) contractors
and consultants , and b) for hollow concrete block producers who are operating in adigrat town to
get their opinion based on their experiences and to get the extent of quality problems in production
of hollow concrete blocks. Upon obtaining the desired data, checking and sorting of data has been
done.
In the third phase, site visits were conducted in some selected hollow concrete block producers
site. For data analysis data were gathered employing site observation. Site observation was
supported by a photo camera. The data were then analyzed extracting the information obtained
through the overall research work. Finally, this was followed by thorough discussions in order to
draw conclusions and to forward recommendations based on the findings of the study.

3.3 Sources of Data and Research Instruments
3.3.1. Primary Data
Questionnaire
Questionnaire provides firsthand information for the subject matter of a research as it is focused
on issues which further serves as a survey to understand the main concerns and attitudes of
respondents towards the problems (Kasiem, 2008). In this thesis, questionnaire was administered
to some purposively selected hollow concrete producers, contractors and consultants.
As a primary Source: about 16 questionnaires were administrated in 16 targeted study areas
through purposive sampling techniques. For this particular research purpose, among different
hollow concrete block producers that exist within ADIGRAT city, contractors, consultants and
HCB producers has been selected respectively.
As mentioned above, for this particular research purpose, among different block producers,
contractors and consultants in adigrat city a total of 16(sixteen) questionnaires has been prepared
and distributed to them.
Among the 16 questionnaires distributed, 62.5% of it (10 questionnaires) were distributed among
hollow concrete producers and while the remaining 37.5 %( 6) questionnaires were went to
contractors and consultants respectively. Using the questionnaire, the status & profile of
contractors, hollow concrete producers were gathered. This includes, the background of the
company, transportation and storing of raw materials, production process and quality control
mechanism followed by the company.
Interviews
In addition to the questionnaires, as primary source, interviews (unstructured) were also conducted
on selected hollow concrete block producers, contractors like that of the questioners. The
interviews were not conducted to raise new question that are not been asked in the questioner but
for cross checking the answers given in the questioner and to have information about their
understanding and opinion regarding quality control.
Site visits and observation
The another way of gathering and collecting primary data was through site visit we have arranged
site visits the sites previously mentioned and we have the chance to witness and demonstrate our
theoretical knowledge which we acquire from the literature review in to practicable way in doing

so we have seen starting from materials handling storage up to each production stages in the
manufacture of hollow concrete blocks. This helps to point out the major problems involved in the
production process of HCB.
3.3.2 Secondary data

Secondary data which involves information from published text such as journals, government
publications, dictionaries, dissertations and reliable internet resources were used to compliment
the primary data.
3.4 Research Population and Sampling
In Adigrat city there are a number of hollow concrete block producers who are engaged in the
production of hollow concrete blocks and contractors who produce blocks for the respective
projects they are carrying out and consultants who have the educational and technical expertise
and knowledge about the production of HCB. For these purpose the research considers at least two
samples from 5 Keble’s in order to address the research objectives and its scope.
ADIGRAT CITY
KEBLE 01 KEBLE 02 KEBLE 03 KEBLE 04 KEBLE 05
S-5 S-6 S-7 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16

S-1 S-2
S-3 S-4
S-8 S-9 S-10 S-11 S-12
Figure 2: sample size selection
3.5 Method of Data Analysis:
Finally the results of the questionnaires are analyzed by percentile method which is evaluating
each question individually and taking their ratio from the total number of respondents.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the analysis of the data collected through questionnaires, site observation
and literature review concerning quality related problems in HCB production briefly discussed
here. The data are presented using appropriate data presentation tools (tables, graphs and photos).
The practices of quality control in related to production of hollow concrete blocks are evaluated
against the recommended scientific practices. Hollow concrete block quality are affected both by
the quality of ingredients and the production processes, each ingredient and every production
processes are thoroughly seen. The questionnaires are attached on the annex part of this paper.
4.2 Questionnaire Response Rate

Questionnaires were distributed for hollow concrete block producers, contractors and consultants.
The questionnaires comprised of twenty eight questions in total concerning on different sub topics.
As the study aimed to do thorough research investigation. The research analysis and discussion is
done based on the response from the distributed questionnaire that indicates a good confidence
limit 56.25; as shown below in Table 19
Table 17 : Response Rate of the Questionnaire
NO respondents Questionaries Returned Unfinished Analyzed

’ distributed questionaries’ questionaries’ questionnaire
No No percent No Percent No percent
1 HCB producers 10 10 100 - - 10 100
2 contractors 5 5 100 2 12.5 2 12.5
3 consultants 1 1 100 1 6.25 - -
TOTAL 16 16 100 3 18.75 12 56.25
Note: -No=number and percent=Percentage

A total of 16 questionnaires were sent to a selected sample of respondents in which comprise the
following: 10 hollow concrete block producers, 1 consultant and 5 contractors. Form those
questioners 10 HCB producers, and 3 contractor’s questioners were analyzed.
4.2.1 Respondent's Position in the Site
Table 20 illustrates that from the HCB producers 50 percent are HCB production yard owners,
33.33 percent production head and 16.6 percent are loubers in the site. Whereas from the
contracting companies, 33.3 percent are site engineers and 36 percent are construction engineer.

Most of the respondents were HCB producers. Therefore the reliability of the questionnaire
responses were accepted since their scope of work is in the site; and has certain experience and
expertise.
Table 18 : Respondent’s Position in the Site
HCB producers contractors Consultants

Position no Percent Position no percent Position no percent
Owners 6 50 Construction 1 36 Assistant 1 100
engineer resident
engineer
Production 4 33.3 Site 2 33.3
Head engineer
labourers 2 16.6 Site 1 33.3
supervisor
4.2.2 Educational Level of Respondents

The respondent’s Educational level is shown in Figure 4.2 below. 31.25 percent of respondents
have B.Sc. and 18.75 percent have diploma and 50 percent have TVET certificate. Generally 90
percent of them have B.Sc., diploma and certificate. This indicates great confidence in their
answers.
EDUCATION LEVEL
80
60
40
50
20 31.25
18.75
0 5 3 8
BSC Diploma TVET Certificate
Number percentage
Figure 3: Educational background of respondent’s

4.3 Hollow concrete block production
A hollow concrete block is a standard size rectangular block used in building construction. Hollow
concrete blocks some of the most versatile building products available because of the wide variety
appearances that can be achieved using concrete masonry units (V.M.Throat).
The manufacture of hollow concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to produce blocks that
have the required properties such as shape, appearance, texture and color and apparent density,
Water absorption and compressive strength (Ethiopian standard (ES 596:), 2001). In general all
units shall be free of cracks or other defects which interfere with the proper placing of the unit or
impair the strength or the Performance of construction (Indian standard IS:2185(partII), 1985). In
order to achieve those properties; care should be taken in material mix proportion, method of
manufacturing and handling to ensure the compliance with the requirements stated in different
standards those are mention in the literature review.
The production of hollow concrete blocks follows a series of production process starting from
material selection and preparation up to the last stage of production process which is drying of the
finished hollow concrete product (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979). Therefore the materials for
the production of hollow concrete blocks should be compiled and adhere to the standards, as well
as the production should proceed in accordance with recommended scientific approaches which is
starting from batching and proportioning, placing and compacting, moulding, curing and the
drying stages should follow the specified working procedure in order to achieve the required
physical as well as chemical requirements of finished HCB such as compressive strength. Water
absorption. Moisture content, drying shrinkage etc.
The research was carried out to assess the quality control problems in the production of hollow
concrete blocks to do so questionaries’ was distributed to hollow concrete producers, contractors
and consultants in Adigrat area and also site visits and interviews also conducted. Once we get the
actual data that HCB producers, contractors and consultants currently practices in production site
the next thing to do is analyzing the actual data with the specified standards and code of practices
such as Ethiopian, Indian, American standards listed in the literature review.

4.3.1 Raw materials
4.3.1.1 Cement:
Portland cement considered as generic material. Hydrated cements having different chemical
composition may exhibit different properties. It should thus be possible to select mixture of raw
materials for the production of cements with various desired properties. (Steven H, 2008)
For the request what type of cement did you use for production of HCB all the respondents
answered the same question which is they use Portland pozzolana (PPC) type of cement. Based on
site observation most sites uses grade 32.5 PPC cement for the production of HCB. They use ppc
cement because it is suitable for nonstructural works, its economical, its higher durability in HCB
structure, better work ability.
Figure 4: Portland pozzolana cement (ppc) grade 32.5
The source of cement in which the production sites used for HCB production is messebo cement
factory this is common for the HCB producers and contractors because since the quality of cement
is the major effect on the whole quality of hollow concrete block so respondents reply because
messebo cement is the best quality for production they prefer messebo cement than other sources.
For the request how many blocks are produced for one bag of cement the respondents reply varying
answers the quantity of cement within a given mix proportion for production of hollow concrete
blocks also has effect on quality of HCB, which is some of the hollow concrete producers as well
as contractors who produces HCB may increase or decrease the quantity of cement in order to
increase the number of concrete blocks gained from one bag of cement, therefore if the quantity
of cement decreases in the mix then the number of blocks produced from one bag of cement
increases which in turn benefits the producers in terms of cost but it may have effect on quality of
HCB. The following graph shows how many HCB’s are produced for one bag of cement for 10,
15 and 20 cm of hollow concrete blocks.

production/ one Bag cement
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 20 cm
20 cm 15 cm 10 cm
Figure 5 : production of HCB per one bag cement

As we seen in the graph the number of hollow concrete blocks produced from one bag of cement
for each sample varies which is mainly caused by the variation in cement quantity according to
Indian standard IS 2185,1979 one bag of cement should produce 32-33 number of 20cm, 40-45
number of 15cm,and 50-60 of 10cm blocks respectively.
It is necessary to check the quality of cement on site at the time of preliminary inspection. Although
it is not possible to check all the engineering qualities of cement on site but there exists some field
tests which gives a rough idea of quality of cement (Adhikari, 2016). For the request on whether
test is carried out on the quality of cement for the production of hollow concrete blocks almost all
respondents and based on site observation none of the respondents applies test for cement..
The HCB producers are not expected to test all the physical requirements of cement at site but by
doing simple tests at site we can check the quality of cement for example it starts with checking
the manufacturing date of the cement because due to expired date of cement its strength reduces
which intern affects the quality of HCB product.by taking a small sample of cement on hand and
rub it against fingers it should fell smooth then its quality cement. But the respondents did not
perform any kind of laboratory or field test for cement they simply use it for production after
loading.

Handling and storage of cement
Cement is a moisture-sensitive material; if kept dry, it will retain its quality indefinitely. Cement
stored in contact with damp air or moisture sets more slowly and has less strength than cement that
is kept dry. (Duggal, 2000) The relative humidity in a warehouse or shed used to store bagged
cement should be as low as possible. All cracks and openings in walls and roofs should be closed.
Cement bags should not be stored on damp floors but should rest on pallets. Bags should be stacked
close together to reduce air circulation. (Indian standards 2185-part 1, 1979)
Based on the questionaries’ distributed 37.5% of the respondents answered cement is stored at the
site for about 6(six) months 18.75% of the respondents answered that they store cement for about
2-3(three) months at site before production. 43.75% of the respondents answered that they store
cement for less than 1(one) month on store before applied for production. Therefore from the above
quantitative summary most respondents are not storing cement in accordance with the standards.
According to Indian standard is 2185 1979 cement should be stored below 28 days at site before
production. cements which stored for 2 months on site may lose its strength by about 20%, cement
stored at site for 6 months may loses its strength about 40% in general cements stored up to 4
months at site should be re tested for use.in addition as specified in the literature review the cement
in store should be placed in raised platform and should be covered with a waterproof cover to
protect it from damp, but during site observation the cements were directly placed on the ground
and does not covered with a water proof material.
Figure 6: storage of cement at site

4.3.1.2 Aggregate
From the respondents the main source of Crushed aggregates size of 00 and 01 are temben. but in
addition fine aggregates are also obtained from adigrat and mekele also some of the respondents
gain the fine aggregates required for HCB production from fasti, hawzen and kisad alewa but
according to the respondents the bet type of aggregate free from dusts and silt particles are
available in kisad alewa.
For the request what type of aggregate used for production 70 percent of the respondents reply
normal weight aggregates which used to produce normal weight hollow concrete blocks. Some of
the most common type of normal weight aggregates observed at site are sand, gravel and crushed
stone. 20 percent of the respondents also uses light weight aggregates such as pumice for the
production of hollow concrete blocks 10 percent from which the remaining respondents uses
combined aggregates for the production of hollow concrete blocks.
The other question requested for the respondents were if there is any kind of test carried out for
aggregates. In case of sand 25 percent of the respondents replied that they use silt content test to
determine the quality of the sand whereas the remaining 75 percent determines the quality of sand
just by rubbing a small sample of sand in their hand and seeing if the sand sticks to the finger or
not. Based on this most of the respondents did not perform sand test which can be the major cause
of reduction in compressive strength of HCB. Whereas 30 percent of the respondents carry out
sieve analysis test to determine the maximum size aggregate for hollow concrete production as
well as to determine the finesse modulus of aggregates.in case of flakiness, abrasion and water
content tests only 10 percent from the respondents carried out such kinds of tests. But according
to ASTM- C-140-11a the previously specified tests for aggregates should be carried out before
proceeding to any concrete related production.
On the request how frequent did you take samples for test of aggregates, 12.5 of the respondents
replied that test is carried out only once when it comes from a single supplier. Which is once the
aggregate arrives at the site it will be tested then it will be taken for production it does not include
the time in which the aggregate will be stored at the site before production. Whereas 18.75 of the
respondents answered that it depends on the condition to test the aggregate when it seems defective
but the remaining 68.5 respondents did not perform any test on the aggregates in the first place

they simply uses the aggregate for production, which is the major factor for quality problems in
production sites.
For the request are you satisfied with the quality of aggregates if not and test result fails what
would you do? Most of the respondents have a good understanding of quality of aggregates the
problem is to laid down this understanding in to working or practicable way, therefore they
satisfied by the quality of aggregates even without testing the aggregates for production but some
respondents replied that another trial mix to be used or changing the source of aggregate would be
measures taken to maintain the quality of aggregate.
Handling and storing of aggregates at site

During site observation aggregates storing and handling was poor except some sites, to mean that
the aggregates are not stored in a way that could minimize the risk of segregation and degradation
effects during mix. For example in some production sites the aggregate are stored without making
stockpiles and the aggregates are dispersed everywhere which increase the risk of segregation,
fine and coarse aggregates were stored together to minimize space but according to Indian
standards fine and coarse particles should be stored separately to prevent the mixture of clay, dust
particles. The another thing is the aggregates were stored with dust particles such as plastic
highlands, demolished concrete blocks, clay and on the top of sand small trees and leaves were
grown which is the major deleterious substances which could affect the block density as well as
compressive strength of HCB.
Figure 7: sand and aggregate storing at site

4.3.1.3 Water
Out of the sixteen (16) respondents only two respondent replied that their source of water for used
for concrete mix for the production of hollow concrete block is from non-drinking water which is
river where as the other uses drinking water for production.
During site visit we observed that the main problem regarding water for concrete block production
was not the source of water rather it is the way they handle and store the water. Although the water
is protected by building rectangular concrete tanker to store the water but due to long storage of
the water in the tanker it becomes dirty. According to Indian standard 2185 (2005) the tanker for
storage of water should be cleaned every 14(fourteen) days. The quality of water for making
concrete blocks is the main reason for the reduction in compressive strength of hollow concrete
blocks.
For the request is there any test done on water before using in production all the respondents replied
that no test is carried out for water but sometimes the water could be rejected if it is from non-
drinking source and contain huge dust particles.
Figure 8: source and storage of water at site
4.3.2 Production Process

Based on site observation the class and size of hollow concrete blocks produced at production site
in accordance with the Ethiopian standard are described and summarized in the following table.

Study area: kebele 01
Sample id Class of HCB Size of HCB
A B C 20cm 15cm 10cm
1    
2  

3    
4  

5    
6    
7   

8   
9   
10    
11   
12    

13    
14    
15   
16   
From the above table we can understand the majority of respondents and also from our site
observation class C of hollow concrete for non-load bearing structure is produced by hollow
concrete producers in Adigrat city the production of class A and class B is very limited.

4.3.2.1 Batching and Mixing
The production of hollow concrete blocks passed through a series of processes from this processes
the first step is proportioning the amount of the ingredients for the mix and once the mix is prepared
mixing for a specified time will follow. During site observation and from interview most of
production sites uses the method of volume batching for this purpose they uses a wooden box a
dimension of(40*50*20) to measure the quantity of aggregate and sand where as some of them
uses both weight batching and volume batching. According to Indian standard 2185(2005) the
mixing of ingredients shall be done on a water tight platform and the mix should be continued until
there is uniform distribution of materials. During site observation we witness a totally different
activity the ground for mixing is not carefully selected it could be watered or covered with dust
particles and they don’t have a constant mixing duration which affects the uniformity of the mix.
For the request how do you mix your ingredients 18.75 percent or 3(three) of the respondents
replied that they uses mechanical mixer to mix the ingredients whereas 75 percent or (12) of the
respondents uses hand or manually mix method to mix the ingredients only 6.25 percent or 1(one)
of the respondents uses both methods to mix the ingredients. According to Indian standard it
specifies to use mechanical mixer in order to get a homogenous mix and good surface texture after
curing.
According to Ethiopian standard ESC D3.301 for class a hollow concrete blocks the mix
proportion should be as follows:
 Sand = 2 box Gravel 01 = 2
 Cement =1 Gravel 00 =1 box
For class B hollow concrete blocks the mix proportion should be as follows:
 Sand =2 Gravel 00 =1
 Gravel 01 =2 Cement =1
Or sand =2 Gravel 00=1

Cement= 1 pumice= 2
But during site observation what is practically done on production sites is different from the
standard to mean that The mix ratios used by producers varies greatly, with almost no producers
following the requirements of the Ethiopian standard ESC D3.301 . In some cases it was not

possible to collect responses on mix ratio as producers were very unhappy about being asked this.
The following table and graph illustrates this idea.
Table 19 : mix proportions used at site

Sample id Class of HCB Mix proportion(cement,
A B C gravel 00,gravel 01,sand)
1  1:1:3:1
2  1:1:3:1

Sample id Class of HCB Mix proportion
A B C
3  1:1:2:1
4  1:2:1:1

A B C
5  1:1:3:1
6  1:1:2:1
7  1:1:3:1
Study area:kebele 04
A B C
8  1:3:2:2
9  1:1:3:1
10  1:2:3:1
11  1:1:3:1
12  1:1:2:1
Study area:kebele 05
A B C
13  1:1:3:1
14  1:1:3:1
15  1:1:3:1
16  1:2:3:1

From the above table we can summarize that the respondent’s uses different kind of mix
proportions but it is without the standard specification which results in reduction of block density
and compressive result as well as rough surface texture.
Figure 9: batching and mixing of ingredients at site
4.3.2.2 Placing and Compaction

Based on site observation most of the respondent’s uses a trowel and spoon for placing the ready-
made mix in to the mould. One thing to note that here is most of the respondents don’t care about
the layer of placing in to the mould according to Indian standard the mixture should be placed
50mm up to 70mm layer. For the case of compaction based on our observation they use mechanical
compaction and they compact the mixture for about average of 1(one) minute. But the respondents
does not know the exact time for vibrating the mix while in the mould this may causes under
vibration or over vibration which may results in crack of surface and uneven distribution of
materials.

Figure 10: placing of concrete mix on the mould
4.3.2.3 Curing
Curing of hollow concrete blocks necessary in order to develop the required compressive strength
and to attain the optimum moisture content of the finished product. According to Indian standard
(2185) 2005, the hollow concrete blocks should be cured after they are demolded from the mould
machine and shall be cured for about 7 days if the type of cement is good and hardens rapidly. But
for ordinary cements the duration of the curing shall be 14 days in water tank and the water for
curing should be changed every 4 days.
But during observation most of the respondents uses different kind of duration for curing the
hollow concrete blocks and method of curing as well.25% of the respondents replied that since the
type of cement used for production is ppc it takes time for setting therefore their duration for curing
is 7 days. Whereas 68.75% of the respondents cure their finished hollow concrete blocks in
between 7-14 days and the remaining 6.25% cure for 7-28 days.as we seen from the above
explanation most of the curing duration agrees with the standard but the main problem is how and
by what method did they cure the hollow concrete blocks for instance the water used for curing
purposes is not potable which is too dirty as shown in the figure below.

Figure 11: Water for curing at site
Indian standard specifies the water for curing if it is in a tank it should be changed every 4 days
but in production sites once stored water can be used for up to 14-30 days without changing the
water because of this the water is affected by different dust particles and become unfit for curing
purposes.
The another thing to note that is their method of curing most of the respondents uses a plastic
pipe for curing purposes this may results in uneven and unbalanced distribution of water to
already made finished hollow concrete blocks which results in insufficient curing and causes
reduction of compressive strength.
Figure 12: Curing of hollow concrete blocks at site

The following table summarizes the duration of curing followed by each participated respondents
Table 20: Duration of curing at site
Study area: Keeble 01

Sample Duration of curing
id 7days 10 14 21 28 days
1  
2 

3 
4 

5 
6 
7 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 

13  
14 
15  
16 

4.3.2.4 Drying
According to Indian standard once the blocks have passed all the process aforementioned earlier
then it will be dried for about 4 weeks or it should be stored and placed at site horizontally to allow
free passage of air between the voids of the blocks and should be dried under the shade during hot
climate in order to avoid evaporation of finished blocks and outside the shade during cold weather
to avoid crack of surface. Based on site observation the length of storage of finished hollow
concrete blocks at site after manufacturing is average of 30 days or 1 month which is agrees with
the standard but the main problem is how the blocks are arranged and stored at site after
manufacturing. And most of the respondents does not care about under and outside shade drying
this results in dismantling and breaking of hollow concrete blocks as shown in the figure below.
Figure 13: Drying of hollow concrete blocks at site
4.3.2.5 Surface texture and finish

Concrete block units can be given a variety of surface texture ranging from a very fine close texture
to a coarse open texture by the proper selection grading, and proportioning of aggregates at the
time of manufacture. Textures may also be developed by treating the face of the units while still
green by wire brushing or combing, by slightly eroding the surface by playing a fine spray of water
upon it, and by splitting ( split block ). (Ethiopian standard (ES 596:), 2001)
During site observation since most of the respondents were using inappropriate mix ratio for the
production during manufacturing the surface of hollow concrete blocks were damaged and broken
in addition to this the respondents does not use any kind of method for the finished products to
give it texture.

Figure 14: Poor surface texture at site.
4.3.3 Handling and storage of hollow concrete blocks

The blocks shall be stored in a way that could avoid any contact with moisture on the site they
shall be stock piled on planks or other supports free from contact with the ground and covered to
protect against wetting. The blocks shall be handled with care and damaged units shall be rejected.
Indian standards-2572-1963. After the production of hollow concrete blocks their storage and
handling plays a vital role in the performance of their application. The hollow concrete blocks
should be stored in a way that could minimize the breaking and damage of their surfaces which
could have a huge impact in their compressive strength based on site observation most of the
respondents don’t give a care for the proper storing of HCB’s after production.in some production
sites the blocks are stored in irregular manner that does not give ventilation, the blocks are stored
in dirty ground.
Figure 15: Poor handling of hollow concrete blocks

4.3.4 Compressive strength test for Hollow concrete blocks
According to Ethiopian standard [ES 596:2001] and Indian standard IS 2185 (Part I) – 1 1979
specifies that dimension, water absorption test, block density, compressive strength and drying
shrinkage tests should be carried out for hollow concrete blocks to conform to standards.
But during site observation only 37.5 % percent of respondents carried out tests for the previously
mentioned tests for HCB. whereas the remaining 62.5% of respondents carried out tests by
physical test such as by dropping the block at some height, by visual observation and cutting tests.
1. Laboratory test: according to Ethiopian standards ESC D3.301 compressive strength test for
hollow concrete blocks should be carried out on 6(samples) of blocks and the average of the
6(six) blocks should be compared with the individual compressive strength of the block.
Based on interview from the respondents out of the 37.5 percent of the respondents that carried
out test for hollow concrete blocks only 18.75% of them complies with the standard to mean
that carries test on 6(six) samples for each class and size of block. Whereas the remaining takes
3 samples which is inadequate to gain enough compressive strength data and some of the takes
8 samples which could agree with Indian standards.
2. Manual test
a) Drop Test: Drop two-three blocks from 1.5m at a hard surface (concrete surface) more
the pieces less the strength.
When drop from chest Height when drop from head Height

Passed (acceptable quality 1 HCB broken) failed (poor quality more than 1 HCB broken)
b) Visual Test: Press the corner of the block it should not be break easily.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
The objectives of the research had been achieved based on the literature review from articles,
journals and books; findings from questionnaire survey, site interviews and site visits. This chapter
has two sections; the first section presents stand on the result of the analysis the conclusions have
been described, the second section outlines a list of recommendations that could facilitate to
improve quality control in the production of hollow concrete blocks.
Most of the production sites do not perform tests for the raw materials that are used as
ingredients for hollow concrete production and this has been the major factor for the quality
reduction in hollow concrete blocks .cements, aggregates and water do not passes at least
field tests as prescribed in the literature review and are directly used for production.
In most of the production sites the raw materials cement, aggregate and water aren’t stored
in a way that could minimize the effect of dampness, deterioration and from being
contaminated by dust particles cement is stored on rough ground without making any
elevated platform, aggregates of size 00 and 01 are stored or stockpiled together which
causes difficulties during proportioning, water although most production sites uses
drinking water for production of hollow concrete blocks but their handling was very poor
which contributes to the quality problem in HCB.
Another factor for the reduction in the quality of production of hollow concrete blocks were
the production process. As described earlier the first step in the production process is
batching or proportioning the ingredient’s in economical and feasible way according to
Ethiopian standards the mixing proportion for production of HCB should be 1:6 (1 part
cement by 6 part aggregates) but most production sites did not follow this standard. Mixing
is carried out without giving precautions for the ground on which the mix is laid since 75%
of the respondents uses manual mixing and do not know the exact duration for mixing the
ingredient’s which consequently affects the uniformity of the mix.
Vibration of the mix after it is mixed and placed on the moulding machine will takes place
but in most production sites they don’t care about for how long should the mix be vibrated
before moulded to its shape these may have effect for over and under vibration which may
causes cracking in the surface of the hollow concrete blocks.

Curing of hollow concrete blocks should be done between 7-14 days depending on the type
of cement to mean that since OPC cement has rapid setting time relative to PPC cement it
requires short period of time to be cured which is 7 days but most production sites uses
PPC kind of cement and they cured the hollow concrete blocks for average of 10 days and
they cure the blocks with inappropriate curing mechanism since water may not be well
distributed for all produced blocks and theses leads to reduction in compressive strength.
And 90% of the respondents cure the blocks outside the shade. But after manufacturing the
blocks shall be protected from the sun and cured not less than 14 days. But at site blocks
will be cured on the sun immediately after production.
Only 18.75% of the respondents carry out compressive strength test for hollow concrete
blocks after their production at 28 days of production but the remaining 81.25% of the
respondents did not perform any kind of laboratory test for hollow concrete block rather
they simply performs field test to check the quality and performance of hollow concrete
blocks such as physical tests drop test, visual test and other mechanisms.
Only the 37.5 0f the respondents have quality control document which can be guideline for
the production of hollow concrete blocks and prepare checklist to control the production
of hollow concrete blocks whereas the remaining 62.5% of the respondents do not have
any quality manual as well as checklist to supervise the production of hollow concrete
blocks which could be the main reason for quality problems in the production of hollow
concrete blocks.
5.2 Recommendations
 Tests for raw material should be carried out before commencing to any kind of production
activity. Which is field tests including for cement and aggregate should be carried out to
differentiate the quality of ingredients. In addition to the tests for ingredient’s the source
of cement, aggregate and water should be carefully selected because the quality of those
ingredients may decrease based on source.
 100% process control should be exercised in the production of hollow concrete blocks such
as batching, mixing, compacting, moulding and curing since the mix proportions currently
practiced in production sites is out of standard producers need to follow the standard while
batching the ingredient’s and during mixing of the ingredient’s the length of mixing should

be constant to give homogenous mixture and thus reducing the effects of surface texture
failure.
 Curing of concrete block should be carried out for a minimum of 14 days with a clear and
potable source of water since curing of hollow concrete have a bearing effect on
performance of the block in construction as well as compressive strength and the water for
curing should be clear of any dust particles as much as possible and should be changed
regularly to prevent the accumulation of dusts and minerals.
 Tests for hollow concrete blocks should be carried out in accordance with the stipulated
standards such as Indian and Ethiopian standards tests for compressive strength, water
absorption, moisture content, dimension as well as drying shrinkages are mandatory tests
once hollow block concretes are manufactured but such kinds of tests are not carried out in
adigrat area hollow concrete producers.
 The municipality of adigrat city should construct at least one laboratory building with its
lab assistants in order to monitor and control the quality of production of hollow concrete
blocks and should prepare regulation that every hollow concrete block producer shall
comply with the test requirements.
 Producers of hollow concrete blocks must have quality control manual and checklist so as
to monitor the raw materials property and are the require quality the storage and handling
of those ingredient’s the production process.
 Hollow concrete blocks should be stored in a way that could minimize the risk of surface
damage and fracture after manufacturing and should free from any moisture ground which
might affect compressive strength.

References
1. Retrieved from civil engineers association: www.sginstitute.in
2. A.G., V. V. ((2005)). building Materials. Moscow. Stroizdat.

3. Adhikari, R. (2016, 08 23). How to check quality of cement. Retrieved from LinkedIn:
Https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-check-quality-cement-site
4. affairs, E. m. (2006). GTZ low cost housing thecnical manual vol I.
5.. Anupoju, s. (2016). types of concrete blocks. Retrieved from The constructor civil
engineering home: https://theconstructor.org/building/types-concrete blocks
6. Anyanwu, C. ((Sep. - Oct. 2013),). Quality Control Concepts in the Manufacture of Masonry
Blocks for Building Project Delivery. IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-
JBM), PP 35-40.
7. Batcoda Thecnical Specification. method of measurement
8. civil 284.Retrieved from civil.emu.edu.tr properties of cement: civil.emu.edu.tr
9. curtain, w. (1989). structural masonary detailing. london: Granada publishing limited.
10. Duggal, s. (2000). building materials 3rd edition. new delhi, india: new age international
limited publishers.
11. Ethiopian standard (ES 596:). (2001).
12. Evans, k. (2015). disadvantages of concrete blocks. Retrieved from hunker:
https://www.hunker.com
13. Gambhir, M. (2002). Concrete Technology,2nd edition,. Illuinois,USA: MC Grawhill Book.
14. Global shelter cluster . (2011).
15. Indian Standard Concrete Masonry Units — Specification. ((2005)). IS 2185-1 Part 1:
Hollow concrete blocks
16. Indian standard IS:2185(partII). (1985).
22. Indian standard( IS 10262). part I(1983).
17. Indian standards 2185-part 1. (1979). concrete masonary units hollow and solid blocks. new
delhi: Bureaue of indian standards.
18. Kahsay, T. (December, 2014). Study on the Effectiveness of Quality Control for the
Production of Reinforced Concrete and Hollow Concrete Blocks.
19. michael. (2012). building materials. Addis Ababa: mega publishers.
20. Nevielle, A. (1985). Properties of Concrete, Longman Scientific and Technical.
Illiunios,Usa: Mc Grawhill Book.

21. Okereke, P. ((2003)). Construction Materials, Testing and Quality in Tropical Climate.
Crown Publishers Ltd.
23. Steven H, k. b. (2008). design and control of concrete mixtures(14th edititon). iiuinois, usa:
mc graw hill book company.
24. T.Reuters. (2015). construction and building materials investigation and innivative use of
materials in construction p.13.
25. T.rickets, F. s. (2000). building construction Handbook 6th edition. illiunios,USA: portland
cement Association.
26. Taylor, W. (2001). Concrete Technology and Practice,(4th edition);. illiunios USA:
MC.Grawhilbook Company.
27. thecno economic feasiblity report on concrete hollow and solid block. (n.d.). Building
Materials & Technology Promotion Council.
28. UCY.T. (2005). quality techniques and instruction manual 3rd edition. london:
D.P.publishers.
29. V.M.Throat. (n.d.). Hollow concrete blocks"a new trend". international journal of modern
engineering research(IJMER).

ANNEXE I
ASSESMENT OF QUALITY CONTROL ON PRODUCTION OF HOLLOW
CONCRETE BLOCK (HCB)
Dear respondent
We would like to present our appreciation and thanks for taking part of your time to complete this
questionnaires. The purpose of this questioner is to collect data and information for the study on
“assessment of quality control of HCB production” this study is conducted in partial to fulfill the
requirement of the BSc program by construction technology and management in Adigrat
University.
Questioners for hollow concrete block producers

Please give response to the following questions either by putting an `x` mark at your
choice on the rectangles shown for questions having choices or by writing your answers
in the space provided.
Background of respondents
Name educational capacity
Level of work at the company
1. Please specify the types of HCB produced in your site?
HCB for masonry wall
HCB for ribbed slab
2. Please specify class of HCB produced in this site?

HCB for masonry wall
A B C D
HCB for precast slab_________
3. What is the size of HCB used in this project?

Hollow Concrete Block (L x W x T)
40 x 20 x 20
40 x 20 x 15
40 x 20 x 10

4. Where is the source(s) of your Ingredients?
Coarse aggregate: _____________ _____________ _____________
Fine aggregate: _____________ _____________ _____________
5. What type of Aggregate used for production?

Light weight Aggregate
Normal weight Aggregate
Combined Aggregate
6. What are the tests made for aggregates? Please write down the corresponding values
obtained.
_________________ _________________ _________________
_________________ _________________ _________________
7. How frequent do you take samples when testing aggregates?

Only once for one source
Once when it came from the source and then after depending on conditions
(That is when the aggregate seems defective, test may be ordered.) If any other sampling
procedure to be followed, please specify
_______________ _______________
8. Are you satisfied with the quality of aggregate? What would you do if test result fails?
Or if it doesn’t satisfy the requirement stated on the specification?
_______________
_______________
9. What do you propose to maintain the quality of aggregates?

_______________
_______________
_______________
10. What type of cement do you use for the Hollow concrete block production?
OPC

PPC
11. Where is the source of cement used in Hollow concrete block production?
_______________
_______________
_______________
12. How much HCB produced per 100 kg of cement? (LxHxW)

Hollow Concrete Block Precast hollow concrete block
40 x 20 x 20 _________ 52 x 20 x 20 _________
40 x 20 x 15 _________ 52 x 20 x 16 _________
40 x 20 x 10 _________
13. Is there any test made for the cement that you are using? If any, please specify.
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
14. How old is the age of the cement until casting date? (Starting from the time of its
production) _______
15. What quality of water do you use for mixing?

Drinking water
If non-drinking water;
From river
Round water from drilled well
16. Is there any test that was made for the water? If any, please specify
_______________ _______________
17. Which batching techniques do you use? Why?

By weight
By volume

18. What are the adjustments that you make to ingredients when using;
a) Weight batching: _______________
b) Volume batching: _______________
19. How do you mix your ingredients?

Manually
Using mixing plant
Both of them (both manually and using mixing plant).
21. What is the capacity of your mixing plant?
––––––––––
22. For how long do you mix the ingredients?

____________
20. What is the corrective measure that you take in case when you aren’t able to attain the
required slump?
____________
____________
21. For how long do you vibrate your hollow concrete block?
___________
22. After molding your HCB, for how long do you cure it? ___________
23. Where do you cure your finished Hollow concrete block?

Under the shade
Outside the shade
24. For how long your HCB store on the site after manufacturing?
–––––––––––

25. Haw many sample of hollow concrete block used for testing? ___________
26. What are the tests made for Hollow concrete block please specify?
Dimension Density
Water absorption linear shrinkage
Compressive strength
27. Did you have quality control manual for your HCB production (specification,
documents of standards)?
28. Did you have checklist to supervise your HCB production how often did you
prepare?
Thank you for your cooperation!

ANNEX II
Types of Blocks by Their Function.
B.1 Concrete Stretcher Blocks B.3 Concrete Pillar Blocks
B.2 Concrete Corner Blocks B.4 jamb concrete blocks

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Assessment of quality control on production of hollow concrete block in building

construction (in case of Adigrat city)

1. ABEL ZENEBE Signature: _________ Date: ___________

2. ROBEL G/EZGHER Signature: _________ Date: ___________

3. SAMSOM GIDEY Signature: _________ Date: ___________

Name of Advisor: Kiflom D (MSc) Signature: _________ Date: ___________

Examiner 1 Signature: _________ Date: ___________

Examiner 2 Signature: _________ Date: ___________

Department Head Signature: _________ Date: ___________

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management i

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management ii

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management iii

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management iv

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management v

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management vi

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management vii

CMU concrete masonry unit

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management viii

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management ix

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management x

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management 1

1.3 Statement of the Problem

1.4 Significance of the Study

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management 2

1.6 The Structure of the Thesis

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management 3

B.Sc. thesis, construction technology and management 4

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2.3 Raw Materials (Ingriendent’s) For HCB Production

2.3.1 Portland cement (OPC or PPC)

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Class Compressive strength MPa

2 days 7 days 28 days

E. . Loss on Ignition (LOI)

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2.3.1.2 Chemical properties of cement

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement – (Indian standards IS 1489 (Part I)).

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2.3.1.4 Handling and Storage of Cement

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2.3.2.1 Characteristics of aggregates

Shape, specific gravity, bulk density, moisture content and bulking.

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Aggregate Specific gravity Unit Bulk Examples

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Sieve size Percent passing by mass

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2.3.2.3 Deleterious substances in Aggregates

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2.3.2.4 Handling and storing of aggregates

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Difficult to work with concrete (Duggal, 2000).

2.3.3.1 Quality of mixing water

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2.3.3.2 Effects of mixing water from different sources

2.4.1 Types of Concrete blocks

1. ABEL ZENEBE Signature: _ Date: ___

2. ROBEL G/EZGHER Signature: _ Date: ___

3. SAMSOM GIDEY Signature: _ Date: ___

Name of Advisor: Kiflom D (MSc) Signature: _ Date: ___

Examiner 1 Signature: _ Date: ___

Examiner 2 Signature: _ Date: ___

Department Head Signature: _ Date: ___