GK For Veterinary PDF
GK For Veterinary PDF
GK For Veterinary PDF
2735-2700 BC: Ancient Chinese herbal primitive type of materia medica ‘Pen Tsao’ written
by Emperor Shennung.
2000 BC: Ancient Egyptian medicinal treatise ‘Kahun Papyrus’ was used.
1550 BC: Egyptian medicinal treatise ‘Ebers Papyrus’ was used.
460-375 BC: Hippocrates advocated little uses of drugs.
384-322 BC: Aristotle gave scientific basis of medicine.
380-287 BC: Theophrastus classified medicinal herbs according to their properties.
77 AD: First Materia Medica was written by Dioscorides describing herbs, minerals, and
animal products as medicinal preparations.
131-201AD: Galen advocated use of many herbal preparations (polypharmacy), which
subsequently became popular as galenical preparations.
1493-1541: Paracelsus (Original name: Phillip Von Hohenheim) pioneered the use of
chemicals and minerals in medicine. He introduced tinctures of several plants and
inorganic chemicals for therapeutic uses. He is also often cited as coining the phrase
"the dose makes the poison" or "All things are poison and nothing is without poison,
only the dose permits something not to be poisonous."
1514-1544: First Pharmacopoeia was compiled by German Valerius Cordus.
1630: The Spanish Jesuit missionaries in Peru were taught the healing power of the
cinchona bark (Quinine) by natives, its use was started to cure malaria.
1776: The first anaesthetic, nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) was discovered by Priestly.
1783: William Withering (Britain) used digitalis (foxglove) in treatment of dropsy (swelling
at congestive heart failure).
1783-1841: Friedrich Serturner (German pharmacist) isolated a narcotic alkaloid from
opium and named it as morphine after Greek god of dream Morpheus. It was not only
the first alkaloid to be extracted from opium, but the first ever alkaloid to be isolated
from any plant. Thus he became the first person to isolate the active ingredient
associated with a medicinal plant or herb.
1783-1855: Francois Magendie (French Physiologist) started animal experimentation. He
studied the action of nux vomica (a strychnine-containing plant drug) on dogs, and
showed that the spinal cord was the site of its convulsant action.
1787-1853: M.J.B. Orfila: He contributed to forensic toxicology. In his time the primary
type of poison in use was arsenic, but there were no reliable ways of testing for its
presence. Orfila created new techniques and refined existing techniques in his first
treatise, Traité des poisons, greatly enhancing their accuracy.
1818: Anaesthetic effect of ether was discovered by C. W. Long.
1847: Chloroform anaesthesia was introduced by James Young Simpson.
1853: Alexander Wood discovered hypodermic syringe.
1813-1878: Claude Bernard (French Physiologist) used blind animal experiments to ensure
the objectivity of scientific observations. He was the first to define the term milieu
interieur (now known as homeostasis), also studied functions of the pancreas gland,
glycogenic function of the liver and existence of vaso-motor nerves. He discovered
that the arrow poison curare acts at the neuromuscular junction to interrupt the
stimulation of muscle by nerve impulses.
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1820-1879: Rudolf Buchheim (German Pharmacologist) established first pharmacological
institute/laboratory at University of Dorpat. Buchheim is remembered for his pioneer
work in experimental pharmacology. He was instrumental in turning pharmacology
from an empirical study of medicine into an exact science. He introduced the bioassay
to pharmacology, and created a methodology for determining the quantative and
medical aspects of chemical substances.
1838-1921: Oswald Schmiedeberg (German Pharmacologist) studied the pharmacology of
chloroform and chloral hydrate. He showed that muscarine evoked the same effect on
the heart as electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve. He also published a classic
text, Outline of Pharmacology, and in 1885, he introduced urethane as a hypnotic.
1857-1938: John Jacob Abel: His major works include the isolation of epinephrine
(adrenaline) from adrenal gland extracts (1897–1898), isolation of histamine from
pituitary extract (1919), and preparation of pure crystalline insulin (1926). Abel also
co-founded the Journal of Biological Chemistry in 1905 and the Journal of
Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics in 1909.
1872: Chloral Hydrate was the first intravenous anaesthetic used.
1906: Reid Hunt discovered acetylcholine in adrenal extracts in 1906.
1854-1915: Paul Ehrlich coined the term chemotherapy and popularized the concept of
a magic bullet. In 1909, he and his student Sahachiro Hata developed Salvarsan
(arsphenamine, an arsenic compound), a treatment effective against syphilis. He
worked on serum immunology also and received the Nobel Prize for Medicine
together with Metchnikoff in 1908.
1932-1935: Gerhard Domagk was a German pathologist and bacteriologist credited with the
discovery of Sulfonamidochrysoidine, the first commercially available antibiotic
(marketed under the brand name Prontosil Dye). In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel
Prize in Medicine for this discovery, the first drug effective against bacterial
infections.
1928-1945: Sir Alexander Fleming (Scottish Pharmacologist) His best-known discoveries
are the discovery of the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the antibiotic
substance penicillin from the mold Penicillium notatum in 1928, for which he shared
the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst
Chain.
1944: American microbiologist Selman Abraham Waksman and Albert Schatz isolated
streptomycin and showed its usefulness as an antibiotic. Waksman coined the
term antibiotics. Waksman was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1952 for "for his discovery
of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis".
2. Microbiology
4. Important Discovery/Inventions/Theories:
1983-1985: Dr. Kary Banks Mullis invented PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). He
received a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1993.
World Veterinary Day (WVD) is held annually on the last Saturday of April.
WVD was founded by the World Veterinary Association (WVA) in 2001 to highlight the
work of the veterinary profession around the world in food safety/public health, border
controls and quarantine, clinical practice, animal health, animal welfare, environmental
protection, research and development and wildlife conservation.
• SAMRUPA: The world's first cloned buffalo calf, was to be India's answer to Dolly
the sheep. But unlike Dolly, the first mammal (Sheep) cloned 13 years ago, who lived
for seven years, Samrupa succumbed to a lung infection, five days after it was born.
‘GARIMA’ world’s second cloned buffalo calf, produced through advanced hand
guided cloning technique. NDRI has produced the SAMRUPA on 6th February, 2009
followed by GARIMA on June 6, 2009 and third cloned buffalo calf (GARIMA-II)
on August 22, 2010. NDRI has achieved yet another feat by successfully cloning a
male buffalo calf named ‘SHRESTH’ on 26 august 2006.
• Recognition of High Security Animal Disease Laboratory (HSADL), Bhopal as OIE
approved 7th such Reference Laboratory for highly pathogenic avian influenza
diagnosis in the world.
• India has declared itself free from the Notifiable Avian Influenza (H5N1) with effect
from 2nd June, 2010 and notified same to OIE. The last outbreak was notified on 30th
January, 2010 in Khargam block of Murshidabad district in West Bengal.
• There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) and 569 Krishi
Vigyan Kendras (KVK) established under ICAR institutes and State Agricultural
Universities.
• Dolphin of river Ganga is declared as National Aquatic Animal.
• The Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) had been bestowed with the
prestigious Sardar Patel Outstanding ICAR (Indian Council Agricultural Research)
Institution Award for the Year 2009. The Institute has also received the Rajrishi
Tandon Rajbhasha Puraskar for the development of Official Language, Hindi.
• The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was formerly known as Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research, it was established on 16 July, 1929.
• Wangari Muta Maathai has won Noble Peace Prize (2004). She was professor of
Veterinary Anatomy (1977-2000) at University of Nairobi, Kenya.
• Peter Doherty (Australian vet) has won Noble Prize in Medicine. The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1996 was awarded jointly to Peter C. Doherty and Rolf M.
Zinkernagel for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated
immune defence".
• The occurrence of H1N1 Influenza (earlier called Swine Influenza) in Mexico, U.S.A.
Canada, U.K., Israel and some other countries has received widespread attention
because of its potential to turn into a pandemic. As clarified by WHO and FAO, the
H1N1 virus is a genetic re-assortment of swine influenza, avian influenza and human
influenza strains. The diagnosed human cases, suggest extended human-to-human
transmission and links to swine are either weak or absent. There was also no evidence
of illness in swine in any of the affected countries.
• The NDDB in 1969 formulated the programme of Operation Flood (OF) for the
development of dairy industry in India. Its objective was to create a flood of rurally
produced milk with remunerative price to the farmers and to supply milk to urban
consumer at stable and reasonable price. It was implemented in three phases: OF-I
(1970-80), OF-II (1980-85) and OF-III (1985-96).
• Yak is known as ‘ship of the high hills’ where as Mithun is a status symbol and a
measure of wealth.
Economics:
• Livestock sector contributes 25.63% of total GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
contributed by Agriculture & allied sectors which contributes 16.34% of total GDP of
India (2007-08).
• Milk & milk products (dairy) alone contributes 66.5% of GDP contributed by
Livestock sector.
• Annual Growth Rate during 10th Five Year Plan (2003-07): Milk = +3.64%, Egg =
+5.61, Wool = - 1.77%.
MilK:
• In world, India ranks first in milk production (104.8 million tonnes in 2007-08, 15.6%
of world).
• Per Capita Availability of milk in India (2007-08) is 252 g/d (Highest:
NZL>Ireland>Denmark).
• In India, U.P. ranks first in Total Milk production (15943 thousand tonne).
• Buffaloes are contributing about 55% of total milk production in country
(Cattle=40%, Goat=5%).
• Highest Milk Producer states: U.P.>RAJ.>Punjab>A.P.>GUJ.>MHS.
• In India (2007), Maharashtra has highest no. of organised Dairy Cooperative Societies
(DCS).
Eggs:
• In world, India ranks third in egg production (3.94% of world, FAO, 2007).
Wool:
• Wool Producer States: RAJ.>J&K>Karnatak
• India rank among world in Livestock population (FAO, 2007): Buffaloes: 1st , Cattle
& Goat: 2nd , Sheep & Duck: 3rd , Chicken: 5th , Camel: 8th
• India is home to more than 56% of world buffalo population.
• Population in India (2003 census; in millions): Cattle - 185.18, Buffalo - 97.92, Goat -
124.36, Sheep - 61.47, Pig - 13.52, horses & ponies - 0.75, Camel - 0.63, (Total
Livestock - 485) and Poultry - 489.01
• Out of around 100 million milch cattle and buffaloes in the country, 47 million are
buffaloes, 11 million are crossbred cows and 45 million belong to indigenous cattle
breeds.
• Annual population growth rate for cattle in India is – 1.18% but of Buffalo is + 1.43%
OIE: New Name: The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
The need to fight animal diseases at global level led to the creation of the Office
International des Epizooties through the international Agreement signed on January 25th
1924. Its head quarter is in Paris, France. It was founded with 28 founding members as a
response to Rinderpest outbreak in Europe (Belgium) arising from cattle undergoing
international shipment.
In May 2003 the Office became the World Organisation for Animal Health but kept
its historical acronym OIE. The OIE is the intergovernmental organisation responsible for
improving animal health worldwide. It is recognised as a reference organisation by the World
Trade Organization (WTO) and in 2010, had a total of 177 Member Countries and
Territories. The OIE maintains permanent relations with 36 other international and regional
organisations and has Regional and sub-regional Offices on every continent. Dr Bernard
Vallat (France) is elected Director General of OIE for third five year term since May 2000.
The organization provides a vehicle for rapid disease information exchange between
countries, which continue to promote and coordinate international research efforts into
infectious diseases and which sets international animal health standards for trade in animals
and animal products and for diagnostic laboratory tests and vaccines.
W.H.O. - The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United
Nations (UN) with193 members that acts as a coordinating authority on
international public health established on April 7, 1948, with headquarters
in Geneva, Switzerland.
ICARDA was founded in 1975. Headquqrter is at Tel Hadya, Syria. With agriculture
researches, it also serves developing world for improvement of nutrition and productivity of
small ruminants (sheep and goats).
One of the most dramatic and immediate impacts of climate variation is that on
disease, especially the vector-borne diseases, for example, an El Nino event triggers Rift
Valley Fever epidemics in Africa. Particular areas are vulnerable and this will change in
coming decades, since climate change is likely to cause entirely new global disease
distributions. This applies to most vector-borne diseases.
The agricultural sector is a driving force in the gas emissions and land use effects
thought to cause climate change. Livestock and livestock-related activities such as
deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices are responsible for over 18%
of human-made greenhouse gas emissions, including:
• 9% of global carbon dioxide emissions
• 35-40% of global methane emissions (chiefly due to enteric fermentation and manure)
• 64% of global nitrous oxide emissions (chiefly due to fertilizer use.)
Livestock activities also contribute disproportionately to land-use effects, since crops such
as corn and alfalfa are cultivated in order to feed the animals. Worldwide, livestock
production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the
Earth.
Who’s who?
B. States/UT’s where Cow slaughter is not banned but restricted or no legislation made:
1. Kerala 2. West-Bengal 3. Assam 4. Arunachal Pradesh
5. Meghalaya 6. Mizoram 7. Nagaland 8. Tripura
9. Lakshadweep
Cow slaughter is permitted with/without restriction in these States/ UTs.
Objectives:
• Harmonious development of standardization, marking and quality certification
• To provide new thrust to standardization and quality control
• To evolve a national strategy for according recognition to standards and integrating
them with growth and development of production and exports BIS is engaged in
formulation of Indian Standards for the different sectors including food and
agricultural sectors.
APEDA
The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
(APEDA) was established by the Government of India under the Agricultural and Processed
Food Products Export Development Authority Act passed by the Parliament in December,
1985. The Act (2 of 1986) came into effect from 13th February, 1986 by a notification issued
in the Gazette of India: Extraordinary: Part-II [Sec. 3 (ii): 13.2.1986). The Authority replaced
the Processed Food Export Promotion Council (PFEPC). Its one of the function is to carrying
out inspection of meat and meat products in slaughter houses, processing plants, storage
premises, conveyances or other places where such products are kept or handled for the
purpose of ensuring the quality of such products. APEDA has head quarters at New Delhi and
regional offices at Bombay, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Guwahati.
APEDA is mandated with the responsibility of export promotion and development of its
scheduled products like Fruits, Vegetables and their Products, Meat and Meat Products,
Poultry and Poultry Products, Dairy Products and others.
MPEDA
The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) was constituted in 1972
under the Marine Products Export Development Authority Act 1972 (No.13 of 1972). The
role envisaged for the MPEDA under the statute is comprehensive: covering fisheries of all
kinds, increasing exports, specifying standards, processing, marketing, extension and training
in various aspects of the industry
Quarantine measures
Animal quarantine applies to all kinds of animals and animal products including
insects, reptiles, birds and mammals. Animals coming into India must spend prescribed time
determined by Quarantine Officer for necessary tests and examinations at specially equipped
quarantine stations to ensure they are free of disease before being released. The primary
purpose of quarantine of imported animals is to prevent the introduction and spread of animal
diseases by these animals. This is necessary to safeguard the animal population in India.
Although all animals imported into India have to be certified as healthy and free from
infectious and contagious diseases by the Veterinary Authority in the exporting country, at
the time of export, quarantine measures are still necessary. This is to ensure that any animal
incubating a disease, and therefore not showing any signs of the disease, is examined further
during the quarantine period.
Substances to be investigated
Group A: Substances having anabolic effect and unauthorized substances viz., i) Stilbenes
and its derivatives / salts ii) Anti-thyroid agents iii) Steroids iv) Resorcyclic acid lactones
(including Zerenol) and v) Beta agonists These substances are not being used in India and
hence are not being included in the investigation and monitoring plan.
Since some of the substances under Groups C, D, and E are being used though to a varying
extent in different parts of the country, samples are tested for these substances.
International Regulations
The International regulations include WTO, OIE, Codex, EU regulations and many
other individual country regulations such as USDA regulations, Australian, Canadian etc
regulations. All these regulations are important in the international trade in food products and
ensuring food safety.
ISO Standards
ISO is the world largest standards developing NON-GOVERNMENTAL
organization. ISO was born from the union of two organizations - the ISA (International
Federation of the National Standardizing Associations), established in New York in 1926,
and the UNSCC (United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee), established in 1944.
The new organization, ISO, officially began operations on 23 February 1947.
The Standards
ISO has developed over 17000 International Standards on a variety of subjects and
1100 new ISO standards are published every year. A brief description of ISO standards
related to food safety is given below:
67.120.1 Meat, meat products and other animal produce including frozen products.
67.120.10.1 Meat and meat products
65.120 Animal feeding stuffs Microbiology of animal feeding stuffs.
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ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 importance
The ISO 9000 family addresses "quality management". This means what the
organization does to fulfill:
• the customer's quality requirements, and
• applicable regulatory requirements, while aiming to enhance customer satisfaction,
and achieve continual improvement of its performance in pursuit of these objectives.
The ISO 14000 family addresses "environmental management". This means what the
organization does to:
• minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by its activities, and to
• achieve continual improvement of its environmental performance
WTO
World Trade Organization (WTO) is the international organization dealing with the
global rules of trade between nations. It is the successor to General Agreement on Trade and
Tariffs (GATT) and came into being in 1995. The WTO has more than 130 members.
The mandate of WTO covers trade in goods, trade in services, trade-related investment
measures and trade related intellectual property rights.
Among several WTO agreements, those that are relevant to agricultural products including
livestock sector, dairying and animal products are:
• Agreement on Agriculture (AOA)
• Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement
• Technical Barriers to Trade(TBT) agreement
The term Codex Alimentarius is taken from Latin and means food code: a code of
food standards for all nations. It was established in 1962 when the FAO and WHO of the
United Nations recognized the need for international standards to guide the World’s growing
food industry and to protect the health of consumers. One of the principal purposes of the
Codex Commission is the preparation of food standards and their publication in the Codex
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Alimentarius. Codex develops commodity standards which are product specific and general
standards which have across the board application to all foods and are not product specific. A
number of codex standards have dealt with safety aspects of animal products. Some important
standards with a brief mention of scope and content are as follows:
USDA Regulations
In the US Department of Agriculture implements regulations related to Animal
products safety through Food safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). In 1862, President
Abraham Lincoln founded the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In 1865, USDA Secretary
Isaac Newton urged Congress to enact legislation providing for the quarantine of imported
animals. Several acts and regulations were made from time to time depending on the
developments and requirements of animal products industry. FSIS stepped up its research
studies to apply the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system to meat and
poultry inspection, setting the stage for the most significant change in regulatory philosophy
in the history of the inspection programs. On July 25, 1996, FSIS issued its landmark rule,
Pathogen Reduction/Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Systems.