Chapter 1

Limits

1.1 δ,  problems
1.1.1 Theory
1. What is wrong with the following statement by giving a counter example:
”The number L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 if f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches
x0 .”
2. Let (
x, x<1
f (x) =
x + 1, x>1
Show that limx→1 f (x) 6= 2

1.1.2 Finding Deltas Graphically

1. For the following functions draw the graphs and then use the graphs to find a δ > 0 such
that for all x
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < 
√
(a) f (x) = 2 x + 1, x0 = 3, L = 4,  = 0.2
(b) f (x) = 4 − x2 , x0 = −1, L = 3,  = 0.25
(c) f (x) = √2 , x0 = −1, L = 2,  = 0.5
−x

1.1.3 Finding Deltas Algebraically

1. In each case, find an open interval about x0 on which the inequality |f (x) − L| <  holds.
Then give a value for δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < 

√
(a) f (x) = x + 1, x0 = 0, L = 1,  = 0.1
1
(b) f (x) = x, x0 = −1, L = −1,  = 0.1
(c) f (x) = mx + b,m > 0, x0 = 1/2, L = (m/2) + b,  = c > 0
√
(d) f (x) = 1 − 5x, x0 = −3,  = 0.4
2. Prove the following limits
(a) limx→a x2 = a2
1 1
(b) limx→a x = a
(c) limx→√3 x12 = 1
3
(d) limx→1 f (x) = 2 if (
4 − 2x, x<1
f (x) =
6x − 4, x≥1

(e) limx→0 x sin x1 = 0

1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS

1.2 Theory
1. If we have limx→x0 f (x) = 0 and limx→x0 g(x) = 0 then what determines the result for
f (x)
lim
x→x0 g(x)

2. Once you know limx→a+ f (x) and limx→a− f (x) at an interior point of the domain of f , do
you then know limx→a f (x)?
3. If you know limx→c f (x) exists, can you find its value by calculating limx→c+ f (x)?
4. Suppose that f is an odd function of x. Does knowing that limx→0+ f (x) = 3 tell you
anything about limx→0− f (x)?
5. Suppose that f is an even function of x. Does knowing that limx→2− f (x) = 7 tell you
anything about either limx→−2− f (x) or limx→−2+ f (x)?

1.3 Evaluating Limits

1
2 − a1 x2 + x − 2
lim (1 + x2 )1/x lim x
lim
x→0 x→a x − a x→−2 x2 + 5x + 6
√
x−2 1 x
lim lim lim
x→4 x2 − 16 x→0 x x→0 |x|

x2 − 1 x2 − 6x + 9 x2 + 2x
lim lim lim
x→−1 x + 1 x→3 x2 − 9 x→−2 x2 − 4
√
1 3h + 4h2 x−3
lim lim 2 lim
h→2 4 − h2 h→0 h − h3 x→9 x − 9
|x − 2| |x − 2| t2 − 1
lim lim lim 2
x→0 x − 2 x→2 x − 2 t→1 t − 2t + 1
√
y−4 y+3 x3 + 1 x4 − 16
lim lim lim 3
y→1 y2 − 1 x→−1 x + 1 x→2 x − 8
2/3
   
x −4 1 4 1 1
lim lim − 2 lim − 2
x→8 x1/3 − 2 x→2 x − 2 x −4 x→2 x − 2 x −4
√ √
2 + x2 − 2 − x2 |3x − 1| − |3x + 1|
lim lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x
1. Find the limit as x → 0 and also as x → 1 of the following expression:
 
1 2
lim +
x2/3 (x − 1)2/3

Show that limits don’t exist

1
2 − a1 x2 + x − 2
lim (1 + x2 )1/x lim x
lim
x→0 x→a x−a x→−2 x2 + 5x + 6

dc‘

1.4 Continuity
1.4.1 Discontinuous Functions
1. Give the types of discontinuous functions.
• f (c) is a value different from limx→c f (x)
x
• Right left limits are different, for example limx→0 |x|
1
• f (x) is not defined at c. limx→0 x2
• Limit is not defined at c, for example limx→0 sin x1
Chapter 2

Answers: Limits

2.1 δ,  problems
2.1.1 Theory
1. What is wrong with the following statement by giving a counter example:
”The number L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 if f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches
x0 .”
2. Let (
x, x<1
f (x) =
x + 1, x>1
Show that limx→1 f (x) 6= 2

2.1.2 Finding Deltas Graphically

1. For the following functions draw the graphs and then use the graphs to find a δ > 0 such
that for all x
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < 
√
(a) f (x) = 2 x + 1, x0 = 3, L = 4,  = 0.2
(b) f (x) = 4 − x2 , x0 = −1, L = 3,  = 0.25
(c) f (x) = √2 , x0 = −1, L = 2,  = 0.5
−x

2.1.3 Finding Deltas Algebraically

1. In each case, find an open interval about x0 on which the inequality |f (x) − L| <  holds.
Then give a value for δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < 

√
(a) f (x) = x + 1, x0 = 0, L = 1,  = 0.1
1
(b) f (x) = x, x0 = −1, L = −1,  = 0.1
(c) f (x) = mx + b,m > 0, x0 = 1/2, L = (m/2) + b,  = c > 0
√
(d) f (x) = 1 − 5x, x0 = −3,  = 0.4
2. Prove the following limits
(a) limx→a x2 = a2

Proof. We know that

|x| − |a| ≤ |x − a| < 1
so
|x| < 1 + |a|
and consequently
|x + a| ≤ |x| + |a| < 2|a| + 1

3
4 CHAPTER 2. ANSWERS: LIMITS

so that we have
|x2 − a2 | = |x − a| · |x + a|
< |x − a| · (2|a| + 1)
which shows that we have |x2 − a2 | <  for |x − a| < /(2|a| + 1), provided that we have
|x − a| < 1 Officially: we require that |x − a| < min(/(2|a| + 1), 1)

(b) limx→√3 x12 = 13

(c) limx→1 f (x) = 2 if (
4 − 2x, x<1
f (x) =
6x − 4, x≥1
(d) limx→0 x sin x1 = 0

2.2 Theory
1. If we have limx→x0 f (x) = 0 and limx→x0 g(x) = 0 then what determines the result for
f (x)
lim
x→x0 g(x)

2. Once you know limx→a+ f (x) and limx→a− f (x) at an interior point of the domain of f , do
you then know limx→a f (x)?
3. If you know limx→c f (x) exists, can you find its value by calculating limx→c+ f (x)?
4. Suppose that f is an odd function of x. Does knowing that limx→0+ f (x) = 3 tell you
anything about limx→0− f (x)?
5. Suppose that f is an even function of x. Does knowing that limx→2− f (x) = 7 tell you
anything about either limx→−2− f (x) or limx→−2+ f (x)?

2.3 Evaluating Limits

1
2 −1 x2 + x − 2
lim (1 + x2 )1/x lim x a lim 2
x→0 x→a x − a x→−2 x + 5x + 6
√
x−2 1 x
lim lim lim
x→4 x2 − 16 x→0 x x→0 |x|

x2 − 1 x2 − 6x + 9 x2 + 2x
lim lim lim
x→−1 x + 1 x→3 x2 − 9 x→−2 x2 − 4
2
√
1 3h + 4h x−3
lim lim lim
h→2 4 − h2 h→0 h2 − h3 x→9 x − 9
|x − 2| |x − 2| t2 − 1
lim lim lim 2
x→0 x − 2 x→2 x − 2 t→1 t − 2t + 1
√ 3
y−4 y+3 x +1 x4 − 16
lim lim lim
y→1 y2 − 1 x→−1 x + 1 x→2 x3 − 8
2/3
   
x −4 1 4 1 1
lim lim − 2 lim − 2
x→8 x1/3 − 2 x→2 x − 2 x −4 x→2 x − 2 x −4
√ √
2 + x2 − 2 − x2 |3x − 1| − |3x + 1|
lim 2
lim
x→0 x x→0 x
1. Find the limit as x → 0 and also as x → 1 of the following expression:
 
1 2
lim +
x2/3 (x − 1)2/3

Show that limits don’t exist

1
2 − a1 x2 + x − 2
lim (1 + x2 )1/x lim x
lim
x→0 x→a x−a x→−2 x2 + 5x + 6

dc‘
2.4. CONTINUITY 5

2.4 Continuity
2.4.1 Discontinuous Functions
1. Give the types of discontinuous functions.
• f (c) is a value different from limx→c f (x)
x
• Right left limits are different, for example limx→0 |x|
1
• f (x) is not defined at c. limx→0 x2
• Limit is not defined at c, for example limx→0 sin x1
6 CHAPTER 2. ANSWERS: LIMITS
Chapter 3

Concepts of Integral Calculus

1. How do we think about the concept of area in mathematical terms?

When we assign an area to a plane region, we associate a number with a set S in the plane.
This means that we have a function a (an area function) which assigns a real number a(S)
(the area of S) to each set S in some given collection of sets. A function whose domain is a
collection of sets and whose range is that of real numbers is called a set function. The basic
problem is this: How do we define an area function?.

2. How do we construct an area function?

We start by listing the properties that we think an area function should have. Any set
function that satisfies these properties will be an area function.

3. How do we define the domain for the area functions?

We define a set M whose members will sets called measurable sets. We define M by giving
a list of properties that measurable sets should have.

4. What is an ordinate set?

5. What are the axioms for the area function and measurable sets, expecially what is the
’Exhaustion property’ ?

6. What are step functions? under what operations are step functions closed?

Definition 3.0.1. A function s, whose domain is a closed interval [a, b], is called a step
function if there is a partition = P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] such that s is constant on each
open subinterval of P . That is to say, for each k = 1, 2, . . . , n, there is a real number sk such
that
s(x) = sk if xk−1 < x < xk
Step functions are sometimes called piecewise constant functions.

7. What is the definition of the integral of step functions?

Definition 3.0.2. The integral of s from a to b, is defined by:

Z b n
X
s(x)dx = sk · (xk − xk−1 )
a k=1

Note that the values of s at the subdivision points are immaterial.

8. Properties of the Integral of a step function:

(a) Additive, Homogeneous, Linearity.

(b) Invariance under translation:
Z b Z b+c
s(x)dx = s(x − c)dx
a a+c

for every real c

7
8 CHAPTER 3. CONCEPTS OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(c) Expansion or Contraction of the interval of integration.

Z kb x Z b
s dx = k s(x)dx
ka k a

for every k > 0. This becomes the reflection property when k = −1

(d) Reflection property
Z b Z −b
s(x)dx = − s(−x)dx
a −a

9. Definition of the integral of a general bounded function.

Definition 3.0.3. Let f be a function defined and bounded on [a, b]. Let s and t denote
arbitrary step functions defined on [a, b] such that

s(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ t(x)

for every x in [a, b]. If there is one and only one number I such that
Z b Z b
s(x)dx ≤ I ≤ t(x)dx
a a

for every pair of step functions s and t satisfying s(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ t(x), then this number I is
Rb
called the integral of f from a to b, and is denoted by the symbol a f (x)dx. When such an
I exists, the function f is said to be integrable on [a, b]

10. When do we consider the area to be negative?

11. What are integrand, limits of integration, and the interval of integration

12. What are upper and lower integrals and the definition of an itegrable function in terms of
Rb
these? Let S denote the set of all numbers a s(x)dx obtained as s runs through all step
Rb
functions below f , and let T denote the set of all numbers a t(x)dx obtained as t runs
through all step functions above f . That is
(Z ) (Z )
b b
S= s(x)dx | s ≤ f , T = t(x)dx | t ≥ f
a a

The set S has a supremum and the set T has an infimum (why?). These numbers are called
the lower integral and the upper integral of f
(Z ) (Z )
b b
I(f ) = sup s(x)dx | s ≤ f , I(f ) = inf t(x)dx | t ≥ f
a a

Definition 3.0.4. Every function f which is bounded on [a, b] has a lower integral and an
upper integral satisfying the inequalities
Z b Z b
s(x) dx ≤ I(f ) ≤ I(f ) t(x) dx
a a

for all step functions s and t with s ≤ f ≤ t. The function f is integrable on [a, b] if and
only if its upper and lower integrals are equal, in which case we have
Z b
f (x) dx = I(f ) = I(f )
a

13. Show that the area of the ordinate set of a non-negative bounded integrable function on
Rb
an interval [a, b] is given by the integral a f (x)d(x). The integral fulfills the exhaustion
property axiom for finding the area of the ordinate set.

14. Show that

3.1. EXERCISES 9

Theorem 3.0.1. Let f be a nonnegative function, itegrable on an interval [a, b]. Then the
graph off, that is, the set
{(x, y)|a ≤ x ≤ b, y = f (x)}
is measurable and has area equal to 0.

15. What are the two fundamental question that arise at this stage?

• Which bounded functions are integrable?

• Given that a function f is integrable, how do we compute the integral of f ?
16. What do we know about monotonic functions on an interval [a, b]?
Theorem 3.0.2. If f is monotonic on a closed interval [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b].

17. How do we compute the value of the integral of a bounded increasing function?
Theorem 3.0.3. Assume f is increasing on a closed interval [a, b]. Let xk = a + k(b − a)/n
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n. If I is any number which satisfies the inequalities
n−1 n
b−a X b−a X
f (xk ) ≤ I ≤ f (xk )
n n
k=0 k=1

for every n ≥ 1, then

Z b
I= f (x) dx
a

18. what are the basic properties of the integral and how do we deduce them?

3.1 Exercises
Rb
1. Calculate the integral of a
xp dx for p > 0
10 CHAPTER 3. CONCEPTS OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Chapter 4

Some applications of Integration

4.1 The trignometric functions

1. What is a periodic function?
A function f is said to be periodic with period p 6= 0 if its donamin constains x + p whenever
it contains x and if f (x + p) = f (x)

2. Why are we interested in trignometirc functions?

Because of the periodic characteristic of many of the phenomena in physics and engineering.

3. How do you introduce the trignometric functions axiomatically?

4. Show that in the interval [0, 12 π] the sine isi strictly increasing and the sosine is strictly
decreasing.

5. Show that Z a
cos x dx = sin a
0
Z a
sin x dx = 1 − cos a
0

6. Write the integration formulas for sine and cosine in standard form
Z a a

cos x dx = sin x 
b b

Z a a

sin x dx = − cos x 
b b

7. Show that a
Z a
1 
cos cx dx =sin cx 
b c b
Z a a
1 
sin cx dx = − cos cx 
b c b

4.2 A geometric description of the sine and cosine functions

1. How do you define the radian

2. Define the sin x and cos x functions.

3. Prove the following graphically

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

sin x 1
0 < cos x < <
x cos x

11
12 CHAPTER 4. SOME APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

4.3 Exercises
1. Evaluate the following integrals
(a) Z a
cos2 x dx
b

(b) Z a
sin2 x dx
b
Chapter 5

Rote

Z
d
cos x dx = sin x cos x = − sin x
dx

Z
d
sin x dx = − cos x sin x = cos x
dx

Z
1 d
cos nx dx = sin nx cos nx = −n sin x
n dx

Z
1 d
sin nx dx = − cos x sin nx = n cos x
n dx

13