Q-What are alternative fuels ?

Distinguishbetween alternative fuels andrenewable

fuels.Why are alternative fuels so important ?

Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are any materials
or substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels like; fossil
fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas), as well as nuclear materials such
as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear
reactors.
Some well-known
alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol), refuse-
derived fuel, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-
fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, propane and
other biomasssources.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALTERNATIVE AND RENEWABLE ENERGY
Although alternative energy and renewable energy both work to cut down on
carbon emissions, there is a stark difference between the two. For starters,
alternative energy is not infinite in supply like renewable energy, which, as the
name suggests, is always available, similar to solar energy. At Sol-Up America,
located in sunny Las Vegas, Nevada, we specialize in renewable energy as
represented solar pv arrays installed on residential and commercial buildings
throughout the valley.

Firstly, renewable energy comes from a source that is naturally occurring and
replenishes naturally without the interference of human intervention. Examples of
renewable energy include biomass resources, solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal and hydro resources. The most abundant of these resources is solar
energy. If you think about it, it makes sense. The sun is always shining at some
point everywhere on Earth, making it the most abundant to harness. Solar power
also has the least negative effects on the atmosphere, wildlife and the
environment.

Alternative energy does not include solar power, but includes resources like
natural gas (often obtained from fracking or the injection of pressure in
subterranean rock crevices), natural gas cogeneration, fuel cells or any waste
energy that does not naturally replenish but emits lower carbon emissions. Oil is
not considered an alternative energy resource as it is the leading cause of
carbon emissions and does not naturally replenish. Earth’s oil reserves will
eventually diminish; albeit, it may take centuries.

1.Conventinal Fuels are going to run out.

2. To reduce pollutions

3. To protect against global warming

4.To save money

5. Can reuse waste

6. More chaoices

7.You will be helping the farmers

8.Can Frequently be produced domestically

9. Fuel Economy.

10.More Convenience

Q-Explain the characteristics of hydrogen gas as a fuel for internal combustion

engines. Discuss the merit and demerit in comparison with fossil fuels.

At the completion of this module, the technician will understand: • the combustive properties of
hydrogen that relate to its use as a combustive fuel • the air/fuel ratio of hydrogen fuel mixtures and
how it compares to other fuels • the types of pre-ignition problems encountered in a hydrogen internal
combustion engine and their solutions • the type of ignition systems that may be used with hydrogen
internal combustion engines • crankcase ventilation issues that pertain to hydrogen use in an internal
combustion engine • the thermal efficiency of hydrogen internal combustion engines • the type of
emissions associated with hydrogen internal combustion engines • the power output of hydrogen
internal combustion engines • the effect of mixing hydrogen with other hydrocarbon fuels

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels:

1. Fossil fuels are a technology that is globally developed.

2. Fossil fuels are both cheap and reliable.

3. Fossil fuels have become safer over time.

4. Fossil fuels still have plenty of availability.

5. Fossil fuels contribute to the overall welfare of an economy.

What Are the Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels: 1. Fossil fuels are a finite resource.

2. Fossil fuels are often cheap because of subsidies.

3. Fossil fuels combust to create an acidic environment.

4. Fossil fuels can damage the environment through human error.

5. Fossil fuels aren’t a technology.

6. Fossil fuels may contribute to public health issues.

7. Fossil fuels can be dangerous to harvest.

The Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel:

1. Cars Propelled by Hydrogen Fuel Cells

FEEDSTOCK PREPARATION: Feedstock preparation will vary with the feedstock,

but some features are universal:

 sugarcane or sorghum must be crushed to extract their simple sugars

 Starchy and cellulose materials must be physically broken down by

milling or grinding to break starch walls so that the material is available to
water

 Cooking

 Starches are converted to sugars in two stages:

o Liquefaction

o Saccharification, by adding water, enzymes, and heat (enzymatic

hydrolysis).

Liquefaction, or the breakdown of starch to complex sugars, requires:

 thoroughly mixing prepared feedstock with water

 adjusting pH of the mixture to a level suitable for the enzyme being used

 thoroughly mixing in the appropriate proportions of liquefaction enzyme

(alpha-amylase) for the quantity of starch to be converted

 heating the grain mash

This breaks the cell walls of the starch. The free starch will gelatinise as the
temperature increases, forming a thick mash. As the mash reaches the
enzyme's optimum temperature, the enzyme chemically breaks down the
starch to complex sugars (dextrin).

When this liquefaction stage is complete, the mash appears soupy, as it did
before gelatinisation.

Saccharification, or the breakdown of complex sugars to simple sugars

involves:

 cooling the mash to the optimum temperature for the saccharifying

enzyme

 adjusting the pH of the mash to the level required by the enzyme

 mixing the appropriate proportions of saccharifying enzyme

(glucoamylase) needed to convert the available sugar

 holding the pH and temperature (50 - 60°C) in the optimum range and
stirring constantly until saccharification is complete, which is determined
by testing for sugar content.
Q-Describe the thermochemical conversion process in a gasifier.

In gasification conversion, lignocellulosic feedstocks such as wood and

forest products are broken down to synthesis gas, primarily carbon
monoxide and hydrogen, using heat. The feedstock is then partially
oxidized, or reformed with a gasifying agent (air, oxygen, or steam),
which produces synthesis gas (syngas). The makeup of syngas will vary
due to the different types of feedstocks, their moisture content, the type
of gasifier used, the gasification agent, and the temperature and pressure
in the gasifier.

Gas Cleanup and Conditioning

The syngas produced undergoes clean-up and conditioning to create a

contaminant-free gas having the appropriate hydrogen-carbon
monoxide ratio prior to the catalytic conversion step.

Among the contaminants removed during clean-up are tars, acid gas,
ammonia, alkali metals, and other particulates.

Syngas is then conditioned: hydrogen sulfide levels are reduced by sulfur

polishing, and hydrogen-carbon monoxide ratio is adjusted using water-
gas shift.

PYROLYSIS

In pyrolysis processing, biomass feedstocks are broken down using heat

in the absence of oxygen, producing a biooil that can be further refined to
a hydrocarbon product. The decomposition occurs at lower temperatures
than gasification processes, and produces liquid oil instead of a synthesis
gas. Oil produced varies in oxygen content or viscosity according to the
feedstock used.

Bio-Oil Cleanup

Oil produced in pyrolysis processing must have particulates and ash

removed in filtration to create a homogenous product. The oil is then
upgraded to hydrocarbon fuels via hydrotreating and hydrocracking
processing, which reduces its total oxygen content.

Q-Explain the biochemical conversion route for biogas production.

There are four types of conversion technologies currently available, each appropriate for specific biomass? types
and resulting in specific energy products:

1. Thermal conversion is the use of heat, with or without the presence of oxygen, to convert biomass materials or
feedstocks into other forms of energy. Thermal conversion technolgies include direct combustion, pyrolysis ?, and
torrefaction.

2. Thermochemical conversion is the application of heat and chemical processes in the production of energy
products from biomass. A key thermochemical conversion process if gasification?.

3. Biochemical conversion involves use of enzymes, bacteria or other microorganisms to break down biomass into
liquid fuels, and includes anaerobic digestion, and fermentation.

4. Chemical conversion involves use of chemical agents to convert biomass into liquid fuels.

There are five fundamental forms of biomass energy use.

(1) the "traditional domestic" use in developing countries (fuelwood, charcoal and agricultural residues) for
household cooking (e.g. the "three stone fire"), lighting and space-heating. In this role-the efficiency of
conversion of the biomass to useful energy generally lies between 5% and 15%.

(2) the "traditional industrial" use of biomass for the processing of tobacco, tea, pig iron, bricks & tiles, etc,
where the biomass feedstock is often regarded as a "free" energy source. There is generally little
incentive to use the biomass efficiently so conversion of the feedstock to useful energy commonly occurs
at an efficiency of 15% or less.

(3) "Modern industrial." Industries are experimenting with technologically advanced thermal conversion
technologies which are itemised below. Expected conversion efficiencies are between 30 and 55%.

(4) newer "chemical conversion" technologies ("fuel cell") which are capable of by-passing the entropy-
dictated Carnot limit which describes the maximum theoretical conversion efficiencies of thermal units.

(5) "biological conversion" techniques, including anaerobic digestion for biogas production and
fermentation for alcohol.

How the operating performance of a gasifier depends on particle size and

moisture content ? The fuel size affect the pressure drop across the gasifier and power that
must be supplied to draw the air and gas through gasifier. Large pressure drops will lead to
reduction of the gas load in downdraft gasifier, resulting in low temperature and tar
production. Excessively large sizes of particles give rise to reduced reactivity of fuel, causing
start-up problem and poor gas quality.
Acceptable fuel sizes depend to certain extent on the design of gasifier. In general, wood
gasifier work well on wood blocks and wood chips ranging from 80x40x40 mm to 10x5x5 mm.
For charcoal gasifier, charcoal with size ranging from 10x10x10 mm to 30x30x30 mm is quite
suitable.

Moisture content of the fuel

The heating value of the gas produced by any type of gasifier depends at least in part on the moisture
content of the feedstock.

Moisture content can be determined on a dry basis as well as on a wet basis. In this chapter the moisture
content (M.C.) on a dry basis will be used.

Moisture content is defined as:

Alternatively the moisture content on a wet basis is defined as:

Conversions from one to another can be obtained by:

and:

High moisture contents reduce the thermal efficiency since heat is used to drive off the water and
consequently this energy is not available for the reduction reactions and for converting thermal energy
into chemical bound energy in the gas. Therefore high moisture contents result in low gas heating values.

When the gas is used for direct combustion purposes, low heating values can be tolerated and the use of
feedstocks with moisture contents (dry basis) of up to 40 - 50 percent is feasible, especially when using
updraught gasifiers.

In downdraught gasifiers high moisture contents give rise not only to low gas heating values, but also to
low temperatures in the oxidation zone, and this can lead to insufficient tar converting capability if the gas
is used for engine applications.
Availability of Biofuels: Humans have been burning fossil fuel for over a century and a half
now. In that time, we have become rather good at finding, extracting, and refining the crude product from which these
fuels are made. Unfortunately, no matter how good we are finding and extracting fossil fuels, their supply is limited by the
length of time it takes for them to form. Sooner or later, supplies will begin to dwindle and price will begin to climb.
Eventually, fossil fuels will disappear altogether. Current estimates suggest that there are between 50 and 150 years of
fossil fuels remaining. The longer as demand is based on remaining at current energy used levels. The shorter estimate is
based on the more realistic expansion of our energy needs in the coming decades.

1.Availability and Production of Biofuels: Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels are a renewable
energy source. Because biofuels are derived from a plant matter (and occasionally
animal matter) that can be harvested annually, or the case of algae monthly, biofuels
are theoretically unlimited. Unfortunately, they do below the surface of the appearance
of unlimited scalability is a more complicated picture. Restrictions are traded more
deaths in the article on the drawbacks of biofuels, but a brief consideration reveals that
the major limiting factor in biofuel feedstock production is a threat to the food supply.

2.Availability and Transport of Biofuels: Delivery infrastructure can be considered an

abstraction of availability. After all, a fuel that is easily produced but not easily
transported (like electricity from solar panels in the Sahara desert) is still limited
and its availability. biofuels are similar in many ways to fossil fuels. They are
liquids at standard temperature and pressure, have reasonably high energy
densities, and can be distributed with only minor modifications to existing
infrastructure.
Q - biochemical conversion route for biogas

Biochemical processes, like anaerobic digestion, can also produce clean energy in the form of biogas
which can be converted to power and heat using a gas engine. Anaerobic digestion is the natural
biological process which stabilizes organic waste in the absence of air and transforms it into
biofertilizer and biogas. Anaerobic digestion is a reliable technology for the treatment of wet, organic
waste. Organic waste from various sources is biochemically degraded in highly controlled, oxygen-free
conditions circumstances resulting in the production of biogas which can be used to produce both
electricity and heat.

In addition, a variety of fuels can be produced from waste resources including liquid fuels, such as
ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, and gaseous fuels, such as hydrogen and
methane. The resource base for biofuel production is composed of a wide variety of forestry and
agricultural resources, industrial processing residues, and municipal solid and urban wood residues.
Globally, biofuels are most commonly used to power vehicles, heat homes, and for cooking.

Physico-chemical Conversion
The physico-chemical technology involves various processes to improve physical and chemical
properties of solid waste. The combustible fraction of the waste is converted into high-energy fuel
pellets which may be used in steam generation. The waste is first dried to bring down the high
moisture levels. Sand, grit, and other incombustible matter are then mechanically separated before
the waste is compacted and converted into pellets or RDF. Fuel pellets have several distinct
advantages over coal and wood because it is cleaner, free from incombustibles, has lower ash and
moisture contents, is of uniform size, cost-effective, and eco-friendly.

Q- Describe the working of biomass gasifier engine.

A biomass gasifier is any process unit that heats and decomposes biomass into synthesis gas, a
mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, in a restricted oxygen
environment. The key is that the reaction is a combination of thermal decomposition -
commonly known as pyrolysis - and incomplete combustion, typically from air or pure
oxygen. Gasifiers can operate on any carbon-containing feedstock, and are more typically used
with coal, but since you've focused on biomass let's talk biomass.

As a quick note, I'm honestly surprised at all of these gasifier answers that focus on automotive
applications. This is, by far, the least practical gasification application, the least common, and
probably the most dangerous. The applications are proven, but they were used only in truly
desperate times when no other fuels were available, and resulted in highly underpowered,
inefficient vehicles.

I'm going to focus on where gasifiers are really used: the chemical processing industry.

There are two general ways people approach this. I'm going to try to avoid writing a textbook
here, so remember that I'm oversimplifying:

 Fluid bed gasifiers: use the phenomenon of fluidization to suspend biomass

particles in gas (oxygen-containing, of course) and allow them to combust. The
picture I put at the top of the article is one such system. The advantage of a fluidized
system is that it has very good temperature control, very good collection
characteristics, and automatically disposes of its ash. The disadvantage is that
fludization is still a very poorly understood phenomenon, so designs are usually
empirical and not as optimized as the alternatives, and control can be dicey.
 Moving bed gasifiers: deliver the solids in a "bed" of evenly packed material, and
push the oxygen-containing gas through it. This is mechanically much simpler than a
fluid bed gasifier, and much better understood, but it has much poorer temperature
control, and ash disposal is much harder. You have to make decisions about how to
feed the gas, and whether or not to quench at various points to control temperature.

Q-Processing of gaseous for engine use:

.The idea of using acetylene gas in the internal combustion engine such that it reduces the
demand of the petroleum products that is going to be extinct in near future. It includes about the
emissions of harmful gases that can be reduced by the use of acetylene instead of petroleum
products. Various fuels have been tested on IC engines for their suitability as alternate fuels.
Expect few alcohols, CNG and LPG, not many fuels have been found to be matched with IC
Engines requirements .

Thus this project is an attempt for the use of an alternative resource such that it can prove to be
useful for the peoples in near future.As we are well informed about the extinction of fossile fuels
and its deteriorating effect on environment causing

1. Global warming

2. Ozone depletion

3. Respiratory ailments

3.Acid rain

Acetylene was evaluated in a single-cylinder engine to investigate performance and emission

characteristics with special emphasis on lean operation for NOx control. Testing was carried out
at constant speed, constant airflow and MBT spark timing. Equivalence ratio and compression
ratio were the primary variables.

The engine operated much leaner when fuelled with acetylene than with gasoline. With
acetylene, the engine operated at equivalence ratios as lean as 0·53 and 0·43 for compression
ratios of 4 and 6, respectively. However, the operating range was very limited. Knock-induced
preignition occurred either with compression ratios above 6 or with mixtures richer than 0·69
equivalence ratio.

Q-potential and status of bioconversion technologies .

The left unattended crude glycerol from the biodiesel industry is also a threat to environment.
Hence conversion to other value added products through biological routes with the aid of
microbes is a viable resource and which subsequently enhances the economy of the process.
Different value added products from crude glycerol have been summarized as follows.
2.1. 1,3-Propanediol [CH2(CH2OH): This three carbon diol is a colorless viscous liquid used to
produce polymers such as polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT). It is used widely to produce
aliphatic polyesters, co-polyesters, adhesives, composites, coatings, moldings, laminates, wood
paints, and antifreeze [11]. 1,3-PDO have been reported to be produced by a recombinant strain
of E. coli which was constructed by transferring DhaB1 (B12-independent glycerol dehydratase)
and its activating factor DhaB2 from the species Clostridium butyrium. The overall yield,
concentration and overall productivity of 1,3-PDO was 1.09 mol/mol, 104.4 g/L and 2.61 g/L/h
respectively [12].
2. Hydrogen [H2]: Hydrogen, the only fuel to produce water as a by-product is seen as an
ideal fuel for the future that can be produced in an eco-friendly manner. Crude glycerol serves
as a raw material for hydrogen production through microbial fermentation. The broad spectrum
of applicable substrates in fermentative hydrogen production facilitates the possibility of
combing the energetic utilization of biomass to hydrogen with the simultaneous treatment of
waste materials.
3. Propanoic acid and trehalose: Propanoic acid [CH3CH2COOH] is a universal preservative
derived directly from a metabolic pathway similar to that of succinic acid. The numerous
industrial applications of Propanoic acid account for increasing interest in the development of a
biotechnological production process as it is used to produce solvents, pesticides, artificial
flavours, thermoplastics and pharmaceutical products [25].
4. Single cell oil: Single cell oil or simply SCO has drawn interest in industrial
applications as microbial lipids has the potential to replace the plant triacylglycerols.
Fed-batch systems appear to enable an increase in lipid content and cell density. Batch
experimentations that though have been predominantly used to investigate lipid
production from glycerol were negatively impacted for species such as Cryptococcus
curvatus by the impurities found in crude glycerol.
5. n-Butanol: he production of biobutanol is of particular interest as it offers better physical
properties in comparison to ethanol as an alternative fuel. Glycerol as a byproduct from
biodiesel production has also been served as a potential substrate for n-butanol production. A
maximum yield of 0.28 g/L × h n-butanol was obtained by the use of Clostridium pasteurianum,
a gram positive anaerobe with the initial substrate concentration of 25 g/L at 37 °C [29]. Through
in situ n-butanol removal by gas striping, Jensen et al. achieved a n-butanol productivity of as
high as 1.3 g/L × h [30,31]. C

Q-Engine modifications, specially designed induction system.

It’s worth noting at this point that it becomes exponentially more difficult and expensive to
increase performance through engine mods, and although you might find it easy to add an extra
five, ten maybe even fifteen percent, after that a huge amount of cash will only yield modest
gains in power. Motorsport has always been a hobby for the privileged, so if you’re competing
against millionaires it might be better to get into karting if you want to keep your house! An
engine is actually a pretty simple beast, and achieving more power is a matter of increasing the
volume of the raw materials, ensuring the bang is as efficient as possible and delivered at the
right time, and ensuring waste gas is removes a quickly and efficiently as possible.
Air in (induction): All cars are fundamentally compromised as they come out of the
factory. Even performance car manufacturers are constrained by various emissions laws,
cost saving measures, and warranty concerns which means engines almost never
achieve their full potential at the dealership. Fitting a cheap air filter in the factory
probably won’t affect sales, but this could save a car manufacturer huge amounts. As a
result, helping the engine breathe better is one of the easiest ways of increasing
performance, it’s cheap and you can do most things yourself with a bit of mechanical
knowledge*. *Don’t modify any engine if you want to keep your warranty!

Air filter: Air filters come in all sorts of different shapes and sizes and are there to
prevent potentially damaging particles entering the engine. Smaller holes in the filter
protect the engine better, but also restrict air flow. Clever design can improve the
passage of air without compromising the engine, so at the very least you should replace
the standard air filter with a higher performance version. Many filter upgrades are
disposable so you’ll need to stock up on a few for when you next service your car, some
are reusable but will need cleaning periodically – make sure you follow the instructions
to get the most out of your purchase.

Pipes: Fluid dynamics is an fascinating science, but also fairly inaccessible to most
people. To sum up in a sentence, gas flows better in specially designed pipes. Think of
the transition when pouring a bottle of water from the glug glug action to the nice fast
flowing stream, this is what you need to achieve with the air going into the engine. Even
with your nice new air filter fitted, you’ll still be limited by the inlet pipe design.

Exhaust: Now that the air is entering the engine in a nice smooth stream you’ll need to
make sure it comes out the other end just as fast. Fitting the biggest exhaust pipe you
can find may make your car sound great, but this can actually compromise the
performance. Engines require a certain amount of back-pressure to function well, so it’s
a matter of getting the balance right.

Q-Enlistthe necessary modifications for converting and existing spark ignited

engine in dual fuel fuel mode.

Dual fuel operation: The cylinder charge of dual fuel engines (converted existing diesel engines or
simply diesel derived
engines) is usually made up of two fuels with distinct ignition temperatures and different physical

states, typically one liquid and one gaseous. This gives a combustion process different from those

of conventional diesel or spark ignition engines, and gives the dual fuel engine some particular

operating characteristics which need to be taken into account when working with such engines.

The dual fuel combustion process: The combustion process in dual fuel engines is somewhat more
complicated than that of

conventional engines since a combination of premixed and diffusion combustion occur in this mode

of engine operation. The contribution and characteristics of each type of combustion depends on

several parameters, including fuel properties, injector characteristics, and combustion chamber

design, as well as operational variables such as the engine load, speed, manifold air pressure and

temperature, and the amount of each fuel present in the combustion chamber.

The combustion process in a dual fuel engine can be divided into three distinct sub-processes:

 ignition of the pilot fuel;

 combustion of the gaseous fuel which is in the vicinity of the pilot fuel cores; and

 combustion of the gaseous fuel due to flame propagation into the premixed lean charge.

The equivalence ratio of the cylinder charge varies spatially from point to point within the

combustion chamber, in particular considering that a fast homogenisation of the mixture of natural

gas and liquid fuel in most cases has no time to be ideal. At low loads, the air-gas mixtures may be

so lean that it causes flame propagation interruptions, resulting in incomplete combustion. This will

lead to loss of fuel through the exhaust, contributing to a reduction in fuel efficiency and high levels

of unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust.

Detonation: Detonation occurs during the combustion process when the burnt gas zone, which is
pressurising

and heating the unburned part of the cylinder charge ahead of the flame front, does so at a such

rate that the unburned fuel achieves its auto-ignition temperature before the arrival of the actual
flame front. The result is that the unburned charge volume ignites spontaneously over the entire

zone where the auto-ignition conditions have been achieved

Pre-ignition: Another dangerous and damaging phenomenon of pre-mixed engine operation is the
pre-ignition

of the cylinder charge. This phenomenon results from the igniting of the cylinder charge through

contact with a high temperature surface prior to the desired ignition timing (i.e. at the time of pilot

fuel injection, or spark discharge in a spark ignited engine). Pre-ignition is particularly dangerous

since ignition can occur during the compression stroke, leading to excessive mechanical stress

and damages in the crank system, piston rings, bearings, etc., as well as increased thermal stress

and detrimental effects on cylinder lubrication due to very high in-cylinder gas temperatures.

3. Engine conversion: TecnoVeritas has performed engine conversions worldwide since 1999,
including a range of engine

makes, sizes, and different fuels including dual fuel and multi fuel using diesel oil, heavy fuel oil,

natural gas, producer gas, and hydrogen. A range of in-house developed technology solutions for

engine monitoring, control, and operational optimisation have been developed. The following

sections present a case study of two Wärtsilä 9L32 diesel engines converted to dual fuel operation

on heavy fuel oil and natural gas, and describe technological solutions chosen as well as

operational data from the engines

Q-Define and discuss critically the “EV” and“HEVs”. Discuss, how additives are
useful in enhancing engine performance ?

Electric vehicle: An electric vehicle, also called an EV, uses one or more electric motors or traction
motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity from off-
vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar panels or an electric generator to convert fuel to
electricity.[1] EVs include, but are not limited to, road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric
aircraft and electric spacecraft.
EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for
motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the
gasoline cars of the time. Modern internal combustion engines have been the dominant propulsion method
for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types,
such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.
In the 21st century, EVs saw a resurgence due to technological developments, and an increased focus
on renewable energy. Government incentives to increase adoptions were introduced, including in the United
States and the European Unio

hybrid electric vehicle: A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a
conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion system (hybrid vehicle
drivetrain). The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than
a conventional vehicle or better performance. There is a variety of HEV types, and the degree to which each
functions as an electric vehicle (EV) also varies. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car,
although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses also exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative brakes which convert the
vehicle's kinetic energy to electric energy to charge the battery. Some varieties of HEV use their internal
combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator to either recharge their batteries
or to directly power the electric drive motors; this combination is known as a motor–generator. Many
HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as
a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably sized gasoline
car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than a comparably sized, pure gasoline-burning, vehicle
and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel
economy. (Natural gas and propane fuels produce fewer emissions.)

how additives are useful in enhancing engine performance ?

“Keeping a diesel fuel system lubricated is critical to ensuring that friction and wear
within high-pressure components, such as the fuel pump, is kept at a minimum to
ensure longevity and efficient operation,” she says. “Our fuel additive solutions can be
tailored to address specific challenges associated with variable fuel quality and a variety
of engine configurations.”

Diesel fuel additives address a wide range of issues that can have profound effects on
vehicle performance, regardless of whether the vehicle is a light-duty pickup, a Class 8
truck or off-road equipment.

“In some cases additives are required for an engine to operate properly,” says Greg
Mathes, a product manager for Lubrizol, which offers a wide array of performance diesel
additives designed to meet and exceed diesel fuel specifications. “In other cases, the
additive provides extra benefits above and beyond that of normal unadditized diesel
fuel.”

Q- What are basic conversion systems forvehicles ? Explain any one of them in
detail with neat diagrams including safety aspects.

An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven
vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. Much of the information in this article is
also applicable to the design and construction of electric vehicles from materials and components, as is
commonly done by hobbyists assembling kit cars with ICE engine
Electric Vehicle Conversion Index

1. Technologies
2. Powertrain
3. Battery disposition, security, and wiring
4. Auxiliary systems and control
5. Chassies, suspension, and running gear
6. High power electrical
7. Controls, interlocks, indicators, and alarms
8. Conversion of concrete vehicles
9. Resources

Chassies, suspension, and running gear:

Unit body rust: Rust problems in a vehicle can be expensive and difficult to correct. Recent
vehicles have been substantially improved in their corrosion resistance, using zinc plated metal
and full dip priming. Older vehicles do not have this quality of build and may be subject to rust.
This is especially important in unit body construction, where thin sheet metal provides the
primary structure of the vehicle. This is another reason to convert a light truck - almost all are
built with a sturdy frame to which the battery load may be transferred.

Tires and wheels: A selection of wheel and tire combination must respect both the
weight and intended use of the vehicle and its expected loads. A low rolling resistance
is desirable, obtained usually by choosing an appropriate belted radial passenger car
tire. For light trucks this means using a tire intended for a rather heavy sedan, rather
than one designed for a light truck, assuming that the vehicle is intended to be used on
improved roads.
Suspension: The additional weight of the batteries will cause compression of the
springs which in most vehicles will change the suspension geometry. This will also
reduce the space available for suspension travel. Such compression might be rarely
encountered in an ICE vehicle as it corresponds to the maximum load. In an electric
vehicle this load will be present at all times, so the suspension travel and geometry
should be restored by various modifications.
Ground clearance: It may be desired to restore normal ground clearance, especially
important if the batteries are between the frame rails of a truck or similar vehicle. Under other
circumstances such as the creation of a sports electric vehicle a low ground clearance may be
desirable as it can reduce aerodynamic drag and reduce rollover tendencies. A low ground
clearance may also be considered as a styling element.
Spring rate and spring force: Spring force is the amount of force applied by the spring at
is normally loaded condition. If weight is added to the vehicle the springs will compress
until the necessary force is obtained or the suspension "bottoms out", by resting on the
"snubber pads" that prevent metal–to–metal contact at full travel.
Spring rate is the additional force applied by the spring for each unit measure of spring
compression. Additional spring rate is used to prevent excess compression of the
suspension due to road bumps and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to lean in
turns
Shock absorber damping rate: When the spring rate is increased then the damping
rate applied by the shock absorbers should also be increased. If the suspension
modifications are by use of coil-over or air adjustable shocks then the appropriate
damping may be obtained by proper equipment selection. Some high end shock
absorbers allow the damping rate to be adjusted statically (by mechanical adjustments
on the shock absorber).

1.vegetable oils: Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are fats extracted from plants. Like
fats from other sources each is composed mostly of triglycerides.[1] Vegetable oil often
refers only to vegetable fats that are liquid at room temperature.[2][3] With exceptions
such as olive oiland palm oil, vegetable oils are extracted from seeds.
On food packaging, the term "vegetable oil" is often used in ingredients lists instead of
specifying the exact plant being used, especially when the oil used is less desirable to
the consumer or if a mix is used, such as palm, canola, soybean, and safflower oils,
(whereas coconut oil and olive oil may be perceived as more desirable).
2. Biodiesel: Biodiesel is an alternative fuel similar to conventional or ‘fossil’ diesel.
Biodiesel can be produced from straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, tallow and waste
cooking oil. The process used to convert these oils to Biodiesel is called
transesterification. This process is described in more detail below. The largest possible
source of suitable oil comes from oil crops such as rapeseed, palm or soybean. In the
UK rapeseed represents the greatest potential for biodiesel production. Most biodiesel
produced at present is produced from waste vegetable oil sourced from restaurants,
chip shops, industrial food producers such as Birdseye etc. Though oil straight from the
agricultural industry represents the greatest potential source it is not being produced
commercially simply because the raw oil is too expensive.

3.Di-methyle ether: DME and bioDME have a number of uses in products and are most
commonly used as a replacement for propane in liquid petroleum gas (LPG), but can also be
used as a replacement for diesel fuel in transportation. Diesel fuel contains more energy per
gallon than the gasoline that we use in most passenger cars, and where pure methanol would not
be able to power a diesel engine as effectively, DME can.
Today, DME is primarily produced by converting hydrocarbons via gasification to synthesis gas
(syngas). Synthesis gas is then converted into methanol in the presence of catalyst (usually
copper-based), with subsequent methanol dehydration in the presence of a different catalyst (for
example, silica-alumina) resulting in the production of DME.
Besides being able to be produced from a number of renewable and sustainable resources, DME
also holds advantage over traditional diesel fuel because of its high cetane number – which
measures the combustion quality of diesel fuel during compression ignition. By combusting
more thoroughly, an engine tailored to run on DME can achieve higher efficiencies, better
mileage and emissions reductions.

pyro oils: Pyrolysis oil, sometimes also known as biocrude or bio-oil, is a synthetic
fuel under investigation as substitute for petroleum. It is obtained by heating
dried biomass without oxygen in a reactor at a temperature of about 500 °C with
subsequent cooling. Pyrolytic oil (or bio-oil) is a kind of tar and normally contains levels
of oxygen too high to be considered a hydrocarbon. This high oxygen content results in
non-volatility, corrosiveness, immiscibity with fossil fuels, thermal instability, and a
tendency to polymerize when exposed to air.[1]As such, it is distinctly different from
petroleum products. Removing oxygen from biooil or nitrogen from algal biooil is called
upgrading.

Emulsified fuels: Emulsified Fuels are emulsions composed of water and a

combustible liquid, either oil or a fuel. Emulsions are a particular example of
a dispersion comprising a continuous and a dispersed phase. In the case of emulsions
both phases are the immiscible liquids, oil and water. Emulsion fuels can be either
a microemulsion or an ordinary emulsion (sometimes referred to as macroemulsion, to
differentiate them from microemulsions). The essential differences between the two are
stability (microemulsions are thermodynamically stable systems, whereas
macroemulsions are kinetically stabilized) and particle size distribution (microemulsions
are formed spontaneously and have dimensions of 10 to 200 nm, whereas
macroemulsions are formed by a shearing process and have dimensions of 100 nm to
over 1 micrometer).

gaseous alternative fuels

hydrogen: Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. With
a standard atomic weight of 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic
table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe,
constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass.[7][note 1] Non-remnant stars are mainly
composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen,
termed protium (name rarely used, symbol 1H), has one proton and no neutrons.
The universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination
epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is
a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic,
highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. Since hydrogen readily
forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on
Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays a
particularly important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions
involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules.

compressed natural gas: methane stored at high pressure) is a fuel which can be
used in place of gasoline (petrol), Diesel fuel and propane/LPG. CNG combustion
produces fewer undesirable gases than the fuels mentioned above. It is safer than other
fuels in the event of a spill, because natural gas is lighter than air and disperses quickly
when released. CNG may be found above oil deposits, or may be collected from
landfills or wastewater treatment plants where it is known as biogas.
CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane, CH4),
to less than 1 percent of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is
stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 20–25 MPa (2,900–3,600 psi),
usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes.

liquefied petroleum gas: Liquefied petroleum gas, also called LP gas,

or LPG, any of several liquid mixtures of the volatile hydrocarbons
propene, propane, butene, and butane. It was used as early as 1860 for a portable
fuel source, and its production and consumption for both domestic and industrial use
have expanded ever since. A typical commercial mixture may also contain ethane
and ethylene as well as a volatile mercaptan, an odorant added as a safety
precaution.
LPG is recovered from “wet” natural gas (gas with condensable
heavy petroleum compounds) by absorption. The recovered product has a
low boiling point and must be distilled to remove the lighter fractions and then be
treated to remove hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and water.

producer gas: Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as
coal, as opposed to natural gas. In this respect it is similar to other types of
"manufactured" gas, such as coal gas, coke oven gas, water gas and carburetted water
gas. Producer gas was used primarily as an industrial fuel for iron and steel
manufacturing, such as firing coke ovens and blast furnaces, cement and ceramic kilns,
or for mechanical power through gas engines. It was characteristically low in heating
value but cheap to make, so that large amounts could be made and burnt .

Biogas: Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the

breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from
raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant
material, sewage, green waste or food waste. Biogas is a renewable energy source.
Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with methanogen or anaerobic
organisms, which digest material inside a closed system, or fermentation of
biodegradable materials.[1] This closed system is called an anaerobic
digester, biodigester or a bioreactor.

Solid Fuels
Solid-fuel heating remains a small but significant component of the heating mix in
Ireland. Government policy will play a part in incentivising switching to cleaner, less
carbon intensive heating fuels. Boosting fuel diversity is challenging and will require
intensive coordination between the energy, transport and environment sectors .

1.Coal: Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually

occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. Throughout
history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production
of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals.
Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well
as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases. The
extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated
with environmental and health effects including climate change.

2. Peat: Peat fuel is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter

that can be burnt once sufficiently dried.

3.Coke: Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made
from coal. It is the solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of
low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous.
While coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form
known as petroleum coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other
cracking processes