TEAS EXAM 2020

Topic Definition
A noun or noun phrase that encapsulates the subject matter of writing.

-Examples: arteries, acid, alleles mammals or recycling

How to identify purpose of the reading
Asking "What am I reading about?" And "What is important to know about it?"
-Author will include key details, or supporting details that systematically show and support the point
the author is trying to make.
-Once topic is identified, you should be able to identify and rephrase key ideas/points.
Key Ideas definition
Ideas that support the controlling idea.
Rephrasing
-Once hints in details are found, you should be able to synthesize the key ideas/points to rephrase ideas.
-First step: Analyze (break down) the key ideas.
-Second Step (final): Rephrase key ideas to understand the main idea. Evaluate the similarities and
differences.
Structure for Conclusion
Found by key terms and descriptions providing structure for common understanding.
-Ask "What can I infer based on what I've just read?"
How reader uses the text
Must observe facts, delineate arguments and discern valid information provided. Then must combine
what the author has provided with individual experiences to draw inference from the selection.
Conclusion definition
A deduction made by the reader about an unstated outcome from a reading passage. Asks the reader to
analyze and make a decision based on predictions, details, evidence, and results.
Inference defintion
"Reading between the lines" of what is stated. Otherwise, applying logic to facts and evidence coupled
with recognizing the context clues provided. Suggests an idea by details and evidence in passage.
Key terms include what?
Those that provide sequence or chronology, descriptive words and phrases, and words that convey
value judgements and opinion.
-Can provide explicit information and implicit information that allow the reader to make inference.
Explicit information definition
Clearly stated
Implicit information defintion
Something not clearly stated
What to identify to delineate key points that support the topic?
Identify the topic and authors main idea
What to demonstrate
Comprehension of a text by explaining how supporting details clarify the main idea.
-Ask "What's the topic and what's the authors main idea about the topic?" Then examine supporting
details and how they relate to the main idea.
Comprehension defintion
Ability to understand
Delineate defintion
Describe precisely
Evidence defintion
Proof to support idea
How to identify main idea
Read that passage then locate the sentences that emphasize, elaborate, or clarify this information.
Topic answers what questions?
"Who or what is the paragraph about?"
Location of topic
Should appear near the beginning of the paragraph and include main idea.
-Topic must not be too specific or too general.
Identify supporting or key ideas
Ask the topic sentence: Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How?
What else is important for key ideas?
Discerning between relevant and irrelevant ideas
Relevant ideas defintion
Connected to the idea being discussed
-Relate back to topic sentence.
Irrelevant ideas defintion
Not applicable to the idea
-Unrelated, and some times random.
Procedures
Can be found in an text, like recipes and manuals.
Sequential information offers readers the ability to safely, effectively, and efficiently, complete
activities.
-Process of writing, editing, and revising.
Language features and Structure
Includes: signal words, words that assist the reader in recognizing the relationship among steps, and
simple, objective language.
-Objective language: Impartial, non-judgmental, not-personal, and non-emotional.
Directions
-Once reader has identified all features of procedure.
-Very specific, using language that tells how to accomplish the steps.
Common Types of Procedural Text
Include: Steps in an activity and steps in operating a system or object.
Highest Occurring Components of Procedural Writing are?
Headings/subheadings, numbering/alphabetizing, steps, charts, diagrams, and photographs for step
clarification.
Printed Communications
Include: Memos, announcements, advertisements.
-Join people together that have common interests and share information amongst those that desire
further detail.
Printed Public Announcement
-Inform public about organizations, upcoming events, and services.
-Message is short, design is simple and eye-pleasing, and information is easily accessible.
-Content should include: Link to information access, information about supporting organization, and
supporting details (In images and short phrases, if possible)
Classified Advertisment
Printed Advertisment selling of soliciting something.
-Generally short, detailed text offering items and services.
-Example: Print/Online newspapers, magazines, blogs and forums.
~Blogs: Website that is usually informal and independently run.
~Forums: Online message board.
-Included in Advertisement:: Headline that engages the reader, item or service offered, a call to action
(phone number, email, address)
Graphic Representation
Allows readers to comprehend important verbal and written ideas in accessible form.
- Most include titles and subheads that summarize complex information. Common features: titles,
subheads, keys/legends, and scales.
-Also, assist readers in selecting important information that might otherwise be missing by portraying
the key parts that make up a whole.
Include- Bar, pie, and flow charts, graphs, maps, and illustrations.
Features of Graphic Representation
Maps: titles, legends, and scales.
~Titles: Articulate the purpose of the map.
~Legend: Clarifies what the symbols, colors, and shapes represent.
~Scale: The distance between points.
Recognizing Events in a Sequence
-Powerful benefits like remembering information, understanding text, and analyzing information.
-Know the different between Sequential and Chronological
Sequential
A fixed order in which there is a legend pattern.
~Example: Pages in a Book
-Signal words: first, then, second, at the beginning, finally, now, prior to, next, while, when, afterward,
last, before, after, subsequently.
Chronological
In an order in which they happen and requires a time element. When one even occurs and ends then
when another even begins.
~Signal words:
When: today, yesterday, later, now, last year
How often: always, rarely, often, never, seldom
Length of Time: all year, all season, all day, since, one day.
Assists readers with keeping track of occasions in narrative and informational text. Without a time frame
then the reader will get confused.
Distinguish between Fact and Opinion, Biases, and Stereotypes
Identify POV (point of view) by discerning between facts and opinions, bias, and stereotypes, tone, and
word choice.
Point of View
Way the author considers the subject of writing.
-Ways to identify POV for purposes of in-depth comprehension, challenging the author and text, and
viewing the subject through licenses:
Read multiple text on same subject: Compares facts, opinions, biases and stereotypes.
Identify authors word choice: Recognize tones (authors feeling)
Conclude what is missing from text: Determine POV by omission
Imagine authors side in a debate: Evaluate the biases and stereotypes.
Facts and Opinions
Fact can be proven and Opinion can NOT.
-Facts should be determined whether they are reliable or not.
-Opinions can have bias. Used to mislead or persuade reader.
Stereotypes and Biases
Stereotype: Biased belief about a person or group and doesn't recognize individual differences or
social distinction.
~Influenced by parents, peers, social opinions, and the media.
~Can be positive or negative. Regardless, they have negative consequences.
Bias: Tendency toward a preconceived idea.
~Preferential viewpoint that often doesn't allow for important or objective discussion.
-Differences that assist in Identification:
Stereotype: Writer remains nonemotional and uses general statements. Writer might have facts based
upon researched biases and falsely supported assumptions.
Bias: Writer uses emotionally charged word choice and figuartive language. Writer purposefully omits
facts due to a usual lack of validation.
Modes
Forms of writing. Classification of rhetorical writing.
-Persuasive, expository, narrative.
Types of Writing
The text that fall under each mode.
-Expository: Compare/Contrast, Procedure, and Cause and Effect.
-Narrative: Myths, Biographies, Short stories, Poetry, and Novels.
Persuasive/Argumentative
To convince the reader to believe something about the topic.
~Convince to feel, think, or behave a certain way.
-Includes: facts, details, examples, and persuasive word choice along with logical order of thought
development.
-Must portray a strong opinion.
-The reason answers why to any claim (topic), Evidence shows (with facts, details, or examples) what
the claim looks like. Analysis explains how the evidence is supporting the claim and wraps up the
paragraph.
Problem/Soluntion*
Persuasive
-Includes: Introduction of the problem being addressed, a description of the problem, a plausible
solution to the problem, and a closing that challenges the reader to take action.
-Signal Words: The problem, so that, for this reason, if....then...., because, this led to, a solution, one
reason for.
Expository
Author informs, explains, or tells how to.
-Does not include opinions but only uses facts and examples.
-Uses logical order of least to most important, most to least important, or detailed step-by-step.
Cause and Effect
Cause: Why something happens.
Effect: What happened
-Signal Words: Due to, consequently, as a result of, if....then...., was responsible for, as might be
expected, make possible by, since.
Compare/Contract
Compare: Find similarities
Contrast: Identify differences
-Signal Words: On the contrary, similarly, have in common, in spite of, in like manner, compared to, in
the same way, as well as.
Procedure Signal Words
First, next, then, last, in closing, to begin with, accordingly, to finish.
Narrative
Authors can entertain, inform, and challenge reader through diverse structures. Tell stories through
sensory details that assist readers in experiencing events.
- Use chronological order
- Or use devices that foreshadow, flash back, and created an image in the readers mind.
-Signal Words: Abruptly, after a few days, gradually, instantly, from this point, this instant, until now,
sporadically, on the next occasion, not long ago, previously, recently.
Identify Correct Definition of a Word
-Find context clues to help provide for the meaning of the word.
Root Words and Affixes:
Root is the base of a word and can have a prefix or suffix add to make a meaning.
~Example: Root= fract (break) Suffix= -tion
Comparing Signal Phrases:
Clue being provided to help clarify
Definition:
Provided as a restatement of the phrase
-Example or Illustration:
Examples given to provide a hint towards definition.
Figurative/Connotation
Figurative: Figure of speech/Metaphor
~Metaphor: Comparison between unlike things without using like or as. Using is
~Simile: Comparison between unlike things using like or as
~Personification: Giving human attributes to something nonhuman
Connotation: Implied meaning of a word or idea.
-"Reading between the lines"
~The tone can influence the reader and affect the mood.
Denotative Meaning of Words
Dictionary definition
-Using a Dictionary (Merriam-Webster, Oxford English)
Connotative
More complex, and is a combination of a words definition and its suggested meaning based on context
and emotions or associations evoked by a word.
Evaluating Purpose in a given text
-Figure out if text is to entertain, inform, or persuade.
Where does text appear?
-Excerpt from a novel, Short story, Magazine/Television AD.
-If in magazine, could have tried to inform
-Novels, short stories, and poems are created to entertain
-Advertisments are created to persuade
-Can have more than one purpose or a different purpose.
What is the structure of the text?
Can help determine authors intent.
Narrative:
-Appear in stories or poetry, often serve to entertain.
-Include: A plot and one or more characters trying to overcome an obstacle or solve a problem.
Informational:
-Can take many forms (Instructions, Textbooks), but include section headings that may be in bold or
underlined types.
-Includes: Bulleted/Numbered lists, Short phrases that might not complete sentences, Images with
captions, Maps, and Diagrams.
Persuasive:
-Advertisments (to sell a service, product, or idea), Newspaper (express opinions intended to persuade
about topic/local interest). Some may be disguised.
What is the authors tone?
Determined by examining specific words used in a piece of writing.
-Inform: Use straightforward, neutral language that lacks emotional correlation.
-Persuade: Use emotionally-charged language coupled with images to evoke a specific emotion in
readers.
-Paying attention to the authors words can help determine the intended message.
Evaluate POV in a given text
Identify the kinds of sources being used, Thinking about who the author is, what groups their associated
with, type of publication where writing appears, whether sources are reliable or not (fact or opinion),
where writing fits into a larger context, information relevant or not.
Text Features
Parts of a text that stand out from a larger text for a reason
-Examples: bold, print, italics, and footnotes.
-Used to orient the reader, provide additional information, provide a clear organizational structure,
background knowledge, quickly locating information.
~Indentation: Helps organize and clarify text
~Easily Identified: Sidebars, footnotes, and map legends.
Trying to draw attention
Headings/Subheadings
Heading: Title, bold, larger than sub.
Subheadings: Title of a subdivision of information with larger text. Bold, but smaller than heading.
Sidebars
Used in History textbooks.
-Include: Photograph or imagine of person along with additional details or two of personal life.
Underline/Italics
Common features but often more confusing to interpret.
Standard uses for Italics:
-Titles of works (books), foreign words/phrases, and for emphasis
Footnotes
Used in informational text to offer more in-depth information about a topic.
Usually use numbers in subscript, or small numbers set slightly abode the line of text.
Found at the bottom of the paper.
Identifying Primary Sources in various media
Refers to artifacts, letters, recordings, images, and other media that have not been altered from
original state. The only thing separating the reader from its creator.
-Example: Pictures in museum that are the "original" are Primary Source Documents but if those
pictures are put into textbooks they are just "copies" and are no longer Primary Source Documents.
-May include secondary sources within them. Secondhand accounts of events.
-Used to gain valuable information about a specific time or place.
Using evidence to make what?
Predictions and inferences, and draw conclusions about a piece of writing.
-Draw conclusions by making predictions and inferences.
-Using evidence to support how you came to the conclusion.
-Vague Details given: Author wants you to ask questions, form hypotheses, and draw potentially
important details to predict actions, plot twists, and story resolutions. (Technique used to help
predicts foreshadowing)
-Inference: Like a prediction but more subtle.
-Example: Author using numbered list, Reader might predict that authors is giving instructions or
providing a list.
~Title can be considered a prediction
~Word meanings. Using words around an unknown word can provide clues to the meaning of a word.
Compare/Contrast themes from Print and Other Sources
Theme: Broad concept engaged with by a piece of art.
~Present in short/long works of fiction/nonfiction, no print sources like films and radio broadcasts.
Some themes are obvious but other will need different parts of the text pulled in order to recognize
them.
~Novels engage with several themes and in several ways.
Common Themes in Classic Literature
Power, Motherhood, Freedom, And Privilege. Themes that are easily learned are from culture,
geographic area, and time period.
Authors take different perspectives on a single theme.
-Genre: A group of relate writing or other media. Impact how a theme is addressed.
-Films: Note more powerful themes. Filmmakers choose to display and comment on themes in many
ways.
~Camera angles: Showing subject from below can depict them as powerful or important. Subject shown
as being very small compared to vast landscape depicts theme as powerless.
Evaluate Argument and its Specific Claims
Argument: Set of reasons to make a case for an idea
Argument is stated and author will provide evidence to support it.
Claim: Statement that something is true
-Arguments preceded by words like I think or I believe, but strong pieces do not include those words;
instead author includes a very strong argument by stating something is or should be true.
-Evidence: Often stated after argument, but could be stated before argument (purposely made last).
~Reputable sources are more reliable and helps support an argument.
~May use false evidence because they don't have enough to support argument. Look for
inconsequential or out of alignment with argument.
Evaluate and Integrate Data from Sources in Various Formats
-Use multiple data sources so that an understanding can be based on multiple perspectives.
~Library Media Specialist (Information Specialist) will help locate relevant information.
-May include: Charts, Graphs, and Diagrams.
Organizing Information:
Organize in a logical manner by using a Coding System that makes sense to you. Like marking
information with abbreviations, colors, or anything to help physically sort it into physical or
electronically folders.
Synthesis: Putting all information back together.
Decimal Placement/Converting
- Value greater than 1, Move decimal to right till you get whole number.
- Number becomes numerator and 1 becomes denominator with the number of 0's that matches
number of moves for decimal. = Fraction
- Value less than 1. Use whole number as numerator and the Place value of last decimal Digit as
denominator. =Fraction

Percentage Convert to/from Decimal

TO - Divide % by 100 then remove % symbol
FROM - Multiply by 100 then add % symbol

Percentage Convert to/from Fraction

TO - Convert to decimal first (divide by 100) then put into simplest form
FROM - Convert to decimal (multiply to get 100 in denominator then divide by denominator) then put
decimal into %

Fraction Convert to Decimal

Divide numerator by denominator

Order of Operations
-PEMDAS (No exponent for TEAS 6)
-Parentheses FIRST
-Multiplication and Division SECOND (Left to Right)
-Addition and Subtraction THIRD (Left to Right)
Compare and Order Rational Numbers
-Rational Numbers: -6 (-6/1), 5 (5/1), 100 (100/1)
-Irrational Numbers: Square root (any prime number), pi
-Numeric Order: Least to Greatest, Greatest to Least. Best in decimal form. Line them up vertically.
-Fraction/Fraction Form: 5 2/7 (put into decimal) Divide 2 by 7 to get .2857 which will equal 5.2857
<, _<_
Less than, IS fewer than
Less than or equal to, is at most, is no more than

>, _>_
Greater than, IS more than
Greater than or equal to, is at least, is no less than

=
Equal, equal to, is, was, were, will be, yields, becomes
Common Denominator
1. Find least on on multiple of denominator
2. Change each fraction to make their denominator the same as least common denominator
~List multiples of each denominator and find SMALLEST number
~Multiply numerator by multiple of LCD, Use LCD as denominator

Solve Equations in One Variable

Collecting all variable terms to one side of the equal sign and all the constants on the other side, using
addition or subtraction. Once all like terms are combined, last step is to divide. Could also be
multiplication by the reciprocal ( One divided by original number).
Extraneous
Incorrect
Story that is interesting containing details that aren't necessary to tell you what happened.
Erroneous
Irrelevant
Story might contain conflicting accounts of what happened due to having multiple observers.
Terms Related to Operations
Sum (+) , Difference (-) , Product (x) , Quotient ( / ) , Per 100 (#% _<_ 100%), Is or Of (#% _>_ 100%)
Rational Numbers can be represented by?
By fractions
Includes: Whole Numbers, Positives/Negatives, Zero, and all decimals that either terminate or repeat.
~Irrational numbers will not concern us at this point
Solve Real World Problems with Percentage
Percent LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 100%
~(50% -> 50 out of 100%)
Percent MORE THAN 100%
~(150% is 150 for each 100)

-Percent off sales tax, annual percent interest rate at a bank, annual percent gain or loss for a company
or business, percent commission for sales person, percent depreciation of assets, percentages of
ingredients in a mixture or recipe.
Sales Tax Equation
-Convert % to decimal then Multiply % times the Original Number (% x Original Price, Original Price + x =
ST)
Percent Increase Equation
- Percent Increase
~ PI= new amount - original amount/ original amount X 100%
Percent Decrease Equation
PD = original amount - new amount/ original amount X 100%
Rounding Rules
- 5 or LARGER, round UP (decimals)
- 5 or SMALLER, Round DOWN (decimals)
- Numerator is GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 1/2 the denominator, then round whole # UP
- Numerator is LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 1/2 the denominator, then round whole # DOWN

Proportions
Ratio in fraction form set equal to another ratio in fraction form.
~Example:
50mi/1cm = X/12.6cm (cross multiply) -> 50mix12.6cm/1cm=Xx12.6cm/12.6cm (cancel out 12.6cm on
Num. and Den.) -> 50mix12.6cm/1cm (cancel out cm) = X -> 630mi = X
Constant of Proportionality
Also known as Rate of Change
Ratio between two quantities
~Y=k*x (k is constant, y and X are direct proportion)
~One variable is always the product of the other and a constant, the two are said to be directly
proportional.

Ratio/Rate Change
-Ratio: Simply just a fraction.
Once you add/attach WORDS (units) to fraction then it becomes a RATE.
- Example-
~Y2-Y1/X2-X1 rise over run
~Unit Rate - denominator HAS to be 1
Translate Phrases and Sentences into Expressions, Equations, and Inequalities
Sentence Fragments become Expression and Full Sentences becomes Equations and Inequalities.
-Examples:
Expressions: 3x-5 , , y , 3(2x+7)
Equations: 3x-5=70 , y=36 , 3(2x+7)=4x-9
Inequalities: x-5>70 , y<36 , 3(2x+7)_<_4x-9
Different Graphs and Interpretation
-Bar Graph: Compare data (has scale)
-Line Graph: Data INCREASE or DECREASE over time (has legend)
-Pictograph: Pics or symbols to show data (legend)
-Pie Chart: Diagram to compare parts as a whole (labeled,legend)
-Histograph: Like a bar graph, grouped data
-Stem and Leaf plot: Outline groups of data that fall into range (small to large, left=stem, right=leaf)
-Scatter Plot: Functions give with data, finding simple regression. 4 different types: positive, negative,
nonlinear exponential, nonlinear quadratic
Mean, Median, and Mode
Mean: Add all #, then divide by how many # there are
~"Average"
Median: Middle # of ordered (Least to Greatest) list. If # are even, then the 2 middle # averaged out.
Mode: tthat occurs the MOST. Can be more than one.
Range: Subtracting the minimum value from maximum value

Shape of Distribution
Symmetry: Divided at center with each side having half the data
Number of Peaks (modal): Uni-1 peak, Bi-2 peaks, Bellshaped- Single peak in center
Skewness: More distribution on one side than the other
~Right-More towards left side, toward higher
~Left-More towards right side, toward lower
Uniform: Data spread equally, no peaks.
Data Trend: Easy to see in simple graphs instead of complex
~Expected/Unexpected (outliers): "Outsider" plot point
Relationship between 2 Variables
- Change in one can cause change in another
- Examples- mileage increases/gas decreases (negative relation). Miles increase/radio increases (positive
relation)
- Covariance: Variables increase = Positive Covariance
Variable Decrease = Negative Covariance
Independent: First variable
Dependent: Second variable
Geometric Quantities
Length: Measured with ruler or tape measure
Units: in,ft,yd,mi,cm,m,km
Curved Length: Includes arcs or circles
-Circumference- Length of distance around circle
~C=2xpixr
-Length of Arc- C=2xpixr then multiply by n/360
Perimeter: Length around shape
~Add all sides. To find missing side: Subtract the like-sides
~Half the C= pixradius
Area: Surface space
Units Squared: in,ft,yd,mi,m
Shapes and their Formulas
Square: A=lxl = l2 (squared)
Rectangle: A=lxw
Triangle: A= 1/2xbxh
Parallelogram: A=hxb
Trapezoid: A= 1/2xhx(b1xb2)
Circle: A= pixr2 (squared)
Rhombus: A=1/2xd1xd2
Converting within/between Standard and Metric Systems
Length, volume, mass are directly related
Daily Basis prefixes:
Kilo=1,000
Deca=10
Deci= 1/10
Centi=1/100
Milli=1/1,000
Example: How to Convert
3Ib/#we know = xKG/# to find = #kg
-Cancel metric symbol out then multiply
1Ib
.45kg
1kL
1000 L
1000 mcg (micrograms)
1 mg
1000 mg
1g
1000 g
1 kg
1000 kg
1 metric ton
1000 mL
1L
1000 um (micrometer)
1 mm
1000 mm
1m
100 cm
1m
1000 m
1 km
1 inch
2.54 cm
12 inches
1 ft (foot)
.305 m
3 feet
1 yd (yard)
.914 m
5280 ft
1 mi (mile)
1.609 km
8 drams
1 oz (ounce)
29.573 mL
8 oz
1 cup
.237 L
16 oz
1 pint
.473 L
2 pints
1 quarts
.946 L
4 quarts
1 gal (gallon)
3.785 L
16 drams
1 oz
28.35 g
16 oz
1 Ib
453.6 g
2000 Ib
1 ton
907.2 kg
1 fluid dram
1 tsp
5 mL
4 fluid dram
3 tsp
15 or 16 mL
1 fluid oz
2 tsp
30 mL
8 fluid oz
1 glass
240 mL
Hierarchy of Structures
Lowest Hierarchy level is at Organelles within a cell. They obtain energy from food and reproduction.
-Cells with the same function are collected into larger groups called Tissues.
-Tissues are collected into Organs, carry out single task, like oxygenated blood (lungs), or filter out waste
(kidneys).
-Organs work together in systems that perform coordinated large-scale functions, like nourishing the
body (digestive) or protecting the body from attacks (immune).
Cell Parts
-Organelles: Cell parts that function within a cell. They coordinate with other organelles to performs a
cell's basic function, like energy processing and waste excretion.
~Examples: Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, The Nucleus.

The Nucleus
-Nucleus: Small structure that contains Chromosomes and Regulates the DNA of a cell. Defining
structure of eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for the passing on of genetic traits between generations.
-Contains: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, and ribosomes.
Chromosomes
Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA. DNA is genetic material that stores information about the
plant or animal.
Chromatin
Consists of the DNA and Proteins that make up chromosomes.
Nucleolus
Structure contained within the nucleus, consists of proteins. Small, Round, and does not have a
membrane. Involved in protein synthesis, and synthesizes and stores RNA.
Nuclear Envelope
Encloses the nucleus. Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids.
Nuclear Pores
Involved in exchange of material between nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm
Liquid within the membrane and is similar to cytoplasm.
Cell Membrane
"Plasma Membrane"
-Made of Lipids and Proteins
-Isolates the cell from its external environment while still enabling the cellar to communicate with the
outside environment.
-Consists: Phospholipid bilayer with the hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing external environment.
~Cholesterol: Adds stiffness and flexibility
~Glycolipids: Help cell to recognize other cells of the organisms.
~Proteins: Help give cells shape
~Special Proteins: Helps cell communicate with external environment.
~Other Proteins: Transport molecules across membrane
Selective Permeability
With regard to size, charge, and solubility.
-Size: Membrane allows small molecules to diffuse through it. Oxygen and Water molecules are small
and can pass through the cells membrane.
-Charge: Ions on a cells surface either attracts or repels ions. Ions with like charges are repelled, and
ions with opposite charges are attracted to the surface.
-Solubility: Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually pass through the membrane. Many
are not able to diffuse the membrane, and if anything they'll have to be moved through by active
transport and vesicles.
Cell Structures
Inside the cell. Contain: Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Vacuoles, Vesicles, Cytoskeleton, Microtubules,
Cytosol, Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria

Ribosomes
Involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids.
-Make up about a quarter of a cell.
-Some are embedded in the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
Golgi Apparatus
Involved in synthesizing materials like proteins that are transported out of the cell.
~Modifies and Packages proteins secreted from the cell.
-Located near the nucleus and has layers of membranes.
Vacuoles
Sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal.
-Plant: Has one large vacuole
-Animal: Has small, sometimes numerous vacuoles.

Vesicles
Small organelle within a cell, has a membrane.
-Functions: Moving materials within a cell.
Cytoskeleton
Consist of microtubules that help shape and support the cell.

Microtubules
Part of cytoskeleton.
-Help support the cell.
-Made of proteins
Cytosol
Liquid materials in the cell. Mostly water, also contains floating molecules.

Cytoplasm
Refers to Cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within
the nucleus.

Cell Membrane
Acting as a barrier. Helps keep cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out.
-Helps determine what is allowed to exit and enter.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Two Types:
-Rough ER: Has ribosomes on surface.
~Functions: Manufacture lysosomal enzymes, Manufacture of secreted proteins. (Protein production,
protein folding, quality control, and despatch)
-Smooth ER: Has no ribosomes.
~Functions: Manufacture Lipids (fat), Metabolism, Steroid Hormone production (adrenal cortex and
endocrine glands), Helps liver detox.
-Tubular Network that comprises the transport system of a cell. It is fused to the nuclear membrane
and extends through cytoplasm to the cell membrane.

Mitochondria
Vary in terms of size and quantity. Has various functions.
-Functions: Production of Cell Energy (ATP) (Main function), Cell Signaling (Communications are carried
out), Cell Differentiation (Cell transforms into a cell with more specialized purpose), Cell Cycle and
Growth Regulation (Growth and Death, Reproduction).
-Inner and Outer membrane:
~Inner: Encloses the matrix. Contains mtDNA and ribosomes.
~Between the 2 Membranes: Cristae (Folds). Chemical reactions occur here that release energy, Control
Water Levels in cells, and Recycle and Create Proteins and Fats.
-Aerobic Respiration: Occurs in Mitochondria.

Animal Cell Structure

Contains: Centrosomes, Centriole, Lysosome, Cilia, Flagella
Centrosome
Pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surrounded by protein.
-Involved in Mitosis and Cell Cycle
Centriole
Cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus.
-Involved in Cellular Division
-Each cylinder consist of 9 Groups of 3 Microtubules. Occurs in pairs.
Lysosome
-Functions: Digest proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Also transports undigested substances to the
membrane do they can be removed. Shape depends on material being transported.

Cilia
Appendages extending from the surface of the cell.
-Moves the cell and results in fluid being moved by the cell.
Flagella
Tail-like structures on cell that use whip-like movements to help move the cell. Longer than Cilia. Only
has one or a few flagella.
Cell Cycle
The process by which a cell reproduces which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and
cell division.
-Complex organisms: Use the cell cycle to replace cells as they lose their functionality and wear out.
-In Animals: Cell Cycle can take 24 hours.
-Human Skin Cells: Constantly reproducing.
-2 Ways for Cell Reproduction: Mitosis and Meiosis
Cell differentiation
Determines the different cell types
-When less-specialized cell becomes a more-specialized cell. Process is controlled by genes of each cell
among a group of cells known as a zygote.
-Cell builds certain proteins and other pieces that set it apart as a specific type of cell.
~Example: Gastrulation (early phase in embryonic development in animals)
Mitosis
Events that occur: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.

Interphase
Cell prepares for division by replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material.
-Further divided into G1, S, G2 (Meiosis)
Prophase
-Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
-Pairs of Centrioles move to opposite sides and spindle fibers begins to form.
-Mitotic Spindle moves chromosomes around wishing the cell.

Metaphase
Spindle moves to the center of the cell and chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle
structure.

Anaphase
Pair of chromosomes, sisters, begin to pull apart and may bend. When they separate, they are
called daughters. Grooves then appear in cell membrane.

Telophase
Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membranes reform, and the chromosome revert to chromatin.
-Animals Cells: Membrane is pinched
-Plant Cells: New cell wall begins to form

Cytokinesis
Physical splitting of the cell into two cells
- Some believe it occurs following telophase, others say it occurs from anaphase, as the cell begins
to furrow, through telophase, when cell actually splits into two.
Meiosis
Same phased as Mitosis, except it happens twice and different event occur during some phases.
-First Phase: Interphase(1), Prophase(1), Metaphase(1), Anaphase(1), Telophase(1), and Cytokinesis(1)
-Second Phase: Prophase(2), Metaphase(2), Anaphase(2), Telophase(2), and Cytokinesis(2).

Interphase(1)
Divided into 3 Parts:
-G1 Phase: Cell synthesizes proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for
growth. In G1, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA.
-S Phase: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two
identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere.
-G2 Phase: DNA Replication
Prophase(1)
Longest Phase
-Chromosomes cross over, Genetic material is exchanged, and te trades of four chromatids are formed.
Nuclear membrane dissolves/breaks down.
Metaphase(1)
Pair of homologous chromosomes move along the metaphase plate.
Anaphase(1)
Microtubules shorten, and homologous pairs of chromatids are separated and travel to different poles.
Telophase(1) and Cytokinesis(1)
Pairs arrives at poles and cell is pinched apart, separating into two cells.
Prophase(2)
Disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and
thickening of the chromatids. Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for
the second meiotic division.
Metaphase(2)
Centromeres contain two kinetochores (pulls the chromosomes to the poles) that attach to spindle
fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles.
Anaphase(2)
Remaining centromeric cohesin is cleaved allowing the sister chromatids to segregate. The sister
chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.
Telophase(2) and Cytokinesis(2)
Marked by decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the
spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of
four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Tissues
Groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function
-Grouped into 4 broad categories: Muscle (Body Movement), Nerve (Brain, Spinal Cord, and
Nerves), Epithelial (Layers of Skin/Membranes), and Connective Tissue (Bone tissue, Cartilage, Tendons,
Ligaments, Fat, Blood, and Lymph).
~Includes: Epithelial, Connecting, Cartilage, Blood, Bone, Muscle, and Nervous.
Epithelial Tissue
Cells are joined together tightly
-Example: Skin Tissue

Connective Tissue
May be dense, loose, or fatty.
-It protects and binds body parts.

Cartilage Tissue
Cushions and provides structural support for body parts.
- Jelly-Like base and is fibrous

Blood
Transports Oxygen to cells and Removes wastes.
-Carries hormones and Defends against disease.
Bone Tissue
Hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs.
-Marrow produces RBC
-Connective Tissue

Muscle Tissue
Helps support and move the body.
-3 Types:
~Smooth: Provides tension in the blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis.
~Cardiac: Only found in the heart
~Skeletal: Includes the muscles commonly called biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.

Nervous Tissue
Neurons form a network through the body that control responses to change in the external and
internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses.
-Located in brain, spinal cord, and nerves

3 Primary Body Planes

-Transverse Plane (Horizontal): Divides the patient's body into upper and lower halves.
-Sagittal Plane (Vertical): Divides the body, or any body part, into right and left sections. Runs parallel to
the midline of the body.
-Coronal Plane (Vertical/Frontal): Divides the body, or any body part, into front and back. Runs through
the body at right angles.

Terms of Direction
-Medial: Towards the mid-line, Middle, Away from the side.
~Example: The little finger it medial to the thumb.
-Lateral: Toward the side, Away from the mid-line.
~Example: Anatomical position, Thumb is lateral to little finger.
-Proximal: Structures closer to the center of the body.
~Example: Hip is proximal to the knee.
-Distal: Structures further away from center of the body.
~Example: Knee is distal to the hip.
-Anterior: Structures in front.
-Posterior: Structures behind.
-Cephalad/Cephalic: Adverbs meaning towards the head.
~Example: Cranial is the adjective, meaning The Skull.
-Caudad: Adverb meaning towards the tail/posterior.
~Example: Caudal is the adjective, meaning The Hindquarters.
-Superior: Above, or closer to the head.
-Inferior: Below, or closer to the feet.
Organs
Group of tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
Organ Systems
Group of organs that work together to perform specific functions.
-Includes: Respiratory, Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, Nervous, Muscular, Integumentary,
Endocrine, Renal/Urinary, Immune, and Skeletal.
Respiratory System Structures
Upper: nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynk larynx
Lower: trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree (bronchi, bronchial network)

Airway
- Lined with cilia to remove microbes and debris
-Lungs:
Bronchial Tree -> lungs -> terminate into alveoli (air sacs) -> gas exchange with blood capillaries
Walls of Alveoli allow for the exchange of gases* with the blood capillaries that surround them.
Right lung - 3 Lobes Left lung - 2 Lobes
-Surrounded by Pleural Membrane (reduce friction)
-Muscles:
Diaphragm: separates thoracic/abdominal cavities
Intercostal: between ribs

Respiratory Functions
-Supplies body with oxygen and Removes carbon dioxide (occurs in alveoli)
-Filters Air: passes through nasal passages -> lungs
-Speech: Air -> throat -> through larynx, causing vibrations and producing sound before heading to
trachea
-Cough: Particles -> nasal passages/airways -> expelled from body
-Smell: Chemoreceptors (nasal cavity) respond to airborne chemicals
Hyperventilation
Increase blood pH during Acidosis (low pH)
Slow breathing during Alkalosis (high pH) -Lowers blood pH
Breathing Process
-Diaphragm/Intercostal muscles contracts to expand lungs
-Inspiration (Inhalation): Diaphragm contracts and moves down increasing the chest cavity
-Expiration (exhalation): Intercostal muscles contract and ribs expand, increasing size of chest cavity
~Volume of chest cavity increases, then the pressure inside chest cavity decreases
~When relaxed: Size of cavity decreases forcing air out.
-Controlled by Medulla Oblongata
~Monitors carbon dioxide in blood, signals the breathing rate to increase when levels are too high.

Respiratory Problems
High Altitude: Decrease lung function due to low oxygen levels.
*People who live in high altitude, evolve over time to have larger lungs.
Chemicals, Pollen, Smoke: Damaged cilia causing Emphysema, Allergies, or Inflammation.
Pathogens: Influenza (corona virus), Tuberculosis (mycobacterium), and Pneumonia (walking -
mycoplasma infection)
*Mycosis -> Fungus
Cystic Fibrosis (gene mutation), Asthma, Lung Surfactant Insufficiency: Impedes lung action.
Ventilation
Process of aerating the lungs
Respiratory Directions
Air -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Lungs -> Alveoli
Alveoli
-Aqueous Surfactant: The median for gas exchange and keeps lungs from collapsing on itself due to
surface tension

Pathway of Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide in Lungs

How Respiratory System effects Circulatory System
-Lungs are perfumed by blood vessels from the heart to bring deoxygenated blood rich in carbon dioxide
to the lungs, where oxygen is added and carbon dioxide is removed to return oxygenated blood to the
heart for circulation to the rest of the of the body
-Diffusion: Passive transport mechanism. Rate of Diffusion is directly proportional to the surface area
involved and the concentration gradient, and is inversely proportional to the distance between the two.
solutions.
-Oxygen in the lungs moves into the blood, and carbon dioxide in the blood moves to the lungs. Lungs
then exhale carbon dioxide back out of body.
Tidal Volume
Amount of air breathed in and out of lungs
Residual Capacity
-Small amount of stale air.
-Remains trapped in alveoli after expiration and mixes with the fresh air brought in by inspiration.
Circulatory System
Internal transport of substances to and from the cells.
-3 Parts: Blood, Blood Vessels, and Heart.
-Open or Closed.

Blood
Human has 5 quarts of blood.
Plasma: Half blood volume. Mostly water, serves as solvent.
-Contains: plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gases.
RBC (red): Transports oxygen to cells. Form in bone marrow. Live for 2 Months, constantly replaced.
WBC (white): Defends body against infection and removes waste.
~Lymphocytes, neutrophil, monocytes, eosinophil, and basophil.
Platelets: Fragments of stem cells.
~Function: Blood Clotting

Heart Chambers
4 Chambers: 2 Ventricles, 2 Atriums -Halves separated by AV Valve (located between ventricle and
artery leading away from the heart).

Types of Circulation
Coronary: Flow of blood to the heart tissue. Blood enters the coronary arteries, which branch off the
aorta, supplying major arteries, which enter the heart with oxygenated blood. Deoxygenated blood
returns to the right atrium through the cardiac veins which empty into the coronary sinus.
Pulmonary: Flow of blood between the heart and the lungs. Deoxygenated blood flows from the right
ventricle to the lungs through pulmonary arteries. Oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium
through the pulmonary veins.
Systemic: Flow of blood to the entire body with the exception of coronary and pulmonary. Blood exits
the left ventricle through the aorta, which branches into the carotid arteries, subclavian arteries,
common iliac arteries, and the renal artery. Blood returns to the heart through the jugular veins,
subclavian veins, common iliac veins, and renal veins, which empty into the superior and inferior vena
cavae.
-Portal circulation: Included in Systemic. Flow of blood from the digestive system to the liver and then
to the heart and renal circulation, which is the flow of blood between the heart and kidneys.

Blood Pressure
Fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle.
Arterial: Functions by transporting oxygen-poor blood into the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the body
tissues.
-Arteries branch into smaller arterioles which contract and expand based on signals from the body.
-Arterioles are where adjustments are made in blood delivery to specific areas based on complex
communication from body systems.
Capillary Beds: Diffusion sites for exchanges between blood and interstitial fluid.
Capillary: Has thinnest wall of any vein, consisting of single cell endothelial cells. Merge into venues
which in turn merge with larger diameter tubules called veins.
-Veins transport blood from body tissues back to the hearts. Thin and contain smooth muscle and
function as blood volume reserves.
-Valves inside the veins facilitate this transport.
Lymphatic System
-Function: To return excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream.
-Consists of transport vessels and lymphoid organs.
Lymph Vascular System: Consists of lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts.
-Function: Return excess fluid to blood, Return of protein from capillaries, Transport of fats from the
digestive tract, Disposal of debris and cellular waste.

Lymphoid Organs
-Consist of lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, adenoids, thymus, tonsils, and small patches of tissue in the
small intestines.
Lymph Nodes: Located at intervals through the lymph vessel system. Contains lymphocytes and plasma
cells.
Spleen: Filters blood, stores of RBC and macrophages.
Thymus: Secrets hormones. Major site of lymphocyte production.
Spleen
-Upper left of the abdomen, behind the stomach and below diaphragm.
-Lymphoid tissue
-Blood vessels are connected to the spleen by splenic sinuses.
-Function: Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old RBC) and to help fight infections.
-Up to 10% of the population has one or more accessory spleens that tend to form at the hilum of the
original spleen.
Peritoneal Ligaments that Support the Spleen
-Gastrolienal: Connects the stomach to the spleen
-Lienorenal: Connects the kidney to the spleen
-Middle Section of the Phrenicolic ligament: Connects the left colic flex use to the thoracic diaphragm
Heart Functions
-Atrial Contraction: Fills ventricles and then ventricular contractions empty them, forcing circulation
"cardiac cycle"
-Cardiac Muscles attach to each other and signals for contraction spreading rapidly.
-Complex Electrical System: Controls the heartbeat
-Cardiac Muscle Cells: Produce and conduct electrical signals.
Capillaries
Drain interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between cells
-Filters it through a system of lymph nodes that are enriched in lymphocytes and provide surveillance by
immune system.

Lymph
-Essentially plasma with RBCs removed
-Large numbers of leukocytes and lymphocytes are enriched in lymph nodes
-Where they monitor and respond to foreign molecules washed into the system.
-Nodes are enriched in oral, nasal, and genital regions where foreign entities enter the body.
Pathologies (Health Issues)
Heart attack, stroke, aneurysms, atherosclerosis, arrhythmia and hypertension.
Cardiovascular System Functions
Transporting nutrients, waste, chemical messengers,and immune molecules.

2 Integrated Circulatory System

-Closed Circulatory System
-Open Lymphatic System

Closed Circulatory System

Double-loop system consisting of thick-walled arteries that transport blood away from the hear,
thinner-walled veins that transport blood to the heart, and capillaries made of a single layer of
endothelium that form a network that connects arteries to veins in tissues.
Transports blood
Double Loops
-Pulmonary: Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and returns oxygenated
blood to the left atrium.
-Systemic: Carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle to the body, returning deoxygenated blood to
the right

Open Lymphatic System

Circulates and filters interstitial fluid between cells and eventually drains into the circulatory system.
-Cleans up excess fluid and proteins and returns them to the blood.
Systole and Diastole (Contraction Cycles)
Systole: Contraction of heart muscles
Diastole: Relaxation of heart muscles
Controlled: by a "pacemaker" called the Sinoatrial Node, which sends out electrical signal.
Arteries vs. Veins
-Arteries have thick walls to withstand the pressure of blood pumped by the hearts.
-Veins have walls with a thinner muscle layer and larger lumen.
Simplified Overview of the Heart Cycle
The ventricles contract (ventricular systole), causing the Atrioventrcular Valves (including mitral and
tricuspid vavles) to close, making a "lub" sounds. Subsequently, the empty ventricles are filled with
blood pushed out during Atrial Systole. Same time, the Semilunar Valves in the aorta and pulmonary
arteries close, preventing blood from falling back into the ventricles, making a "dub" sound, and
completing the "lub-dub" sound of the heart.
Where does Gastrointestinal start and end?
Starts at mouth
Ends at Anus
What does saliva provide? What initiates it?
Amylase and Lipase
Initiates chemical digestion for starch and lipids.
Bolus
Food packaged into small parcels
Then swallowed
Peristalsis
Moves bolus down to stomach through gastric sphincter (prevents back flow into esophagus)

Pepsin
-Initiates chemical digestion of proteins by this enzyme
-Activated by acid and autocatalyst
Mucus
Lubricates the food in the saliva
The 3 Main Secretions of the Stomach
Pepsinogen (chief cells), Mucus (goblet cells), hydrochloric acid (parietal cells)

Chyme
All three secretions together

Chyme neutralized by?

Bicarbonate in pancreatic secretions
Duodenum receives what from gall bladder?
Alkaline bile juices.
Duodenum produces what enzymes?
-"Brush Border" enzymes
-Proteases, Lactase and other disaccharides, and bicarbonate.
Villi and Microvilli function?
Absorb polar digested nutrients into blood, lipids into lacteals as chylomicrons, and B12
Blood carrying nutrients passes through? Allowing what to happen?
-Through hepatic portal duct to the liver
- Allowing liver enzymes to deaminate amino, convert ammonia to urea, metabolize consumed toxins,
and to store glucose as glycogen.
Small Intestines Absorb what?
A lot of water and nutrients
Small intestines include what structure in the order of digestion?
Duodenum->jejunum->ileum
Digestive System Functions
-Movement: Mixes and passes nutrients through the system and eliminates waste.
-Secretion: Enzymes, hormones, and other substances necessary for digestion are secreted into the
digestive tract.
-Digestion: Chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller units that enter the internal environment
-Absorption: Passage of nutrients through plasma membranes into the blood or lymph and then to the
body.

Structure of Digestive System

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus.

Enzyme Function
Infused into digestive systems to assist the absorption and processing of nutrients.
What controls the Digestive System?
Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Beginning of Digestion
-Mouth: By chewing and mixing of nutrients with saliva.
-Salivary Glands: Stimulated and secrete saliva.
~Saliva: Contains enzymes that initiate the breakdown of starch in digestion.
-Once swallowed, food moved down Pharynx into the Esophagus, headed towards the stomach.

Stomach Functions
-Mixing and storing foods
-Dissolving and degrading good via secretions
-Controlling passage of food into the small intestines.
Protein digestion begins in stomach
Absorption Process
-Acidity helps break down the food and make nutrients available for absorption. Smooth muscle
contractions move nutrients into the small intestines where absorption process begins.
Small Intestines
-Enzymes from pancreas, liver, and stomach are transported here to aid digestion.
-Enzymes act on fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins.
-Gall Bladder: stores bile (useful in fat break down)
-Epithelial cells at the surface of villi (microvilli), to further increase the ability of the small intestine to
serve as the main absorption organ.

Large Intestines
-Colon
-Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material
-Rectal wall is distended by waste material, the nervous system triggers an impulse in the body
to expel the waste from the rectum.
-Muscle sphincter at the end of the anus is stimulating facilitates the expelling of waste matter.
-Speed of waste movement through colon is influenced by volume of fiber and other undigested
materials present.
-Lack of Bulk in diet: Bowel obstructions, constipation.

Liver
-Largest solid organ in body, largest gland
-4 Lobes: Right, left, quadrate, and caudate.
-Secured to diaphragm and abdominal walls by 5 ligaments (falciform, coronary, right triangular, left
triangular, and round ligaments).
-Lobules: Blood enters here through branches of the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery.
Then flows through small channels called sinusoids.
-Processes all the blood that passes through digestive system.
-Nutrients are converted into forms appropriate for the body to use
Liver Function
-Production of bile, certain blood plasma proteins, cholesterol
-Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen
-Regulation of amino acids and blood clotting
-Processing of hemoglobins
-Conversion of ammonia
-Purification of the blood
-Controlling infections by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria.
Pancreas
-Head: wider side, Tail: Narrower side
-Exocrine and endocrine tissue
-Exocrine: Secretes digestive enzymes from a series of ducts that collectively form the main pancreatic
duct.
~Main pancreatic duct *connects to common bile duct+ near duodenum
-Endocrine: Secretes hormones (insulin) into the bloodstream.
-Blood is supplied from the splenic artery, gastroduodenal artery, and the superior mesenteric artery.
Digestive Role in Pancreas
-Assists in the digestion of foods by secreting enzymes (to the SM.INT.) that help break down many
foods, like fats and proteins.
-Precursors to enzymes (zymogens) are produced by groups of exocrine cells (acini).
-Converted through a chemical reaction in the gut, to an active enzyme (like pancreatic lipsae and
amylase) once entered into small intestines.
-Secretes large amounts of sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the stomach avid that reaches the small
intestines.
-Exocrine Secretions:
~Controlled by hormones released by the stomach/duodenum when food is present.
~Flow into the main pancreatic duct and are delivered to the duodenum through duct.
Nervous System
Senses, Interprets, and Issues commands as a response to conditions in the body's environment. Made
by a very complex communication system organized as a grid of neurons. Integrates muscles and
nerves.

How are messages sent across Plasma Membrane?

By Action Potential
When do messages occur?
Occur when a neuron is Stimulated past a necessary thresholds.
Stimulations
Occur in a sequence from the stimulation point of One neuron to its contact with another neuron.
Chemical Synapse
"Point of Contact"
-A substance is released that stimulates or inhabits the action of the adjoining cell.

Framework for Nervous System

Network fans out across the body forming the framework.
-The direction the information flows depends on the specific organizations of nerve circuits and
pathways.
3 General Functional Types of Neurons
*The Sensory Neurons, Motor Neurons, and Interneurons.

Sensory Neurons
Transmit Signals to the Central Nervous System (CNS) from the sensory receptors associated
with touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste.

Motor Neurons
Transmits Signals from CNS to the rest of the body such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond.

Interneurons
Transmits Signals between neurons.
~Interneurons receive transmitted signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.

3 Basic Neuron Parts

Cell body, The Axon, And many Dendrites.

Dendrites
Receive impulses from sensory receptors or Interneurons and transmit them toward the cell body.
-Strands coming off the Cell body
Cell Body of Neuron
"Soma"
- Contains the nucleus of the neuron.
The Axon
Transmits the impulses away from the cell body.
-Insulated by oligodendrocytes and the Myelin sheath with gaps knows as nodes of Ranvier.
-Terminates at the synapse.
-Impulse transmitted to the next cell using chemical neurotransmitters secrets into the synapse from
the axon terminals.
Central Nervous System
2 Primary Components:
-Spinal Cord and The Brain

Spinal Cord
Encased in the bony structure of the vertebrae
-Protect and Supports the vertebrae.
-Nervous tissue functions mainly with the respect to limb movement and internal organ activity.
-Nerve tracts ascend and descend from the spinal cord to the brain.
Brain
Consist of *Hindbrain (medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons) Midbrain integrates sensory signals
and orchestrates responses to these signals, Forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus)
-Cerebral Cortex: Thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum.
-2 Hemispheres: Left and Right. Responsible for multiple functions.

Brains 4 Lobes
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and Temporal Lobe

Frontal Lobe
-Located in the front of the brain
-Responsible for a short term/working memory and information processing as well as decision-
making, planning, and judgement.
Parietal Lobe
-Located slightly toward the back of the brain and the top of the head.
-Responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body.
Occipital Lobe
-Located at the back of the head just above the brain stem.
-Responsible for visual input, processing, and output; specifically nerves from the eyes enter directly
into this lobe.
Temporal Lobe
-Located at the left and right sides of the brain
-*Responsible for all auditory Input, processing, and output.
Cerebellum
-Plays a role in the processing and storing of implicit memories.
~Specifically, for those memories developed during classical conditioning learning techniques.
~ Discovered by exploring the memory of individuals with damaged cerebellum so. Were unable to
develop stimulus responses when presented via a classical conditioning technique. Researcher found
that this was also the case for automatic responses

Posterior Area
-Known as Brain Stem
~Connected to the spinal cord.
-3 Parts: Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata.
- Information from the body is sent to the brain through the brain stem, and information from the brain
is sent to the body through the brain stem.
-Important part of Respiratory, Digestive, and Circulatory Functions.

Midbrain
-Above the pons and the medulla oblongata.
-Parts: Tectum, the Tegmentum, and the Ventral Tegmentum.
-Important Part of Vision and Hearing.

Pons
Comes between midbrain and medulla.
-Information is sent across the pons from the cerebrum to the medulla and the cerebellum.
Medulla Oblongata
Piece of the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain.
-Important role with autonomous nervous system in the circulatory and respiratory system.

Peripheral Nervous System

-Consists of nerves and ganglia throughout then body and includes sympathetic nerves which trigger
the "fight or flight" response, and the parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function.

Autonomic Nervous System

(ANS) maintains homeostasis within the body.
-Controls the functions of the internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissue, and glands.
Accomplished through the direction of the hypothalamus (located above the midbrain).
-

Hypothalamus
Controls the ANS through the brain stem. Direction from the hypothalamus, the ANS helps maintain a
table body environment by regulating numerous factors including heart rate, breathing rate, body
temperature, and blood pH

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of ANS
-Controls the body's reaction to extreme, stressful, and emergency situations.
~Example: Sympathetic NS increases heart rate, signals the adrenal glands
to secrete adrenaline, triggers the dilations of the pupils and slows digestions.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Division of ANS
-Counteracts the effects of the Sympathetic NS
~Example: Parasympathetic NS decreases hearts rate, signals adrenal glands to stop
secreting adrenaline, constricts pupils, and returns the digestions process to normal.

Somatic Nervous System

SNS
-Controls the 5 senses and the voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
-Has all the neurons that are connected to the sense organs.
-2 Nerves that send signals to neurotransmitters: Efferent and Afferent. They help SNS operate the
senses and the movement of skeletal muscles.
~Reflex Arc

Efferent Nerves
Motor
-Brings signals from the CNS to the sensory organs and skeletal muscles.

Afferent Nerves
Sensory
-Brings signals from the sensory organs and the muscles to the CNS.

Reflex Arc
Involuntary movements.
-Simplest Nerve Pathway, which bypasses the brain and is controlled by the spinal cord
-Stimulus: Detected by sensory receptors, and a message is send long the afferent (sensory) neuron to
one o more interneurons in the spinal cord.
~Interneurons transmit this messages to a efferent (motor) neuron, which carries the message to the
correct effector (muscle)
Muscular System
-3 Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac.
-3 Common Properties:
~Excitability: Tissues have an electric gradient which can reverse when stimulated.
~Contraction: Tissues have the ability to contract, or shorten.
~Elongate: Tissues share the capacity to elongate, or relax.

Skeletal Muscle
-Voluntary muscles that work in pairs to move various parts of the skeleton.
-Composed of muscle fibers (cells) that are bound together in parallel bundles.
-Known as striated muscles due to their stripped appearance under the microscope.
-Only muscle to help with the movement of the body.

Skeletal Muscle Contractions

-Muscle Fibers contains a bundles of myofibrils. Composed of multiple repeating contractile units
called Sacromeres.
-Myofibrils: Contain 2 Protein Microfilaments.
~Myosin: Thick Filament
~Acting: Thin Filament
~Dark bands (striations) in skeletal muscles are formed when thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments
overlap.
~Light bands are from thin filaments overlapped.
-Attraction occurs when actin slides over myosin shortening the sarcomere.
-Action potential reaches a muscle fiber, then calcium ions are released.
~Calcium Ions bind to myosin and actin, which assist in the binding of myosin heads of the thick filament
to the actin of the thin filaments.
-Adenosine triphosphate: Released from glucose provides the energy for contraction.
Smooth Muscle
-Involuntary muscles that are found int he walls of internal organs like the stomach, intestines, and
blood vessels.
-Non-striated
-Cells are shorter and wider than skeletal muscle fibers.
-Found in sphincters or valves that control various openings throughout the body.
Cardiac Muscle
-Involuntary muscle found in only the heart
-Cells are striated

Disorders that Disrupt Signals and Responses

Muscle Strain, Sprains, Muscular Dystrophy
Reproductive System
-Male and Female reproductive systems are complex and involve physical structures, hormones, an
secretions.
-Works with the endocrine system to influence many other parts of the body.
Male Reproductive System
-To produce, maintain, and transfer sperm and semen into the female reproductive tracts and
to produce and secrete male hormones.
-External Structures: Penis, Scrotum, and Testes
-Internal Structures: Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Duct, Urethra, Seminal Vesicles, Prostate
Glands, and Bulbourethral Glands.

(Ext.) Penis
-Contains the Urethra
- Can fill with blood and become erect, enabling the deposition of semen and sperm into the female
reproductive tract. during sex.
(Ext.) Scrotum
-Sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses the testes and keeps them at the proper temperature
for spermatogenesis.
(Ext.) Testes (Testicles)
"Male Gonads"
-Produce sperm and testosterone.
(Int.) Epididymis
-Stores sperm as it matures
-Mature sperm moves through vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct.
(Int.) Seminal Vesicles
-Secretes Alkaline fluids with proteins and mucus into the ejaculatory duct, also.
(Int.) Prostate Gland
-Secretes milky white fluid with proteins and enzymes* as part of semen.
(Int.) Bulbourethral (Cowper's)
-Glands that secrete a fluid into the urethra to neutralize the acidity in the urethra.
Hormones in Male Reproductive System
-Follicle-stimulating hormone: Stimulates Spermatogenesis
-Luteinizing hormone: Stimulates testosterone production.
-Testosterone:Constantly producing. Responsible for the male sex characteristics (production of
mammary glands, axial and facial hair, fat deposition patterns, and muscle growth)

Female Reproductive System
-Produce ova (oocytes, or eggs), transfer the over to the fallopian tubes for fertilization, receive sperm
from male, and to provide a protective, nourishing environment for the developing embryo/fetus
-External Structures: Labia major/minor, Bartholins glands, and clitoris.
-Internal Structures: Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes, Uterus, and Vagina.

(Ext.) Labia Major/Minor
Enclose and Protect the vagina.
(Ext.) Bartholins glands
Secrete a lubricating fluid
(Ext.) Clitoris
Contains erectile tissue and nerve endings for sexual pleasure
(Int.) Overies
"Female Gonads"
-Produce the ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone.
-Graafian follicle: In response to changing hormones. Eggs is released as follicle matures.
~Corpus Luteum: Empty Graafian follicle. Produces large amounts of progesterone to prepare the
endometrium for implantation of the fertilized egg. Uterine lining sheds if fertlizations doesn't occur.
(Int.) Fallopian Tubes
Carry mature egg towards the uterus.
-Fertilization occurs in fallopian tubes. If fertilized, egg will travel to uterus, where it implants into
uterine wall (endometrium) and produces the placenta.
-Placenta: Allows fetus and parents to share blood within eachother. Nourishes the fetus and removes
wastes.
(Int.) Uterus
Protects and nourishes the developing embryo/fetus until birth
-Cervix: Opening to uterus
Female Hormones
-Estrogen: From ovaries. Causes the egg to mature in the Graafian follicle and the uterine wall thickens.
-Luteinizing hormone (LH): From Pituitary Gland. Causes the egg to be released.
Integumentary System
Largest Organ: Skin
-Layers of Skin: Epidermis, Dermis, Subcutaneous (Hypodermis)
-Contains organs and glands that are vital to protecting the body and regulating the temperature.
-Consist of Skin, Sebaceous Gland, Sweat Glands, Hair, Nails.
-Variety of functions: Protect, Secrete, and Communicate
-Skin manufactures Vitamin D and can absorb certain chemicals like certain medications.

Epidermis
Most superficial layer.
-Deepest portion is stratum basal. Single layer of cells that continuously undergo division. Older cells
pushed towards the surface.
-Most epidermal cells are Keratinized.
~Keratin: Waxy protein that helps waterproof the skin.
-As cells die they are sloughed off.
Dermis
Mostly Connective Tissue
-Contains *Blood Vessels, Sensory Receptors, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, and Sweat Glands.
-Also, contains Elastin and Collagen

Subcutaneous (Hyperdermis)
Technically NOT a layer of skin
-Consists of Connective Tissue which binds the skin to underlying muscles.
-Fat deposits here to help cushion and insulate the body.

Protection
-From pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and various chemicals from entering the body.
Secrete
-Sebaceous Gland secretes Sebum (oil) that waterproofs the skin.
-Sweat Glands secrete sweat. Associated with body's homeostatic relationship with thermoregulation.
~Also, serve as excretory organs and help rid the body of metabolic wastes.
-Exocrine Glands found in skin. Secrete through ducts to the skin
Communicate
Sensory Receptors distributed throughout the skin send information to the brain regarding pain, touch,
pressure, an temperature.
Thermoregulation (Temperature Homeostasis)
-Activated by Sweat Glands
-Body maintains a stable body temperature as one component of a stable internal environment.
-Temperature of the body is controlled by the Negative Feedback System consisting of a receptor,
control center, and effector.

Control Center
Hypothalamus
Effector
The Sweat Glands, Blood Vessels, and Muscles (shivering).
-Evaporation of sweat across the surface of the skin cools the body to maintain tolerance range.
Vasodilation: Dilated blood vessels when body is warm. Carry blood to the blood vessels near the
surface to release heat into the environment.
Constriction: Constricted blood vessels when body is cold. So, that less blood is carried to the surface.
Looks Like: Flushed cheeks.
Sebaceous Glands
Holocrine Glands
-Secrete Sebum
~Sebum: Oily mixture of lipids and proteins.
~Inhibits water loss from the skin and protects bacterial and fungal infections.
-Connected to hair follicles and secrete sebum through the hair pore.

Sweat Glands
Either Eccrine Glands or Apocrine Glands
-Can contain trace amounts of *Urea, Lactic Acids, and Alcohol.
Eccrine Glands: Not connected to hair follicles.
-Activated by elevated body temperature. Also, as part of body's thermoregulations.
-Located throughout the body and can be found on forehead, neck, and back.
-Secrete a salty solution of electrolytes and water containing sodium chloride, potassium, bicarbonate,
glucose, and antimicrobial peptides.
Apocrine Glands:
-Secrete oils solution containing fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins.
-Located in the *armpits, groins, palms, and soles of feet.
-Secrete oil when person is experiencing stress or anxiety.
-Bacteria feed on apocrine sweat and expel fatty acids, producing body odor.

Endocrine System
-Set of organs that secrete hormones into the circulatory system. They regulate many patterns in the
body for short and long term.
-Contains: *Adrenal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Pancreas, Thymus, Pineal, Pituitary Glands.

Endocrine and Circulatory Relationship

-Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland coordinate to serve as a neuroendocrine control center.
~Hypothalamus sends sends signals to Pituitary and then they send releasing hormones it to the
specific glands.
- Hormones are made at the gland and then released directly into the circulatory system. Received
by target cells or organ by hormone-specific receptors.
-Endocrine acts more slowly than nervous system and the effects last longer than the nervous systems
impulses.
Hormone Secretion
Triggered by a variety of signals including hormonal signals, chemical reactions, and environment cues.
-Cells with particular receptors can benefit from hormonal influence.
~"Lock and Key" model for hormonal action
Steroid Hormones
Triggers gene activation and protein synthesis in some target cells.
Protein Hormones
Change the activity of existing enzymes in target cells.

8 Major Endocrine Glands

Adrenal Glands Located on Kidneys
-Adrenal Cortex: Monitors blood sugar level, helps in lipid and protein metabolism.
-Adrenal Medulla: Controls cardiac functions, raises blood sugar, and controls the size of blood vessels.
-Thyroid: Helps regulate metabolism, functions in growth and development. Located in the Neck
-Parathyroid: Regulates calcium levels in blood. Located in the Neck
-Pancreas Islets: Raises an lowers blood sugars, Activate in carbohydrate metabolism. Located
on Pancreas
-Thymus: Plays a role in immune responses. Located in front of Heart, behind Sternum. Produces T-
Cells.
-Pineal: Has an influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity. Located in Brain
-Pituitary: Plays an important role in growth and development. Located in Brain

Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas

Amongst the groupings of exocrine cells are groups of endocrine cells, called islets of Langerhans.
-Islets of Langerhans are made up of insulin-producing beta cells (50-80% total) and glucagon-releasing
alpha cells*.
-Major hormones produce: Insulin and Glucagon
-Insulin affects fat metabolism and can change livers ability to release stored fat.
~Body uses insulin to control carbohydrate metabolism by lowering the amount of sugar (glucose) in
the blood.
-Glucagon has opposite effect of insulin. Body uses it to increase blood sugar levels.
~Body uses glucagon to control carbohydrate metabolism.
Level of Insulin and Glucagon are *balanced to maintain the optimum level of blood sugar throughout
the day.

Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Located in the neck just below the larynx
Basic function of thyroid gland is to Regulate Metabolism
-Parathyroid Glands are 4 small glands that are embedded on the posterior side of the thyroid glands
-Thyroid Gland: Secretes the hormones *thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.
~Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine: Increases metabolism
~Calcitonin: Decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue.
-Hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which
stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete parathyroid hormone which can increase blood calcium by
moving calcium from the bone to the blood.

Endocrine System Regulates Body Functions

Like Blood production, appetite, reproduction, brain functions, sleep cycle, salt-and-water
homeostasis, growth, sexual development, and response to stress and anxiety.
-Non-polar, Fat-soluable Hormones: Estrogen and Progesterone. Released in a pattern set
by age and development an their effects are long-lasting.
-Other polar, Water-soluable hormones: Epinephrine. Released acutely in response to stress, actions
are short lived.
Hormone Imbalance can cause Metabolic Diseases like Diabetes, Hyperthyroidism, and Gigantism.
Genitourinary System
(Renal/Urinary System)
*Eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function.
-Structures; *Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra.

Kidneys
-Functions: filtering blood, creating urine, stabilizing water balance, maintaining blood pressure, and
producing the active form of Vitamin D.
Bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the
diaphragm.
3 Layers: Renal Cortex, Renal Medulla, and Renal Pelvis.
-Cardiovascular System: Pumps blood into the kidneys through the renal artery. Pressure of the blood
helps the glomerulus filter out waste and return vital nutrients to the blood through the renal vein.
-Produce renin: Hormone that regulates blood pressure by retaining or removing water and salt.

Renal Cortex
-Composed of about one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of the kidney).
~Nephrons contain a cluster of capillaries called glomerulus surrounded by the cup-shaped Bowman's
Capsule, which leads to tubule.
-Kidneys receive blood from the renal arteries, which branch off the aorta. Blood flows from renal
arteries into arterioles into the glomerulus, where it's filtered.
-Glomerular Filtrate: Enters the proximal convulated tubule where water, glucose, ions, and other
organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream.
-Substance like urea and drugs are removed from the blood in the distal convoluted tubulue.
~pH of the blood can be adjusted in the DST by the secretion of hydrogen ions.

Renal Medulla
-Urine begins to produce
-Unabsorbed materials (salt and water) flow out from the collecting tubule into the collecting duct.
Renal Pelvis
Collecting ducts drain into renal pelvis which opens into the Ureter.

Urine
-Contains: Urea, Water, Salts, and other excess Metabolites.
Drained from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until expulsion
from the body through the urethra.
Ureter
-One for each kidney.
-Small tubes that carry Urine from the Kidneys to the Urinary Bladder.

Urinary Bladder
-Hollow, muscular organ that holds 500 to 1000mL of liquid.
-Has sensors that communicate with Cardiovascular System.
~Both, internal and external sphincters of the bladder must be released for excretion to occur.
-Urethra: Tube from bladder to an opening. Urine flows from bladder to opening to be expelled out of
body.

Immune System
Protects the body against invading pathogens including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists through
the presence of barriers composed of skin, and secretions such as acid, enzymes, and salt.
-Includes: Lymphatic System (Lymph, Lymph Capillaries, Lymph Vessel, and Lymph Nodes)
~Also, Red Bone Marrow, numerous Leukocytes, or White Blood Cells.
*Diseases:
-Underactivity/Failure: AIDS-Infects T cells and prevents it from activating Cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
Preventing Adaptive Immune System from opening.
-Overactive: Allergies-Target innocuous foreign particles (pollen), causing body to go into overdrive by
producing huge amounts of IgE that trigger histamine release from mast cells. Autoimmune Disease-
Mistakenly target a host molecule as a foreign antigen.
Lymphatic System in the Immune System
-Tissue Fluid enters Lymph Capillaries combined they form Lymph Vessels.
-Skeletal muscle contractions move the lymph one way through the lymphatic system to lymphatic
ducts, which dump back into the venous blood supply into the Lymph Nodes, which are situated alone
the Lymph Vessels, and filter the lymph of pathogens and other matter.
-Lymph Nodes: Concentrated in the neck, armpits, and groin areas.
Outside the Lymphatic Vessel System
-Lymphatic Tissue include the tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, and Peyer's patches.
-Tonsils: Located in the pharynx, protect against pathogens entering the body through the mouth and
throat.
-Thymus: Maturation chamber for the immature T-Cells that are formed in the bone marrow.
-Spleen: Cleans the blood of dead cells and pathogens.
-Peyer's Patch: Located in the small intestine, protect the digestive system from pathogens

General Immune Defense

Skin: Intact epidermis and dermis form a formidable barrier against bacteria.
Ciliated Mucous Membranes: Cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract.
Glandular Secretions: Secretions from exocrine glands destroy bacteria.
Gastric Secretions: Gastric acid destroys pathogens.
Normal Bacterial Populations: Compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina.

-Phagocytes and Inflammation: Responses mobilize WBC and chemical reactions to stop infection.
~Responses include: Localized redness, tissue repair, and fluid-seeping healing agents.
~Plasma proteins act as the complement system to repel bacteria and pathogens.

3 Types of White Blood Cells

Form the foundation of the body's immune system.
Macrophages: Phagocytes that alert T-Cells to the presence of foreign substances.
T Lymphocytes: Directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria.
B Lymphocytes: Cells target specific bacteria for destruction.
Others that contribute to body's defense:
-Memory cells, Suppressor T-Cells, Helper T-Cells
Immune Response to Antigen
-Can be anti-body mediated when the response is to an antigen, or cell-mediated when the response
is to already infected cells.
~Responses are controlled and measured counter-attacks that recede when the foreign agents
are destroyed.
-Once an invader has attacked the body, if it returns it is immediately recognized and a Secondary
Immune Response occurs.
Secondary Immune Response:
-Rapid and Powerful, much more so than the original response.
~Memory lymphocytes circulate throughout the body for years, alert to a possible new attack.
Innate Immune System
(Nonspecific Response)
External: Internal:
-Skin -Antimicrobials
-Hair -Inflammation
-Mucus -Interferons
-Earwax -Complements
-Secretions (acid, salt, enzymes) -NK Lymphocytes
-Normal Flora -Phagocytes (APC)

Innate Immune System Barriers

-External: Physical (skin and mucus) secretions, Chemical barriers (Low pH, Salt, Enzymes), Cellular
barriers of commensal micro-organisms.
~If pathogens breach the barriers and enters the blood or tissues, internal barriers include Antimicrobial
peptides; Interferons that prevent viral replication; Complement, which involves the binding of
antibodies to the pathogen, inflammation reactions, including fever. NK Lymphocyte cells that engulf
and digest extracellular pathogens.
-Macrophages and Dendritic cells respond to conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPS) through toll-like receptors and trigger an inflammation or antigen presentation.
Adaptive Immune System
(Respond to Specific Antigen)
Reaction: Prevention:
-Cytotoxic T cells -B cells produce
kill pathogens antibodies

-Activated by antigen and help T cells.

-Helper T cells are activated by APC
Adaptive Immune System
Responds by remembering signature molecules called Antigens.
Functional cells are Lymphocytes

Leukocytes
"White Blood Cells"
-Produced in the Red Bone Marrow
-Classified as Monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells), Granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and
eosinophils), T Lymphocytes, B Lymphocytes, or Natural Killer (K) Cells.

Macrophages
-Found traveling in the lymph or fixed in lymphatic tissue are the largest, long-living phagocytes that
engulf and destroy pathogens.
Dendritic Cells
Present Antigens (Foreign Particles) to T Cells.
Neutrophils
Short-living phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders

Basophils
Alert the body of invasion

Eosinophils
Large, long-living phagocytes that defend against multicellular invaders
T Lymphocytes (T Cells)
Include: *Helper T cells, Killer T cells, Suppressor T cells, and Memory T cells.
-Helper T cells: Help the body fight infections by producing antibodies and other chemicals.
-Killer T cells: Destroy cells that are infected with a virus or pathogen and tumor cells.
-Suppressor T cell: Stop or "suppress" the other T cells when the battle is over.
-Memory T cells: Remain in the blood on alert in case the invader attacks again.

B Lymphocytes (B Cells)
Produce antibodies

Antigen and Typical Immune Response

Antigens: Substances that stimulate the immune system.
~Proteins on the surface of bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
~Drugs, toxins, and foreign substances can be antigens.
-Body recognizes the antigens of its own cells but it will attack cells or substances with unfamiliar
antigens.
-Specific antibodies are produced for each antigen that enters the body.
Typical Immune Response
-When a pathogen/foreign substances enters the body, it is engulfed by a macrophage, and the killer T
cells and B cells are activated.
-Killer T cells (cytotoxic T cells) search out and destroy cells presenting the same antigens.
-B cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells.
-Plasma cells produce antibodies specific to that pathogen or foreign substances.
-Memory cells remain in the blood stream to protect against future infections from the same pathogen.
Immunity
Birth: Innate Immune System protects an individual from pathogens.
-When an individual encounters infection, or has an immunization, the individual develops an adaptive
immunity that reacts to pathogens.
-Active and Passive immunities can be acquired naturally or artificially.
Active Immunity
Naturally Acquired: The individual is exposed and builds immunity to a pathogen without an
immunization.
Artificially Acquired: The individual is exposed and builds immunity to a pathogen by a vaccine.
-Pathogens can enter body through lymph nodes. Nodes contain large number of antigen-presenting
cells (APC) that can trigger the adaptive immune system.

Passive Immunity
Naturally Acquired: Happens during Pregnancy as antibodies move from the mother's bloodstream to
the bloodstream of the fetus.
~Can also be transferred from mother's breast milk.
~During infancy, antibodies provide temporary protection until childhood.
Artificially Acquired: Immunization that is given in recent outbreaks or emergency situations. Provides
quick and short-lived protection to disease by the use of antibodies that can come from another
person/animal.

Skeletal System
Structures: Bone and Cartilage.
>200 Bones: Divided into 2 parts
~Axial: Includes skull, sternum, ribs, and vertebral column (spine).
~Appendicular: Includes bones in arms, feet, hands, legs, hips, and shoulders.

Axial Skeleton
Protects vital organs including the brain, heart, and lungs
Consist of 80 Bones and includes vertebral column (spine), rib cage, sternum, skull, and hyoid bone.
-Spine: Consist of 33 vertebae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral).
-Rib Cage: 12 Paired ribs, 10 pairs of true ribs and 2 pairs of floating ribs and the sternum.
-Sternum: Consists of the manubrium, corpus sterni, and xiphoid process.
-Transfers weight from upper body to the lower appendages.

Skull
Cranium and Facial Bones
-Ossicles:Bones in the middle ear.
-Hyoid: Provides an attachment point and support for the tongue muscles.
~Only bones in the body not connected to other bones, but rather held in place by muscle.

Appendicular Skeleton
Consist of 126 Bones and includes the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and appendages.
-Pectoral Girdle: Consist of scapular (shoulders) and clavicles (collar bone).
-Pelvic Girdle: Consists of 2 pelvic (hip) bones, which attach to the sacrum.
-Upper Appendages: Arms include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
-Lower Appendages: Legs includes femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

Functions of Skeletal System

Providing structural support, Providing movement, Providing Protection, Producing Blood Cells, and
Storing substances (fat and minerals).
~Provides the body with structure and support for the muscles and organs.
~Provides movement with joints and muscular system.
~Provides reservoir to store the minerals calcium and phosphorus.
-Bones: Provide attachment points for muscles.
-Joints: Include Hinge, Ball-and-Socket, Pivot, Ellipsoid, Gliding, and Saddle Joints.
Each bone is attached to two bones: The Origin and Insertion.
-Origin: Remains immobile.
-Insertion: Bone that moves as the muscle contracts and relaxes.
~Serves to protect the body.
-Cranium: Protects the Brain. -Vertebrae: Protects spine.
-Rib Cage: Protects heart and lungs.
-Pelvis: Protects reproductive organs.
-Red Marrow: Manufactures red and white blood cells.
~All bone marrow is red at birth, but adults have about one-half red bone marrow and one-half yellow
bone marrow
-Yellow Marrow: Stores fat
Bone
Classified as long. short, flat, irregular
-Connective tissue with a base of pulp containing collagen and living cells.
-Red Marrow: RBC Production, fills spongy tissue of bones
-Bone Tissue: Constantly regenerating itself as the mineral composition changes. Allows for special
needs during growth period and maintains calcium level for the body.
-Bone Regeneration: Deteriorate in old age, particularly among women, leading to Osteoporosis
-Bones are articulated to other bones through ligaments and to muscle through tendons.
-Hyaline Cartilage: Covering articulating surfaces of bones. Prevents bones from grinding against each
other.
-Covered by fibrous sheath called Periosteum (contains nerves and blood vessels)
-Synthesized in tubular structures (Osteon- Composed of calcium and phosphate-rich Hydroxyapatite)
embedded in a collagen matrix.
Diseases of Bone
-Excess Withdrawal of minerals from bone can cause Osteoporosis (rigidity of bone lost).
-Arthritis: Cartilage that articulates between joints is damaged.
-Brittle Bone Disease: Genetic Defect in the collagen matrix and cause bones to break easily.
4 Bone Types
-Long: Long compact hollow shafts containing marrow. Ends are usually made of spongy bone with air
pockets.
~Humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, and fibula.
-Short: Wider than they are long.
~Bones of the toes (metatarsals) and collarbone.
-Flat:Not hollow but contain marrow.
~Scapula, ribs, and sternum.
-Irregular:Nonsymmetrical shapes
~Bones of the skull, knee, and elbow.

2 Types of Bone cells

-Multinucleate Osteoclasts:Remove Bone
-Mononucleate Osteoblasts: Make Bone

Spine
Flexible and Curved Backbone: Supported by muscles and ligaments.
-Intervertebral Discs: Stacked one above another and provide cushioning for the backbone.
-Sensitive Spine: Enclosed in a cavity which is protected by the bones of the vertebrae.
*Trauma or shock may cause discs to Herniate and cause pain.
Joints
Area of contact adjacent to bones
-Synovial Joints: Most common, and are freely moveable. May be found at the shoulders and knees
-Cartilaginous Joints: Fills the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Found
between Vertebrae
-Fibrous Joints: Has fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present.
2 Types of Connective Bone Tissue
Include Spongy and Compact bone.
--Have thin outside layer of compact bone, which gives them their characteristic smooth, white
appearance.
-Compact: Tightly packed cells, is strong, dense, and rigid. Running vertically throughout compact bone
are the Haversian Canals, which are surrounded by concentric circles of bone tissue called Lamellae.
Spaces between lamellae are lacunae. Lamellae and canals along with their associated arteries, veins,
lymph vessels, and nerve endings are referred tocollectively as the Haversian System.
~Haversian System: Provides a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus for the blood.
-Spongy (cancellous): Consists of Trabeculae which are a network of firders with open spaces fillled with
Red Bone Marrow. Light-weight and porous, which helps reduce bones overall weight. Red marrow
menufactures RBC/WBC.
~Long Bones (Diaphysis): Consist of compact bone surrounding marrow cavity and spongy bone
containing red marrow in the Epiphyses.

Macromolecules
Large and Complex
-Role: Cell structure and function.
~Function as food groups and the digestion process breaks down the bonds between monomers by
hydrolysis.
-4 Basic Organic Compounds: (Produced by Anabolic Reactions) Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides),
Nucleic Acids, Proteins, and Lipids.
-4 Basic Building Blocks: (Involved in Catabolic Reactions) Monosaccharides (glucose), Amino Acids,
Fatty Acids (glycerol=alcohol), and Nucleotides.
-Combine using simple dehydration reactions with other similar molecules to make biological polymers.
Anabolic Reaction
Builds larger and more complex molecules (macromolecules) from small ones.
-Require Energy
Catabolic Reaction
Opposite from Anabolic. Larger molecules are broken down into small, simpler molecules.
-Release energy
Endothermic Reaction
Chemical reactions that absorb heat
-Covalent Bonds made by endothermic removal of a water polymer (dehydration or condensation
synthesis).
Exothermic Reaction
Chemical reactions that release heat
Carbohydrate
Primary source of energy and are Responsible for providing energy as they can be easily converted to
glucose.
-Functions: Structural (Celllulose, Chitin), Energy Storage (Amylose, Amylopectin, and Glycogen), and
Recognition Molecules (Glycoproteins, Glycolipids)
-Monomer: General General Formula CnH2nOn n is typically 3, 4, 5, or carbons long.
~Making triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose monosaccharides.
-Oxidation of Carbs:Provides the cells with most of their energy.
-Usually take the form of CH2O as they are made of carbon, 2 hydrogen, oxygen
-Broken down into sugars or glucose
Glucose
Can be further broken down by respiration or fermentation by glycosis
-Involved in the metabolic energy cycles of Photosynthesis and Respiration
Monosaccharides
Glucose, frutose, and sucrose
-CH2O : One carbon for every water molecule
-Simple sugars can be grouped into monosaccharides and disaccharides (Two monosaccharides joined
together)
-Have one monomer of sugar and disaccharides has two
-Oligosaccharides: Have longer stretches of linked monosaccharides and polysaccharides; can be
linearor branched.
Monomer
Small Molecule
-Single compound that forms chemical bonds with other monomers to make a polymer
Polymer
Compound of large molecules formed by repeating monomers.
-Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
-Addition of water and hydrolysis break the bond and releases monomers and energy.
Lipids
Not long polymers with high molecular weights
-Hydrophobic: Do not bond/mix well with water/water solutions. Help separate aqueous compartments
-Numerous C-H (Carbon and Hydrogen) bonds. Similar to hydrocarbons.
Role: Storing energy and structural functions.
-Examples: Fats (hydrogen and carbon), phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.
Fats
Made of long chains of fatty acids (3 Fatty Acids bound to Glycerol).
-Fatty Acids: Chains with reduced carbon at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other.
~Example: Soap- Contains the Sodium salt of free fatty acids.
Phospholipids
Lipids that have a phosphate group rather than a fatty acid
Glycerides
Another type of lipid
-Example: Fat and Oil
-Formed from fatty acids and glycerol.
Proteins
Macromolecules formed from Amino Acids
-Are Polypeptides, which consist of many (10-100) peptides linked together.
-Fibrous, Hydrophobic molecules (keratin and collagen) have hydrophobic amino acids on their surface.
Not soluable in water (hemoglobin, antibodies, enzymes)
~Membrane Proteins have a stretch of hydrophobic amino acids sandwiched between layers of
hydrophilic amino acids and are found embedded in membranes where they function in transport or
signal transfer
-Peptide: Compound of two or more amino acids.
-Amino Acids: Formed by the Partial Hydrolysis of protein, which forms an amino acids
~Connections are the result of condensation reactions (loss of water when two molecules are joined
together)
~Hydrolysis reaction is opposite from Condensation reactions.
Hydrolysis
Water is added. -H is added to one of the smaller molecules and OH is added to another molecule being
formed.
-Reaction in water is broken down into Hydrogen Cations (H or H+) and Hydroxide Anions (OH or OH-).
Partial Hydrolysis
Involved in Amine Group and a Carboxylic Acid.
-Amino Acids are formed by partial hydrolysis of protein, which forms an amide bond.
In Carbon Chain of amino acids there are Groups:*
-Caroxylic Acid Group (-COOH)
-Amine Group (-NH2)
-Central Carbon Atom between them with an attached hydrogen
-Attached "R" Group (Side Chain), different for different amino acids.
~"R" Group that determines the properties of the protein.
Enzymes
Proteins with strong catalytic power
-Greatly accelerate the speed at which specific reactions approach equilibrium by lowering the energy
required.
-Make chemical reactionshappen faster and more often.
~Acceleration can be substantial, sometimes making reactions happen a million times faster.
-Unusual quality of enzymes is that they are not permanently consumed int he reactions they speed up.
-Can be used again and again, providing a constant source of energy accelerants for cells. Allows for a
tremendous increase in the number and rate of reactions in cells.
-Enzymes deal with reactants, called Substrates.
Lock and Key Analogy
-Highly selective, only interacting with substrates that are a match for it at an active site on the enzyme.
~Analogy: Certain enzyme only fits with certain substrates, but the fit is not always perfect.
Nucleic Acids
Macromolecules that are composed of nucleotides
Store information and energy, and are important in catalyst
~RNA that catalyzes the transfer of DNA genetic information into protein coded information.
-Hydrolysis is part of the process by which nucleic acids are broken down by enzymes to produce
shorter strings on RNA and DNA (oligonucleotides)
-Oligonucleotides: Broken down into smaller sugar nitrogenous units (nucleosides).
~Nucleosides can be digested by cells since the sigar is divided from the nitrogenous base.
-^^^ Leads to the formation of the five types of nitrogenous bases, sugars, and the
preliminary substance involved in the synthesis of new RNA and DNA.
~DNA and RNA have a double helix shape
-ATP is an RNA neucleotide.
-Nucleotide: Used to form the nucleic acids. Made of 5 Carbon Sugar (Pentose*) (ribose or deoxyribose,
nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphate)
~Consisting of more than one phosphate can also store energy in their bonds.
Macromolecular Nucleic Acid Polymers
RNA and DNA
-Formed from nucleotides.
~Which are monomeric units joined by phosphodiester bonds.
-Cells require ATP to synthesize proteins from amino acids and replicate DNA.
-Nitrogen Fixation: Used to synthesize nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins.
~Uses enzyme nitrogenase in the reduction of dinitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3)
Chromosomes
Consists of Genes: Single Units of genetic information.
-Genes: Made up of DNA.
-DNA: Nucleic Acid located in the cell nucelus.
~Also, in Mitochondria.
-DNA replicates to pass on genetic information. In almost all cells, DNA is the same. Also, involved
in biosynthesis of proteins.
-Structural Gene: Converted into a short-lived RNA message that is decoded by the ribosome and
assembled into proteins hat go on to build the body.
-Regulatory Gene: Control the expression of protein-coding genes by turning on or off activity,
either directly or through a protein intermediate. Control the expression of different subsets of
structural genes in different cell types.
DNA Structure
Double Helix
-Helix is a curve
-Double Helix: Two congruent curves connected by horizontal members. Like a "Spiral Staircase"
-Consists of nucleotides
-2 Bases pair up to form the rungs of the ladder
~Attached to each other with hydrogen bonds, which are easily dismantled so replication can occur.
~Bases are attached to a phosphate and to a sugar.
-"Side Rails" or Backbone:consists of the covalently bonded sugar and phosphate.

4 Types of Nitrogenous Bases

Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
Adenine (A) <-Pairs-> Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) <-Pairs-> Guanine (G)
-About 3 million bases in human DNA
~Mostly the same in every body, but their order is different.
-The Order of these bases that creates diversity in people.
Purines and Pyramidines
5 bases of DNA and RNA can be categorized as either pyrimidine or purine according to their structure.
-Pyramidine Bases: Include Cytosine, thymine, and uracil
~Six-sided and have a single ring shape.
-Purine Bases: Include Adenine and Guanine.
~Had 2 rings attached.
~One ring has 5 sides and the other has six
-When combined with sugar, any of the five bases become nucleosides
-Nucleosides: Formed from purine bases end in "osine" and those formed from pyramidine bases end
in "idine"
~Adenosine and Thymidine
Most basic components.
Codons
Groups of 3 nucleotides on the messenger RNA, and can be visualized as 3 rungs of a ladder.
-Has the code for a single amino acid.
~64 Codons by 20 Amino Acids
-More than one combination, or triplet, can be used to synthesize the necessary amino acids.
~Example: AAA (Adenine-Adenine-Adenine) or AAG (Adenine-Adenine-Guanine) can serve as codons for
lysine.
-Groups of 3 occur in strings and might be thought of as frames.
~Like AAAUCUUCGU, read it in groups of 3 like AAA/UCU/UCG/U.
-Can be read in different orders, but that is why there is start and stop codons that indicated
the beginning and the end of a sequence (frame)

DNA Replication
Pairs of Chromosomes are composed of DNA
~Tightly wound to conserve space.
-When replication starts, it unwinds.
-Steps in DNA replication is controlled by enzymes.
-Enzyme Helicase: Instigates the deforming of hydrogen bonds between the bases to split the two
strands.
-Replication Fork: Portion of the DNA that is unwound to be replicated.
-Each strand of DNA is transcribed by an mRNA. It copies the DNA onto itself, base by base, in a
complementary manner.
~Exception: Uracil replaces Thymine.
Enzyme Helicase
-Splitting begins at the A-T bases as there are only two hydrogen bonds (C-G bases has 3 bonds).
-"Origin of replication": Means where the splitting start/begins
Types of RNA
RNA acts as a help to DNA and carries out a number of functions.
Types of RNA: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA), and Messenger RNA (mRNA).
-rRNA: Not believed to have changed much over time. Can be used to study relationships in organisms.
In the ribosomes.
-mRNA: Carries a copy of a strand of DNA and transports it from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
~Transcription: Process whereby DNA uses RNA.
~Translation: Process whereby ribosomes use transcribed RNA to put together the needed protein.
-tRNA: A molecule that helps in the translation process, and is found int he cytoplasm.
-RNA mediates the conversation of the information stored in DNA into the proteins that are encoded in
genes.
-Viruses can use RNA to carry their genetic material to DNA.
-Mutations: Errors in sequence and interfere with protein function.
Difference between RNA and DNA
Differ in terms of structure and function
RNA: DNA
-Has Ribose Sugar -Has Deoxyribose Sugar
-Uracil found in RNA -Thymine found in DNA
-Single Strand -Has two Strands
-*One Backbone -Has two Side Rails
-*Hydroxylated Sugar Pentose -Deoxyribose
~Includes extra Oxygen
-*Supports DNA function
~Aides in gene expression,
replication, and transportation
Mendel's Law
First Law: Law of Segregation
-States that "There are two allels and hat half of the total number of alleles are contributed by each
parent organism."
Second Law: Law of Independent Assortment
-States that "Traits are passed on randomly and are not influenced by other traits ."
~Exception to this is linked traits
Punnet Square
Illustrate how alleles combine from the contributing genes to form various phenotypes.
-One set of a parent's genes are put into columns, while the genes from the other parent are placed in
rows.
-The allele combinations are shown in each cell(box).
-Two different alleles are present in a pair, dominant one is expressed.
Used to predict outcome of crosses

Gene, Genotype, Phenotype, and Allele

Gene: Portion of DNA that identifies how traits are expressed and passed on in an organism. Part of
genetic code. All genes form the genotype of an individual.
Genotype: Includes genes that may not be expressed, such as recessive genes.
Phenotype: The physical, visual manifestation of genes. Determined by the basic genetic information
and how genes have been affected by their environment.
Allele: Variation of a gene, also known as a trait (determines the manifestation of a gene), manifestation
results in a specific physical appearence of some facet of an organism (like eye color, or height)
-Example: Genetic information for eye color is a gene. The gene variations responsible for blue, green,
brown, or black eyes are called alleles.
~Locus: Refers to the location of a gene or allele.
Dominant and Recessive
Gene Traits are represented in pairs with an upper case letter for the dominant trait (A) and a lower
case letter for the recessive trait (a). Occur in pairs (AA, Aa, aa). Half the genetic material is from each
parent, Offspring's traits are represented in combinations.
-Dominant: Trait only requires one gene of a gene pair for it to be expressed in a phenotype.
-Recessive: Requires both genes in order to be manifested.
DD and dd are Homozygous Pairs
Dd is a Heterozygous Pair
Monohybrid and Hybrid Crosses
Genetic Crosses: Possible combinations of alleles and can be represented using Punnett Squares.
Monohybrid Cross: Cross involving only one trait
-Shows which allele is dominant for a single trait.
-*First Monohybrid Cross: Occurs between two (DD,Dd) Homozygous parents.
~Typically ratio is 3:1, Ratio of dominant gene manifestation to recessive gene manifestation.
~Ratio occurs when both parents have a pair of dominant and recessive genes.
-Example: One parents has a pair of dominant genes (DD) and the other has a pair of recessive
genes (dd). The recessive trait cannot be expressed in the next generation because the resulting crosses
all habe the Dd gentype

Dihybrid Crosses
-Involving more than one trait. More combinations are possible. Ratio of genotypes is 9:3:3:1 when the
traits are not linked. Rate for incomplete dominance is 1:2:1, which corresponds to dominate, mixed,
and recessive phenotypes.
-Genetic Cross for two traits that each have two alleles.

Non-Mendelian
Inheritance occurs when there are factors other than dominant/recessive in play.
~Due to factors like: multiple alleles, incomplete dominance-recessive relationships that lead to an
intermediate. combination inheritance, and interactions between genes called epistasis*
-Ratios occur when simple dominance-recessive relationship exists between two alleles
-Co-Dominance: The expression of both alleles so that both traits are shown.
-Incomplete Dominance: Both he dominant and recessive genes are expressed, resulting in a phenotype
that is a mixture of the two.
-Polygenic Inheritance: Beyond the simplistic Mendelian concept that one gene influences one trait.
~Traits that are influenced by more than one gene and takes into account environmental influences on
development.
-Multiple Alleles: Only two alleles make up a gene, but when there are three or more possible alleles, it
is known as multiple alleles. A gene where only two alleles are possible is termed polymorphic.
Basic Atomic Structure
All matter consist of atoms
-Consist: Nucleus and Electrons
-Electrons: Negatively charged and Orbit the nucleus.
-Nucleus consist of: Protons and Neutrons
~Properties are measurable. They have a mass and an electrical charge.
~Positively charged because of the Protons present.
~Has considerably more mass than the surrounding electrons.
-Atoms can bond together to make molecules.
-Atoms that have an equal number of protons and electrons are electrically neutral.
~If the number protons and electrons in an atom is not equal, the atom has a positive or
negative charge and is an ion.

Models of Atoms
-Small
-Atomic Radius: The average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron.
-Electrons close to nucleus revolving around it.
Atomic Number
Number of Protons in the nucleus of an atom
-Can be represented as Z
-Neutral Charge: An atomic number that is equal to the number of electrons.
Atomic Mass
Also known as the mass number. Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
~Referred to as A
~Represented by the equation A = Z+N
-Mass of electrons in an atom is insignificant because it is so small.
-Atomic Weight: Referred to as "Relative atomic mass", should NOT BE confused with atomic mass.
~Ratio of the average mass per atom of a sample (various isotopes of an element) to 1/12 of the mass of
an atom of carbon-12
Isotopes
Denoted by the element symbol, preceded in superscript by the mass number and subscript by the
atomic number.
-That have not been observed to decay are stable, or non-radioactive, isotopes.
-80 Elements have one or more stable isotopes, there are 256 known stable isotopes in total.
~Example: Carbon-3 Isotopes (C-12, C-13 are stable)(C-14 is radioactive)
-Radioactive Isotopes: Have unstable nuclei and can undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, which
results in particles or radiation being emitted. It cant be predicted when a specific nucleus will decay,
but large groups of identical nuclei decay at predictable rates.
~Knowledge about rates of decay can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive
isotopes.

Electrons
Subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus at various levels commonly referred to as layers, shells, or
clouds.
-Orbiting Electrons: Account for only a fraction of the atoms mass.
~Much smaller than the nucleus, are negatively charged, and exhibit wave-like characteristics.
-Can occupy orbits that are varying distances away from the nucleus and tend to occupy the lowest
energy level they can.
~If an atom has all it's electronsin the lowest available positions, it has a stable electron arrangement.
-Valence Shell: Outermost electron shell of an atom in it's uncombined state.
~Electrons there are called Valence Electrons and it is their number that determines bonding behavior.
-Atoms react in a manner that will allow them to fill or empty their valence shells.

Chemical Bonds and Electron Shells

Chemical Bonds involve a negative-positive attraction between an electron or electrons and the nucleus
of an atom or nuclei of more than one atom.
-Attraction: Keeps the atom cohesive, but also enables formation of bonds among other atoms and
molecules.
-4 Energy Levels (or Shells) of an atom has a maximum number of electrons they can contain.
-Each level must be completely filled before electrons can be added to the valence level. The farther
away from the nucleus an electron is, the more energy it has.
-First Shell (K-shell):Can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
-Second Shell (L-shell): Can hold 3 electrons
-Third Shell (M-shell): Can hold 18 electrons
-Fourth Shell (N-shell): Can hold 32 electrons
~Shells can also have subshells
-Chemical Bonds form and break between atoms when atoms gain, lose, and share an electron in the
outer valence shell.
-Polar Bonds: Refers to a covalent type of bond with a serparation charge. One end is negative and the
other is positive.
~Example: Hydrogen-Oxygen bond in water.
Ions
-Atoms interact by transferring or sharing the electrons furthest from the nucleus.
-Bonds: Between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared. If
electrons are transferred from one atom to another then the bond is ionic. If electrons are shared, then
the bond is covalent
-Atoms of the same element may bond together to form molecules or crystalline solid.
-Compound: Made when two or more different types of atoms bind together chemically.
~Physical properties reflect the nature of the interactions among their molecules.
~Interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the atoms they consist of and
the distances and angles between them.
Valence Layers
-Electron in an atom can orbit different levels around the nucleus. They can absorb or release energy,
which can change the location of their orbit or even allow them to break free from the atom.
-Outermost Layer (Valence Layer): Contains the valence electrons.
-Valence layer tends to have or share 8 electrons.
~Molecules are formed by a chemical bond between atoms. it occurs here.

Ionic Bond
Formed when an atom transfers an electron to another atom
-When an atom gains or loses electrons it becomes negatively or positively charged, turning it into an
ion.
Relationship between two oppositly charged ions.

Covalent Bond
Formed when atoms share electrons
-Electrons shared equally have a non-polar bond, while electrons shared unequally have a polar bond.
-Attraction to repulsion stability that holds these molecules together.
-Resultant Bonds: Always stronger than the intermoelcular hydrogen bond and are similar in strength in
ionic bonds.
-Covalent bonds occur most frequently between atoms with similar electronegativities.
~Nonmetals are more likely to form covalent bonds than metals since it is more difficult for nonmetals
to liberate an electron.
-Electron Sharing: Takes place when one species encounters another species with similar
electronegativity.
-Metals: Bonding important in both process chemistry and industrial catalysis.
Hydrogen Bond
Weak bond between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom (like nitrogen,
oxygen, or fluorine) of another molecule.
-Form between two different parts of the same molecule.
~As in the structure of DNA and other large molecules.
Van der Waals Force
Weak force between molecules. Much weaker than actual chemical bonds between atoms.
Periodic Table
Elements are arranged by atomic mass
-Table shows elements atomic weight (decimal), atomic number, and the element symbol in each box.
-Arrangement enables classification, organization, and predictable trends observable in atoms.
-Majority of known elements are metals, 17 nonmetals, and 8 metallics.
-Representative Elements: Last digit of the group number reveals the number of outer-level electrons.
-Groups of elements share predictable characteristics, most important is that their outer energy level
have that same configuration of electrons.
Last column "group" is Noble Gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn
~ Group 18, has full outer shell
-Column 1: 1 electron in outer level
-Column 2: 2 electron. -Column 13: 3 electron
-Column 14: 4 electron. -Column 15: 5 electron
-Column 16: 6 electron. -Column 17: 7 electron
-Column 18: 8 electron except He has 2 electron.

Chemical Reactivity
Tendency of a substance to engage in chemical reactions.
If tendency is high then the substance is said to be high reactive.
-Periodicity: Allows us to predict an elements reactivity based on its position on the periodic table.
~High numbered groups on the right side of the table have a fuller complement of electrons in their
outer levels. Making them less reactive.
~Except He has 2 (in group 18)
-Atoms tend to lose and gain electrons to reach an ideal of 8 in the outer level, these elements have
a very low reactivity.
Groups (columns) and Periods (row) in terms of Reactivity
-Reading left to right shows that the electrons are increasing by 1.
- As electrons are added, their attraction to the nucleus increases, meanings as we read to the right in a
period, each atoms electrons are more densely compacted, more strongly bound to the nucleus, and
less likely to be pulled away in reactions.
-Reading down a group, each successive atoms outer electrons are less tightly bound to the nucleus,
thus increasing their reactivity, because the principal energy levels are increasingly full as we move
downward within a group.
-Principal Energy Levels: Shield the outer energy levels from nuclear attraction allowing the valence
electrons to react.
Periodicty
Describes the predictable and incremental nature of elements properties and place them on the
periodic table accordingly.
~Unique properties are number of electron, density, and mass.
-Elements near each other are more alike in these properties than those that are far apart on the table.
-Enables the prediction of properties and atomic configurations based on known trends represented by
the position of elements on the table.
~One trend is number of electrons

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids in the Periodic Table

Metals: Located on the left side and center of the periodic table.
-Include: Alkaline- Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium Alkaline Earth- Beryllium, Magnesium, and Calcium.
Also, include Transition Metals- Iron, Copper, and Nickel and Inner Transition- Thorium, Uranium, and
Plutonium.
Nonmetals: Located in the right side of the periodic table.
-Include: Chalcogens- Oxygen, Sulfur Halogens- Fluorine, Chlorine Noble Gases- Helium, Neon, Argon,
Xenon and Radon Extra- Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus.
Metalloids: (semi metals) Form a zigzag line between the metals and nonmetals.
-Include:Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Antimony, and Polonium.

Properties of Substances
Have unique properties that allow them to distinguish from other substances.
-All substances have physical and chemical properties.
Physical Properties
-Observed properties of the substance and those that can change the state without changing the
identity of the substance.
-Categorized as either Intensive or Extensive.
-Can be observed our measured. Includes: Color, elasticity, mass, volume, and temperature.
-Mass: Measure of the amount of substance in an object.
-Weight: Measure of gravitational pull of earth on an object
-Volume: Measure of the amount of space occupied.
~ Many formulas to determine volume.
~Cubed: a3, Rectangle: lxwxh, Irregular shape: by how much water it displaces, Density: D=m/V
(g/cm3), Specific Gravity: Measure of the ratio of a substances density compared to the density of
water.

Intensive Properties
Do not depends on the amount of matter or quantity of the sample.
Will not change if the sample size is increased or decreased
-Include: Color, Hardness, Melting Point, Boiling Point, Density,Ductility, Malleability, Specific Heat,
Temperature, Concentration, and Magnetization.

Extensive Properties
Do depend on the amount of matter or quantity of the sample.
Do change if the sample size is increased or decreased
~Sample size increases, then property increases.
~Sample size decreases, then property decreases.
-Include: Volume, Mass, Weight, Energy, Entrophy, Number of Moles, and Electrical Charge.

Chemical Properties
Depend on the chemical reactivity of the substance.
-When a substance chemically reacts with another substance, it suits in formation of a new
substance with a different composition and identity.
~Example: Hydrogen Gas is burned in Oxygen, forming Water. After burning the Hydrogen, a different
chemical substance (water)is all that remains.
~Hydrogen cannot be recovered from the water by a physical change like freezing or boiling.
Density
Equal to its mass divided by its volume.
~D=m/V
-Water has a density of 1 g/cm3
-Steel has a density of 8 times the waters density.
Specific Heat Capacity
Heat capacity per unit mass
-Every element and compound has its own specific heat.
-Relating Heat Energy to Specific Heat Capacity is Q=mc∆T
~Q = heat energy (Joules, J). m = mass of a substance (kg). c = specific heat (units J/kg∙K). ∆ is a symbol
meaning "the change in". ∆T = change in temperature

Melting and Boiling Point

3 states of matter can be traversed by the addition or removal of heat.
-In order to transition from a solid to a liquid, additional heat must be added at the melting point to
overcome the latent heat of fusion.
~Solid + Heat = Liquid
-Boiling Point: Additional heat must be added at the boiling point to overcome the latent heat of
vaporization
~Liquid + Heat = Gas

C+273.15=K K-273.5=C (F-32)x5/9
(K-273.15)x9/5+32=F
(Cx9/5)+32=F

Conduction
A form of heat transfer that requires contact.
-Heat is measure in Kinetic Energy, most commonly vibrations, at the atomic level, it may be transferred
from one location to another or object to another by contact.
Always flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
-If 2 regions are at the same temperature, there is a thermal equilibrium between them and there will
be no net heat transfer between them.

Properties of Water
-Liquid at room temperature
Has High Polarity, Hydrogen a Bonding, Cohesiveness, Adhesiveness, High Specific Heat, High Latent
Heat, and High Heat of Vaporization.
-Polar Molecule: Has negatively charge (oxygen end) and positively charged (hydrogen end) sides.
Allows it to form hydrogen bonds and demonstrate both cohesive and adhesive properties.
-High Specific Heat: It resists the breaking of its hydrogen bonds and resists heat and motion, which is
why it has relatively high boiling point and high vaporization point.
-Resist temperature change
-Cohesiveness: It is attracted to itself. Allows to travel through small capillaries without using energy.
Creates surface tension by creating a tight-knit layer of water molecules on the surface of any body of
water.
~Solid Water "ice" will float on water because it has a lower density than liquid water.
-Adhesiveness: Water adheres to another substance, then substance is said to be hydrophilic. Sticks to
other molecules.
Universal Solvent: Many substances dissolve in it
~Those particularly with polar ions and molecules

Water Molecules
-Polar
~Hydrogen atoms are arranged around the Oxygen atoms in a close tetrahedron.
-Oxidized (number of electrons reduced) when it bonds with oxygen to form water.
-Hydrogen bonds tend to not only weak, but also short-lived.
-Tend to be numerous.
-Give water many of its important properties.
-An important component of proteins, nucleic acids, and DNA
-Ice: Has each oxygen atom bound to four hydrogen atoms, two covalently and two by hydrogen bonds.
~Forms an ordered roughly tetrahedral structure that prevents molecules from getting close to each
other.
~There are empty spaces in the structure that account for the low density of ice.
Passive Transport Mechanisms
Allow for movement of substances through membranes
-Include: Simple and Facilitated Diffusion and Osmosis.
-Do not require energy from the cell.

Diffusion
When particles are translated from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.
-Equilibrium is reached then diffusion so stops.
~ Examples: Gas exchange (CO2 and O2) during photosynthesis and Transport of oxygen from air to
blood and from blood to tissue.
-Facilitated Diffusions: Specific molecules are transported by a specific carrier protein.
~Carrier Protein: Vary in terms of size, shape, and charge.
~Examples of substances transported by carrier proteins are glucose and amino acids
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower concentration to one
of a higher solute concentration
~ Through pores made of aquaporin proteins.
-High to Low movement: Without the use of energy
-Low to High movement: With the use of energy
~Example: Absorption of water by plant roots and the alimentary canal. Plants lose and gain water
through osmosis. Plant that swells because of water retention is said to be turgid.

States of Matter
3 States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas.
-Can be traversed by addition or removal of heat.
-Solid to Liquid (melting): Additional heat, causing molecules to become more energized and increases
vibrational and transitional motion.
-Liquid to Gas (boiling): Additional heat required to change matter.
-Gas to Liquid (freezing): Removing heat from matter
-Sublimation: Unusual phase change is the direct conversion of solids to gas.
~In deposition, the reverse phase change from gas directly to solid occurs. At room temperature with
the element iodine and the molecule carbon dioxide.

Solid
-Structures are rigid or nearly rigid and have strong bonds.
~Definite volume and shape, High density, No compressibility, and Vibrations around fixed positions.
~Little or no motion
~Heavily attracted to neighboring molecules, giving them structure. Structure may be
ordered/crystalline or random/amorphous.

Liquid
-Molecules or atoms of liquids move around and have weak bonds, but not weak enough to readily
break.
~Volume remains constant but assumes shape of its container, High density, No compressibility, Move
freely.
~Considerable attraction between molecules, but they are much more mobile, having no structures
Gas
-Molecules or atoms of gases move independently of each other, are typically far apart, and do not form
bonds.
~Assumes volume and shape of container, Low density, High compressibility, Very free motion.
~Little to no attraction to one another
~Constantly in motion
~Separated by distances that are very large in comparison to the size of molecules.
~Easily expand to fill whatever space is available, easily compressible.

Phases of substances depend on what 2 conditions?

Temperature and Pressure

-Temperature: Increasing temp has a tendency to move the particles of matter apart

-Pressure: Increasing pressure has a tendency to pack them closer together.
Evaporation
The change of state in a substance from liquid to a gaseous form at a temperature below its boiling
point.
-Higher temperatures: Molecules move more rapidly, increasing their numbers with enough energy to
break out of the liquid form.
~ Rate of evaporation is Higher when more of the surface area of a liquid is exposed (large body of
water).
~Amount out of moisture already in the air also affects the rate.
~If there is a significant amount of water vapor in the air around a liquid, some evaporated molecules
will return to the liquid.
-Speed of the evaporation process also decreased by increases atmospheric pressure.

Condensation
Phase change in a substance from a gaseous to a liquid form
-When temperatures decrease in a gas (water vapor), the materials component molecules move more
slowly.
~ Decreased motion of the molecules enables intermolecular cohesive forces to pull the molecules
closer together and, establish hydrogen bonds.
-Also, be caused by an increase in pressure exerted on gas, which results in decrease in substances
volume (reduces distance between particles).
Hydrologic Cycle:
-Initiated when warm air containing water vapor rises and then cools.
~Occurs due to convection in the air, meteorological fronts, or lifting over high land formations.
Chemical Reactions Overview
-Can take place quickly or slowly
~Fractions of a sec or billions of years
-Rates of Chemical Reactions are determined by how frequently reacting atoms and molecules interact.
~Rates are influenced by the *temperature and various properties of the reacting materials.
-Catalysts: Accelerate chemical reactions, while inhibitors decrease reaction rates.
~Some reactions release energy in the form of heat and light.
-Some types of reactions involve either electrons or hydrogen ions between reacting ions, molecules, or
atoms.
Other Reactions: Chemical bonds are broken down by heat or ought to form reactive radicals with
electrons that will readily form new bonds.
~Radical Reactions: Processes controlled by radicals are formation of ozone, greenhouse gasses in
atmosphere, and burning/processing of fossil fuels.
Electronegativity
Measure of how capable an atom is of attracting a pair of bonding electrons.
-Refers to the fact that one atom exerts slightly more force in a bond than another, creating a dipole
bond.
-If electronegative difference between 2 atoms is small, the atoms will form a polar covalent bond.
-If the difference is large, the atoms will form an ionic bond.
-When there is no electronegativity, a pure nonpolar covalent bond is formed.

Chemical Equations
Describe Chemical Reactions
Reactants: On the left side before the arrow
Products: On the right side after the arrow
-Arrow: Indicates the reaction or change.
Coefficient: The number before the element and it indicates the ratio of reactants to products in terms
of moles.
~Equation for formation of water:
2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O(l)
-(g): gas, (l): liquid, (s): solid, (aq): aqueous
-If equation is unbalance, then you must balance it yourself.
~Balanced by multiplying the coefficient by a constant that will produce the smallest possible whole
number
~Example:
H2 + O2 -> H2O. (unbalanced)
2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O (balanced)
5 Basic Chemical Reactions
Synthesis Reaction, Decomposition Reaction, Single Replacement Reactions, Double Replacement
Reaction, Combustion Reactions
Synthesis Reaction
"Combination" "Analysis Reaction"
- 2 or more reactants combine to form a single product.
~(A+B->C)
Example: Burning hydrogen in air to produce water
2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O
Example: Water and Sulfur trioxide react to form Sulfuric Acid
H2O + SO4 -> H2SO4

Decomposition Reaction
"Destruction"
-Reactant is broken down into 2 or more products
~(A->B+C)
Example: Decomp of water to hydrogen and oxygen gas
2H2O -> 2H2 + O2
-Most decomposition reactions are endothermic.
~Heat needs to be added
-Separation Process: Can be mechanical or chemical, and usually recognizing a mixture of substances
without changing their chemical nature. Separated products may differ from Original mixture in terms of
Chemical or Physical properties.
~Include: Filtration, Crystallization, Distillation, and Chromatography.

Single Replacement Reaction

When one reactant is displaced by another took form the final product
~(A + BC -> AB + C)
-Can be catatonic or anionic.
Example: Piece of Copper (Cu) is placed into solution of Silver Nitrate (AgNO3), the solution turns blue.
The copper appears to be replaced with a silvery-white material.
2AgNO3 + Cu -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
~When reaction takes place, the copper dissolves and the silver in the silver nitrate solution precipitates
(to solid) resulting in copper nitrate and silver.

Double Replacement Reactions

"Substitution"
When ions or bonds are exchanged by 2 compounds to form different compounds
~(AC + BD -> AD + BC)
Example: Silver nitrate and Sodium chloride form 2 different products (silver chloride and sodium
nitrate) when they react.
AgNO3 + NaCl -> AgCl + NaNO3
-Chemical reactants exchange ions but the oxidation state stays the same.

Combustion Reactions
"Burning"
Sequence of chemical reactions involving fuel and an oxidant that produces head and sometimes light.
-Types: Rapid, Slow, Complete, Turbulent, Microgravity, and Incomplete.
-Exothermic process

Catalyst
Substance that helps change the rate of reaction without changing their form, can increase rate by
decreasing the number of steps it takes to form products.
-Mass of catalyst should be that same at the beginning Of the reaction as it is at the end.
-Activation Energy: Minimum amount of energy required.
~ Causes particles to collide with sufficient energy to start the reaction.
-Enables more particles to react which lowers the activation energy.
Examples: Manganese Oxide (MnO2), decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, iron in the manufacture of
ammonia using the Haber process, and concentrate of sulfuric acid in the nitration of benzene.

pH
Measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance in terms of the number of moles
of H+ concentration, while a higher pH indicates a lower H+ concentration.
-Scale: 1 to 14
~ 1 to 7 is considered an acid
~ 7 to 14 is considered an base
~ Pure water is a 7, neutral.
-pH indicator is a substance that acts as a detector of hydrogen or hydronium ions. It's a halochromic,
meaning it changes color to indicate that hydrogen or hydrnium ions have been detected.

Bases
Basic Chemicals are usually in aqueous solution and have the following traits: bitter taste, a soapy or
slippery texture to touch, the capacity to restore the blue color of litmus paper which had previously
been turned red by an acid; the ability to produce salts in reaction with acids
-Either donate OH- ions or accept H+ ions.
~The word Alkaline is used to describe bases.
~Bases yield hydroxide ions (OH-).
~Acid models can be inverted and used for bases.
Some nonmetal oxides (NA2O) are classified as bases even though they don't contain hydroxides in their
molecule form.
~Although, these substances easily produce hydroxide ions when reacted with water.
Acids
Unique class of compounds characterized by consistent properties
-Either donate H+ or accept OH- ions.
-Significant Property of an Acid: Not readily observable and gives acids their unique behaviors.
~Includes: Ionization of H atoms, or their tendency to dissociate from their parent molecules and take
on an electrical charge.
~Carboxylic acids: Characterized by ionization, but of the 0 atoms.
Properties that are easy to observe without any experiments:
~Sour Taste, Change the color of litmus paper to red, Produce gaseous H2 in reaction with some metals,
Produce salt precipitates in reaction with bases.
Properties that are less easily observed, but no more complex:
~Most inorganic acids are easily soluble in water and have high boiling points.
Strong or Weak Acids and Bases
Characteristic properties derive from the tendency of atoms to ionize by donating or accepting charged
particles.
-Strength: Is a reflection of the degree to which its atoms ionize in solution.
~Example: Acetic acid (HC2H3O2) Is a weak acid because its only O2 atoms ionize in solution.
~Can consider elements reactivity. High reactive acids/bases are strong because they tend to form and
break bonds quickly and most of their atoms ionize int he process.
Compounds
Chemical combination of two or more types of elements
-Has different properties from those of their constituent elements.
-Smallest independent unit of an element or compound is a molecule.
Diatomic Elements: Elements are found somewhere in nature in single-atom form, but a few elements
only exist naturally in pairs.
-More than one atom of the same element in a compound is represented with a subscript number
designated how many atoms of that element are present.
Salts
-Properties: Formed from acid/base reactions, are ionic compounds consisting of metallic and
nonmetallic ions, dissociate in water, and are comprised of tightly bonded ions.
~Common Salts: Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Sodium Bisulfate, Potassium Bichromate (K2Cr2O7), and
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
~Potassium Nitrate (KNO3): Used to make fertilizer and in the manufacture of explosives.
~Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3): Used in the making of fertilizer.
~Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate): Salt
~Epson Salt (Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4))
-Hydrolysis Reaction: Salt and Water can react to form a base and an acid.
NaCl
Sodium Chloride
KCl
Potassium Chloride
NaBr
Sodium Bromide
H2O
Water
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
O2
Oxygen
C6H12O6
Glucose
C2H6O
Ethanol
Scientific Measurements using Lab Tools
Basic Units of Measurement: The Meter-Measures Length, The Liter-Measures Volume, The Gram-
Measure Mass, The second-Measures Time.
Prefixes for Multiples
deka/deca (da): 10^1
hecto (h): 10^2
kilo (k): 10^3
mega (M): 10^6
giga (G): 10^9
tera (T): 10^12
Prefixes for Subdivisions
deci (d): 10^-1
centi (c)L 10^-2
milli (m): 10^-3
micro (u): 10^-6
nano (n): 10^-9
pico (p): 10^-12
SI Unit- Mole
Used to measure the amount of a substance at molecular level.
Mole Convert Grams to %
- Then %x1mol/am= mole
- # of molecules/6.022x10^23 mol/mole

Molar Mass: # of Atoms x Atomic Mass = X

~Add all results together to get molar mass.

Tools to Measure Mass

Triple Beam Balance: Second most accurate
Electronic Balance: Most accurate

Tool used to measure large volumes of liquid

Volumetric Flask

Tool used to measure small volumes of liquid

Volumetric Pipette

Tool for measuring a range of volumes in the lab

Graduated Cylinder

Calculating a Solids volume

Multiplying the measurements of length, width, and height
-Measure using a ruler, meter stick, or measuring wheels.
Scientific Investigation
Determine hypotheses based on known evidence and then create investigations to test the
hypotheses
-Validate Information: Scientists submit their ideas for scrutiny by other scientists.
-Hypotheses: Informed guesses about casual relationships that are generated by observation and initial
data collection.
~During investigations, hypotheses will be accepted or rejected.
-Collect experimental data to develop theories
-Scientists develop strategies in an investigation to control variables.
-Each experiment should manipulate only one variable, the independent one. (duration, concentration,
plotted on X-axis). All other variables should be kept the same in a controlled investigation.
~The dependent variable (growth, response, plotted on Y-axis) is the observed condition
that responds to the manipulation.
-This establishes a casual relationshipbetween the independent and dependent variable.
After Investigation
-Scientists analyze data to determine possible conclusions.
-Conclusions are based one evidence and subjected to scrutiny by other scientists.
-Finally, they submit their evidence to journals, where the investigation and data are reviewed.
~Only the most reliable data should pass through this process.
~Hypotheses accepted or rejected through this process.
Vice Cops Will Want No Punishment At All
Verbs; Cross out prepositional phrases; Who/what subject; No nouns; Pronouns; At adjectives; All
adverbs
To be verbs
Am, is, are
Nouns
Person, place, thing, animal, idea, or feeling
Verbs
Action verbs

Passive verbs

Linking verbs
Adjectives
Describe a noun
Adverbs
Describe a verb
Prepositional phrases
In, out, around, about, etc.
Clauses
A string of two or more words, with a subject and a verb
Ex. When the saints go marching in

Ex. Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon.

Phrase
A string of two or more words, that do not have a subject and a verb

Ex. because of her glittering smile

Ex. broken into thousands of pieces

What is used to separate a quotation from interrupting text?
Comma
Articles
a, and, the

Never capitalize articles unless necessary to another rule

First person
Subjective

Singular: I

Plural: We
Second person
You use the second-person point of view to address the reader, as I just did

Singular: Mom can you grab the keys

Plural: Everyone needs to raise their

hand if they have a question
What is used between a title and sub-title of a book?
Colon
Third person
"He, she, or it"

Objective
Coordinating conjunctions
Joins two or more words or phrases

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Subordinating conjunction
Joins two or more clauses

Because, though, although, as, as if, when, while

Nominalization
Making a noun from a verb, adverb, or adjective
Active verb
Verbs that show an action performed by the subject of the sentence

Ex. Sheila and tom take a walk in the park

Passive verb
Past tense

Ex. Was cooked. Was seen.

Sentence: Definition
In his wood working he used a type of file known as a rasp
Sentence: Description
Allen is malcontent
Sentence: Example
The menu listed such delicacies as frog legs, snails, etc.
Sentence: Synonym
The ophthalmologist, or eye doctor told me to wear these
Sentence: Antonym
Unlike life in the country, henderson was a quaint existence
Parenthetical expressions should be offset by what?
Comma
Sentence: Comparison
Explains how two items are similar
Sentence: Contrast
Emphasizes the differences rather than the similarities.
Sentence: Explanation
He was awarded a degree posthumously; He died a month before graduation
What precedes conjunctive adverbs?
Semicolon
Prefix
Added to the beginning of the word to modify it
Suffix
Added to the end of the word to modify it
Root word
the root meaning of the word
Simple sentence
A sentence that contains only one clause, and has complete meaning (independent clause)

Ex. Some students like to study in the mornings.

Ex. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

Topic sentence
Is usually given at the beginning of the paragraph
Periodic sentence
The meaning of the sentence isn't revealed until the end, usually in the form of an independent clause
Independent clause
A group of words that contain a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought
Dependent clause
A group of words that contain a subject and a verb, and does not contain a complete thought
Cumulative sentence
The independent clause is at the beginning of a sentence
Ex. He dipped his hands in the bichloride solution and shook them--a quick shake, fingers down, like the
fingers of a pianist above the keys
ie
"I" before "e" except after "c" or in words like neighbor and weigh
Suffixed for words ending in "e"
Word ends in silent "e", added suffix begins with vowel, drop the letter "e" when adding the suffix:
age+ing=aging

Word ends in silent "e", added suffix begins with consonant, keep the letter when adding suffix:
awe+some=awesome
Suffixed for words ending in "y"
If word ends with a "y" preceded by a vowel, keep the "y" when adding the suffix:
Annoy+ance=annoyance

If a word ends with a "y" precede by a consonant drop the y when adding a suffix: Carry+ed=carried
Suffixes for words ending in a consonant-vowel-consanant pattern (CVC)
If a word ends with a CVC then double the final consanant: Bag+age = Baggage

If a word has more than one syllable, and the accent is on the last syllable, double the final consanant
before adding the suffix: allot+ed = allotted
Prefix: un
Not: unarmed
Prefix: re
Again: Readjust
Prefix: in
Not: Invisible
Prefix: dis
Not: disorganized
Suffix: ia, y
State or condition: amnesia, democracy
Suffix: ic, ical, ac
Having to do with: physical, cardiac, endoscopic
Suffix: ism
Belief in: activism
Suffix: ology
The study of: archeology
Suffix: or, er
one who takes part in: conductor, fighter
Root: arch
Ruler: tetrarch
What is placed between two independent clauses, if the latter clause expands on the former clause?
Colon
What is placed between two related independent clauses?
Semicolon
Root: audio
Sound: audiovisual
Root: bio
Life: biochemistry
Root: chrom
Color: monochrome
Root: geo
Earth: geode
Root: graph
Written: biographic
Root: morph
Form: morphine
Root: ortho
Correct: unorthodox
Root: ped
Foot: millipede
Root: terra
Earth: terrace
Root: therma
Heat: exothermal
Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses
Groups of words that don't contain information that is necessary to interpreting the meaning of the
sentence

Should be offset by commas

Ex. Jack Smith, who studied drama in New York City, was ideal.
Random comma rules
Separate quotations from text: "Yo", dad exclaimed

When an independent clause preceeds a dependent clause: Some of us could not spend it more
foolishly, If time were gold.

Separate city from state: Las Vegas, NV

Semicolon rules
Placed between two related independent clauses

Precede conjuctive adverbs: However, therefore

When a sentence contains a series of elements that contain one or more commas, the division between
the elements should be a semicolon
Colon Rules
Herald something that is to immediatly follow an independent clause: this usually comes in the form of a
list

...
Pronoun: Nominative
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Pronoun: Objective
me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Pronoun: Possessive
my, mine, your, your's, his, her, her's, it's, our, ours, their, theirs
Suffixes for words ending in "C"
If a word ends in "c" and the suffix is a "e", "i", or "y", then the letter "k" should be inserted

Ex. colic+y= colicky; mimic+ed= mimicked

What should follow the salutation of an informal letter?
Comma

Ex. Dear Mom,

Words ending in -ceed
Emceed, exceed, proceed, succeed
Words ending in -sede
Supersede
Words end in -cede
Accede, antecede, concede, intercede, recede, retrocede
Words ending in -able
If the root word is a complete word add the suffix -able.

Ex. avail+able= available

If the root word ends in "e" drop the "e" before adding -able

Ex. love+able= lovable

Words ending in -ible
If the root word isn't a complete word ad -ible

Ex. aud+ible= audible

Words ending in -ance, -ancy, -ant
If the suffix is proceeded by a hard "c" or "g" then add the suffix

Ex. Extravagant, elegance, vacancy

Words ending in -ence, -ency, -ent
If the suffix is proceeded by a soft "c" or "g" then add the suffix

Absence, agency, emergent

Words ending in -tion and -sion
If the word ends in "t" -tion can be added

If the word ends in "s" -sion can be added

Distraction, regression
Words ending in -cian
If a word names a person then it should end in -cian

Physician, technician, musician

Homophones: Affect and Effect
Affect (verb): To have an effect on

Effect (noun): Something that is brought about by a cause

Homophones: Ascent and Assent
Ascent (noun): A slope that angles upwards

Assent (noun): Agreement

Homophones: All ready and Already
All ready (adjective): Everyone or everything is ready

Already (adverb): By this time

What should be used to herald something, that is to immediately follow an independent clause?
Colon
Homophones: All together and Altogether
All together (adjective): Everyone in a group

Altogether (adverb): Entirely, completely

Homophones: Altar and Alter
Altar (noun): A structure used in worship

Alter (verb): To change

Homophones: Bear and Bare
Bear (verb): To carry or support

Bare: (verb): To expose

Homophones: Capital and Capitol
Capital (noun): A leading or governing city

Capitol (noun): A building that houses the states lawmakers

Homophones: Cite and Site
Cite (verb): To use as an example, to quote

Site (noun): A location

Homophones: Complement and Compliment
Complement (noun): An element that completes

Compliment (noun): A remark of appreciation

When a sentence contains a series of elements that contain one or more commas, what Divides the
elements?
Semicolon
Homophones: Council and Counsel
Council (noun): A body of people assembled for advice

Counsel (noun): Advice

Homophones: Descent and Dissent
Descent (noun): A slope that angels downward

Dissent (noun): Disagreement

What should separate a city from a state?
Comma
Homophones: Dying and Dyeing
Dying (verb): Ceasing to live

Dyeing (verb): Coloring a fabric

Homophones: Forth and Fourth
Forth (adverb): Forward in place or time

Fourth (noun): The element in a series that is after the 3rd

Homophones: Principal and Principle
Principal (noun): Chief or Leader

Principle (noun): A belief or rule of conduct

What should follow a salutation of an informal letter?
Colon
Homophones: Stationary and Stationery
Stationary (adjective): Not moving
Stationery (noun): Paper for writing letters
Homophones: Their, They're, and there
Their (adjective): Belonging to them

They're: Contraction of "they are"

There (adjective): In that place

Introductory words (yes and no) should be separated by what?
Comma

Ex. "Yes, sir"

Homophones: To, Too, and Two
To (preposition): Indicates movement or intent

Too (adverb): Also

Two (adjective): Something that has two units

Homophones: Whose and Who's
Whose (adjective): Belonging to whom

Who's: Contraction of "who is"

Homophones: Your and You're
Your (adjective): Belonging to you

You're: Contraction of you are

Capitalization
Geographical locations
Cardinal directions
Historical documents and events Nationalities, races, and religions Monuments, ships, and planes
Proper names and titles of rank
Showing family relationship (when they stand alone or are followed by a personal name)
Main words or titles of books poems, plays, etc.
Deities
The first word of a quotation
Names of seasons if they are personified
Ellipses
Used to suggest hesitation, attempt to conceal something, unfinished thought, or difficulty expressing
oneself
When a dependent clause precedes an independent clause in a complex sentence; What should
separate the two?
A comma
If a word does not fit entirely on a line what is place to separate the word?
Hyphen
If compound numbers function as adjective, what separates them?
Hyphen
What is used to join a prefix and a proper adjective or noun?
Hyphen
Words that need to be hyphenated
Self-sufficient

Self-esteem
What encloses supplementary or explanatory material that interrupts the main sentence?
Parentheses
When should a period be added in the parenthesis
If the material in the parenthesis is a complete sentence that is not located within another sentence
What is used to enclose chapters, articles, and short stories, songs, plays, etc?
Quotation marks
What is used to enclose technical terms or slang?
Quotation marks
What is used when making a quotation inside of a quotation?
Single quotes
What do you add to a noun or indefinite pronoun (that doesn't end in "s") to form a possessive case
Apostrophe

Ex. The boy's cat was stuck in the tree.

How do you form a possessive case of a plural noun that ends in an "s"
Apostrophe

Ex. The tree's look beautiful

Apostrophes are used in certain expression of time
A week's vacation
How do you pluralize letters, numbers, and words
Apostrophe

Ex. Dot your i's and cross your t's; 4's; no if's and's or but's about it
How do you show omission of letters or numbers as in contractions or dates
Apostrophe

Ex. '05; can't

Where are commas used within dates
They separate two textual or two numerical elements

Ex. Saturday, January 14, 2031

Parenthetical expressions
Expressions that are not really part of the main idea of the sentence, or that interrupt the main
sentence.

Ex. The tortoise, as far as we know, likes eating lettuce

Appositives
Renames a noun in another part of the sentence

Ex. Our teacher, Paul, will be online later today

Words of direct address
Uses the names of the people to whom you are speaking, or it may use other words which take the
place of the actual names

Ex. Boys, are you ready to go? (boys)

"Who"
A subject pronoun, in reference to people

Performer of the action

Tip: Who=He

Ex. Who threw the ball

"Whom"
An object pronoun, in reference to people.

The receiver of the action.

Tip: Whom=Him

Ex. Jim threw the ball to whom?

"That" and "Which"
That= people and things

Which= things

Direct object
Bob and Mitch played soccer last night.

1. Find the action verb= played

2. Find the subject= Bob and Mitch
3. Who/What (Direct object)= soccer
Indirect object
The Cook baked the children cookies.

1. Find the action verb= baked

2. Find the subject= The Cook
3. Who/What (Direct object)= cookies
4. To/For whom (Indirect object)= children
Conjunctive adverbs
Adverbs that act like conjunctions; therefore they connect the information in two clauses or sentences.
Common Noun
Name general people, animals, places, and things

Ex. Firefighter, City, Mountain

Proper Nouns
Name specific People, animals, places, and things.

They always begin with a capital letter.

Ex. John, New York, Mt. Rushmore

Compound adjectives
Two or more words that are modifying or limiting a noun.

Ex. Follow the step-by-step instructions.

Indefinite Pronoun
They don't refer to anything or anyone specific (vague).

Ex. They
Direct Dialogue
When you quote, exactly, directly, what a person said.
Antecedents
A noun that existed before a pronoun
Action Verbs
Present tense

Ex. Sheila and Tom are walking in the park

Conjunctive adverbs
Furthermore, accordingly, indeed, nonetheless