CONTROL TECHNIQUES

FOR
PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

Public Health Service

Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service

 CONTROL TECHNIQUES
FOR
PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

Public Hea Ith Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
Nationa 1· Air Pol Iution Control Administration
Wash i ngto n , D. C.
January 1969
Notional ..\ir Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-51
 PREFACE

Throughout the development of Federal air pollution legislation, the

Congress has consistently found that the States and local governments have the
primary responsibility for preventing and controlling air pollution at its source.
Further, the Congress has consistently declared that it is the responsibility
of the Federal government to provide technical and financial assistance to State
and local governments so that they can undertake these responsibilities.
These principles were reiterated in the Air Quality Act of 1967. A key
element of that Act directs the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to
collect and make available information on all aspects of air pollution and its
control. Under the Act the issuance of control techniques information is a
vital step in a program designed to assist the States in taking responsible
technological, social, and political action to protect the public from the
adverse effects of air pollution.
Briefly, the Act calls for the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare
to define the broad atmospheric areas of the Nation in which climate,
meteorology. and topography, all of which influence the capacity of air to
dilute and disperse pollution, are generally homogeneous.
Further, the Act requires the Secretary to define those geographical
regions in the country where air pollution is a problem-whether interstate or
intrastate. These air quality control regions are designated on the basis of
meteorological, social, and political factors which suggest that a group of
communities should be treated as a unit for setting limitations on concentrations
of atmospheric pollutants. Concurrently, the Secretary is required to issue
air quality criteria for those pollutants he believes may be harmful to health
or welfare, and to publish related information on the techniques which can be
employed to control the sources of those pollutants.

iii
 Once these steps have been taken for any region, and for any pollutant
or combination of pollutants, then the State or States responsible for the
designated region are on notice to develop ambient air quality standards ap-
plicable to the region for the pollutants involved, and to develop plans of action
for meeting the standards.
The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare will review, evaluate,
and approve these standards and plans and, once they are approved, the States
will be expected to take action to control pollution sources in the manner
outlined in their plans.
At the direction of the Secretary, the National Air Pollution Control
Administration has established appropriate programs to carry out the several
Federal responsibilities specified in the legislation.
Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants is the first of a series
of documents to be produced under the program established to carry out the
responsibility for developing and distributing control technology information.
The document is the culmination of intensive and dedicated effort on the part
of many persons.
In accordance with the Air Quality Act, a National Air Pollution Control

Techniques Advisory Committee was established, having a membership

broadly representative of industry, universities, and all levels of government.
The committee, whose members are listed following this discussion, provided
invaluable advice in identifying the best possible methods for controlling the
sources of particulate air pollution, assisted in determining the costs involved,
and gave major assistance in drafting this document.
As further required by the Air Quality Act, appropriate Federal
departments and agencies, also listed on the following pages, were consulted
prior to issuance of this document. A Federal consultation committee,
comprising members designated by the heads of 17 departments and agencies,
reviewed the document, and met with staff personnel of the National Air
Pollution Control Administration to discuss its contents.

iv
 During 1967, at the initiation of the Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare, several government-industry task groups were formed to explore
mutual problems relating to air pollution control. One of these, a task group
on control technology research and development, looked into ways that industry
representatives could participate in the review of the control techniques reports.
Accordingly, several industrial representatives, listed on the following pages,
reviewed this document and provided helpful comments and suggestions. In
addition, certain consultants to the National Air Pollution Control Administration
also reviewed and assisted in preparing portions of this document. (These
also are listed on the following pages.)
The Administration is pleased to acknowledge the efforts of each of the
persons specifically named, as well as those of the many not so listed who
contributed to the publication of this volume. In the last analysis, however,
the National Air Pollution Control Administration is responsible for its content.
The control of air pollutant emissions is a complex problem because of
the variety of sources and source characteristics. Technical factors
frequently make necessary the use of different control procedures for different
types of sources. Many techniques are still in the developmental stage, and
prudent control strategy may call for the use of interim methods until these
techniques are perfected. Thus, we can expect that we will continue to
improve, refine, and periodically revise the control technique information so
that it will continue to reflect the most up-to-date knowledge available.

John T. Middleton
Commissioner
National Air Pollution Control
Administration

v
NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNIQUES ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. Louis D. Alpert Mr. James L. Parsons

General Manager Consultant Manager
Midwestern Department of the Environmental Engineering
Federated Metals Division Engineering Department
American Smelting & Refining Company E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. , Inc,
Whiting, Indiana Wilmington, Delaware

Professor James H. Black* Professor August T. Rossano

Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
University of Alabama Air Resource Program
University, Alabama University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
Mr. Robert L. Chass
Chief Deputy Air Pollution Mr. Jack A. Simon
Control Officer Principal Geologist
Los Angeles County Air Pollution Illinois State Geological Survey
Control District Natural Resources Building
Los Angeles, California Urbana, Illinois

Mr. W. Donham Crawford Mr. Victor H. Sussman

Administrative Vice President Director
Consolidated Edison Company Division of Air Pollution Control
of New York, Inc. Pennsylvania Department of
New York, New York Health
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Mr. Herbert J. Dunsmore
Assistant to Administrative Mr. Earl L. Wilson, Jr.
Vice President of Engineering Manager
U. S. Steel Corporation Industrial Gas Cleaning Department
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Koppers Company, Inc.
Metal Products Division
Mr. John L. Gilliland Baltimore, Mary land
Technical Director
Ideal Cement Company Dr. Harry J. White
Denver, Colorado Head
Department of Applied Science
Portland State College
Portland, Oregon

* Resigned September 16, 1968.

vi
 FEDERAL AGENCY LIAISON REPRESENTATIVES

Department of Agriculture
Kenneth E. Grant
Associate Administrator
Soil Conservation Service

Department of Commerce
Paul T. O'Day
Staff Assistant to the Secretary

Department of Defense
Colonel Alvin F. Meyer, Jr.
Chairman
Environmental Pollution Control Committee

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Charles M. Haar
Assistant Secretary for Metropolitan Development

Department of the Interior

Harry Perry
Mineral Resources Research Advisor

Department of Justice
Walter Kiechel, Jr.
Assistant Chief
General Litigation Section
Land and Natural Resources Division

Department of Labor
Dr. Leonard R. Linsenmayer
Deputy Director
Bureau of Labor Standards

Department of Transportation
William H. Close
Assistant Director for Environmental Research
Office of Noise Abatement

vii
Department of the Treasury
Gerard M. Brannon
Director
Office of Tax Analysis

Federal Power Commission

F. Stewart Brown
Chief
Bureau of Power

General Services Administration

Thomas E. Crocker
Director
Repair and Improvement Division
Public Buildings Service

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Major General R. H. Curtin, USAF (Ret.)
Director of Facilities

National Science Foundation

Dr. Eugene W. Bierly
Program Director for Meteorology
Division of Environmental Sciences

Post Office Department

Louis B. Feldman
Chief
Transportation Equipment Branch
Bureau of Research and Engineering

Tennessee Valley Authority

Dr. F. E. Gartrell
Assistant Director of Health

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

Dr. Martin B. Biles
Director
Division of Operational Safety

viii
Veterans Administration
Gerald M. Hollander
Director of Architecture and Engineering
Office of Construction

ix
 CONTRIBUTORS

Mr. L. P. Augenbright Mr. B. R. Gebhart

Assistant Sales Manager Vice President
Western Knapp Engineering Di vision Freeman Coal Mining Corporation
Arthur G. McKee and Company Chicago, Illinois
San Francisco, California
Mr. James R. Jones
Dr. Allen D. Brandt Chief Combustion Engineer
Manager Peabody Coal Company
Industrial Health Engineering Chicago, Illinois
Bethlehem Steel Company
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Mr. Olaf Kayser
Vice President- Manufacturing
Mr. William Bodle Lone Star Cement Corporation
Senior Advisor New York, New York
Institute of Gas Technology
Chicago, Illinois Mr. David Lurie
Consultant
Dr. Donald A. Borum Wyckoff, New Jersey
Consulting Chemical Engineer
New York, New York Mr. Glenn A. Ne sty
Vice President
Mr. John D. Caplan Senior Technical Officer
Technical Director Allied Chemical Corporation
Basic and Applied Sciences New York, New York
Research Laboratories
General Motors Corporation Dr. Arthur L. Plumley
Warren, Michigan Senior Project Engineer
Kresinger Development
Mr. R. R. Chambers Laboratory
Vice President Combustion Engineering, Inc.
Sinclair Oil Corporation Windsor, Connecticut
New York, New York
Mr. James H. Rook
Mr. John M. Depp Director of Environmental
Director Control Systems
Central Engineering Department American Cyanamid Company
Monsanto Company Wayne, New Jersey
St. Louis, Missouri
Mr. T. W. Schroeder
Mr. Harold F. Elkin Manager of Power Supply
Sun Oil Company Illinois Power Company
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Decatur, Illinois

x
Dr. Seyinour C. Schuman
Private Consultant
Princeton, New Jersey

Mr. R. W. Scott
Coordinator for Conservation
Technology
Esso Research and Engineering
Company
Linden, New Jersey

Mr. David Swan

Vice President-Technology
Kennecott Copper Corporation
New York, New York

Mr. R. A. Walters
Project Director of Smelter Studies
Western Knapp Engineering Division
Arthur G. McKee and Company
San Francisco, California

xi
 CONTENTS

Page
PREFACE iii

LIST OF FIGURES xxiv

LIST OF TABLES xxxi

SUMMARY 1

1. INTRODUCTION 1-1

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 2-1

2.1 DEFINITIONS 2-1

2. 2 MAJOR SOURCES OF PARTICULATE MATTER 2-3

2. 2.1 Combustion Sources 2-3

2. 2. 2 Industrial Sources 2-4

2. 2. 3 Mobile Sources 2-4

3. PARTICULATE SOURCES AND CONTROLS 3-1

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3-1

3. 2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3-3

3. 2. 1 Gasoline- Fueled Vehicles 3-3

3. 2. 2 Diesel-Powered Vehicles 3-7

3. 3 CONTROL OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM

STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES 3-10

3. 3. 1 Introduction 3-10

3. 3.1.1 General 3-10

3. 3.1. 2 Sources 3-10

xii
 Page
3.3.1.3 Emissions 3-10

3.3.2 Control Techniques 3-15

3. 3. 2.1 Gas Cleaning 3-16

3.3.2.2 Source Relocation 3-20

3.3.2.3 Energy Substitution 3-20

3.3.2.4 Energy Conservation 3-25

3. 3. 2. 5 Good Practice 3-27

3.3.2.6 Source Shutdown 3-30

3. 3. 2. 7 Dispersion 3-30

3.4 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 3-31

3.4.1 Introduction 3-31

3.4.2 Iron and Steel Mills 3-34

3.4.2.1 Sintering Plants 3-34

3.4.2.2 Blast Furnaces 3-34

3.4.2.3 Steel Furnaces 3-35

3.4.3 Gray Iron Foundries 3-37

3.4.4 Petroleum Refineries 3-39

3.4.5 Portland Cement 3-41

3.4.6 Kraft Pulp Mills 3-42

3.4.7 Asphalt Batching Plants 3-43

3.4.8 Acid Manufacture 3-44

xiii
 Page
3. 4. 8. 1 Sulfuric Acid 3-44

3. 4. 8. 2 Phosphoric Acid 3-45

3. 4. 9 Coke Manufacture 3-45

3. 4.10 Primary and Secondary Recovery of Copper, Lead,

Zinc, and Aluminum 3-49

3. 4.11 Soap and Synthetic Detergent Manufacture 3-50

3. 4.12 Glass Furnaces and Glass Fiber Manufacture 3-51

3. 4. 13 Carbon Black 3-53

3.4.14 Gypsum Processing 3-53

3.4.15 Coffee Processing 3-54

3. 4. 16 Cotton Ginning 3-56

3. 5 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION 3-57

3. 5. 1 Introduction 3-57

3. 5. 2 Demolition of Masonry 3-58

3. 5. 3 Open Burning 3-58

3. 5. 4 Road Dust 3-59

3. 5. 5 Grading Roads and Other Surfaces 3-59

3. 5. 6 Handling Dusty Materials 3-59

3. 5. 7 Sandblasting 3-59

3. 6 SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 3-61

3. 6. 1 Introduction 3-61

3. 6. 2 Definition of Solid vVaste 3-62

xiv
 Page
3. 6. 3 Amounts of Solid Waste Generated 3-63

3. 6. 3 .1 Disposal Methods to Minimize Air Pollution 3-65

3. 6. 3. 2 Disposal Methods Without Incineration 3-67

3. 6. 3. 3 Disposal Methods \:l'ith Incineration 3-73

3. 6. 4 Air Pollution Potential From Solid Waste Disposal

Methods 3-86

3. 6. 5 Public Health Service Programs and Assistance

in Solid Waste Disposal 3-86

4. GAS CLEANING DEVICES 4-1

4. 1 INTRODUCTION 4-1

4.1. 1 Preliminary Selection of Equipment 4-3

4. 2 SETTLING CHAMBERS 4-10

4. 2. 1 Introduction 4-10

4. 2. 2 Definition of Terms 4-10

4. 2. 3 Design Considerations 4-12

4. 2. 4 Typical Applications 4-13

4. 3 DRY CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTORS 4-15

4.3.1 Introduction 4-15

4. 3. 2 Types of Centrifugal Collectors 4-16

4.3.3 Design 4-19

4. 3. 3.1 Operating Pressure Drop 4-26

4. 3. 3. 2 Dust Loading 4-27

4. 3. 3. 3 Other Design Considerations 4-28

xv
 Page
4. 3. 4 Typical Applications 4-29

4. 4 WET COLLECTORS AND MIST ELIMINATORS 4-32

4. 4. 1 Introduction 4-32

4. 4. 1.1 Collection Theory 4-32

4. 4.1. 2 Efficiency 4-34

4.4.2 Equipment Description and Design 4-35

4. 4. 2.1 Spray Chamber 4-35

4. 4. 2. 2 Gravity Spray Towers 4-39

4. 4. 2. 3 Centrifugal Spray Scrubbers 4-40

4. 4. 2. 4 Impingement Plate Scrubbers 4-43

4. 4. 2. 5 Venturi Scrubbers 4-44

4. 4. 2. 6 Packed Bed Scrubbers 4-51

4. 4. 2. 7 Self-Induced Spray Scrubbers 4-59

4. 4. 2. 8 Mechanically Induced Spray Scrubbers 4-59

4. 4. 2. 9 Disintegrator Scrubbers 4-61

4. 4. 2.10 Centrifugal Fan Wet Scrubbers 4-63

4. 4. 2.11 Inline Wet Scrubber 4-63

4.4.2.12 Irrigated Wet Filters 4-66

4. 4. 2.13 Wet Fiber Mist Eliminators 4-66

4. 4. 2.14 Impingement Baffle Mist Eliminators 4-73

4. 4. 2.15 Vane-Type Mist Eliminators 4-74

4. 4. 2.16 Packed Bed Mist Eliminators 4-76

xvi
 Page
4. 4. 2. 17 Mist and Vapor Suppression 4-76

4. 4. 2.18 Liquid Distribution 4-77

4.4.2.19 Spray Nozzles 4-78

4. 4. 3 Typical Applications of Wet Scrubbers 4-83

4. 4. 4 Water Disposal 4-83

4. 4. 4. 1 Settling Tanks and Ponds 4-83

4. 4. 4. 2 Continuous Filtration 4-85

4. 4. 4. 3 Liquid Cyclones 4-85

4. 4. 4. 4 Continuous Centrifuge 4-85

4. 4. 4. 5 Chemical Treatment 4-86

4. 5 HIGH-VOLTAGE ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS 4-87

4. 5. 1 Introduction 4-87

4. 5. 2 Operating Principles 4-87

4. 5. 3 Equipment Description 4-91

4. 5. 3.1 Voltage Control and Electrical Equipment 4-91

4. 5. 3. 2 Discharge Electrodes 4-95

4. 5. 3. 3 Collecting Surfaces 4-95

4. 5. 3. 4 Removal of Collected Particulate Matter 4-95

4. 5. 4 High-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitator

Equipment Design 4-99

4. 5. 4.1 Conditioning Systems 4-101

4. 5. 4. 2 Voltage, Electrical Energy, and Sectionalization

Requirements 4-101

xvii
331-716 0 - 69 - ;:::
 4. 5. 4. 3 Gas Velocity, Treatment Time, and Flow
Distribution 4-102

4. 5. 4. 4 Collecting Surfaces and Discharge Electrodes 4-103

4. 5. 4. 5 Materials of Construction 4-104

4. 5. 4. 6 Collected Particulate Matter Handling Systems 4-104

4. 5. 4. 7 Controls and Instruments 4-104

4. 5. 4. 8 Layout 4-105

4. 5. 5 Specifications and Guarantees 4-105

4. 5. 6 Maintaining Collection Efficiency 4-107

4. 5. 7 Improvement of Collection Efficiency 4-108

4. 5. 8 Typical Applications 4-109

4. 5. 8.1 Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants 4-109

4. 5. 8. 2 Integrated Steel Making Operations 4-111

4. 5. 8. 3 Cement Industry 4-111

4. 5. 8.4 Kraft Pulp Mills 4-112

4. 5. 8. 5 Sulfuric Acid 4-112

4. 6 LOW-VOLTAGE ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS 4-113

4. 6.1 Introduction 4-113

4. 6. 2 Major Components of Low-Voltage Electrostatic

Precipitators 4-114

4. 6. 3 Auxiliary Equipment 4-116

4. 6. 4 Design Parameters 4-116

xviii
 Page
4. 6. 5 Materials of Construction 4-123

4. 6. 6 Typical Applications of Low-Voltage Electrostatic

Precipitators 4-123

4. 6. 6. 1 Machining Operations 4-123

4. 6. 6. 2 Asphalt Saturators 4-124

4. 6. 6. 3 Meat Smokehouses 4-124

4. 6. 6. 4 Other Applications 4-125

4.6.7 Air Distribution 4-125

4.6.8 Maintenance 4-126

4. 7 FABRIC FILTRATION 4-127

4. 7. 1 Introduction 4-127

4. 7. 1. 1 Range of Application 4-127

4.7.2 Mechanisms of Fabric Filtration 4-129

4. 7. 2.1 Direct Interception 4-130

4. 7. 2. 2 Inertial Impaction 4-130

4. 7. 2. 3 Diffusion 4-131

4. 7. 2. 4 Electrostatic Attraction 4-132

4. 7. 2. 5 Gravitational Settling 4-132

4.7.3 Filter Resistance 4-132

4. 7. 3.1 Clean Cloth Resistance 4-132

4. 7. 3. 2 Dust Mat Resistance 4-134

4. 7. 3. 3 Effect of Resistance on Design 4-137

xix
 Page
4.7.4 Equipment Description and Design 4-138

4.7.4.1 Baghouse Design 4-149

4.7.4.2 Fabric Filter Shape 4-155

4.7.4.3 Cloth Type 4-158

4.7.4.4 Fabric Cleaning 4-164

4.7.4.5 Fabric Selection 4-171

4.7.4.6 Auxiliary Equipment 4-173

4. 7. 4. 7 Individual Collectors Versus Large Collecting

Systems 4-174

4. 7. 5 Typical Applications 4-175

4. 7. 5. 1 Cement Kilns 4-175

4. 7. 5. 2 Foundry Cupolas 4-176

4. 7. 5. 3 Electric Arc Steel Furnaces 4-176

4. 7. 5. 4 Open Hearth Furnaces 4-177

4. 7. 5. 5 Nonferrous Metal Furnaces 4-178

4. 7. 5. 6 Carbon Black Plants 4-179

4. 7. 5. 7 Grain Handling Operations 4-179

4. 7. 6 Operational Practices 4-180

4. 7. 7 Maintenance Procedures 4-181

4.7.8 Safety 4-183

4.8 AFTERBURNERS 4-184

4. 8. 1 Introduction 4-184

xx
 Page
4.8.1.1 Definition of Terms 4-184

4. 8.1. 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Afterburners 4-185

4.8.1.3 Combustion Theory 4-186

4. 8. 2 Afterburner Design Criteria 4-189

4. 8. 2.1 General 4-189

4. 8. 2. 2 Heat Transfer 4-189

4. 8. 2. 3 Reaction Temperature 4-189

4. 8. 2. 4 Retention Time 4-191

4. 8. 2. 5 Heat Recovery 4-196

4. 8. 2. 6 Fuel Requirements 4-200

4. 8. 2. 7 Modified Furnace Afterburners 4-202

4. 8. 2. 8 Hood and Duct Considerations 4-203

4.8.2.9 Gas Burners 4-204

4. 8. 2.10 Construction Materials 4-211

4. 8. 2. 11 Typical Applications 4-213

5. EMISSION FACTORS FOR PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS 5-1

6. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION

CONTROL 6-1

6.1 SELECTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM 6-1

6. 2 COST-EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIPS 6-5

6. 3 COST DATA 6-8

6.4 UNCERTAINTIES IN DEVELOPING COST

RELATIONSHIPS 6-8

xxi
 Page
6. 5 DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL COST ELEMENTS 6-10

6.5.1 General 6-10

6. 5. 2 Capital Investment 6-14

6. 5. 3 Maintenance and O;:ieration 6-15

6. 5. 3.1 General 6-15

6. 5. 3. 2 Gravitational and Centrifugal Mechanical Collectors 6-22

6. 5. 3. 3 Wet Collectors 6-23

6. 5. 3. 4 Electrostatic Precipitators 6-25

6. 5. 3. 5 Fabric Filter 6-26

6. 5. 3. 6 Afterburners 6-27

6. 5. 4 Capital Charge 6-27

6. 5. 5 Annualization of Costs 6-28

6. 5. 6 Assumptions in Annualized Control Cost Elements 6-28

6. 5. 6.1 Annualized Capital Cost Assumptions 6-29

6. 5. 6. 2 Operating Cost Assumptions 6-30

6. 5. 6. 3 Maintenance Cost Assumption 6-30

6. 6 METHOD FOR ESTIMATING ANNUAL COST OF

CONTROL FOR A SPECIFIC SOURCE 6-30

6. 6. 1 General 6-30

6. 6. 2 Procedure 6-30

6. 6. 3 Sample Calculations 6-33

6. 6. 4 Annualized Cost Variation 6-36

xxii
 Page
6. 7 COST CURVES BY EQUIPMENT TYPE 6-36

6. 7. 1 General 6-36

6. 7. 2 Gravitational Collectors 6-38

6. 7. 3 Dry Centrifugal Collectors 6-39

6. 7. 4 Wet Collectors 6-39

6. 7. 5 High-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitators 6-44

6. 7. 6 Low-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitators 6-47

6. 7. 7 Fabric Filters 6-47

6. 7. 8 Afterburners 6-50

6. 8 DISPOSAL OF COLLECTED PARTICULATE EMISSIONS 6-54

6. 8. 1 General 6-54

6. 8. 2 Elements of Disposal Systems 6-55

6. 8. 3 Disposal Cost for Discarded Material 6-59

6. 8. 4 Return of Collected Material to Process 6-61

6. 8. 5 Recovery of Material for Sale 6-63

7. CURRENT RESEARCH IN CONTROL OF PARTICULATE

MATTER 7-1

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 8-1

AUTHOR INDEX A-1

SUBJECT INDEX A-27

xxiii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2-1 Sources of particulate matter and quantities
2-3
produced in tons per year.

Motor vehicle crankcase control system.

3-6
3-1

3-2 Costs of incinerator at three levels of control of

particulate emissions.
3-81

4-1 Composite grade (fractional) efficiency curves

based on test silica dust:, 4-6

4-2 Terminal velocities of spherical particles in air. 4-11

4-3 Balloon dust. 4-12

4-4 Baffled expansion chamber with dust hopper. 4-13

4-5 Dust settling chamber. 4-14

4-6 Multiple-tray dust collector. 4-14

4-7 Conventional reverse-flow cyclone. 4-18

4-8 Axial inlet cyclone. 4-18

4-9 Straight-through-flow cyclone. 4-20

4-10 Dynamic cyclone showing method by which dust is dynami-

cally precipitated and delivered to the storage hopper. 4-21

4-11 Various types of cyclone dust discharge. 4-25

4-12 Cyclones arranged in parallel. 4-28

4-13 Cyclones arranged in parallel. 4-29

4-14 Arrangement of nozzles in smoke stack spray system. 4-38

4-15 Typical layout for spray tower. 4-41

4-16 Centrifugal spray scrubbers. 4-42
4-17 Impingement plate scrubber. 4-45

xx iv
Figure Page

4-18 Venturi scrubber may feed liquid through jets (a), over
a weir (b), or swirl them on a shelf (c). 4-47

4-19 Flooded disk (variable throat orifice) scrubber. 4-48

4-20 Multiple-venturi jet scrubber. 4-50

4-21 Vertical venturi scrubber .. 4-51

4-22 Wet scrubber packings. 4-52

4-23 Packed-bed scrubbers. 4-53

4-24 Flooded-bed scrubber. 4-57

4-25 Floating-ball (fluid-bed) packed scrubber. 4-58

4-26 Self-induced-spray scrubbers. 4-60

4-27 Mechanically induced spray scrubbers. 4-62

4-28 Centrifugal fan wet scrubber. 4-64

4- 2 9 Inline wet scrubber. 4-65

4-30 Wetted and impingement plate filters. 4-67

4-31 Low-velocity filtering elements. 4-70

4-32 High-velocity filtering elements. 4-71

4-33 Wire mesh mist eliminators. 4-72

4-34 Coke quench mist elimination baffle system. 4-74

4-35 Details of baffle design. 4-74

4-36 Streamline mist eliminator baffles. 4-75

4-37 Screen and mist eliminator details. 4-75

4-38 Bed of Berl saddles added to discharge stack. 4-77

4-39 Spray nozzles commonly used in wet scrubbers. 4-79

xxv
Figure

4-40 Weir and sieve plate liquid distributors commonly

4-82
used in packed towers.

4-41 Multiple precipitator installation in basic oxygen

4-88
furnace plant.

Detarrer precipitators installed in steel mill. 4-89

4-42

4-43 Schematic view of a flat surface-type electrostatic

precipitator. 4-92

4-44 Schematic view of tubular surface-type electrostatic

precipitator. 4-92

4-45 Cutaway view of a flat surface-type electrostatic

precipitator. 4-93

4-46 Cross -sectional view of irrigated tubular blast

furnace precipitator. 4-94

4-47 Typical double half wave silicon rectifier with

twin output bushings. 4-96

4-48 Internal view of one type of rectifier control

console showing component parts. 4-97

4-49 Electrostatic precipitator collecting plates and

discharge electrodes. 4-98

4-50 Hopper discharge valves. (a) Rotary valve and

(b) swing valve . 4-99

4-51 Electrostatic precipitator rapper mechanisms.

(a) Pneumatic impulse rapper, (b) Magnetic impulse
rapper, and (c) Pneumatic reciprocating rapper. 4-100

4-52 Variation of precipitator efficiency with sparking

rate for a given fly ash precipitator. 4-103

4-53 Electrostatic precipitator installed after air heater

in power plant steam generator system. 4-110

xxvi
Figure

4-54 Operating principle of two-stage electrostatic

precipitator. 4-115

4-55 Two-stage precipitator used to control oil mist from

machining operations. 4-117

4-56 Two-stage electrostatic precipitator with auxiliary

scrubbers, mist eliminator, tempering coil, and
gas distribution plate (top view). 4-118

4-57 Efficiency of two-stage precipitator as function

of velocity for several industrial operations . 4-121

4-58 Typical simple fabric filter baghouse design. 4-128

4-59 Streamlines and particle trajectories approaching

filter elements . 4-131

4-60 System analysis for fabric filter collector design. 4-139

4-61 Pressure drop versus filter ratio for fabrics on

60-minute cleaning cycle for electric furnace dust. 4-149

4-62 Typical performance of reverse-jet baghouses using

felted fabrics on a variety of dusts (dust load versus
filtering ratio at 3. 5 in. w. c. pressure drop). 4-150

4-63 Open pressure baghouse . 4-151

4-64 Open pressure baghouse unit showing installation

without a separate clean gas housing. 4-152

4-65 Closed pressure baghouse. 4-153

4-66 Closed pressure baghouse unit . 4-154

4-67 Closed suction baghouse. 4-155

4-68 Closed suction concrete baghouse unit. 4-155

4-69 Typical flat or envelope dust collector bag . 4-156

xx vii
Figure Page

4-70 Typical round or tubular dust collector bag. 4-157

4-71 Typical multi-bag dust collection system · 4-157

4-72 Bottom entry design uni-bag. 4-158

4-73 Top entry design uni-bag . 4-158

4-74 Basic fabric weaves used for woven filter bags . 4-162

4-75 Mechanical shaking of bottom entry design uni-bag

dust collector. 4-166

4-76 Air shaking wind-whip cleans dust collector bags. 4-166

4-77 Bubble cleaning of dust collector bags. 4-168

4-78 Jet pulse dust collector bag cleaning. 4-168

4-79 Reverse air flexing to clean dust collector bags by

repressuring . 4-168

4-80 Sonic cleaning of dust collector bags . 4-169

4-81 Repressuring cleaning of dust collector bags. 4-169

4-82 Cloth cleaning by reverse flow of ambient air. 4-170

4-83 Reverse jet cleaning of dust collector bags . 4-171

4-84 Effect of cleaning frequency on filter resistance in

reverse-jetbaghouse. 4-182

4-85 Effect of air velocity and particle diameter on the

combustion rate of carbon. 4-190

4-86 Combustion efficiency of catalytic afterburner. 4-191

4-87 Effect of temperature and velocity on abatement

effectiveness: spiral-wound metal foils catalyst support. 4-192

xx viii
Figure

4-88 Typical direct-fired afterburner with tangential entries

for both fuel and contaminated gases. 4-196

4-89 Portable canopy hood with stack afterburner. 4-197

4-90 Afterburner energy requirements with fume energy

content and temperature parameters. 4-198

4-91 Counter-flow type. 4-199

4-92 Parallel-flow type. 4-199

4-93 Cross-flow type. 4-199

4-94 Fixed-bed, pebble-stone, regenerative destencher. 4-199

4-95 Direct recirculation of combustion gases to recover heat. 4-201

4-96 Heat exchanger to recover heat from combustion gases. 4-201

4-97 Integration of fume disposal from a kettle cooking

operation with factory make-up air heating. 4-205

4-98 Packed bed flame arrester. 4-206

4-99 Corrugated metal flame arrester with cone removed

and tube bank pulled partly out of body. 4-206

4-100 Dip leg flame arrester . 4-206

4-101 Cross-sectional view of open-type inspirational

premix burner. 4-208

4-102 Cross-sectional view of forced air, premix, multiple-

port burner. 4-208

4-103 Multiple-port high-intensity premix burner. 4-210

4-104 Service temperature ranges for refractories. 4-214

xx ix
 _!'aS!_
Figure

4-105 Degree of refraction for alumina-silica system

4-215
products.
6-2
6-1 Criteria for selection of gas cleaning equipment.

6-6
6-2 Cost of control .
6-7
6-3 Expected new cost of control.

6-4 Diagram of cost evaluation for a gas cleaning system. 6-12

6-5 Purchase cost of gravitational collectors. 6-40

6-6 Installed cost of gravitational collectors. 6-40

6-7 Purchase cost of dry centrifugal collectors. 6-41

6-8 Installed cost of dry centrifugal collectors. 6-41

6-9 Annualized cost of operation of dry centrifugal

collectors. 6-42

6-10 Purchase cost of wet collectors. 6-42

6-11 Installed cost of wet collectors. 6-43

6-12 Annualized cost of operation of wet collectors. 6-43

6-13 Purchase cost of high-voltage.electrostatic

precipitators. 6-45

6-14 Installed cost of high-voltage electrostatic

precipitators. 6-45

6-15 Annualized cost of operation of high-voltage

electrostatic precipitators. 6-46

6-16 Purchase cost of low-voltage electrostatic

precipitators. 6-46

xxx
Figure Page

6-17 Installed cost of low-voltage electrostatic

precipitators. 6-48

6-18 Annualized cost of operation of low-voltage

electrostatic precipi tators. 6-48

6-19 Purchase cost of fabric filters. 6-49

6-20 Installed cost of fabric filters. 6-49

6-21 Annualized cost of operation of fabric filters. 6-51

6-22 Purchase cost of afterburners. 6-51

6-23 Installed cost of afterburners. 6-52

6-24 Annualized cost of operation of afterburners. 6-52

6-25 Flow diagram for disposal of collected particulate

material from air pollution control equipment. 6-58

6-26 Economic cost of dust control with valuable material

recovered: industrial viewpoint. 6-62

xxxi
 LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table

1 Typical pressure drops and efficiency ranges for gas

cleaning devices used for stationary combustion
3
sources

Industrial process control summary 5

2

3 Advantages and disadvantages of collection devices 8

4 Examples of particulate emission factors 11

5 Installed costs of control equipment 13

6 Generalized annual operating and maintenance

cost equations for control equipment 14

3-1 Comparison of motor vehicle particulate emissions with

total particulate emissions for selected areas 3-4

3-2 Estimated 1966 United States energy consumption by

selected consumer (10 12 Btu) 3-11

3-3 Common uses of various fuel-burning equipment 3-12

3-4 Estimated amount and control status for particulate

emissions from stationary combustion sources in 1966 3-14

3-5 Optimum expected performance of various types of gas

cleaning systems for stationary combustion sources 3-17

3-6 Comparison of energy substitution alternatives for

electric power generation 3-22

3-7 Comparison of energy substitution alternatives for

stationary combustion sources of less than 10 million
Btu/hr input 3-23

3-8 Comparison of energy substitution alternatives for

stationary combustion sources of 10 million to 100
million Btu/hr input 3-24

xxxii
Table

3-9 Trends in efficiency of coal, oil, and gas use in

United States 3-26

3-10 Industrial process summary 3-32

3-11 Steel production, percentage by process 3-36

3-12 Average solid waste collected 3-64

3-13 Maximum demonstrated collection efficiency of incinera-

tor control equipment 3-75

4-1 Manufacturers' shipments of industrial gas cleaning

equipment by end use in 1967 4-2

4-2 Use of particulate collectors by industry 4-7

4-3 Relationship between particle size range and cyclone

efficiency range 4-24

4-4 Representative performance of centrifugal collectors 4-30

4-5 Applications of centrifugal collectors 4-31

4-6 Typical industrial application of wet scrubbers 4-84

4-7 Industrial operation of two-stage precipitators 4-122

4-8 Control mechanism for particle size collection 4-133

4-9 Filter resistance coefficients (K) for industrial dusts

on woven fabric filters 4-136

4-10 Physical characteristics of bag fabrics tested in

pilot plant 4-141

4-11 Recommended maximum filtering ratios and dust

conveying velocities for various dusts and fumes in
conventional baghouses with woven fabrics 4-142

xxxiii
331-716 0 - 69 - 3
 Page
Table

4-12 Recommended maximun1 filtering ratios and fabric for

4-146
dust and fume collection in reverse-jet baghouses

4-172
4-13 Filter fabric characteristics

4-209
4-14 Gas burner classifications

ASTM classification of fire clay refractories 4-212

4-15

4-16 Commonly used castable fire clay refractories 4-212

4-17 General physical and chemical characteristics of

classes of refractory brick 4-216

4-18 Summary of afterburner applications and literature

references 4-217

5-1 Particulate emission factors 5-3

6-1 Air pollution control equipment collection efficiencies 6-4

6-2 Approximate cost of wet collectors in 1965 6-11

6-3 Total installation cost for various types of control

devices expressed as a percentage of purchase costs 6-16

6-4 Conditions affecting installed cost of control devices 6-17

6-5 Annual maintenance costs for all generic types of

control devices 6-18

6-6 Miscellaneous cost and engineering factors 6-19

6-7 Hourly fuel costs 6-28

6-8 Illustrative presentation of annual costs of control for

60, 000 acfm wet scrubber (dollars) 6-37

6-9 Costs of specific disposal systems 6-60

6-10 Cost of ash disposal by electric utilities 6-61

x:iociv
 SUMMARY

PARTICULATE SOURCES

Particulate material found in ambient air originates from both stationary

and mobile sources. Of the 11. 5 million tons of particulate pollution produced

in 1966, 6 million tons were emitted from industrial sources, including in-

dustrial fuel burning; 5 million tons from power generation, incineration, and

space heating; and 0. 5 million ton from mobile sources.

The following techniques are in use for controlling the source or reducing

the effects of particulate pollution:

1. Gas cleaning
2. Source relocation
3. Fuel substitution
4. Process changes
5. Good operating practice
6. Source shutdown
7. Dispersion

Internal Combustion Engines

Although particulate emissions from internal combustion engines are

estimated to contribute only 4 percent of the total particulate emissions on a

nationwide basis, they do contribute as much as 38 percent in certain urban

areas. The relative percentages of particulate emissions for this and other

source categories differ from one area to another depending on automobile

density, degree of stationary source control, and types of sources present in

the area.

1
 For each 1000 gallons of fuel consumed, diesel-fueled engines produce

about 110 pounds of particulate matter. Gasoline-fueled engines produce about

12 pounds per 1000 gallons of fuel consumed.

Gasoline engine-produced particulate matter emanates from the crank-

case and exhaust gases. It consists of carbon, metallic ash, aerosol hydro-

carbons, and metallic particles.

The particulate matter emitted from a diesel engine comprises

carbon and hydrocarbon aerosols. Control of diesel engine emissions effects

reduction in smoke.

Stationary Combustion Sources

In the United States more than 29 million stationary combustion sources

are currently in operation. About 2 percent are fired with coal, 61 percent

are fired with gas, and 37 percent are fired with fuel oil. The relative usage

of fuels on a Btu basis shows coal to be 31 percent, natural gas 48 percent, and

fuel oil 21 percent.

Types of gas cleaning devices currently being used for stationary com-

bustion sources are listed in Table 1. Newer control systems are now being

installed which will be used to control both particulate matter and sulfur oxides.

Industrial Sources

Industrial processes, including industrial fuel burning, discharged an

estimated 6. 0 million tons of particulate materials in 1966. This amounts to

more than 50 percent of the total particulate pollution on a nationwide bas is.

Major pollutants are dusts, fumes, oils, smoke, and mists.

2
Table 1. TYPICAL PRESSURE DROPS AND EFFICIENCY RANGES FOR GAS CLEANING
DEVICES USED FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES

Unit Pressure drop, in. HO Efficiency, percent

2

Settling chambers 0.5 20 - 60

Large-diameter cyclones 0.5-4.0 30 - 65

Small-diameter cyclones 2-8 70 - 90

Electrostatic precipitator 0.1-0.5 75 - 99. 5

 Table 2 presents a summary of important industries, their pollutant

·
sources, particulate pollutants, and air cleaning techmques ·
(eqmpme nt)

presently in use.

Construction and Demolition

The principal demolition, construction, and related operations that gen-

erate particulate air pollution are:

1. Demolition of masonry
2. Open burning
3. Movement of vehicles on unpaved roads
4. Grading of earth
5. Paving of roads and parking lots
6. Handling and batching of paving materials
7. Sandblasting of buildings
8. Spray painting

Control of the above operations is accomplished by various means which

include hooding and venting to air pollution control equipment, wetting down

working surfaces with water or oil, and using sanitary landfill.

Solid Waste Disposal

Although solid waste disposal by incineration accounts for less than 10

percent of the total particulate pollution (1 million tons in 1966), it does, how-

ever, inspire many complaints about air pollution. Of the 190 million tons of

solid wastes collected in 1967, 86 percent went into land disposal sites, 8 per-

cent was burned in municipal incinerators, and 6 percent was disposed of in

sanitary landfills. Since open burning is practiced at three-fourths of the land

4
 Table 2. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS AND CONTROL SUMMARY

Industry or process Source of emissions Particulate matter Method of control

Iron and steel mills Blast furnaces, steel making Iron oxide, dust, Cyclones, baghouses, electro-
furnaces, sintering machines smoke static precipitators, wet
collectors

Gray iron foundries Cupolas, shake out systems, Iron oxide, dust, Scrubbers, dry centrifugal
core making smoke, oil, grease, collectors
metal fumes

Metallurgical Smelters and furnaces Smoke, metal fumes, Electrostatic precipitators,

(non-ferrous) oil, grease fabric filters

Petroleum refineries Catalyst regenerators, sludge Catalyst dust, ash High-efficiency cyclones, electro-
incinerators from sludge static precipitators, scrubbing
towers, baghouses

Portland cement Kilns, dryers, material Alkali and process Fabric filters, electrostatic
handling systems dusts precipitator, mechanical collectors

Kraft paper mills Chemical recovery furnaces, Chemical dusts Electrostatic precipitators, ven-
smelt tanks, lime kilns turi scrubbers

Acid manufacture- Thermal processes, phosphate Acid mist, dust Electrostatic precipitators, mesh
phosphoric, sulfuric rock acidulating, grinding mist eliminators
and handling systems

Coke manufacturing Charging and discharging Coal and coke dusts, Meticulous design, operation,
oven cells, quenching, coal tars and maintenance
materials handling

Glass and glass fiber Raw materials handling, glass Sulfuric acid mist, Glass fabric filters, afterburners
furnaces, fiberglass forming raw materials dusts,
and curing alkaline oxides,
resin aerosols

Coffee processing Roasters, spray dryers, waste Chaff, oil aerosols, Cyclones, afterburners, fabric filters
heat boilers, coolers, ash from chaff burning,
conveying equipment dehydrated coffee dusts
disposal sites, particulate emissions from these sites contribute significantly

to air pollution arising from the disposal of solid waste.

Over 70 percent of existing municipal incinerators were installed before

1960, and lack adequate provisions for eliminating particulate emissions·

An obvious means of reducing the air pollution resulting from solid waste

disposal is to use such non-incineration methods for disposal as follows:

1. Sanitary landfill
2. Composting
3. Shredding and grinding
4. Dispersion (hauling to another locale)
These methods contribute little to air pollution problems.

It is estimated that measures to upgrade existing land disposal sites, and thus

do away with open burning, will cost as much as $230 million peryearfor 5years.

Where incineration is used for solid waste disposal, the principal partic-

ulate pollutant emitted is fly ash. Its removal from effluent gas streams is

accomplished by low pressure drop (0. 5 inch H2 0) scrubbers, or settling

chambers.

The estimated cost of upgrading or replacing existing inadequate in-

cinerators is $225 million, of which $7 5 million would be for air pollution

control equipment.

GAS CLEANING DEVICES

It has been estimated that total expenditures in 1966 on industrial air

pollution control equipment in the United States were about $235 million.

6
Value of shipments of the industrial gas cleaning equipment industry in 1967

was double the 1963 figure, and the backlog of orders recently nearly equalled

a year's productive output. Undoubtedly legislative pressure and local pollu-

tion control regulations have supplied the impetus for such rapid growth in this

industry.

The selection of gas cleaning equipment is far from an exact science and

must be based on characteristics of particle and carrier gas, and process,

operation, construction, and economic factors. Information on particle size

gradation in the inlet gas stream is important in the proper selection of gas

cleaning equipment. Particles larger than 50 microns may be removed satis-

factorily in inertial and cyclone separators and simple, low-energy wet

scrubbers. Particles smaller than 1 micron can be arrested effectively by

electrostatic precipitators, high-energy scrubbers, and fabric filters.

Table 3 lists advantages and disadvantages in applicability of each of

the general types of air cleaners to given situations.

EMISSION FACTORS

Emission factors may be used to estimate emissions from sources for

which accurate stack test results are unavailable. Process emission factors

for some selected source types are presented in Table 4.

ECONOMICS

Air pollution control is viewed not only from the standpoint of available

technology but also with respect to the economic feasibility of control methods

and/ or equipment.

7
Table 3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COLLECTION DEVICES

Advantages Disadvantages
Collector

Gravitational Low Pressure loss, simplicity Much space required

of design and maintainance Low collection efficiency

Cyclone Simplicity of design and Much head room required

maintainance

Little floor space required Low collection efficiency

of small particles

Dry continuous disposal Sensitive to variable dust

of collected dusts loadings and flow rates

Low to moderate pressure

loss

Handles large particl~s

Handles high dust

loadings

Temperature independent

Wet collectors Simultaneous gas Corrosion, erosion problems

absorption and particle
removal Added cost of wastewater
treatment and reclamation

Ability to cool and clean

high-temperature, moisture- Low efficiency on submicron
laden gases particles

Corrosive gases and mists Contamination of effluent

can be recovered and stream by liquid
neutralized entrainment

Reduced dust explosion Freezing problems in cold

risk weather

Efficiency can be varied Reduction in buoyancy and

plume rise

Water vapor contributes to

visible plume under some
atmospheric conditions.

8
 Table 3 (continued). ADV ANT AGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF COLLE CTI ON DEVICES
·-

Collector Advantages Dis advantages

Electrostatic 99+ percent efficiency Relatively high initial

precipitator obtainable cost

Very small particles Precipitators are sensi-

can be collected tive to variable dust
loadings or flow rates

Particles may be collected Resistivity causes some

wet or dry material to be economi-
cally uncollectable

Pressure drops and power Precautions are required

requirements are small to safeguard personnel
compared to other high- from high voltage
efficiency collectors
Collection efficiencies
Maintenance is can deteriorate gradually
nominal unless corrosive and imperceptibly
or adhesive materials
are handled

Few moving parts

Can be operated at high

temperatures (550° to 850° F)

Fabric Dry collection possible Sensitivity to filtering

filtration velocity

Decrease of performance
High-temperature gases must
is noticeable be cooled to 200° to 550° F
Collection of small
particles possible
Affected by relative
humidity (condensation)
High efficiencies
possible Susceptibility of fabric
to chemical attack

Afterburner, High removal efficiency High operational cost

direct flame of submicron odor-causing
particulate matter Fire hazard

9
 Table 3 (continued). ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF COLLE CTI ON DEVICES

Collector Advantages Disadvantages

Afterburner, Simultaneous disposal of Removes only combustibles

direct flame combustible gaseous and
(continued) particulate matter

Direct disposal of non-

toxic gases and wastes
to the atmosphere after
combustion

Possible heat recovery

Relatively small
space requirement

Simple construction

Low maintenance
Afterburner,
catalytic Same as direct flame High initial cost
afterburner

Compared to direct flame: Catalysts subject to

reduced fuel require- poisoning
ments, reduced temperature,
insulation requirements, Catalysts require
and fire hazard reactivation

10
 Table 4. EXAMPLES OF PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS

Particulate
emission rate,
Source Specific process uncontrolled

Aircraft Four engine fan jet 7.4 lb/ flight

Solid waste Open burning 16 lb/ton of refuse

disposal dump

Phosphoric acid Thermal process 0.2-10.8 lb/ton of phos-

manufacturing phorus burned

Sulfuric acid Contact process 0.3-7.5 lb/ton of acid

manufacturing produced

Food and Coffee roasting, 7.6 lb/ton of green

agricultural direct fired beans

Cotton ginning and incin- 11. 7 lb/bale of cotton

eration of trash

Feed and General operation 6 lb/ton of product

grain mills

Primary metal Iron and steel manufacturing 22 lb/ton of steel

industry furnace, open hearth (oxygen
lance)

Secondary metal Aluminum smelting, 1000 lb/ton of chlorine

industry chlorination- lancing

Brass and bronze 26.3 lb/ton of metal

smelting rever- charged
beratory furnace

Gray iron foundry 17.4 lb/ton of metal

cupola charged

11
 Among the cost elements relevant to an air pollution control problem

are:

1. Capital costs of control equipment.

2. Depreciation of all control equipment.

3. Overhead costs including taxes, insurance, and interest

for control equipment.

4. Operation and maintenance costs.

5. Collected waste material disposal costs.

6. Other capital expenditures for research and development,

land, and engineering studies to determine and design optimum

control system.

Many of these elements differ from one installation to another. Table

5 lists major collector types and their approximate installed costs for opera-

tional air flow rates. The installed costs (purchase cost, transportation, and

preparation for on line operation) are average costs for typical control equip-

ment.

Table 6 presents generalized operating and maintenance cost equations

for various types of control equipment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A list of references follows each section of this document. Other ref-

erences relating to control technology for generic sources of particulate air

pollutants are cited in the bibliography, which comprises the final section.

12
 Table 5. INSTALLED COSTS OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT

I Approximate installed cost, in thousands

of dollars

Collector
Gas flow rates
type
(1000 actual cubic feet per minute)
2 5 10 15 100 300 500

Gravity 0.5 .1. 2 2.6 15 28 - -

Mechanical - - 4 13 23 80 -
Wet - 7.5 10 30 55 150 -
High-voltage - - - 85 120 265 415
electrostatic
precipitator

Low-voltage - 13 24 105 200 - -

electrostatic
precipitator

Fabric filter,
high temperature (550° F) - - 30 88 155 430 720
medium temperature (250° F) - - 15 45 82 225 375

Afterburner,
direct flame 8.2 12 18 - - - -
catalytic 16 20 29 - - - -

13
 Table 6. GENERALIZED ANNUAL OPERA TING AND lVWNTENANCE COST
EQUATIONS FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Collector Generalized equation

Mechanical centrifugal G==S to. 7457 PHK +MJ

collector 6356 E

Wet collector G==S [o. 7457 HK (z + Qh

1980
)-r- WHL + MJ

Electrostatic G==S [(JHK +M)J

precipitator

Fabric G==S to. 7457

6356
PHK + MJ
E
filter

Afterburner G==S [o. 7457 PHK +FH +,

6356 E

Where:

G annual costs, dollars, for operating and maintenance

s design capacity of the unit, actual cubic feet per minute (acfm)
p pressure drop, inches of water
H hours of operation annually
K cost of electricity; dollars per kilowatt-hour
E fan efficiency expressed as decimal
M maintenance cost per acfm, dollars per cfm
F == fuel costs, dollars per acfm per hour

w make-up liquid rate in gallons per hour per acfm

L cost of liquid in dollars per gallon
z total power input required for a specified scrubbing efficiency,
horsepower per acfm
J kilowatts of electricity per acfm
h elevation for pumping of liquor in circulation system for
collector, feet
Q water circulation, gallons per acfm

14
Although all of the articles cited in the bibliography do not necessarily reflect

the most modern control practices, they do provide useful background material

on the control technology for particulate air pollutants.

15
331-7l6 0 - 69 - 4
 I. INTRODUCTION

Pursuant to authority delegated to the Commissioner of the National Air

Pollution Control Administration, Control Techniques for Particulate Air
Pollutants is issued in accordance with Section 107c of the Clean Air Act
(42 U. S.C. 1857c-2bl).

Particulate matter in the atmosphere is known to have many adverse

effects upon health and welfare, and reduction of emissions of this pollutant
is of prime importance to any effective air pollution abatement program.
Particulate pollutants originate from a variety of sources, and the emissions
vary widely in physical and chemical characteristics. Similarly, the available
control techniques vary in type, application, effectiveness, and cost.

The control techniques described herein represent a broad spectrum of

information from many engineering and other technica) fields. The devices,
methods, and principles have been developed and used over many years, and
much experience has been gained in their application. They are recommended
as the techniques generally applicable to the broad range of particulate emission
control problems.

The proper choice of a method, or combination of methods, to be applied

to any specific source depends on many factors other than the characteristics
of the source itself. While a certain percentage of control, for example, may
be acceptable for a single source, a much higher degree may be required for the
same source when its emissions blend with those of others. This document
provides a comprehensive review of the approaches commonly recommended
for controlling the sources of particulate air pollution. It does not review all

1-1
possible combinations of control techniques that might bring about more stringent

control of each individual source.

The many agricultural, commercial, domestic, industrial, and municipal

processes and activities that generate particulate air pollutants are described
individually in this document. The various techniques that can be applied to
control emissions of particulate matter from these sources are reviewed and
compared. A technical consideration of the most important types of gas clean-
ing devices forms a major segment, while sections on source evaluation,
equipment costs and cost-effectiveness analysis, and current research and
development also are included. The bibliography contains important reference
articles, arranged according to applicable processes.

While some data are presented on quantities of particulate matter emitted

to the atmosphere, the effects of particulate matter on health and welfare are
considered in a companion document, Air Quality Criteria for Particulate
Matter.

The National Air Pollution Control Administration also is publishing a

document which discusses the philosophy underlying the issuance of air quality
criteria, and which suggests some general guidelines for utilizing the criteria
to develop air quality standards. This latter publication also describes the
factors that the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare will consider
in evaluating the air quality standards and the implementation plans proposed
by the States.

1-2
 2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

2. 1 DEFINITIONS

This section contains general definitions of the terms used throughout

this document.

Pollutant or Contaminant-any solid, liquid, or gaseous matter in the

outdoor atmosphere which is not normally persent in natural air.

Particulate Matter-as related to control technology, any material, ex-

cept uncombined water, that exists as a solid or liquid in the atmosphere or in

a gas stream at standard conditions.

It is important that standard conditions for the measurement of particu-

late matter be included with its definition. Some compounds are not solids or

liquids at stack conditions but condense in the ambient atmosphere. Unless

standard conditions for measurement of particulate matter are defined, these

materials would not be considered particulate and subject to control.

Aerosol-a dispersion in gaseous media of solid or liquid particles of

microscopic size, such as smoke, fog, or mist.

Dust-solid particles predominantly larger than colloidal size and capa-

ble of temporary suspension in air and other gases. Derivation from larger

masses through the application of physical force is usually implied.

2-1
 Fly Ash- finely divided particles of ash entrained in flue gases arising

from the combustion of fuel. The particles of ash may contain unburned fuel

and minerals.

Fog- visible aerosols in which the dispersed phase is liquid. In meteor-

ology, fog is a dispersion of water or ice.

Fume- particles formed by condensation, sublimation, or chemical re-

action, of which the predominant part, by weight, consists of particles smaller

than 1 micron. Tobacco smoke and condensed metal oxides are examples of

fume.

Mist- low-concentration dispersion of relatively small liquid droplets.

In meteorology, the term mist applies to a light dispersion of water droplets

of sufficient size to fall from the air.

Particle- small, discrete mass of solid or liquid matter.

Smoke- small gasborne particles resulting from incomplete combustion.

Such particles consist predominantly of carbon and other combustible material,

and are present in sufficient quantity to be observable independently of other

solids.

Soot- an agglomeration of carbon particles impregnated with "tar, "

formed in the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous material.

Sprays- liquid droplets formed by mechanical action.

2-2
2. 2 l\IIAJOR SOURCES OF PARTICULATE l\IIATTER

An estimated 11. 5 million tons of particulate matter, about 10 percent of

1
all pollutants emitted annually, was emitted in the United states during 1966.

Figure 2-1, which is based on Reference 1 and gasoline and fuel consumption

figures, shows that industrial sources of particulate matter, including indus-

trial fuel burning, emit 6 million tons of particulate matter annually. About

5 million tons result annually from power generation, incineration,* and

space heating. Mobile (transportation) sources emit the remaining 0. 5 million

tons.

2. 2. 1 Combustion Sources

Combustion of coal and oil re-

SPACE
sults in an annual emission of 4. 5
HEATING
l MILLION
million tons of particulate matter that
INDUSTRIAL
6 MILLION is principally fly ash from coal com-

bustion. Emission sources are dis-

cussed in Section 3. 3 of this report.

Figure 2-1. Sources of particulate matter
and quantities produced in Refuse burning, both in inciner-
tons per year.

ators and in dumps, produces approxi-

mately 1 million tons of particulate matter annually. Much of this particulate

matter is dust, fume, smoke, fly ash, and large pieces of partially burned

refuse. Although refuse burning creates less than 15 percent of the total par-

ticulate matter emitted in the United states, such emissions are usually

*Does not include agricultural burning and forest fires.

2-3
 concentrated in heavily populated areas and have a more significant impact on

the population than these statistics may suggest.

2. 2. 2 Industrial Sources

Particulate emissions from industrial processes consist of dust, fume,

smoke, and mist arising largely from combustion and loss of process materi-

als or products to the atmosphere. Such emissions totaled 6 million tons in

1966. Major industrial sources are listed and discussed in Section 3. 4 of

this report.

In some industrial processes, efficient collection of particulate matter

increases overall plant operating efficiency by recovering a portion of the

product that would otherwise be lost to the atmosphere. Dust collectors used

in cement plants, grain handling operations, and carbon black plants can re-

cover valuable products.

2. 2. 3 Mobile Sources

Emissions from mobile sources, whic:h total approximately 0. 5 million

tons of particulate matter per year, are largely caused by the burning of

fuels in motor vehicles. Automobile exhaust is the largest source of particu-

late matter in this category. It is characterized by an extremely large num-

ber of fine particles consisting of organic and inorganic materials, including

lead. Particulate emissions from diesel engines are more concentrated

and may cause a visible plume. Aircraft, especially jet-powered planes, also

produce visible particulate emissions. The emission rate is greatest during

2-4
takeoff and landing operations when the engines operate under conditions of a

high ratio of fuel to air.

2-5
 REFERENCE FOR SECTION 2

1. "The Sources of Air Pollution and Their Control. " U.S. Dept. of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Washington,
D.C., PHS-Pub-1548, 1966.

2-6
 3. PARTICULATE SOURCES AND CONTROLS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The earliest approaches to air pollution control, used in England

over 200 years ago, were the restriction of smoke releases and re-

location of sources to "offensive trades zones. n The latter was used

particularly when the odor of the source was offensive. Relocation

is still used, or at least considered, by operators of some pollution

sources as an alternate to emissions control. In most instances, however,

relocating a pollution source to a remote area may only postpone the

adoption of emissions control.

Many sources such as transportation, space heating, and solid

wastes disposal are inherent to population centers. All generate partic-

ulate air pollution in urban areas. Although remote power generation and

long distance hauling of solid wastes are possible, automobiles, busses,

incinerators, and home furnaces and manufacturing and commercial

operations that require workers will, in all likelihood, continue to operate

in our cities.

To appreciate the air pollution problem facing the United States,

it is necessary to have some understanding of the sources of air pollution

3-1
and the means of controlling them. The multitude of small sources closest

to the average citizen - automobiles, home furnaces, on-site incinerators -

are often the least effectively controlled. High-efficiency control equip-

ment use is limited almost entirely to certain steam-electric generating

stations and industrial operations, particularly the large installations. Most

of the high-efficiency emissions controls are being developed for such

sources as steel mills, steam-electric generating stations, petroleum

refineries, and chemical plants. The most promising areas of improve-

ment for small sources involve basic changes in source operation - cleaner

fuels, automobile engine modifications, and improved means of solid

wastes disposal.

3-2
3. 2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Although stationary sources are the major contributors of particulate

matter, the motor vehicle contributes a significant amount of particulate

matter to the atmosphere. The ranking of the motor vehicle emissions in

an urban community is a function of the relative magnitude of the vehicular

and industrial activities; the extent to which coal, residual fuels, and refuse

are burned; and the extent and effectiveness of the air pollution control

measures used. Each 1, 000 gallons of fuel consumed by diesel engines

produces about 110 pounds of particulate matter and gasoline engines produce
1
about 12 pounds of particulate for every 1, 000 gallons consumed. Of the total

annual emission of 11. 5 million tons of particulate matter, motor vehicles

contribute approximately 4 percent or about 500, 000 tons.

Table 3-1 presents examples of contribution by motor vehicles to

particulate emissions in different communities.

3. 2.1 Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles

Particulate matter is emitted in the exhaust and crankcase blowby

gases of gasoline-fueled engines. Carbon, metallic ash, hydrocarbons in

aerosol form, and metallic materials present in engine systems are emitted.

Metal-based particles result almost entirely from the use of lead

antiknock compounds in the fuel; however, metallic lubricating oil additives

and engine wear particles are also present. Carbon and some of the hydro-

carbon aerosols result from incomplete combustion of fuel. The rest of

3-3
Table 3-1. COMPARISON OF MOTOR VEHICLE PARTICUIATE EMISSIONS
WITH TOTAL PARTICUIATE EMISSIONS FOR
SELECTED AREAS 2 - 7

Particulate matter, tons/yr

Percent of
Metropolitan Motor total from
area Total vehicle motor vehicles

Washington, D. C. 35,000 5,700 16

New York-Northern 231,000 33,800 15

New Jersey

Kansas City 60,000 5,000 8

J acksonvi Ile, Florida 14,000 600 4

St, Louis 147,000 4,700 3

Los Angeles County 43,000 16,400 38

3-4
the aerosols are emitted to the atmosphere from engines with vented crank-

cases or are produced by crankcase oil that leaks past the piston rings

into the combustion chamber and is emitted unburned with the exhaust gases.

Particulate matter in automobile exhaust amounts to approximately

5 percent by weight of the amount of gaseous hydrocarbon emitted. It

cons is ts of lead compounds, carbon particles, motor oil, and nonvolatile

reaction products formed from motor oil in the combustion zone. It is

suspected that these reactions involve the formation of high-molecular-

weight olefins, and carbonyl compounds.

Particles in blowby gases consist almost entirely of unchanged

lubricating oil. As a very rough approximation, the amount of material

emitted in blowby gases is one-third to one-half the amount emitted in

the exhaust. The same approximate ratio applies to either particulate

emission or gaseous hydrocarbon emission. Blowby emissions are

influenced to a greater extent than exhaust emissions by mechanical con-

8
dition of the engine.

Partial control of vehicle particulate emissions has been in effect

nationally since 1963. Beginning with the 1968 automobile models, the particu-

lates ill crankcase gases were completely controlled (Fig. 3-1). It is possible

the exhaust emission control measures employed in the 1968 model passenger

cars reduce the emissions of some particulates.

3-5
 FILTERED AIR

AIR INTAKE

CRANKCASE
BLOWBY GASES

0 FIL TE RED AIR

• BLOWBY GASES
1 . . . FIL TEAED AIR+ BLOWBY GASES
111_.; COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE

Figure 3-1. Motor vehicle emission control system .

.3-6
 Technology for the control of lead in exhaust emissions is in the devel-

opmental stage. The National Air Pollution Control Administration is present-

ly evaluating two prototype electrogasdynamic precipitators for gasoline and

9
diesel motor vehicle exhausts.

Lead emissions may also be controlled by restricting the concentration

of lead antiknock compounds that are permitted in the fuel. The American

Petroleum Institute indicates that the additional cost of unleaded fuel would

be 1. 8 to 4. 7 cents per gallon. Petroleum processing equipment is available

for producing unleaded gasoline, but an estimated 5 to 10 years is necessary

11
for its installation at a capital investment of over $4 billion. lO,

3. 2. 2 Diesel-Powered Vehicles

Particulate matter emitted by diesel engines consists primarily of

carbon and hydrocarbon aerosols resulting from incomplete combustion of the

fuel. Aerosols in the vent gases of the two-stroke-cycle diesel engine (from

air box drains) and in the exhaust, as a result of crankcase oil going through

the combustion process unburned, produce a small amount of additional

particulate emissions.

Federal regulations scheduled for implementation in 1970 will limit

smoke from new diesel engines. The regulations establish a maximum in-

tensity of smoke emission (measured by reduction in light transmission) under

conditions of severe engine loading at (1) full-throttle acceleration from a

prolonged idle and (2) "lugdown" from maximum governed speed, also at full

3-7
331-7l6 0 - 69 - 5
throttle. No new information or control devices are believed to be needed to

reduce the smoke emissions from diesel engines to meet the established stand-

ards. As vehicle mileage increases, proper fuel system adjustment, mainte-

nance at appropriate intervals, the use of the specified type of fuel, and good

operating techniques can maintain low levels of visible emissions, particularly

with respect to particulate carbon.

New engines, which will comply with the 1970 smoke standards, will be

adjusted by the engine manufacturer to a conservative fuel rate and power output.

Increases in fuel rate above the manufacturer's setting will increase engine

power, but also will raise the level of black smoke. Even in a properly ad-

justed engine, injector deterioration (such as nozzle erosion) can effect a sub-

stantial increase in the emission of black smoke.

Investigations have been conducted to evaluate methods of reducing

diesel smoke. Methods consist primarily of exhaust gas dilution and the use

of smoke-suppressing fuel additives. Neither of these methods can be recom-

mended for general application at this time. The dilution technique at best,

merely reduces the opacity of the smoke plume without reducing the quantity of

particles emitted. Smoke suppressants have been reported to be effective in

overfueled engines in good mechanical condition. One type of suppressant re-

12
ported to show promise contains barium. Use of the organic barium additive

could, however, result in the emission of toxic, water-soluble, barium

3-8
compounds. Further study of additives is needed before this technology can

be broadly adopted.

3-9
 3. 3 CONTROL OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY
COMBUSTION SOURCES

3. 3 .1 Introduction

3. 3.1.1 General - Of the many techniques used to control particulate air

pollution from stationary combustion sources, none has emerged as an all-

inclusive answer to the control problem.

3. 3.1. 2 Sources - More than 29 million stationary combustion sources are

13
currently in operation in the United States. About 2 percent are fired

with coal, 61 percent are fired with gas, and 3 7 percent are fired with

liquid fuels. Table 3-2 shows the consumption of energy by type of consumer.

Coal, gas, and oil are burned in a wide variety of equipment. The more

common types of equipment are shown in Table 3-3.

3. 3. L 3 Emissions - Particulate emissions from stationary combustion

sources in the United States are estimated at 4. 5 million tons (see Table

3-4) of the total particulate emissions of almost 12 million tons per year

16
from all sources. Local patterns of emissions will usually differ from

the national pattern because of differences in fuel and equipment use patterns.

The rate of uncontrolled particulate emissions varies widely from

unit to unit because processes, practices, and fuels all affect emission

levels. For each fuel, several different processes are used for stationary

combustion. Steam, hot water, and warm air furnaces are in common use

for domestic heating and many specialized heaters are used by industry.

3-10
 Table 3-2. ESTIMATED 1966 UNITED STA TES ENERGY CONSUMPTION
12 14
BY SELECTED CONSUMER (10 Btu)

Consumer

Household
Energy and Power
source commercial Industrial generation Total
Anthracite coal 143 41a 56 240

Bituminous and 575 2,206a 6,341 9,122

lignite coal

Natural gas 5, 945 5,674a 2, 692 14,311

b 2,247a 2,512a
Petroleum 905 5,664

Hydroelectric 0 0 2,060 2,060

Nuclear 0 0 58 58

Total 8,910 10,433 12, 112 31,455

aExcludes non-combustion consumption.

bExcludes naphtha, kerosene, and liquified petroleum gases.

3-11
 Table 3-3. COMMON USES OF VARIOUS FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT

Equipment Common use

Coal-fired
Hand-stoked equipment Residential, institutional, and commercial
warm-air and boiler applications at
capacities up to 5 million Btu per hour input,
(Used primarily in coal-producing areas.)

Single-retort underfeed Residential, institutional, and commercial

stokers warm-air and boiler applications at
capacities up to 40 million Btu per hour
input.

Multiple-retort underfeed Water tube and fire tube boiler applications

stokers for institutional, commercial, and industrial
Spreader stokers heating at capacities in range of 5 million
Traveling grate stokers to 200 million Btu per hour input.
Chain grate stokers
Vibrating grate stokers

Pulverized-fuel-fired Water tube boiler applications for power

equipment (dry bottom generation at capacities greater than 100
or wet bottom) million Btu per hour input.

Oil-fired
High-pressure gun-type Residential warm air furnace or boiler
burners applications at capacities up to 3 gallons
per hour distillate oil.

Low-pressure air-atomizing Water tube and fire tube boiler applications

burners for institutional, commercial, and industrial
process heating with distillate or residual
oil.

Rotary cup burners Water tube and fire tube boiler applications
Steam atomizing burners for institutional, commercial, and industrial
High-pressure air- heating and power generation with residual
atomizing burners oil.

3-12
 Table 3-3 (continued). COMMON USES OF VARIO US
FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT

Equipment Common use

Gas-fired
Premixing burners Residential warm-air furnace or boiler
applications and low-temperature industrial
applications.

Nozzle mixing burners Water tube and fire tube boiler applications
for institutional, commercial, industrial,
and power-generation applications. (May
be combination type to permit fuel oil
firing when gas supply is interrupted. )

3-13
Table 3-4. ESTIMATED AMOUNT AND CONTROL STA TVS FOR PAR TIC ULA TE
EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES IN 1966

Estimated Estimated emissions

Uncontrolled control status in 1966
emassions in 1966, b Percent
Fuel and source 10 tonsa percent 10 6 tons of total

Anthracite coal
Household and
commercial 0.05 Negligible 0.05 1.1
Industrial 0.04 62.0 0.02 0.4
Power 0.17 86.5 0.02 0.4
Sub total 0.26 - 0.09 1. 9

Bituminous and
lignite coal
Household and
commercial 0.24 Negligible 0.24 5.4
Industrial 2.29 62.0 0.87 19.5
Power 21.14 86,5 2.85 64.1
Sub total 23.67 - 3.96 89.0

Petroleumc
Household and
commercial 0,08 Negligible 0.08 1. 8
Industrial 0.17 Negligible 0.17 3.8
Power 0.03 Negligible 0.03 0.7
Sub total 0.28 - 0.28 6.3

Natural gas
Household and
commercial 0.06 Negligible 0.06 1. 3
Industrial 0.05 Negligible 0.05 1.1
Power 0.02 Negligible 0.02 0.4
Sub total 0.13 - 0.13 2.8

Grand total 24.34 4.46 100.0

aBasis for estimates:

1. Emission factors Table 5-1.
2. Energy consumption Table 3-2.
3. Fuel properties
Anthracite coal - 13, 000 Btu/lb., 10 percent ash.
Bituminous coal 12, 000 Btu/lb., 10 percent ash.
Distillate oil 140, 000 Btu/gal.
Residual oil - 150, 000 Btu/gal.
Natural gas - 1000 Btu/ft3.
b
Reference 15.
cExcludes naphtha, kerosene, range oil, and LP gas.

3-14
Burners, combustion chambers, heat transfer characteristics, draft systems,

and combustion controls of industrial heating units may vary widely. The

practices of those responsible for selecting, installing, operating, and

maintaining stationary combustion sources can also have significant effects

on particulate emissions.

Because the rate of particulate emissions varies widely from unit

to unit, the amount of particulate emissions that may be expected from a

given source has not been established with accuracy. Data that are useful

for estimating emissions from groups of units have been compiled and are

reported as emission factors in Section 5.

3. 3. 2 Control Techniques

Techniques that will control particulate air pollution from stationary

combustion sources may be broadly categorized as follows:

l. Gas cleaning

2. Energy substitution

._,,
')
Energy conservation

4. Good practice

5. Source shutdown

Although source relocation and dispersion techniques will not reduce

particulate emissions from stationary combustion sources, they may effect

some measure of improvement in ambient air quality in selected areas.

3-15
 3. 3. 2. 1 Gas Cleaning-Gas cleaning is the most common technique used

for control of particulate emissions from stationary combustion sources.

As shown in Table 3-4, 20 million tons of an estimated total of 24. 5 million

tons of particulate matter from stationary combustion was recovered by

gas cleaning devices in 1966.

A wide variety of gas cleaning equipment is available for control of

particulate emissions from stationary combustion sources. The cost of

gas cleaning equipment is usually greater for devices of high efficiency;

however, the performance of competitively priced gas cleaning equipment

may differ considerably. Table 3-5 shows the optimum performance that

may be expected from the various types of gas cleaning equipment that

might be used for removing particulate matter from flue gases of stationary

combustion sources. The efficiencies shown in Table 3-5 are estimates

based on an analysis of information on particle size distribution, equipment

efficiency, reports of experience from the field, and actual source tests.

More detailed information on the special application of these devices

to stationary combustion sources is given in Section 4, Gas Cleaning Devices.

Settling chambers - The settling chamber is a low efficiency, low

cost, low pressure drop gas cleaning device. Settling chambers are applied

primarily to natural-draft, stoker- fired, coal-burning units. Collection

efficiencies for this application are estimated to be 50 to 60 percent. Only

a few oil-fired, gas-fired, and other coal-fired combustion sources are

equipped with settling chambers.

3-16
 Table 3-5. OPTIMUM EXPECTED PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS TYPES OF
GAS CLEANING SYSTEMS FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES

Removal of uncontrolled particulate emissions, %

Systems in operation Systems under development

8-in.
Large Small pressure
Settling diameter diameter Electrostatic Stack drop Fabric
Sources chambers cyclones cyclones precipitators sprays scrubbers filters

Coal-fired
c h
Spreader, chain grate, and 50a 60a 85a 99.5 60e 99+g 99.5
vibrating stokers
a a c e h
Other stokers 60 65a 90 99.5 80 99+g 99.5
a 70a c
Cyclone furnaces 10 15a 99.5 f f f
a a h
Other pulverized coal units 20a 30 80 99.5c f 99+g 99.5

5b b 30b d
Oil-fired 10 75.0 f f f

e
a Estimate based on references 17 and 18. Reference 19.

bEfficiency estimated - not commonly used. flnsufficient data for estimate.

cEstimate based on reference 15. gEstimate based on reference 20.

dEstimate based on private reports of field experience. hEstimate based on reference 21.
 Large-diameter cyclones-Large-diameter cyclones are more

efficient than settling chambers, but have higher pressure drops. Effi-

ciencies of large-diameter cyclones range from a high of 65 percent for some

types of stoker-fired coal-burning units to a low of 15 percent for coal-fired

cyclone furnaces.

Multiple small-diameter cyclones - Multiple small-diameter cyclones

are used on mechanical draft combustion units either as precleaners for

electrostatic precipitators or as final cleaners. Efficiencies of well

designed units range from 90 percent for some stoker-fired units to

70 percent for coal-fired cyclone furnaces.

Wet scrubbers - Sprays are used to a limited extent in the stacks of

coal-fired units to control particulate emissions during soot blowing. The

problems that limit the use of wet scrubbers include high corrosion rates,

high or fluctuating pressure drops, adverse effects on stack gas dispersion,

and waste disposal. Technically, these problems can be overcome, but

the feasibility of wet scrubber systems for stationary combustion source

particle control has not yet been demonstrated.

Wet scrubbers have been used experimentally for the removal of

sulfur oxides from the flue gases of coal-fired sources. These scrubbers

also removed combustion particulate matter with efficiencies of up to

20
99. 5 percent. A recently completed full-scale system connected to a

pulverized coal-fired power plant boiler in Missouri is similar to the

3-18
experimental installation. Evaluation of the economic feasibility and

effectiveness of this system must be deferred until after shakedown runs

are complete.

Electrostatic precipitators - Electrostatic precipitators are the most

common gas cleaning devices used to remove particulates from the flue

gases of large stationary combustion sources. Such devices are capable

of collection efficiencies of at least 99. 5 percent, and it is quite possible

that even more efficient systems can be provided if necessary. Electro-

static precipitator systems are usually applied to large pulverized coal-

fired power boilers. The cost of these systems has limited their use on

smaller combustion sources.

Electrostatic precipitators are highly sensitive, and if not properly

designed, small changes in the properties of the particles and the gas
22
stream can significantly affect their collection efficiencies. Allowance

should be made for possible changes in fuels, in fuel composition, and in

gas temperature when consideration is given to the use of electrostatic

precipitators. It has been established that low-sulfur fuels adversely

affect the particulate collection efficiency of electrostatic precipitators

23
designed for high-sulfur fuels.

Fabric Filters - Fabric filters are not commonly applied to stationary

combustion sources. Factors which limit the use of these devices are

uncertainty of performance and reliability, and availability of other

effective gas cleaning devices.

3-19
 3. 3. 2. 2 Source Relocation - Source relocation will not eliminate particulate

emissions from stationary combustion sources, but it will eliminate emissions

from the original location of the source. Due consideration should be given,

however, to possible air pollution effects on other areas.

Source relocation is ordinarily considered when new stationary com-

bustion sources are to be built, particularly when a new plant is to be built

to replace one that has created air pollution problems.

3. 3. 2. 3 Energy Substitution - The emission characteristics of fuels used

in stationary combustion processes may differ widely. Therefore, some

measure of control may be effected by substituting among the various fuels.

Control of emissions may also be effected through the substitution of non-

combustion energy for combustion energy. The substitutions considered

in this section are limited to the more commonly used types of energy -

hydraulic, electric, and nuclear-and fossil fuels. Fuels that might

be considered as substitutes are LPG gas, coke oven gas, blast furnace

gas, pipeline gas from coal, kerosene, range oil, coke oven tar, liquified

coal, and low-ash coal. Although chemical, solar, and geothermal energies

have long-range potential as substitutes that would reduce particulate

emissions, these sources are not sufficiently developed to warrant current

consideration.

Information on cost and availability of energy substitution is given in

Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants, U. S. Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare, 1969.

3-20
 Power generation by stationary combustion is a principal source of

particulate emissions in the United States (see Table 3-4). Energy sources

used to generate power are water, nuclear fuel, gas, oil, and coal as shown

in Table 3-6. Particulate emissions from gas- and oil-fired power plants

total less than 0. 1 pound per million Btu input. Coal-fired power plants

equipped with gas cleaning devices that are 99. 5 percent efficient compare

favorably with oil- and gas-fired plants. Hydroelectric and nuclear power

plants are particulate pollution free.

Substitutions commonly available for commercial, industrial, and

domestic stationary combustion sources are electric power, coal, gas,

and oil. Fossil fuels may be burned directly at the site where energy is

used, or the fuels may be used to produce electrical energy for transmission

to the site of use. Tables 3-7 and 3-8 compare the effectiveness of various

substitution alternatives on the basis of particulate emissions per unit of

useful heat.

When comparing substitution alternatives, allowance should be made

for differences in heat requirements between seemingly identical applications.

The differences that might be found between fossil fuel and electrical heat

requirements for space heating may be used as an example. Because

electrically heated buildings are often insulated better than fossil fuel

heated buildings, heat requirements may not be the same. It is recom-

mended that individual studies be made to determine these differ enc es by

3-21
 Table 3-6. COMPARISON OF ENERGY SUBSTITUTION
ALTERNATIVES FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

Energy substitution Particulate emissions,

-
alternative lb/ 10 6 Btu inputa

Hydroelectric 0

Nuclear 0

Gas (no control) 0.02

Oil (no control) 0.07

Coal - 90 percent fly ash 0.67

removal

Coal - 99. 5 percent fly 0.03

ash removal

aBased on emission factors from Table 5-1 and the following gross
heating values:
Coal - 12, 000 Btu/lb at 10 percent ash.
Oil - 150, 000 Btu/gal.
Gas - 1, 000 Btu/ft3 _

3-22
Table 3-7. COMPARISON OF ENERGY SUBSTITUTION ALTERNATIVES FOR
STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES OF LESS THAN
10 MILLION Btu/hr INPUT

Particulate emission
equivalenta
Energy substitution alternative lb/10 6 Btu useful heat

Electric heat (hydroelectric or nuclear power 0

plant originated)
Electric heat (gas-fired power plant originated) 0.05
Electric heat (oil-fired power plant originated) 0.22
Electric heat (coal-fired power plant originated - 2.00
90% fly ash removal)
Electric heat (coal-fired power plant originated - 0.10
99. 5% fly ash removal)
Gas-fired furnace on site (no control) 0.03
Oil-fired furnace on site (no control) 0.08
Coal-fired furnace on site (no control) 1.11

a
Based on:
1. Emission factors - Table 5-1.
2. Fuel properties.
Heating value, coal - 12, 000 Btu/lb at 10% ash
Heating value, oil - 140, 000 Btu/gal
Heating value, gas - 1, 000 Btu/ft3
3. Estimated thermal efficiency of on-site heating systems.
Electric - 100%
Coal, gas, oil - 75%
24
4. National average efficiency of power generation -(Btu equivalent of
generated power per unit of heat input).
Coal - 33. 42%
Gas - 31. 42%
Oil - 30. 77%

3-23
331-716 0 - 69 - b
 Table 3-8. COMPARISON OF ENERGY SUBSTITUTION ALTERNATIVES
FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES OF
1 O MILLION TO 100 MILLION Btu/hr INPUT

Particulate emission
eguivalent, a
Energy substitution alternative lbs/10 6 Btu useful heat

Electric heat (hydroelectric or nuclear power 0

plant originated)
Electric heat (gas-fired power plant originated) 0.05
Electric heat (oil-fired power plant originated) 0.22
Electric heat (coal-fired power plant originated - 2.00
90% fly ash removal)
Electric heat (coal-fired power plant originated - 0.10
99. 5% fly ash removal)
Gas-fired furnace on site (no control) 0.03
Distillate oil-fired furnace on site (no control) 0.14
Residual oil-fired furnace on site (no control) 0.20
Stoker-fired furnace on site (no control) 2.78
Stoker-fired furnace on site (90% fly ash removal) 0.28
Stoker-fired furnace on site (99. 5% fly ash removal) 0.01
a
Based on:
1. Emission factors - Table 5-1.
2. Fuel properties.
Heating value, coal - 12, 000 Btu/lb at 10% ash
Heating value, distillate oil - 140, 000 Btu/gal
Heating value, residual oil - 150, 000 Btu/gal
Heating value, gas - 1, 000 Btu/ft3
3. Estimated thermal efficiency of on-site heating systems.
Electric - 100%
Coal, gas, oil - 75%
4. National average efficiency of power generation24_ (Btu equivalent
generated power per unit of heat input) .
Coal - 33. 42%
Gas - 31. 42%
Oil - 30. 77%

3-24
consulting with representatives of the fossil fuel, electrical, and building indus-

tries and by using information such as that published by the American Society

. R e f rigera
. t·mg, and A.ir C ond·t· · E ngmeers.
· 25
of Hea t mg, l 10mng

To make comparisons for a given area, it is recommended that Tables

3-6, 3-7, and 3-8 be revised to reflect local conditions before substitution

alternatives are compared.

Energy substitution can be an effective and useful technique for control

of particulate emissions from stationary combustion sources. This technique

has special value for control of many small sources when the cost of effective

gas cleaning equipment would be excessive. When use of this technique is con-

sidered, attention should also be given to the effect of substitution on national

security, foreign relations, industry, labor, commerce, conservation, and the

public.

3. 3. 2. 4 Energy Conservation

Energy conservation limits particulate emissions from stationary combus-

tion sources by reducing fuel consumption. Energy conservation that is econom-

ical should be encouraged per se. Energy conservation that is not economical

from the standpoint of individual process costs may actually be economical

when compared with other techniques available for air pollution control.

Improvement of power generation efficiency through use of high-tempera-

ture, high-pressure steam electric power generating processes reduces fuel

consumption. Table 3-9 shows average national trends in efficiency improvement

3-25
 Table 3-9. TRENDS IN EFFICIENCY OF COAL, OIL,
AND GAS USE IN UNITED STATEs24

Year Average Btu required to generate

1 (net) kw-hr

Coal Oil Gas

1956 11, 257 12,828 12,245
1963 10,258 11, 278 11, 066
1964 10,241 11, 138 10,962
1965 10,218 11, 097 10,868

3-26
for steam electric power generating plants. Large, modern power plants

with efficiencies near 8, 000 Btu per kw-hr reduce energy consumption sub-

stantially to below the national average of 10, 000 to 11, 000 Btu per kw-hr, and

processes now under development, such as the magnetohydrodynamic, electro-

. an d f ue 1 ce 11 , h ave promise
. o f improvmg
. . e ff'iciency
. 26 28
gas dynam1c, even more. -

3. 3. 2. 5 Good Practice - Equipment must be properly applied, installed, oper-

ated, and maintained to minimize emissions of particulate matter. Guidelines

for good practice are published by the fuel industry, equipment manufacturers,

good practice are published by the fuel industry, equipment manufacturers,

engineering associations, and government agencies. Although improper prac-

tices are frequently the cause of visible particulate emissions, insufficient

information exists to permit numerical evaluation of the effect of good practice

on emission levels. Some sources of information on good practice are:

L Air Pollution Control Association

2. American Boiler Manufacturers Association

3. American Gas Association

4. American Petroleum Institute

5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air

Conditioning Engineers

6. American Society of Mechanical Engineers

7. Edison Electrical Institute

8. Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute

3-27
 9. The Institute of Boiler and Radiator Manufacturers

10. Mechanical Contractors Association of America

11. National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council

1:2. National Air Pollution Control Administration

t:>. National Coal Association

11. National Fire Protection Association

15. National Oil Fuel Institute

lG. National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Association

17. U. S. Bureau of Mines

18. Various State and local air pollution control agencies

Proper design and application- Combustion systems must be properly

selected to meet load requirements. Components of the system should be com-

patible to avoid excessive emission of particulate matter.

Stationary combustion units are designed to operate vvithin a specific

range of load conditions. If such a unit is operated outside design limits,

excessive discharge of particulate matter is possible. It is therefore neces-

sary that the load be accurately estimated before stationary combustion systems

are selected and applied. The total design capacity of the system should be

sufficient to carry the maximum load, and consideration should be given to

future increases in load requirements. The minimum design capacity of one

unit of the combustion system should be sufficient to carry the mmimum load

3-28
requirements of the facility, and the total combustion system should be selected

to carry, within design limits, any load between maximum and minimum.

Consideration must also be given to load characteristics when selecting

a combustion system. The combustion system should be able to supply energy

at a change in rate consistent with the demands of the facility without deviation

from design limits.

Each component of the combustion system, such as the fuel handling sys-

tem, the draft system, the fuel burning system, the flues and stacks, the ash

handling system, and the controls related to these systems, must be properly

selected and integrated to handle the load and the fuel to be burned.

Proper installation - Properly installed equipment will promote clean,

efficient operation of stationary combustion sources. Comprehensive instal-

lation instructions and plans are a prerequisite for proper installation. The

designer of the entire combustion system and the manufacturers of the system's

components are responsible for providing such plans and instructions. Equip-

ment should be installed only by qualified personnel, and all work should be

inspected for quality.

Proper operation and maintenance - Proper operation and maintenance

of stationary combustion equipment will promote the reduction of particulate air

pollution. Stationary combustion units should be operated within their design

limits at all times and according to the recommendations of either the manu-

facturer or another authority on proper operational practices. Combustion

3-29
units and system components should be kept in good repair to conform with

design specifications. Sensitive monitoring systems are helpful in indicating

needed combustion system repair.

Proper operation also involves the reduction of emissions from fuel- and

ash-handling systems. Storage pile fires and fuel- and ash-handling operations

can become significant sources of particulate air pollution if good practice is

disregarded.

3. 3. 2. 6 Source Shutdown - Source shutdown is a drastic control technique,

but it should not be completely disregarded. Source shutdown is useful for

control of particulate emissions when air pollution levels threaten the public

health in emergency episode situations and for control of emissions when law-

ful orders to abate are ignored.

3. 3. 2. 7 Dispersion - Dispersion is discussed in detail in Section 6 of the

report Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants.

3-30
3. 4 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

3. 4. 1 Introduction

Approximately 6 million tons of dust, fume, and mist, roughly 50 per-

cent of the total particulate matter emitted in the United States, were dis-

charged from industrial processes and industrial fuels fired in 1966. This

quantity would be considerably greater if high-efficiency collectors were not

used by many industries. However, the total would be drastically lower if

existing control technology were employed to the fullest.

Some industries inherently create more particulate air pollution than

others, and for such industries one or two specific operations dominate the

emission picture. In a given industry, particulate releases to the atmosphere

are generally proportional to production rates. Often these discharges can be

reduced dramatically through process changes or by the use of collection devices .

.Table 3-10 lists many of the industries that release large quantities of

particulate matter. As discharged, these particles include dry dusts, com-

bustible oil and tar mists, inorganic acid mists, and combinations of these

and other pollutants. The same processes frequently release gaseous pollu-

tants, some of which may be more objectionable than the particulate matter.

Although this discussion is limited to particulate matter, some remedial

measures also affect sulfur oxides, odors, or other gaseous contaminants.

The industries which are cited in the following pages commonly use

several types of fired heaters and boilers. Particulate emissions associated

3-31
 Table 3-10. INDUSTRIAL PRO CE SS SUMMARY

Annual
capacity,
1000 tons Number Particulate emissions
(except of Other
Industry or process as noted) plants Nature Principal sources emissions Reference

Iron and steel mills 149. 000 18-± Iron oxide dust, Blast furnaces, steel making CO, combustion 29, 30
smoke furnaces, sintering machines products

Gra~· iron foundries 17,350 1,-±00 Iron oxide dust. Cupolas, shakeout systems, Odors, combustion 31, 32
smoke, oil and core making products, hydro-
grease, metal carbons from con-
fumes taminated scrap

:\on-ferrous smelters 2, 721 2, 500 Smoke, metal Sme Hing and me !ting furnaces SOX combustion 31, 33
fumes, oil and products
grease

Petroleum ;·efineries - 6 318 Catalyst dust, Catalyst regenerator, sludge Hydrocarbons, SOx, 31, 34
3, 6~0 xalO
and asphalt blowing bbls. ash, sulfuric incineration, air blowing HzS, odors
acid mist, of asphalt
liquid aerosols

Portland cement soo x 106 180 Alkali and Kilns, coolers, dryers, Combustion
bbls. b product dusts material handling products 31, 35
systems

Kraft pulp mills 300,000 40 Chemical dusts, Chemical reclaiming furnaces, Odors, SOx 36
mists sme It tanks lime ki Ins

Asphalt batch plants Aggregate dusts Dryers, material handling Odors, combustion
systems products

Acid manufacture Thermal processes - phosphate

Phosphoric 2,300 66 Acid mist, dust rock acidulating, grinding and HF, SOX, odors 37
Sulfuric 20,513 223 Acid mist handling system
 Table 3-10 (continued). INDUSTRIAL PROCESS SUMMARY

Annual
capacity,
1000 tons Number Particulate emissions
(except of Other
Industry or process as noted) plants Nature Principal sources emissions Reference

Coke manufacturing 54,278 GO Coal and coke Charging and discharging oven Phenols, H 2S 29
dusts, coal tars cells, quenching, material
handling

Glass furnaces and - - Sulfuric acid mist, Raw material handling, glass Combustion
glass fiber manufacture raw material dusts, furnaces, glass fiber forming products
alkaline oxides, and curing
resin aerosols

Coffee processing - - Chaff, oil aerosols, Roasters, spray dryers,

ash dehydrated waste heat. boilers, coolers,
coffee dusts stoners, conveying equipment,
chaff burnil'6

Cotton ginning - - Cotton fiber, Gins, trash incineration Defoliants and 38

dust and smoke insecticides

Carbon black 1,496 37 Carbon black Carbon black generators 39

Soap and detergent - - Detergent dusts Spray dryers, product and Combustion
manufacturing raw material handling products,
systems odors

Gypsum processing - - Product dusts Calciners, dryers, grinding Combustion

and material handling systems products

Coal cleaning - - Coal dusts Washed coal dryers Combustion

products

aBarrel = 42 gallons.
bBarrel = 376 pounds.
with this equipment, for the most part, are functions of the fuel burned. Com-

bustion principles developed in Section 3. 3 generally apply, and the combustion

processes are not cited unless specific problems are associated with them.

3. 4. 2 Iron and Steel Mills

The major sources of particulate matter in iron and steel mills are blast

furnaces, steel-making furnaces, and sintering plants. Coke ovens, which are

operated as adjuncts to steel mills, are discussed in Section 3. 4. 9.

3. 4. 2.1 Sintering plants - Major sources of dust in sintering plants are the

combustion gases drawn through the bed and the exhaust gases from sinter
40
grinding, screening, and cooling operations. Exhaust temperatures of the

combustion gases range from 160° to 390° F. One 6000-ton-per-day plant oper-

ates at 350° F. About 50 percent by weight of the particles discharged from a

29
sintering machine are larger than 100 microns. Because dust generated in

the sintering operation can be returned to the process, most plants are equipped

with cyclones, which, because of the large particle size, usually operate at

over 90 percent efficiency by weight. However, cyclone exit loadings range from

0. 2 to 0. 6 grains per cubic foot. High-efficiency baghouses and electrostatic

precipitators, therefore, offer promise of much better collection. However,

few have been applied to sintering machines.

3. 4. 2. 2 Blast furnaces - Iron ore, coke, and limestone are charged into a

blast furnace to make iron. Under normal conditions the untreated gases from

a blast furnace contain from 7 to 30 grains of dust per standard cubic foot (scf)

3-34
 41
of gas. Most of the particles are larger than 50 microns in diameter. The

dust contains about 30 percent iron, 15 percent carbon, 10 percent silicon

dioxide, and small amounts of aluminum oxide, manganese oxide, calcium

oxide, and other materials. Blast furnace gas cleaning systems normally re-

duce particulate loading to less than 0. 01 grain per standard cubic feet to pre-

vent fouling of the stoves where the gas is burned. These systems are com-

posed of settling chambers, low efficiency wet scrubbers, and high efficiency

wet scrubbers or electrostatic precipitators connected in series.

3. 4. 2. 3 Steel Furnaces - The three most important types of steel-making

furnaces are open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, and electric fur-

naces. Relative usage as a percent of total production of each of these furnaces

in 1958, 1966, and 1967 is shown in Table 3-11.

Average emission rate from a hot-metal open-hearth furnace is about

O. 4 grain per scf for a conventional furnace and 1. 0 for an oxygen-lanced fur-

43 44
nace. ' Up to 90 percent of the particles are iron oxide, predominantly

FE o
2 3
. A composite of particles collected throughout a heat show that about

50 percent were less than 5 microns in size. Control of iron oxide requires

high-efficiency collection equipment such as venturi scrubbers and electro-

static precipitators. Because of the cost involved and the growing obsolescence

of open hearth furnaces, industry has been reluctant to invest money in the
44
required control equipment. Often these furnaces have been replaced by

controlled basic oxygen furnaces and electric furnaces.

3-35
Table 3-11. STEEL PRODUCTION, PERCENTAGE BY PROCEss 42

Percent of total
-
Furnace type 1958 1966 1967
Open hearth 90.7 72.1 55.6
Basic oxygen 1. 5 17.4 32.6
Electric 7.8 10.5 11. 8

3-36
 More emissions are created by the basic oxygen furnace than by the open-

hearth furnace. The principal portion of the increase in emissions is caused

from furnace oxygen blowing. Emissions of about 5 grains per scf are reported
45
as typical. Particle size is small; 85 percent are smaller than one micron
46
in diameter. All basic oxygen furnaces in the United States are equipped

with high-efficiency electrostatic precipitators or venturi scrubbers.

Electric furnaces· are usually used for alloy production, and because of

their flexibility, are becoming popular for most metal melting operations.

Emissions from electric furnaces often reach particulate matter concentrations

of 3 grains per scf. Only 40 to 50 percent of the dust is iron oxide, an amount

considerably smaller than that emitted by other furnaces. The particles are

difficult to collect because of a strong tendency to adhere to fabric surfaces, a

high angle of repose, and a high electrical resistivity, and because they are

difficult to wet. Approximately 70 percent by weight of the particles are

smaller than five microns and 95 percent by number are smaller than 0. 5
47
micron in diameter. Nevertheless, except for difficulties inherent in the

charging operation, over 95 percent effective collection can be achieved with ap-

propriate hooding and high-efficiency collection equipment. Baghouses are

especially suited for such collection.

3. 4. 3 Gray Iron Foundries

Melting cupolas are the principal sources of particulate matter at iron

foundries. Casting shake-out systems, sand handling systems, grinding and

deburring operations, and coke-baking ovens are other sources.

3-37
 Cupola exhaust gases are hot and voluminous, and contain significant

portions of combustible matter and inorganic ash. The most effective control

system incorporates an afterburner to eliminate combustibles and a fabric

filter to collect the inorganic dust and fume. Coolers must be used ahead of

the baghouse to protect fabric filters from the heat of the exhaust gas. Most

such systems use glass fabrics, but some synthetic cloths have been found to

be satisfactory. Even though bag house control systems provide excellent par-

ticle collection, they have not met with wide acceptance, principally because of
48
cost. Dry centrifugal collectors and scrubbers with various efficiencies are

used in many instances. High-efficiency scrubbers are reported to provide

about the same performance as fabric filters, but visible emissions are more

pronounced.

Casting shake-out and sand cleaning are dusty operations that are nor-

mally well controlled. The gas stream baghouses are commonly used; medium-

efficiency scrubbers and dry centrifugal collectors are also used.

Core ovens create relatively smaller quantities of particulate matter,

much of which is in the form of finely divided liquid aerosols. Emissions from

core ovens are similar to those discharged from paint baking and resin curing

operations with odors being more objectionable than the particulates. A pro-

perly designed afterburner will eliminate most of the particulates and malodors.

3-38
3. 4. 4 Petroleum Refineries

Major sources of particulate matter at refineries are catalyst regen-

erators, airblown asphalt stills, and sludge burners. Lesser sources include

fired heaters, boilers, ai1d emergency flares.

In modern fluidized catalytic crackers, fine catalysts are circulated

through the reactor and regenerator vessels. From 100, 000 to 150, 000 cfm

of hot, dusty gases are vented from a large regenerator. Dust collectors as

well as carbon monoxide waste heat boilers are often used to control air pol-

lution. It is common practice to install a carbon monoxide boiler to use the

fuel value of the clean gas stream exiting from the particulate collector.

In typical installations 2-stage or 3-stage cyclones are located in the

regenerator vessels of FCC units for catalyst recovery and reutilization. In

some cases external cyclones are installed to reduce the particulate content of

the flue gases leaving the regenerators of these units. Catalyst dust losses

from the regenerator equipped with internal cyclones and in some cases sup-

plemented by external cyclone equipment can range in the order of 100 to 350

pounds per hour depending on the size, age, and basis of design of the unit.

Electrostatic precipitators may also be used to collect the fine particles

from the regenerator exit gases and some refiners have reported catalyst dust

losses as low as 40-60 pounds per hour although typical current installations

have higher emission rates. The percent efficiency of the precipitators is a

function of the inlet dust loading from the regenerator and the desired

emission rate to the atmosphere.

3-39
331-716 0 - 69 - 7
 Airblowing of asphalts generates oil and tar mists and malodorous gaseous

pollutants. It is common practice to scrub the oils and tars from the hot (300

to 400° F) gas stream. Sea water is sometimes used for this purpose. In any

case, separators are necessary to reclaim the oil and prevent contamination

of effluent water. Afterburners are used to incinerate the uncondensed gases

and vapors, which can constitute an odor nuisance.

At petroleum refineries, the open burning or incineration of sludges can

be a major source of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide emissions. These

sludges are a mixture of heavy petroleum residues and such inorganic materials

as clay, sand, and acids. Because the materials cannot be separated readily,

sludge is usually atomized in much the same way as heavy fuel oil. The or-

ganic fraction can be burned effectively in such an incinerator, but any inorganic,

matter is entrained in exhaust gases. High-efficiency precipitators, baghouses,

and high-energy scrubbers are among the stack cleaning devices that are avail-

able to collect the fine dusts; the final choice of control unit would be based

upon the nature of the sludge. Sulfur dioxide collection would not be effected.

However, if there is an accessible sulfuric acid plant, sludge may be condi-

ioned and used as part of the acid plant's feed material. Very low grade

sludges may be dumped at sea. It must be emphasized that incineration alone

is not the solution for the disposal of all forms of refinery waste sludges.

Solvent extraction is another method for recovering the organic fraction and

the separated "clean" solids are acceptable to normal landfill sites.

3-40
3. 4. 5 Portland Cement

Both mining of raw materials and manufacture of cement create dust.

Dust is generated at the blasthole drilling operation at the quarry, during

blasting at the rock face, and during loading of trucks. At primary and sec-

ondary crushing plants, in the grinding mills, at blending and transfer points,

and in the final bagfilling and bulk truck or railroad car loading operations,

where the particulate-laden air is at ambient temperatures, bag filters are

49
usually the best means of control.

Rotary dryers used in dry process cement plants may be a major source

of dust generation and require collecting systems designed for higher temp-

eratures. Dust concentrations of 5 to 10 grains per scf entering the collector

are normal. Baghouses or combinations of multiple cyclones and baghouses

are frequently used. Newer dry process cement plants incorporate the drying

operation into the raw grinding circuit. In such a 11

dry-in-the-mill" combination

drying and grinding circuit dusts are normally vented to a baghouse.

The largest sources of emissions at cement plants are direct-fired kilns

for burning Portland cement clinker. Exit gas particulate loadings are usually

5 to 10 grains per scf for wet kilns and 10 to 20 grains per scf for dry-process

kilns. Exhaust gases from wet-process kilns contain considerably more mois-

ture than gases from dry process kilns. The volume of the hot (500 to 600° F)

kiln gases may exceed 250, 000 cubic feet per minute. Over 85 percent by

weight of gasborne particles are smaller than 20 microns in diameter. The

3-41
most prevalent chemical constituents are calcium oxide (CaO), about 41 per-

cent; silicon dioxide (Si0 ), 19 percent; and aluminum and iron oxides (Al o +
2 2 3
50
Fe o ), 9 percent. The balance would be predominately C0 .
2 3 2
Electrostatic precipitators are widely used to control particulate emissions

from kilns. Fabric filters of siliconized glass bags have been installed on both

wet and dry process kilns. Each control device has been successful when ade-

quately designed and properly maintained.

3. 4. 6 Kraft Pulp Mills

The major source of particulate emissions in kraft pulping is the recovery

furnace in which spent cooking liquors are burned to remove the organic mate-

rials dissolved from the wood to recover the inorganic cooking chemicals. So-

dium sulfate is the major chemical released as particulate matter. Small amounts

of sodium carbonate, salt, and silica, and traces of lime, iron oxide, alumina,

and potash also are emitted. Because 95 to 98 percent of the total alkali charged

to the digester finds its way to the spent liquor, it is economically imperative

that it be recovered.

Electrostatic precipitators of about 90 percent efficiency are used to

recover particles emitted from recovery furnaces. New installations call for

design efficiencies of about 97. 5 percent, and at least one such unit has a de-

sign efficiency of over 99. 9 percent.

Other sources of particulate matter are smelt tanks and lime kilns.

Stack dust from lime kilns can be collected in 85 to 90 percent efficient venturi

3-42
scrubbers. Water sprays of 20 to 30 percent efficiency and mesh demisters of

80 to 90 percent efficiency are usually used on smelt tanks.

3. 4. 7 Asphalt Batching Plants

Hot asphalt batching plants are potential sources of heavy dust emissions.

Asphalt batching involves the mixing of hot, dry sand, aggregate, and

mineral dust with hot asphalt. Although conveyors and elevators generate some

dust, the major source is the direct-fired dryer used to dry and heat aggregates.

Exit gases range from 250° to 350° at volume rates of 15, 000 to 60, 000 standard

cubic feet per minute (scfm). Most dryers employ simple cyclone separators

which collect 70 to 90 percent of the dust entrained in the exit gases. Never-

theless, the remaining dust in the gas stream usually totals more than 1000

pounds per hour and further dust controls are needed in most areas.

Centrifugal and baffled scrubbers have been used with success in many

areas to control the fine dust which escapes the primary cyclone. High effi-

ciencies are reported-some exceed 99. 0 percent-with losses from most

tested plants ranging from 20 to 40 pounds per hour. It is common to vent

51
elevators and major conveyor transfer points to the scrubber.

As high temperature fabrics were developed, fabric filters found greater

acceptance at asphalt batch plants. Such filters have been used successfully

at asphalt batch plants since 1950. Recently, several were installed in Chicago,

Illinois, in an effort to obtain better dust control than had been afforded with

scrubbers. They are reported to provide excellent collection of fine particles

3-43
with little or no visible emissions from the baghouse. Although fabric filters

frequently are more expensive than scrubbers, they collect dry "fines" which

may be useable in high-grade asphaltic concrete mixes. In addition, they

obviate the need for holding ponds and preclude water problems.

3. 4. 8 Acid Manufacture

Most of the particulate matter attributed to acid manufacture is created

in the production of sulfuric and phosphoric acids. Manufacture of the other

two major industrial acids-nitric and hydrochloric-does not generate large

amounts of acid mist.

3. 4. 8. 1 Sulfuric Acid - Over 90 percent of the sulfuric acid in the United

37
States is manufactured by the contact process. In the process sulfur or

other sulfur bearing materials are burned to sulfur dioxide (S0 ) and catalyt-
2
ically converted to sulfur trioxide (SO ). Uncontrolled emissions range from
3
0. 05 to 0. 23 grain per scf of exit gas. Concentrations depend to a large degree

on plant design and proper operation of the acid absorber. Most modern plants

are equipped with high-efficiency electrostatic precipitators or mesh eliminators

in which 99 percent of the acid mist is recovered. Acid mists are usually

controlled to a far greater extent than gaseous SO releases.

2

The primary source of emissions in the chamber process is the final Gay

Lussac tower. Combined sulfuric acid mist and spray in the exit gas ranges

from 0. 08 to 0. 46 grains per scf.

3-44
3. 4. 8. 2 Phosphoric Acid - Two processes are used to manufacture phosphoric

acid. High-purity acid for the food and detergent industries is produced by

burning elemental phosphorous. The process is similar to the contact sulfuric

acid process. The oxidation product, phosphorous pentoxide (P O ), is hydrated

2 5
and absorbed in phosphoric acid. Mist is collected from exhaust gases with

electrostatic precipitators or high pressure drop mesh entrainment separators.

Acid mists escaping collection are extremely hygroscopic so that visible emis-

sions are pronounced unless high collection efficiencies are achieved. High-

purity phosphorous for this process is manufactured in electric furnaces, which

create gaseous fluorine compounds and solid particulates.

The wet process is used to produce less pure phosphoric acid for the

fertilizer industry. During the manufacturing process, sulfuric acid is reacted

with phosphate rock. Except for material handling and grinding operations few

particulates are generated. However, the acidulation reaction liberates large

quantities of gaseous silicon tetrafluoride (SiF ), and scrubbers are required.

4
3. 4. 9 Coke Manufacture

Metallurgical coke is the solid material remaining after distillation of

certain coals. A bout 90 percent of the United States coke output is used for

production of blast furnace iron.

Conventional coking is done in long rows of slot-type coke ovens into

which coal is charged through holes in the top of the ovens. Coke oven gas or

other suitable fuel is burned in the flues surrounding the ovens, to furnish

3-45
heat for coking. Flue temperature is about 2600° F and the coking period aver-

ages 17 to 18 hours. At the end of the coking period, incandescent coke is

pushed out of the furnace into quenching cars and carried to a quenching station,

where it is cooled with water sprays.

The beehive oven is a simpler type of coking oven. Distillation products

from this oven are not recovered. Its use has diminished with the development

of the by-product oven. The process persists because of an economic advan-

tage during peak production periods. Capital investment is lower and inoper-

ative periods can be tolerated. About 1. 5 percent of the total coal coked in

1967 was produced in these ovens. A very large part, i.e., 25 to 30 percent

of the coal charged to these ovens is emitted to the atmosphere as gases and

particulate matter. Ducting these emissions to an afterburner appears to be

a feasible method of control.

Coal and coke dust emissions result from coal car unloading, coal stor-

age, crushing and screening, the coking process (where the largest releases

of particulate dust occur during larry car coal charging of the by-product oven

and pushing of the product coke to quench cars), quenching, and final dumping

from the quench car.

Slot type coke ovens currently being designed include the following fea-

tures that speed operations and minimize leaks:

1. Better designed and thinner-walled heating flues to improve heat

transfer and minimize cool spots and undercoking. This results in

a cleaner pushing operation.

3-46
2. Improved refractories, with less spalling and cracking. These

refractory defects cause warping of metal furnace parts, gas leaks

into flue systems and chimneys, and voids which fill with undercoked

coal and cause smoke during pushing.

3. Gas-tight, self-sealing oven doors, that minimize manual sealing

with clay.

4. Mechanical cleaners or self-sealers for doors and for top-charging

hole covers. A few grains of sand on a metal seat can cause appre-

ciable leakage of hot gases.

5. Sealing sleeves for levelling bars. Levelling bars are used to

even out the oven charge to allow free passage of gas over the charge

into the gas collector main.

6. Mechanical removal of top coal-charging lids and means to charge

all three holes of an individual -oven rapidly and simultaneously, with

gas recovery mains in operation.

7. Steam jet aspirators in byproduct header ducts.

8. An intercell header to normalize the cell pressure throughout the

battery.

9. Charging car volumetric sleeves and dust entrainment chutes.

10. Wooden baffling to separate particulate matter from quench tower

effluent gases.

3-47
 A breah.'through in coke manufacturing technology is needed to improve
53
operations. 52 Improvements have been slow. Installations exist that have

employed supposedly superior charging and discharging equipment, but satis-

factory operations have not been achieved. A joint research effort by several

steel companies has been under way for 5 years to develop new coke manu-

facturing technology, but potential commercial applications appear to be five

53
years away.

Another form of coke, used in blast furnace refractories and in the manu-

facturing of electrodes for large steel and aluminum reduction furnaces, is

calcined petroleum coke. Petroleum coke is a refinery product, but is seldom

calcined by the refinery. Calcining occurs in a rotary kiln at 1700° F removing

absorbed water and heavy oil and forming a marble-size product. Volatilized

hydrocarbons are usually passed to a 2200° F combustion chamber before being

released to the atmosphere. Subsequent conveyance of the dusty product to

the storage requires hooding and enclosed ducting. The dust is abrasive and

causes heavy wear on bucket elevators and other transfer equipment. Control

of particulate matter can be accomplished during loading of the coke. One

system uses concentric tubing; the inner filling tube carries the coke and the

outer tube exhausts entrained dust from the enclosed railroad car, truck or

ship hold. Baghouses are used to capture dust from loading as well as dust

generated at other handling and transfer points.

3-48
3. 4.10 Primary and Secondary Recovery of Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Aluminum

Primary smelting of lead and zinc involves converting the sulfide of the

ore to an oxide through roasting, and subsequent reduction of the metal oxide to

its metallic state in a separate vessel. Copper, however, requires a preliminary

smelting step, during which the naturally occurring complex sulfide is reduced

to the cuprous sulfide, CuS , by mixing the charge with limestone. The cuprous
2
sulfide is then converted to blister copper in a converter where the sulfur is

removed by oxidation. Sulfur dioxide gas is released from these operations,

along with particulate matter which is largely sublimed oxides, dust, and acid

mists. When sulfur dioxide emissions exceed 3 percent of these furnace ex-

haust volumes, a sulfuric acid manufacturing plant is feasible. Pretreatment

of the smelter gases going to the acid is required to remove particulate matter.

If sulfur dioxide recovery is not practiced, fiberglass demisters or precipitators

are usually used to remove particulate material from smelter exhaust gases.

For a more detailed discussion of smelting, refer to the report Control Tech-

niques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants.

Most materials fed to secondary recovery furnaces are alloys of copper,

zinc, tin, or lead in the form of solid scrap and drosses. Gases from the fur-

naces may contain as fumes oxides of the low boiling metals. Particularly

bothersome are submicron lead and zinc fume. Zinc oxide fume particle size

ranges from a high of 0. 5 micron to a low of 0. 03 micron. Baghouses are

usually used to control these oxide fumes; where the fumes are corrosive,

3-49
electrostatic precipitators are used. Soiled scrap metal melting may evolve

grease or oil fumes as smoke during the heatup phase. Incineration of the

smoke with a control afterburner is necessary if the metal cannot be cleaned

before melting.

Metallic aluminum is produced by the electrolytic reduction of alumina

(Al o , in a bath of fused cryolite by the Hall-Heroult process. Cell operating

2 3
temperatures range from 1700° to 1800° F. The gases generated in the cells are

corrosive and toxic, and consist of hydrogen fluoride and volatilized fluorides.

Some fine particulate matter is entrained in the exit gases. Water scrubbers

have long been used for collection of both the particulates and corrosive gases.
54
Some installations have used baghouses with alumina coated cloth filter bags.

Secondary aluminum recovery operations produce particulate matter from

the fluxes used, from impurities in the scrap, and from chlorination of the

molten aluminum. Oily or greasy scrap gives off smoke. When chlorine gas

is used to degas the melt or remove magnesium, hydrogen chloride gas and

aluminum chloride fume are evolved. The fume is difficult to collect because

of its small particle size and hygroscopic nature. Water scrubbers are used

to collect the gaseous contaminants.

3. 4. 11 Soap and Synthetic Detergent Manufacture

Principal sources of particulate matter in the making of soap and syn-

thetic detergents are the spray drying of products and the handling of dry raw

materials. The wet chemical processes used to make soaps and detergents

3-50
are relatively innocuous from the particulate standpoint, although malodorous

gases and vapors are generated in some instances.

Gases from the spray dryers, discharged at approximately 200° F, con-

tain large amounts of moisture. In addition, the product is sticky at these

temperatures so that dry collection in fabric filters or electrostatic precip-

itators is difficult. Multiple cyclones may be employed as precleaners, but

scrubbers are used almost exclusively to collect fine dust. Moderate pressure

venturi units or baffled scrubbers provide adequate control in many instances.

These scrubbers usually use slurries rather than merely water and product is

recovered from the slurries. Residual fine particles, together with high mois-

ture levels, frequently impart marked opaqueness to the stack gases. It is

sometimes possible to avoid this problem by adding some of the less stable

ingredients to the product after the spray drying operation.

Fabric filters are widely used in soap and detergent plants to control

dusts generated from the handling of products and raw materials and from

packaging operations.

3. 4.12 Glass Furnaces and Glass Fiber Manufacture

Reverberatory furnaces are used to produce nearly all glass products.

The furnaces and raw materials generate significant quantities of particulate

matter.

Glass furnaces are usually heated with oil or natural gas, which is fired

directly over the melt. Heat is reclaimed in checkerwork regenerators used

3-51
to preheat combustion air. Raw materials are charged at one end of the fur-

nace and molten glass is pulled from the other end. Cullet (scrap glass), lime-

stone, soda ash, and sand are the main ingredients fed to the furnace melter

section. Glass temperatures are as high as 2700° F in the furnace, but are

usually near 22 00° F at the point of discharge. Particulate matter in exhaust

gases is traceable to two principal sources: (1) Fine raw materials that are

entrained in combustion gases before they are melted; and (2) Materials from

the melt, such as sulfur trioxide created by sulfate decomposition and other

solids picked up by escaping carbon dioxide gases. Sulfur trioxide and the

oxides of potassium, sodium, and calcium are the main constituents of partic-

ulate emissions. Losses from large furnaces range from less than 10 pounds

per hour to as high as 100 pounds per hour. Most units release less than 40

pounds per hour. Particulate releases tend to be affected by feeder designs

and the makeup of raw materials.

Operators control emissions through furnace design, electric heating,

and raw material control rather than with stack cleaning devices. Control of

emissions with fiberglass filters is feasible, but the particulate matter is

e:\.'iremely difficult to handle.

In the manufacture of glass fiber, the emissions from the forming pro-

cesses are considered unacceptable both from the standpoint of odor and visible

particles. Although suitable control methods are not at hand, it appears that

a combination of process changes and stack controls will be required to render

3-52
exit gases acceptable in many communities. These methods are being developed

and prospects are good that satisfactory techniques will be found. Afterburners

have been employed with success at curing ovens where volumes are low in

comparison to forming lines.

3. 4. 13 Carbon Black

Because of the extremely fine size (0. 01 to 0. 4 micron) and fluffy nature

of carbon black particles, they are readily emitted from improper handling and

transferring operations and during separation of them from the process gases.

Emissions have been particularly heavy from channel black process plants.

The furnace black process (oil and gas) accounts for 94 percent of the total

production and technology is available to control emissions from these plants.

Furnace temperature is kept at about 2500° F and the black-laden gases

are cooled to 450° and 550° F before entering the dust collecting equipment. The
39
preferred system consists of an agglomerator followed by a baghouse. Coated

fiberglass bags last about 12 months. The over-all particulate collection ef-

ficiency of such a system is about 99 percent. The combination of cyclone

and electrostatic precipitator is no longer satisfactory because it collects

only about 60 percent of the particulate matter.

3. 4.14 GYPsum Processing

Gypsum, the basic ingredient of plaster and wallboard, is manufactured

by grinding, drying, and calcining gypsum rock. At most plants much of the

gypsum :i.s processed into wallboard in highly mechanized systems. Grinding,

3-53
drying, and calcining processes are principal sources of dust. Handling,

packaging, and wallboard manufacture are of secondary potential.

Most grinding operations are controlled with fabric filters. Fine grinders

often are equipped with built-in pneumatic conveyors that allow the product to

be collected in the filter.

Gypsum is dried in direct-fired dryers to remove free moisture before

calcining. Exit gases of about 220° F contain a large amount of fine dust.

Electrostatic precipitators, bag houses, or scrubbers are almost always used

to remove this dust from exit gases.

The calcining operation is conducted at 400° to 450° F in externally heated

kettles or conveyors. In general, exit gases from the calcining operation are

less voluminous than those from dryers. Historically, electrostatic precipita-

tors have been used to control calciners. Dust collection has not always been

adequate, and bag houses now find better acceptance. Most new gypsum plants

have been equipped with fabric filters. High-temperature fabrics are required

and heaters have to be installed to prevent moisture from condensing in duct

work.

Bag houses are used extensively in modern gypsum plants to collect dust

from various conveying and processing points. In most instances a salable

product is reclaimed.

3. 4. 15 Coffee Processing

The processing of green coffee beans and the production of dehydrated

instant coffee generate dust and liquid aerosols as well as odorous gases. The

3-54
most prominent sources are roasters, spray dryers, waste heat boilers,

and green coffee cleaners.

Roasters are the predominant sources of oil aerosols and odors but also

create significant amounts of solid particulate matter. Chaff, a flaky membrane

from the bean, and other solids are collected in simple cyclones at tempera-

tures of 400° to 500" F. Remaining aerosols and odorous gases may be inciner-

ated in afterburners at temperatures ranging from 1200° to 1400° F.

Coolers and stoners create additional solid particulate matter, but few

aerosols or malodors. Cyclones normally provide adequate dust control. With

some continuous systems, the exit of roaster gases through close coupled coolers

requires the use of afterburners on the cooler exhaust stream.

Spray dryers not unlike those used in other industries are used to produce

instant coffee. If the dryer is operated properly, very little fine particulate

matter is generated and satisfactory dust control can be achieved with dry

multiple-cyclone collectors. Periodic excursions can be expected with resultant

discharges of fine dust. Many plants operate scrubbers or bag houses down-

stream of mechanical collectors. Collected fines a:ce blended with the main

product stream. Dust recovered in dry collectors is of sufficient value to make

it attractive to maintain collector efficiencies.

At instant coffee plants, large quantities of leached coffee grounds are

produced. Many operators burn the spent grounds in waste heat boilers similar

to coal-fired boilers. Particulate emissions are dependent on the type of firing

3-55
331-716 o - 69 - a
and the ash content (usually about 4 percent by weight of dry grounds). A

common design incorporates an underfeed stoker and auxiliary gas burners.

Green coffee cleaning and handling creates dust and chaff which nor-

mally can be handled well in simple cyclones.

3. 4. 16 Cotton Ginning

The major sources of particulate matter in cotton ginning are the gin

itself and the subsequent incineration of the trash. Relatively coarse materials

are emitted from the ginning operation and relatively fine materials escape the

associated lint cleaner. High-efficiency multiple-cyclones successfully collect

the coarse particles, and the recently developed stainless steel in-line filter

is effective on the fine particles.

Disposal of the cotton trash by composting, rather than incineration,

is being practiced in some parts of the country. Incineration of trash generates

a large portion of the particulate matter released from uncontrolled ginning

plants.

3-56
3. 5 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION

3. 5. 1 Introduction

The demolition and construction of buildings and roads creates particulate

air pollution with periodic emissions characteristically dependent on the specific

operations. The handling of dusty materials, movement of trucks on temporary

roads, and breaking of masonry walls are a few of the more prominent dust

generating operations. None is continuous and the dust from almost all can be

reduced if suitable procedures are used.

Principal demolition, construction, and related operations that generate

particulate air pollution are:

1. Demolition of masonry.

2. Open burning of wooden structures, trees, shrubbery, and construc-

tion lumber.

3. Movement of vehicles on unpaved roads.

4. Grading of earth.

5. Paving of roads and parking lots ..

6. Handling and batching of Portland cement, plaster, and similar

materials at the site.

7. Sandblasting of buildings.

8. Spray painting of exposed surfaces.

Essentially all of these processes generate particulates that create local

nuisances. Techniques have been developed to minimize dust releases from

3-57
most offending operations; however, none of these are entirely satisfactory.

Furthermore, all of the control measures require some expense and attention

and offer little, if any, monetary return.

3. 5. 2 Demolition of Masonry

When a brick, plaster or concrete wall is demolished, most of the parti-

cu late matter is re leased when the broken wall hits the ground or floor. In

urban areas, water sprays are used to keep exposed surfaces as wet as pos-

sible. Before walls are torn down they are sprayed with water, and as the

debris crashes to the ground more water is sprayed onto the pile. The pro-

cedure at best is inefficient and as it is ordinarily practiced may reduce

particulate matter by only 10 to 20 percent. In cold or freezing weather,

water spraying systems become almost completely inoperable.

One concept of dust collection at demolition sites calls for enclosing the

four sides of the building by means of plastic sheets attached to the scaffolding
. 55
by removable clips. The top of the building is left open and air is sucked

in by a large exhaust fan into bag filters for collection. As yet this concept

has not been applied. Nevertheless, it offers one of the few possibilities for

adequate collection of demolition dust in congested metropolitan areas.

3. 5. 3 Open Burning

Because open burning cannot be controlled adequately, the only solution is

to stop the practice and remove wood and other combustibles to an incinerator

or sanitary landfill or to handle it in some other acceptable manner.

3-58
3. 5. 4 Road Dust

Trucks moving across dry, unpaved roads are a prime dust source at

construction projects. Dust can be held to a tolerable level by blacktopping or

at least oiling such surfaces. For very temporary roads, frequent spraying

with water may be satisfactory.

3. 5. 5 Grading Roads and Other Surfaces

There are few satisfactory remedies for dust created by earth-moving

equipment. It is best to conduct such operations when winds are light and

materials are sufficiently moist to minimize entrainment of dust in ambient

air currents. Sand, rock, gravel, and the roadbed can be sprayed with water.

3. 5. 6 Handling Dusty Materials

Portland cement, plaster, and similar items are easily rendered airborne

during handling and batching. If the materials are mixed at the site, greater

possibilities are presented for the evolution of dust. The best approach is to

mix such materials in a central location, hooding all major points and venting

the dust to a fabric filter.

3. 5. 7 Sandblasting

The cleaning of stone and concrete surfaces by sandblasting creates

particles that are difficult to control by common techniques. When access is

possible, hooding and ductwork can be provided from the point of sandblasting

to a baghouse or similar high-efficiency dust collection device. A more

common practice has been to shroud the operator and the area being cleaned.

3-59
Most of the resultant dust is contained within the canvas shroud and drops to

the ground be low. A clean air supply has to be piped by hose to the operator.

The arrangement is successful when winds are light. Under strong wind

velocities much of the particulate matter remains airborne. Sandblasting of

buildings has been replaced in many areas by steam cleaning and acid washing.

3-60
3. 6 SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

3. 6. 1 Introduction

Disposal of solid wastes contributes to air and water pollution and threatens

to pollute the land (through improper disposal methods). In 1967, 190 million

tons of solid wastes were collected excluding some industrial and agricultural
56
sources. Of this quantity, 86 percent was disposed of at land disposal sites,

8 percent was burned in municipal incinerators, and only 6 percent was dis-
56
posed of in what could truly be called a sanitary landfill. Much of the

waste in disposal sites is ultimately burned in the open. Although emissions

from the burning of solid wastes represent less than 10 percent of the 1 million

tons of particulate matter emitted in this country, these emissions represent

57
the most frequent cause of local air pollution complaints by citizens.

Particulate emissions from incineration cause soiling, visibility reduction,

and a generally unsanitary appearance of the air.

Better engineering and planning are required to cope with the problem of

disposing of solid wastes in a manner that will least affect our environment.

One survey indicates that if present trends continue and long-range plans are

not made and implemented, this country will not have the capability to handle
58
the increased amount of solid wastes generated in the year 1975. Planning,

perhaps on a regional basis, and proper use of existing technology, specifically

3-61
in the fields of incineration and sanitary landfill operation, are the key to

mastering the problem of air pollution from solid waste disposal.

3. 6. 2 Definition of Solid Waste

As defined in the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965, "The term 'solid waste'

means garbage, refuse, and other discarded solid materials, including solid-

waste materials resulting from industrial, commerical, and agricultural

operations, and from community activities, but does not include solids or

dissolved material in domestic sewage or other significant pollutants in water

resources . . . " It includes both combustibles and non-combustibles, such as

garbage, rubbish, ashes, street refuse, dead animals, and abandoned auto-
59
mobiles. Solid waste is grouped into the following five categories:

1. Residential and commercial solid waste. Food waste, paper,

plastics, metals, cloth, wood, and numerous other materials are

included in residential and commercial solid waste. Heating value

is approximately 4500 Btu per pound. Uncompacted density is

approximately 250 pounds per cubic yard - compacted density is

approximately 500 pounds per cubic yard.

2. Construction and demolition waste. This category includes building

materials such as wood, steel, plaster, brick, and concrete.

3. Institutional solid waste. Wastes from hospitals, nursing homes, and

other institutions are included in institutional solid waste. Such

wastes are similar to residential and commercial solid wastes, but

may contain pathogenic materials.

3-62
 4. Industrial solid waste. Waste products as produced by industry include

a variety of combustible and non-combustible materials.

5. Agricultural waste. Agricultural waste includes animal droppings and

crop residue, but does not include stands of timber or brush burned

as a result of accidential forest fires. Reference articles on agri-

cultural waste disposal may be found in Section 8, Bibliography,

under the heading of Food and Agricultural Sources.

3. 6. 3 Amounts of Solid Waste Generated

The amount of solid waste generated in this country is truly astronomical.

Altogether, 190 million tons per year or 5. 3 pounds per person per day are
56
collected. A breakdown of this latter figure is shown in Table 3-12. These

figures however, are only for that amount of waste actually collected. Other

amounts are also generated beyond that collected and these amounts are best

described in the following quotation from Reference 56.

"It must be recalled that 10 to 15 percent of household and com-

mercial wastes are collected or transported by the individual generating

the waste. Approximately 30 to 40 percent of the industrial wastes are

self-collected and transported. Additionally, local regulations- or lack

of them- permit over 50 percent of our population to burn some type of

household waste in their backyards. About 45 percent of commercial and

other establishments are also allowed to practice controlled open burning

of some type. Thus, although the amount of waste material that has to be

3-63
 56
Table 3-12. AVERAGE SOLID WASTE COLLECTED
(Pounds per person per day)
-
Solid wastes Urban Rural National

Household 1. 26 0.72 1.14

Commercial 0.46 0.11 0.38
Combined 2.63 2.60
2. 63

Industrial 0.65 0.37 0. 59

Demolition, construction 0.23 0.02 0.18
Street and alley 0.11 0.03 0.09
Miscellaneous 0.38 0.08 0.31
- - - - --
TOTALS 5.72 3.93 5.32

3-64
 collected is staggering in itself, the amount of material that is actually

generated and could pose potential collection problems is even more im-

pressive. Conservative estimates indicate that 7 pounds of household,

commercial, and municipal wastes are presently generated per person;

this totals over 250 inillion tons per year. To this must be added our es-

timate of over 3 pounds per person per day for industrial wastes, amount-

ing to an additional 110 million tons per year. Thus, estimates for 1967

indicate that over 10 pounds of household, commercial, and industrial

wastes are being generated in this country for every man, woman, and
56
child, totalling over 360 million tons per year.

"To these figures we must add over 550 million tons per year of

agricultural waste and crop residues, approximately 1. 5 billion tons per

year of animal wastes, and over 1. 1 billion tons of mineral wastes.

Altogether, over 3. 5 billion tons of solid wastes are generated in this

. 56
nat 10n every year.

3. 6. 3. 1 Disposal Methods to Minimize Air Pollution- Many areas of the

country have adequate land available for sanitary landfills. A properly oper-

ated sanitary landfill in which solid waste is buried daily without burning can

turn a worthless piece of property into a valuable recreation area. The cost of

a landfill operation, in most cases, is less than incineration, not considering

60
hauling costs in either case. Expanded use of landfills, of course, may re-

quire an efficient municipal pick-up system. At present, only about 6 percent

of municipal solid waste, not including industrial and agricultural waste, is dis-
56
posed of in a sanitary landfill.

3-65
 Some solid wastes such as automobile bodies, paper and wood chips have

a salvage value or reclamation potential. If a market exists in an area for part

of all of the waste currently being burned, it can be developed and used to re-

duce or eliminate air pollution. Frequent collection of municipal refuse and the

pickup of leaves in the fall will deter the citizen from open burning. Disposal

methods other than combustion are, in many cases, economical. These meth-

ods can be put to use, however, only with the execution of adequate planning.

In metropolitan areas in which land is becoming scarce for landfill opera-

tions, combustion processes are being used to reduce refuse volume by as much

as 90 percent before disposal in a landfill, increasing the life expectancy of

61
the landfill site. Incineration is often used to sterilize pathogenic or con-

taminated waste and reduce its volume before burial. Our expanding society

may have to resort to more extensive incineration in many areas as an alterna-

62
tive to landfill.

Of the total amount of municipal solid waste produced, not counting agri-

cultural or industrial solid waste, 86 percent is ultimately disposed of in open

56
dumps where open burning is frequently practiced. Such methods of volume

reduction normally do not meet health and esthetic standards that usually are
63
desired by a progressive community, because of the large amount of particu-

late matter (as much as 16 pounds per ton of solid waste burned) released to the

atmosphere with virtually no possibility of controlling emissions. 1 Open burn-

ing has been banned in at least six states. 65

3-66
 Even today many apartment house, commercial, and municipal incinerators

being built do not meet requirements of good air pollution control standards.

Some incinerators can operate with a minimum of air pollution; however, these

units are costly to operate and maintain, and if poorly operated will create

noticeable air pollution. The trend today is toward multiple-chamber incinerators

of adequate design that are equipped with efficient control devices and full instru-

mentation, and well as towards controlled municipal size units. Municipal units

now proposed in this country are of the water-wall type that produce steam as a

saleable product and collect more than 99 percent of the particulate matter emit-

ted from the incinerator itself by means of electrostatic precipitators.

3. 6. 3. 2 Disposal Methods Without Incineration- Disposal and volume-reduction

methods that do not use incineration are most desirable from an air pollution

standpoint. In many cases they may be more economical and may prove to be

more acceptable to a community than methods using incineration.

Sanitary landfill- The sanitary landfill, which should not be confused with
66
an open dump, is an acceptable means of solid waste disposal. Almost any

kind of material can be disposed of by this method of systematically dumping

solid waste on the ground or in trenches, compacting the waste by driving a

bulldozer or other heavy equipment over it, and covering the waste at the end of

each day with a layer of compacted earth to prevent rodent and insect infestation

and to confine odors. When completely filled, land so used may be made into

parks and recreation areas. A properly operated sanitary landfill is operated

without open burning. Air pollution emissions are limited to material entrained

3-67
in the air by earth-moving equipment. Even these emissions, however, can be

kept to a minimum by wetting the fill material.

Choice of a site and method of operation of a sanitary landfill is essen-

tially dependent on the topography and availability of land. In addition, other

factors such as length of haul, land drainage, source of cover material, and

quantity of land needed to handle future waste generation must be considered

before choosing a final site. Some factors that must be considered are:

1. Land requirements. About 1 acre-foot of land is required for each

1000 persons for one year operation when the production of waste
67
is 4. 5 pounds per day per capita. In addition, cover material

totaling at least 20 percent by volume of the compacted waste

is required. Such material may be supplied from the site or trans-

ported from nearby areas. Normally, sites are designed for 10-

to 20-year service periods.

2. Topography. Depressed areas such as ravines and abandoned pits

where the grade must be raised are usually considered desirable

for sanitary landfill sites. Flat land can be used by applying

progress1. ve excavat•ion or t h e cut and cover method of operation. 66

3· Operation. Proper operation of a sanitary landfill requires contin-

uous use of heavy earthmoving equipment to compact and cover

the waste with fill material. It is essential that waste be

covered by no less than a 6-inch layer of material at least

3-68
 once a day. An intermediate layer of cover material (about 1

foot deep) is usually spread over completed sections of the site.

An additional 2 feet of final cover is required as a minimum for

the entire site on completion of the operation.

4. Cost. Costs of site, site preparation, and operation must be

computed to judge the true cost of sanitary landfill operation.

In addition, the final value of the land when reclaimed must be

balanced against the initial cost of the land. Sanitary landfill

equipment and operating costs usually range from $0. 80 to $1. 50

68
per ton of solid waste placed in the landfill. (Transportation of

waste to the site is not included in this figure.)

Composting - Composting, as applied to waste disposal, is the biological

decomposition of the organic component of waste. Stable organic residue is the

ultimate product. The residue is usable as a low-grade soil conditioner. The

market for compost, however, has not been very good, because equivalent

commercial products are available at less cost.

Composting requires separation of non-organic material from the waste.

To be economical, a market for such scrap is necessary.

Composting costs are the same or higher than those of incineration.

69
Consequently, only a few plants are operating in the United States today.

Actually, however, in the case of a composting plant operated by a municipality,

there is no more reason to expect such a plant to be profitable than an

3-69
incinerator, as both perform essentially the same service for the citizens of

the municipality: that of getting rid of solid wastes. In areas where commercial

fertilizer is not readily available and the scrap market is good, composting

could be a suitable method for handling organic wastes with little or no

particulate air pollution. However, some compost plants have odor problems.

Shredding - Disposal of bulky waste can be facilitated by shredding. Auto

tires, for instance, can be shredded and placed in a sanitary landfill instead

of being burned. Bulky wood waste, such as driftwood and combustible

demolition waste, which has heretofore been burned openly because of the

difficulty of incinerating it, can be shredded and incinerated in a conventional

incinerator provided it is mixefl w~th co~ventional refuse so that it does not

blind the grates. It can also be disposed of in a landfill site.

Each year more than six million automobiles are junked in the United

States. Automobile body disposal, therefore, is one of the growing solid waste

problems. The most promising solution to the problem appears to be to step

up the reuse for autobody metal scrap in the domestic steel and foundry

industry, so that the large portion of the available supply now being discarded

each year can be remelted.

Air pollution arising from disposal of automobile bodies results, how-

ever, when they are burned to remove upholstery, grease, and paint. Such

burning is apparently required to produce a useable scrap that is competitive

with other available material. Open burning of automobile bodies has proven

3-70
entirely unacceptable from an air pollution standpoint. Large quantities of

particulate matter are generated by such burning. Metallic particles con-

taining cadmium, nickel, and lead may also be released by this method of

disposal.

Open burning of junk automobiles has been replaced by controlled

70
incineration in enclosures. Emissions from such practices have been

successfully controlled by afterburners, wet scrubbers, and electrostatic

precipitators. Unfortunately, however, because of the low market price paid

for automobile scrap, the cost of purchasing, operating, and maintaining such

control equipment is prohibitive in many areas. It would appear therefore,

that these control techniques need to be reapplied, perhaps in conjunction with

process changes, to lower operating and maintenance costs, and allow the

higher installation costs resulting from more sophisticated designs to be

amortized over the life of the installation. Such designs might attempt to

minimize inlet air flow so that the control devices could be made as small and
71
. . as possi bl e.
rnexpens1ve Al so, wh ere afterburners are use d , h eat recovery

might be considered.

A possible solution to the air pollution problem is the expanded use of

mechanical devices which can disintegrate and shred a whole car (minus the

block, rear axle, and seats), remove contaminants by a series of mechanical

separations, and produce a relatively useable scrap with little or no

. .
rncmera 10n.
t• 72
Such processes can be used by most larger cities. Cost of

3-71
33l-716 0 - 69 - 9
equipment for a unit capable of handling from 200 to 300 cars per day is

$500, 000. Cost for a tmit capable of handling 1200 cars per day ranges from
73
$1 million to $3 million.

In many locations, however, the low market price paid for shredded

scrap has restricted the area from which shredders can draw junk auto-bodies.

Although it, too, is restricted by low scrap prices, the practice of flattening

junk autos and delivering them from outlying areas to a centralized shredder

results in some cars being processed without generating as much air pollution

as if they were burned in the open.

Compaction - Compaction, although not a disposal method, has the

potential of reducing on-site refuse volume to a point that large storage areas

are not required and transfer to final disposal at landfills or municipal

incinerators is easier. Compaction devices are now being marketed for

installation in larger apartment complexes. In some instances, these units

have replaced chute-fed incinerators.

Compaction installations are similar to chute-fed incinerator installations.

Normally, refuse is charged by tenants through a door located on each floor of

the building. Refuse builds up to a predetermined level in a receiving hopper,

usually in the basement, then is forced by hydraulic ram into a storage con-

tainer or bag. Compaction of refuse in the storage container is claimed to

be accomplished up to 3 to 1. Recent investigations indicate, however, that

much higher compaction ratios may be obtained.

3-72
 Metal containers with capacities up to two cubic yards have been used.

It has been reported that one container is required for every fifty apartments,

with removal two to fives times per week.

Installed cost of a compactor is reported to be $3500, plus $17 5 per floor

for the metal chute. Hauling cost of the compacted refuse for a 100-unit

apartment building in one area of the country is $85 per month. Incineration of

the same refuse would cost $50.

Widespread use of compaction units could place a heavy burden on pick-

up and disposal facilities of a municipality and could cause an accumulation of

refuse should scheduled pick up be prevented. Another disadvantage of such a

disposal method is the high cost of installing such units in older buildings.

3.6.3.3 Disposal Methods With Incineration - Incineration, as a means of

volume reduction, may be justified in areas where land for sanitary land-

fill is scarce or hauling costs are prohibitive. That well designed and well

operated equipment be used to minimize the discharge of particulate matter to

the atmosphere is of utmost importance in the use of incinerators.

Emissions of particulate air pollutants from combustion of solid waste,

including open burning, can range from 3 to 28 pounds per ton of refuse,
1
depending on the degree of combustion and control of emissions. Reduction

of these emissions to the desired level requires either that the incinerator

be designed for control of fly ash or that a separate control system be used.

Table 3-13 summarizes the collection efficiency of various control devices

when applied to incinerators.

3-73
 Open burning-The results of the National Solid Wastes Survey show that

open burning is widespread. Eighty-six percent of the 190 million tons of solid

waste collected in 1967 went into land disposal sites, 75 percent of which re-
56
sulted in some form of open burning. The Bureau of Solid Waste Management

of the Environmental Control Administration sees even a higher percentage of

the sites as undesirable as indicated by the following quotation:

"This country has over 12, 000 land disposal sites being utilized by

collection services, control of 94 percent of which is unacceptable and

represents disease potential, threat of pollution, and land blight. By no

stretch of the imagination do these sites resemble a sanitary landfill. The

waste management field must face the challenge of studying and evaluating

these sites to determine their suitability for conversion to sanitary landfills.

We must develop the necessary plans, finances, and action programs to

convert those sites that can function as a sanitary landfill. In many in-

stances it will be necessary to close and abandon many of these sites.

Local government then must locate and develop new sites for immediate use
56
now and to provide necessary capacities for the increase of the future.

"To eliminate open dumps, and the air pollution that results from

open burning in them, as well as other environmental pollution, may cost

56
as much as $230 million per year for 5 years. This represents about

3-74
Table 3-13. MAXIMUM DEMONSTRATED COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
OF INCINERATOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT74, 75

Collection device Collection efficiency, percent

Settling chamber 35

Wetted baffles 53

Cyclones 75 to 80

Impaction scrubbers (with 94 to 96

pressure drop less than

ten inches of water)

Electrostatic precipitators 99+

Bag filters 99+

3-75
 5 percent more than is currently being spent annually for solid
56
waste management. ''

Open Top Incinerators-A refractory-lined rectangular chamber with a

full, open top and forced overfire air has been used to incinerate a variety of
76
wastes including liquids, solids with high caloric value, general trash, and

municipal refuse. This design, because of its relatively low cost, has been ap-

plied to waste disposal by both municipalities and industries. Tests of a pilot

unit conducted by the National Air Pollution Control Administration have shown

excessive particulate emissions for high-ash materials and for low-ash materi-

als under certain operating conditions. Low emissions were realized for a low-

ash (0. 5 percent by weight) material incinerated under carefully controlled con-
77
ditions. Operation of full-scale units on certain high-Btu low-ash wastes are

being conducted without visible emissions of smoke, but no quantitative test data

are yet available. Before applying this technique, careful consideration should

be given to the ash content and physical characteristics of the waste, and tests

should be conducted on the specific waste. As with all combustion sources,

this type of unit requires control of charging and air flow to prevent the emission

of smoke and excessive fly ash. All installations should be equipped with ap-

propriate instrumentation to ensure operation within allowable air pollution limits.

Additional tests are contemplated to further define significant parameters which

can be used to estimate performance on any waste material.

Conical metal burners- Conical metal waste burners are used in the lum-

ber industry to incinerate wood wastes. This single-chamber incinerator

3-76
is not properly designed to minimize atmospheric emissions, and is usually

not operated or maintained properly. Consequently, large amounts of particulate

matter are emitted from such units. Some areas of the country, in fact, have

banned all new construction of these burners. Conical metal burners are not
78
satisfactory for other types of refuse either.

Domestic Incinerators- Domestic incinerators may include such units as

single-chamber backyard units with no auxiliary fuel to dual chamber incinerators

having a primary burner section followed by an afterburner section.

Many air pollution control agencies have banned installation and use of

backyard incinerators. A few air pollution agencies have in the past prohibited

the installation of some or all types of domestic incinerators because of the

inability to meet various local standards pertaining to emissions of particulates,

organic compounds, or odors. Such action may be due in part to excessive

emissions caused by negligent operation of such units and the fact they can

be operated without using the gas burners.

Commercial and industrial incinerators - Commercial and industrial

incinerators for burning general refuse range in capacity from 50 to several

thousand pounds of refuse per hour. These units may be classified into two

general designs, single- and multiple-chamber incinerators. A single-

chamber unit is so designed that admission, combustion, and exhaust to a stack

take place in one chamber. The multiple-chamber incinerator has separate

chambers for admission and combustion of the solid refuse, mixing and

3-77
further combustion of the fly ash and gaseous emissions, and settling and

collecting of the fly ash. fudustrial wastes other than general refuse require

special designs based on characteristics of the particular waste.

Single-chamber incinerators have generally proven inadequate to meet

most emission regulations. Emissions from such units have been reported to
64
be as much as 25 pounds of particulate matter per ton of refuse burned.

Multiple-chamber incinerators, however, when designed, operated, and main-

tained properly, reduce the volume of refuse sufficiently and produce a minimum

of particulate emission. Emissions from such units have been reported to be

1
as little as 3 pounds per ton of refuse burned. Even well-designed multiple-

chamber incinerato::::-s may require a good gas washer to meet more stringent

regulations. The National Air Pollution Control Administration has tentatively

found that scrubbers having at least 1/2 inch H 0 pressure drop and a water rate
2
of 4 gallons per 1, 000 scfm are required for Federal incinerators to meet emis-
79
sion standards for Federal facilities.

To keep particulate emissions to a minimum, design standards for any

. .
rncmerat or must me
. 1u d e means to satisfy the following criteria: 80

1. Air and fuel must be in proper proportion.

2. Air and fuel must be mixed adequately.

3. Temperature must be sufficient for combustion for both the solid fuel

and gaseous products.

4. Furnace volume must be large enough to provide the retention time

needed for complete combustion.

3-78
 5. Furnace proportions must be such that ignition temperatures are

maintained and fly ash entrainment is minimized.

Even an incinerator of proper design must be operated and maintained

properly to minimize particulate emissions. Where charging and operation

cannot be closely supervised, scrubbers and au.xiliary burners can minimize

emissions. Periodic cleaning and adjustment of burners can minimize emis-

sions. Periodic cleaning and adjustment of burners. spray nozzles, fans,

and other appurtenant devices are also necessary to minimize emissions.

Initial incinerator cost depends mainly on the capacity of the unit and
81
the degree of air pollution control desired. Figure 3-2 shows typical costs

for incinerators without scrubbers, with low-efficiency scrubbers, and with

high-efficiency scrubbers. Presumably, these costs data are for the approxi-

mate time the information was presented, December 1966. To meet the most

stringent emission standards and to minimize visible emissions and fly ash,

most incinerators must be equipped with scrubbers.

Design criteria and operating practices previously described for general

refuse incinerators should also apply to units burning pathological waste.

Primary factors that affect particulate emissions from pathological incinerators

include:

1. Gas burner rates should be sufficient to maintain at least 1400° F in

secondary chamber.

3-79
 2. Burner placement should be such that all waste in primary chamber

is covered by flame from burner.

3. Preheating should be accomplished with secondary burners prior

to charging of waste.

Many air pollution control agencies review on a routine basis all plans

for future incinerator installations to ensure that these units meet emission

standards. Details that are usually checked in such a review include:

1. Plot plans to see if unit is located in a suitable area.

2. Unit capacity to see if it is adequate for the expected daily waste

generation.

3. Gas burner placement and fuel rates.

4. Scrubber water flow rate.

5. Materials of construction for resistance to heat, stress, and

corrosion.

6. Air port sizes.

Recognizing the fact that emissions from incinerators are, to a great

extent, a function of operation, some air pollution control agencies conduct

training courses and publish literature to be used by incinerator operators or

their supervisors. Once aware of the factors influencing atmospheric emis-

sions, it is possible for operators to contribute greatly to the reduction of

particulate emissions by such simple practices as regularly cleaning out the

ash pit or preheating the unit prior to operation.

3-80
 Apartment house incinerators -
25
Apartment house incinerators are an
.
0
~
important pollutant source in urban
~ 20
,., areas of the country. Smoke and fly
0

ri.
0
f- ash from these units cause many
~ 15
w
·z complaints.
u
z
u. Emissions are usually higher
0 10
f-
V'>
0
u than other incineration systems be-

5 cause of low combustion temperatures

100 500 1000 1500 2000 and improper air regulation. Adequate
CAPACITY OF INCINERATOR, lb/hr
control of this source in most cases
igure 3-2. Costs of incinerator at three levels
of control of particulate emissions.
has not been achieved, although

stricter air pollution regulations are inspiring the application of new control

measures.

The most common apartment house incinerator is the flue-fed or single-

flue, single-chamber model. In this unit refuse is charged down the same

passage that the products of combustion use to leave the unit. Refuse dropped

onto the fuel bed during burning smothers the fire and causes incomplete com-

bustion. Improvements in design have been made to the single-flue, single-

chamber unit. There are now chute fed units that are multiple-chamber

. incinerators with separate passages for the refuse and products of combustion.

This design provides improved combustion and air regulation but emissions would

3-81
still exceed most emission standards. Inherent in the design of flue or chute-

fed models is the high natural draft in the flues of a tall apartment building

which is a major cause of high particulate emissions.

Air pollution agencies have approached the control of these units in

different ways. New York has prohibited the installation of new apartment

house incinerators and has issued specific criteria for upgrading existing units.

Washington, D. C., and Atlanta do not allow flue or chute-fed units to be in-

stalled. Detroit and Philadelphia have set emission standards at a level that

requires efficient collection equipment, usually water scrubbers, on apartment

house incinerators.

In upgrading existing units and designing new units, several techniques

are used to overcome the problems of excessive emissions from apartment

house incinerators. A gate at the base of the charging chute is used to prevent

refuse from entering the incinerator during burning and to prevent the products

of combustion from leaving through the charging flue. This approach is prefer-

able to locking the hopper doors because these locks eventually either fail on

their own or are broken by occupants of the building. For single-flue units, a

bypass or separate flue must be constructed for the products of combustion.

Auxiliary burners are placed in the primary and/or secondary chambers of the

. . t
mcmera or t o mcrease
. b urmng
. temperature and improve combustion. 82

Draft control has been used in New York to reduce entrainment of fuel

bed material in the effluent gas stream. A sensor is placed in the primary

3-82
chamber to monitor draft. When a preset draft level is exceeded a damper

located in the breeching at the incinerator outlet is activated and decreases

the amount of air entering the incinerator.

An important step is the addition of efficient gas scrubbers to the in-

cineration system. Scrubbers designed to increase the velocity of the gases

and contact them with low-velocity water appear to be preferable to spray

nozzle units because plugged nozzles reduce collection efficiency. A final

improvement is the establishment of definite burning periods. Burning cycles

depend on the relative size of the apartment house and incinerator, and are

quite variable. The intent of such cycles is to systematically destroy the

refuse without overloading the incinerator, and to minimize smoldering refuse

by destroying all waste charged during any one cycle. Employment of the

above techniques should reduce emissions to a level of 2 to 6 pounds per ton

83
of refuse burned.

Municipal incinerators - In 1966, 254 municipal-size incinerators were

_in operation in the United States. The average capacity of these units is 300

tons per day. Most installations are old (70 percent were installed before 1960)

.and not de signed to minimize air pollution.

"It is estimated that approximately $150 million is required to construct

·1ew incinerators for replacement of existing inadequate incinerators and conical

.)urners. An additional $75 million is required for air pollution control equip-
1156
:nent to upgrade or replace existing inadequate incinerators.

3-83
 Approximately 8 percent of all municipal solid waste, not including
56
agricultural and industrial waste, is burned in municipal incinerators.

Design criteria for municipal incinerators - Municipal incinerators may

be classified as either batch-fed or continuously fed units. Continuously fed

units are preferable because operating parameters, such as combustion

chamber temperatures that affect particulate emissions, can be closely con-

trolled. Grates must be of proper design to ensure complete burnout of

material. At the same time, however, grates should mix or tumble the refuse

as gently as possible to minimize entrainment of material in the exhaust gas.

Most municipal incinerators in this country are of the refractory-lined

furnace type. Water-wall furnaces are more common in Europe. This type

of unit offers the advantage of steam generation. As a consequence of heat

recovery in the steam generation process, flue gas temperatures are lower

than those of refractory-lined units. Lower flue gas temperatures cause

smaller flue gas volumes, which in turn require smaller, less costly air

pollution control equipment. In addition, water-wall units can be operated with

less excess air, which further reduces stack gas volume.

Air pollution control equipment - Most municipal incinerators in the

United States are equipped with some form of fly ash control system. Generally,

this system consists of a simple baffle-type spray chamber. These spray

chambers prevent hot cinders and large particles from being emitted to the

atmosphere, but they do not effectively control finer material.

3-84
 More efficient collection devices will be required for municipal incinera-

tors to meet reasonable air pollution control codes. The medium pressure drop

(6 inches of water) scrubber and the electrostatic precipitator are two control

devices capable of effective particulate control. No precipitator has yet been

installed on any American municipal incinerator, but several have been in-

stalled and successfully operated in Europe. Several devices with collection

84
efficiencies of over 95 percent are scheduled for new and existing units.

High efficiency scrubbers, in contrast to precipitators, might also control

emissions of potentially odorous and toxic gas.

Cost of municipal incineration and control devices- Current costs of

constructing municipal incinerators may range from $6, 000 - $13, 000 per ton
85
of rated 24 hour capacity. Costs in the low end of the range represent in-

cinerators of relatively simple design with minimal controls, such as a

settling chamber. Costs for incinerators of complex design, equipped with

sophisticated controls such as electrostatic precipitators, would be near the

high end of the range. Between 30 and 40 percent of this cost is usually spent

on operating equipment and the remainder is spent on building and land. Oper-

ating costs (not including plant amortization) range from $4 to $8 per ton of
84
refuse incinerated. Precipitator (95 percent efficiency) cost for two 250-
86
ton-per-day incinerators is reported at approximately $430, 000.

3-85
3. 6. 4 Air Pollution Potential From Solid Waste Disposal Methods

. th"ts count ry. 56

There are approximately 12, 000 land disposa1 sites m

Such sites may be defined as locations, either privately or publicly owned,

on which there is dumping of solid wastes by public or private contractors.

Only 6 percent of these sites may be termed sanitary landfills, in that they
56
have daily cover, no open burning, and no water pollution problems. On

three-quarters of the remaining 94 percent of the land disposal sites, some

56
form of open burning is practiced. This type of ultimate disposal accounts

for a large share of the particulate emissions estimated to arise from the

burning of solid wastes.

Some amounts of construction, institutional, industrial and agricultural

waste are also burned. Emissions from field burning to remove weeds or

residue, incineration of wood waste, and burning of car bodies for salvage

can contribute significantly to local and even regional air pollution problems.

In some areas of the country these sources may, in fact, be the greatest cause

of particulate air pollution.

3. 6. 5 Public Health Service Programs and Arnistance in Solid Waste Disposal

With passage of the Solid Waste Act of 1965, the Federal Government

made a commitment to support and assist in a coordinated national effort to

87
solve solid waste problems. The Solid Wastes Program of the Environmental

Control Administration presently supplies technical and financial assistance re-

lating to methods for handling solid wastes. The National Air Pollution Control

3-86
Administration also provides technical assistance on air pollution emissions

and control techniques for solid waste disposal methods. Public Health Service

regional office directors should be contacted in regard to specific services

available. In addition, where problems of solid waste disposal arise in connec-

tion with mining industries, the Solid Waste Research Group of the Bureau of

Mines may also be consulted.

3-87
33l-7l6 0 - 69 - lO
 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3

1. Duprey, R. L. "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors."

u. s.Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
PHS-Pub-999-AP-42, 1968, 67 pp.

2. "Washington, D. C. Metropolitan Area Air Pollution Abatement Activity."

U. s. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
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152 pp.

3. "New York-New Jersey Air Pollution Abatement Activity, Phase II -

Particulate Matter." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
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1967' pp. 48-49.

4. "Kansas City, Kansas - Kansas City, Missouri Air Pollution Abatement

Activity, Phase II- Pre-conference Investigations." U.S. Dept. of
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Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1968, 180 pp.

5. Sheehy, J.P .• Henderson, J. J., Harding, C. I., and Davis, A. L.

"A Pilot Study of Air Pollution in Jacksonville, Florida." U.S. Dept.
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, PHS-Pub-
999-AP-3, April 1963, 65 pp.

6. Venezia, R. and Ozolins, G. "Interstate Air Pollution Study, Phase

II - Project Report. II. Air Pollutant Emission Inventory." U.S. Dept.
of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, Dec. 1966, p. 5.

7. "Air Pollution Data for Los Angeles County. " Los Angeles County Air
Pollution Control District, Jan. 1967, p. 10.

8. McKee, H. E. and McMahon, W. A., Jr. "Automobile Exhaust Particulate

- Source and Variation. " Southwest Research Institute, May 19 60.
Also: J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 10(6):456-462, Dec. 1960.

9. "Precipitators for Vehicle Exhaust Control." Environ. Sci. & Technol.,

.!_(12):970, Dec. 1967.

10. Lawson, S. 0., Moore, J. F., and Rather, J. B., Jr. "A Look at Lead
Economics in Motor Gasoline." Preprint. American Petroleum Institute,
Div. of Refining, May 1967, p. 36.

3-88
11. "The Automobile & Air Pollution: A Program for Progress, Part II."
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1967, 160pp.
(Subpanel Reports to the Panel on Electrically Powered Vehicles).

12. Norman, G. R. "New Approach to Diesel Smoke Suppression." Trans-

actions, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1967, p. 105.

13. "1966 Oil Heating Sales Analysis." Fuel Oil and Oil Heat, Jan. 1967,
pp. 29-35.

14. "1966 Minerals Yearbook." U. S. Dept. of Interior, Washington, D. C., 1967.

15. Moore, W. W. "Reduction in Ambient Air Concentration of Fly Ash -

Present and Future." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C., PHS-Pub-1649, 1967, pp.
170-178.

16. "The Sources of Air Pollution and Their Control. " U. S. Dept. of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Washington, D. C. , PHS-PUB-1548, 1967, 15 pp.

17. "Criteria for the Application of Dust Collectors to Coal-Fired Boilers."

Results of an IGCI/ABMA Joint Technical Committee Survey.

18. "Modern Dust Collection for Coal-Fired Industrial Heating and Power
Plants." In: Fuel Engineering Handbook, Section F-2, National Coal
Association, Washington, D. C. , Sept. 1961, 14 pp.

19. "Stack Sprays to Reduce Dust Emissions During Soot Blowing."

Bituminous Coal Research Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965, 4 pp. (BCR
Aid to Industry, 500-330).

20. Pollock, W. A., Tomany, J. P., and Frieling, G. "Removal of Sulfur

Dioxide and Fly Ash from Coal Burning Power Plant Flue Gases. "
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Pub. 66-WA/CD-4,
1966, p. 8.

21. Sommerlad, R. E. "Fabric Filtration - 'State of the Art'." Foster

Wheeler Corp. , Livingston, N. J., March 1967, 19 pp.

22. Reese, J. T. and Greco, J. "Experience with Electrostatic Fly-Ash

Collection Equipment Serving Steam- Electric Generating Plants. " J.
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3-89
23. Katz, J. "The Effective Collection of Fly Ash at Pulverized Coal-Fired
Plants." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 15, pp. 525-528, Nov,
1965. (Presented at the 58th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Assoc., Toronto, Canada, June 1965).

24. "Steam-Electric Plant Factors 1966." National Coal Association,

Washington, D. C. , 1967, pp. 81-90.

25. Handbook of Fundamentals - 1967. '' American Society of Heating,

11

Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York, 1967.

26. Brogan, T. R. and Dragoumis, P. "The Development of MHD Power

Generators. " Preprint. (Presented at the National Coal Association
Technical Sales Conference and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. Annual
Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 1966).

27. Gourdine, M. C. "Electrogasdynamics and the Coal Industry. " Pre-

print. (Presented at the National Coal Association Technical Sales
Conference and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. Annual Meeting, Pitts-
burgh, Pa. , Sept. 19 66).

2 8. "Review and Evaluation of Project Fuel Cell. " U. S. Dept. of the

Interior, Office of Coal Research, Washington, D. C.

29. Schueneman, J. J. , High, M. D. , and Bye, W. E. "Air Pollution

Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. " U.S. Dept. of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio,
PHS-Pub-999-AP-l, 1963, 129 pp.

30. "Directory of Iron and Steel Works of the United States and Canada."
31st edition, American Iron & Steel Association, New York, 1967,
411 pp.

31. Von Bergen, J. M. "Profile of Industry Costs for Control of

Particulate Air Pollution. " Unpublished manuscript, 1967.

32. "A Marketing Guide to the Metal Casting Market." Pentan Publishing
Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1960.

33. "Statistical Abstract of the United States." 85th edition, u. s. Dept. of

Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C., 1964.

34. "Standard Industrial Classification Manual. " Bureau of the Budget,

Washington, D. C., 1964.

3-90
35. Kreichelt, T. E. , Kemnitz, D. A. , and Cuffe, S. T. "Atmospheric
Emissions from the Manufacture of Portland Cement." U.S. Dept. of
Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-17, 1967, 47 pp.

36. Kenline, P. A. and Hales, J. M. "Air Pollution and the Kraft Pulping
Industry. An Annotated Bibliography." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-4,
1963, 122 pp.

11
37. "Atmospheric Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes.
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-13, 1965, 127 pp.

38. "Control and Disposal of Cotton Ginning Wastes." U.S. Dept. of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-31, 1967, 103 pp.

39. Drogin, I. "Carbon Black. 11

J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. , Vol. 18,
pp. 216-228, April 1968.

40. Brandt, A. D. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Steel Industry

Air Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference
on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 236-241.

41. McGannon, Harold E. 11 The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel."

U. S. Steel Corporation, 8th edition, 1964, p. 404.

11
42. Annual Statistical Report. 11
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edition, pp. 66, 68.

43. Schueneman, J. J., High, M. D., and Bye, W. E. "Air Pollution

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Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. 11 U.S. Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-1,
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46. Schueneman, J. J., High, M. D., and Bye, W. E. "Air Pollution
Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. " U. S. Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-1,
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47. Schueneman, J. J., High, M. D., and Bye, W. E. "Air Pollution

Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education,
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1963' p. 61.

48. Sterling, M. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Foundry Air

Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on
Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., Dec. 1966, pp. 254-259.

49. Doherty, R. E. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Cement Mill

Air Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference
on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 242-249.

50. Doherty, R. E. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Cement Mill

Air Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference
on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C. , 1966, pp. 242-249.

51. Ingels, R. M. , Shaffer, N. R., and Danielson, J. A. "Control of

Asphaltic Concrete Plants in Los Angeles County. " J. Air Pollution
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Air Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference
on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 236-241.

53. Brandt, A. D. Private communication, June 11, 1968.

54. "Impregnated Fabrics Collect Fluoride Fumes. " Engineering and

Mining, J., Vol. 160, No. 5, May 1959.

55. "New York City Officials Considering Cocoon for Demolition Dust
Control." Clean Air News, 2(8):12-13, March 12, 1968.

56. Black, R. J., Muhich, A. T., Klee, A. J., Hickman, H. L., Jr., and
Vaughn, R. D. "The National Solid Wastes Survey, an Interim Report."
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the American Public Works Association, Miami Beach, Florida,
Oct. 24, 1968.)

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ment, Washington, D. C., Public Health Service, PHS-Pub-1729. 1967,
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58. Copp, W. R. "Municipal Inventory. Combustion Engineering, Technical-

Economic Study of Solid \Vaste Disposal Needs and Practices." Vol. 1,
Nov. 1967, pp. 1-69.

59. Schueller, H. M. "Quantities and Characteristics of Solid Waste. " In:

Elements of Solid \Vaste Management Training Course Manual, Public
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60. Bremser, L. W. "Solid Waste Disposal Study for the Washington Metro-
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61. Kaiser, E. R., Halitsh.JT, J., Jacobs, M. B., and McCabe, L. C.

"Performance of a Flue Fed Incinerator. " J. Air Pollution Control
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62. Weston, R. F. "Future Alternatives to Incineration and their Air

Pollution Potential." In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on
Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1967, pp. 306-308.

63. Seely, R. J. and Loquercio, P. A. "Solid Waste Report for the City of
Chicago." City of Chicago Dept. of Air Pollution Control, Chicago,
Ill. ' 1966.

64. Mayer, M. "A Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors for

Combustion Processes, Gasoline Evaporation and Selected Industrial
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65. Kaiser, Elmer R. "Refuse Reduction Processes. " In: Proceedings,

the Surgeon General's Conference on Solid Waste Management, Washington,
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of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Occupational and
Industrial Health, Washington, D. C., PHS-Pub-1729, 1968.

3-93
67. Kirsh, J. B. "Sanitary Landfill. " In: Elements of Solid Waste Manage-
ment Training Course Manual, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio,
1968, pp. 1-4.

68. Sibel, J. T. "Landfill Operations. Combustion Engineering, Technical-

Economic Study of Solid Waste Disposal Needs and Practices." Vol. 4,
1967, pp. 1-17.

69. Goluecke, C. G. and McGaughey, P. H. "Future Alternatives to In-

cineration and their Air Pollution Potential. " In: Proceedings of the
3rd National Conference on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C. , 1967,
pp. 296-305.

70. Alpiser, Francis M. "Air Pollution from Disposal of Junk Autos. 11

Preprint. (Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, St. Paul, Minnesota, June 1968).

71. Lieberman, C. "Recovering Scrap Steel for Melting from Automobile

Bodies." U.S. Patent No. 3,320,051, May 16, 1967, 3 pp.

72. "An In-Depth Look at Ferrous Scrap." Magazine of Metals Producing,

March 1966. (Published by Institute of Scrap Iron & Steel).

73. Bennett, K. W. 11 Scrap Processing Goes Big Time." The Iron Age,
Aug. 26, 1965, pp. 29-30.

74. Kaiser, Elmer R. "Incinerators to Meet New Air Pollution Standards. 11

(Presented at Mid-Atlantic Section Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, New York, April 20, 1967).

75. O'Conner, C. and Swinehart, G. "Baghouse Cures Stack Effluent. 11

Power Eng. , Vol. 65, pp. 58-59, May 1961.

7 6. Monroe, E. S. , Jr. "New Developments in Industrial Incineration. 11

In: Proceedings of 1966 National Incinerator Conference, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1966, pp. 226-230.

77. Burckle, J. 0. , Dorsey, J. A. , and Riley, B. T. "The Effects of the

Operating Variables and Refuse Types on the Emissions from a Pilot-
Scale Trench Incinerator." In: Proceedings of 1968 National In-
cinerator Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, May 5-8, 1968, pp. 34-41.

3-94
78. Kreichelt, Thomas E. "Air Pollution Aspects of Tepee Burners Used
for Disposal of Municipal Refuse." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, PHS-Pub-999-AP-28, 1966, 39 pp.

79. Sableski, J. J., Knudson, J. C., Cote, W. A., and Kowalczyk, J. F.

"Development of Incineration Guidelines for Federal Facilities."
(Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
St. Paul, Minnesota, June 23-27, 1968).

80. Williamson, J. E., McKnight, R. J., and Chass, R. L. "Multiple-

Chamber Incinerator Design Standards for Los Angeles County. " Los
Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Los Angeles, California,
Oct. 1960.

81. Voelker, E. M. "Control of Air Pollution from Industrial and Household

Incinerators." In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Air
Pollution, vVashington, D. C., 1967, pp. 332-338.

82. Feuss, James V. and Flower, Franklin B. "The Design of Apartment

House Incinerators - the State of Art. " (Presented at the Annual Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, June 23-27, 1968.)

83. Duprey, R. L. "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors." U.S.

Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air
Pollution Control, Durham, North Carolina, PHS-Pub-999-AP-42, 1968,
67 pp.

84. Bogue, M. De Von "Municipal Incinerators." U.S. Public Health Service,

Office of Solid Wastes, 1965.

85. Hickman, H. L. Private communication, Technical Services, Bureau of

Solid Waste Management, Rockville, Maryland, Nov. 1, 1968.

86, Fife, James A. and Boyer, Robert H., Jr. "What Price Incineration
Air Pollution Control?" In: Proceedings of 1966 National Incinerator
Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
1966, pp. 89-96.

87. Vaughan, R. D. "Assistance Available under the Solid Waste Disposal

Act." In: Proceedings of the Surgeon General's Conference on Solid
Waste Management, Washington, D. C. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Center for Urban and Industrial Health, 1967,
pp. 155-162.

3-95
 4. GAS CLEANING DEVICES

-!:. 1 INTRODUCTION

Gas streams contaminated with particulate matter may be cleaned

before the gas is discharged to the atmosphere. Gas cleaning devices take

advantage of certain physical, chemical, and/or electrical properties of the

particulate matter and gas stream. Selection of a gas cleaning device will

be influenced by the efficiency required, nature of the process gas to be

cleaned, characteristics of the particulate and gas stream, cost of the

device's use, availability of space, and power and water requirements.

Other basic considerations include maintenance, dependability, and waste

disposal. It has been estimated that total expenditures in 1966 of industrial

1
air pollution control equipment in the United States were about $235 million.

Value of shipments of the industrial gas cleaning equipment industry in 1967

was double the 1963 figure, and the backlog of orders recently nearly equalled

a year's productive output. Undoubtedly legislative pressure and local

pollution control regulations have supplied the impetus for such rapid growth
2
in this industry. Table 4-1 shows an up-to-date list of the types and values
2
of control equipment being sold to various industries.

This chapter discusses the wide array of commercially available gas

cleaning devices and summarizes published operating characteristics, including

4-1
 Table 4-1. MANUFACTURERS' SHIPMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL GAS
CLEANING EQUIPMENT BY END USE IN 1967
(thousands of dollars)

Electrostatic Fabric Mechanical Scrubbers Scrubbers Gas incinerators Total

precipitators filters collectors particulate gaseous and adsorbers shipments
b
Iron and steel 5,783 4, 536 2,300 7,423 4,275 b 24,317

Utilities 15,506 a 2,476 a a a 18,481

Chemicals 1,207 5,344 3,130 3,709 1,479 1,001 15, 870

c
Rock products 2,760 3,602 1,038 1,142 a a 8,966

Pulp and paper a 122 802 989 193 a 6,753

Mining and metallurgical a 1,855 389 825 394 a 6, 160

Refinery a a a a a 282 4,098

d
All other 687 4,959 8,408 3,901 114 2, 137 20,206

Exports a 1,081 a 651 72 79 5,744

Total shipments 36,509 21,730 22,381 19,229 6,770 3,976 110,595

: Not published to avoid disclosure.

Ga-s incinerators and adsorbers purchased by iron and steel companies are included in "all others" category to avoid disclosure.
c "Rock products" includes cement and asbestos plants.
d "All other" includes shipments to distributors where end use cannot be identified.
efficiencies, and information that will help detennine the gas cleaning devices

suited for a specific application. Information presented includes:

1. Introductory material (definitions and theoretical principles).

2. Equipment description and desig11 (variations, arrangements, and

performance).

3. Typical applications (including efficiency data).

4. Operational factors (power requirements, pressure drops,

temperature limitations, corrosion and maintenance problems,

and vvaste disposal).

Cost factors for each major type of control device are discussed in Section

G of this report. Capital, installation, and operating costs are provided for

settling chambers, cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, fabric

filters, and afterbun1ers.

4. 1. 1 Preliminary Selection of Equipment

The selection of gas cleaning equipment is far from an exact science and

must be based on particle and carrier gas characteristics, and process,

operating, construction, and economic factors.

Important particle characteristics consist of size distribution, shape,

density, and such physio-chemical properties as hygroscopicity, agglomerating

tendency, corrosiveness, "stickiness", flowability, electrical conductivity,

..
0
flammability, and toxicity.

.f-3
 Test methods for determining some of the properties of fine particulate

matter cited above are outlined in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers'

Power Test Code Number 28.

The process factors affecting selection of a gas cleaner are volumetric

flow rate, variability of gas flow, particle concentration, allowable pressure

drop, product quality requirements, and the required collection efficiency.

Required collection efficiency is based on the value of the material being

collected, the nuisance or damage potential of the material, the physical

location of the exhaust, the geographical location (i.e. , the air pollution

susceptibility of the area), and present and future local codes and ordinances.

Ease of maintenance and the need for continuity of operation are

operating factors which should be considered. Important construction factors

include available floor space and headroom and construction material

limitations imposed by the temperature, pressure, and/or corrosiveness of

the exhaust stream. Economic factors consist of installation, operating,

and maintenance costs.

Information on the particle size gradation in the inlet gas stream is

very important in the proper selection of gas cleaning equipment. Particles

larger than 50 microns may be removed in inertial and cyclone separators

and simple, low-energy wet scrubbers. Particles smaller than 50 microns

require either high-efficiency (high-energy) wet scrubbers, fabric filters,

4
or electrostatic precipitators.

4-4
 \\'et collectors operate at Yarbble efficiencies directly proportional to the

energ:y e::\._-pended :1nd can h:111dle ch:1nging effluent flm\' r:1tes :md cluractt:'ristics.

DisadY:mt~1ges l)f wet scrubbers are (1) scrubbt:'r liquor may requirt? trt:':1trnt?nt.

more rt?adil~- pt?rm it reuse of tlw collt?cted matt?rial :1nd can collt?ct combustible

sensiti,-t? to process CL)nditions. Elt?ctrostatic prt?cipit~1tors can oper:1te at

rel:ni,-ely hi,:::h temper:1tures. lu,-e low prt?SSLU'e drop. h_)\\' power rt?\_1uirt?mt?nts.

LW flow ratt?s arnl. in some cast's. rt?\_1uire specL1l safety prec:1utions.

The performance l)f Yarious ,::::1s cle:1nin,::: de,·ices 111:1~- differ widely

depend.in,::: upon tl1e p:wticubr :1pplic:Hil111. Gr:1dt? efficienc~- CLll'Yes for selected

g:1s clea11il1g de\ices :U'e sho\Yn in Fig·ure -±-1 :ls :1n illustration of a method for
;_:; L)
describing collection equipment perfornunce for line :1pplic:1tion. · The per-

form:mce of the ,-:ll'ious g:1s cle:1nin,::: de\ices shown CL1uld differ sig11ific:111tl~-

for L)ther applic:ltions.

 80
:c
rn
4i
~
>-
_D

~o

>- 60
u
z
w
u
lL
lL
w
z 40
0
I-
I BAG FIL TERHOUSE
VENTURI SCRUBBER (6 INCH THROAT, 30-INCH WATER GAUGE)
u A l SPRAY TOWER (22-FOOT DIAMETER)
w ! DRY ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (3SECOND CONTACT TIME)
__j
MULTIPLE CYCLONES (12 INCH DIAMEHR TUBES)
__j
0
u
f
BI SIMPLE CYCLONE (4 FOOT DIAMETER)
20 ! INERTIAL COLLECTOR

o--~~~~-L~~~~~L--~~~~__L_~~~~_J_~~~~~-'---~~~~--'-~~~~~~~~~

Q l0 20 30 40 50 60 70

PARTICLE SIZE, microns

Figure 4-1. Composite grade (fractional) efficiency curves based on test silica dust.

As a further aid in the selection of particulate matter collection equip-

ment, the areas of application of Urn various cleaning devices a re given in

1
Table 4-2. Other areas of application lwvc been summarized at the encl o[

each equipment section. The reader should refer Lo those sections and to the

material referenced therein.

 1
Table 4-2. USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY

Industrial
Classification Process EP l\IC FF \\'S Other

Utilities and industrial Coal 0 0 - - -

power plants Oil 0 0 - - -
Natural gas - - - - -
Lig11ite 0 0 - - -
\\'ood and bark + 0 - + -
Bagasse - 0 - - -
Fluid coke 0 + - - +

Pulp and paper Kraft 0 - - 0 -

Soda 0 - - 0 -
Lime kiln - - - 0 -
Chemical - - - 0 -
Dis sol \'er tank \'en ts - 0 - - +

Rock products Cement 0 0 0 + -

Phosphate 0 0 0 0 -
Gypsum 0 0 0 0 -
Alumina 0 0 0 + -
Lime 0 0 + - -
Baludte 0 0 - - -
Magnesium oxide + - - -

Steel Blast furnace 0 - - 0 +

Open hearth 0 - - + +
Basic oxygen 0 - - 0 -
furnace
Electric furnace + - 0 0 -
Sintering 0 0 - - -
Coke O\'ens 0 - - - +
Ore roasters 0 0 - +- -
Cupola + - + 0 -
Pyrites roaster 0 0 - 0 -
Taconite T 0 - - -
Hot scarfing 0 - - + -

-±-7
331-716 0 - 69 - ll
Table 4-2. USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY (Continued)

Industrial
-
Classification Process EP MC FF WS Other

Mining and Zinc roaster 0 0 - - -

metallurgical Zinc smelter 0 - - - -
Copper roaster 0 0 - - -
Copper reverb. 0 - - - -
Copper converter 0 - - - -
Lead furnace - - 0 0 -
Aluminum 0 - - 0 +
Elemental phos. 0 - - - -
Ilmenite 0 0 - - -
Titanium dioxide + - 0 - -
Molybdenum + - - - -
Sulfuric acid 0 - - 0 0
Phosphoric acid - - - 0 0
Nitric acid - - - 0 0
Ore beneficiation + + + + +

Miscellaneous Refinery catalyst 0 0 - - -

Coal drying - 0 - - -
Coal mill vents - + 0 -
Municipal incin- + 0 - 0 +
erators
Carbon black + + + - -
Apartment incin- - - - 0 -
erators
Spray drying - 0 0 + -
Machining opera- - 0 0 + +
ti on
Hot coating - - - 0 0
Precious metal 0 - 0 - -
Feed and flour - 0 0 - -
milling
Lum.her inills - 0 - - -
Wood working - 0 0 - -

4-8
Table 4-2. USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY (Continued)

KEY

0 = Most common Other=

+ = Not normally used Packed towers
EP = Electrostatic Mist pads
Precipitator Slag filter
MC = Mechanical Centrifugal
Collector exhausters
FF = Fabric Filter Flame incineration
WS = Wet Scrubber Settling chamber

4-9
4. 2 SETTLING CHAMBERS

4. 2. 1 Introduction

Gravitational settling chambers use the force of gravity to separate dusts

and mists from gas streams. Such collectors are simple in design and opera-

tion, but have low collection efficiency. The principal disadvantages are low

collection efficiency for small particles and large space requirements.

4. 2. 2 Discussion of Terms

To assist in w1derstanding the operation of settling chambers, the

following terms are discussed:

1. Terminal Settling Velocity. A dust particle falling Lmder the influ-

ence of gravity attains a constant terminal velocity, which is dependent on the

physical properties of the gas through which the particle is falling, as well as
7
the physical properties of the particle, including its size and shape. Terminal

settling velocities in air of spheres of different particle densities were calcu-

7
lated and are presented graphically in Figure 4-2.

2. Pick-Up Velocity. Gas flow velocities in a settling chamber must be

9
kept below velocities at which reentrainrnent or "pick-up" occurs, S, or

collection efficiency will be decreased.

3. Collection Efficiency. Collection efficiency is represented by the

weight fraction of the dust retained in the collector. Theoretical collection

efficiency may be represented by the ratio of particle retention time to theoret-

ical settling time and caimot exceed tmity.

4-10
 EQUIVALENT STANDARD
THEORETICAL T rLER SCREEN MESH
SCREEN MESH
1n 0 U U) l) l 1 1\J N '<:J" tD f\J O" I'- 10 (T) N
0
0 0 L' u
0 0
0 0
"' "' "'
"'-
"'"'
0

I
"'I "'
102
~~

- .,,- .
~

~ ~

/.~
; r / ~ ;"'
<S~ I~~
~
~
101 ,"~
0

t----+--+-+-t-+H+t---;--<--+-~~lt~1,~''-"'11~~~1~~-l1ft+1ft-~t-+-1-+H+~
,,<: '//,

.,u
Ill

~
>-
I-
u
0
_J
w
> II
<.'.> 'II J
z
_J
I-
I-
w
"''
V>
_J
<(
I II
z
::E
Ck'.
w
I-

I
I J I
I,
1 ifJ Notes
o-41:;i.~gggg1. Numbers on curves represent true (not
bulk or opparent) soecific gravity of particles:
J--+-+--++relotive to water at 4° C.
1----+--+-+-+-2. Stokes C.unningham correction factor is
included for line particles settling in air.
1--+-+-++
3. Physical properties used:

Jo·S~ Fluid Temp. Viscosity Density

Of lbmoss/ft3
::= centipoise

Air 70 O.OJ8J 0.0749

11 Ill I II 1111 I I .I

10 _6 .____,__,_..LU.I
I .u..u...111--'---'--JW..U.l.lJ.L-l
I ~............
II'"':-:- 1I
1
Ill __.__._._._l...........
J JO JOO J,000 J0,000

PARTICLE DIAMETER, microns

Figure 4-2. Terminal velocities of spherical

particles in air. (Adapted from reference 7)

4-11
4. 2. 3 Design Considerations

A gravitational settling chamber consists essentially of a chamber in

which the velocity of the carrier gas is decreased so that particles in the gas

settle out by gravity. Velocity of a gas is reduced by expanding the ducting

into a chamber of suitable dimensions so that a low gas velocity is obtained.

The settling chamber may consist of a simple balloon duct (Figure 4-3),

an expansion chamber with dust hopper (Figure 4-4), or dust settling chamber

(Figure 4-5).

The multiple-tray settling chamber

(Figure 4-6) represents one of the

first attempts to increase collection

efficiency by reducing the vertical

Figure 4-3. Bal loon duct.
settling distance (time) by using

multiple shelving. Vertical distance between shelves may be as little as 1 inch.

The gas must be uniformly distributed laterally upon entering the chamber;

verticle distribution is not critical. Uniform distribution is achieved by the

use of gradual transitions, guide vanes, distributor screens, or perforated

plates.

Because the settling rate of dust decreases with increasing turbulence of

the gas, the velocity of the gas stream is usually kept as low as possible. For

practical purposes, the velocity must not be so great that settled particles are

reentrained, or so low that equipment size becomes excessive. Gas velocities

are normally from 1 to 10 feet per second.

4-12
1l~
1 if.'-~ -

Figure 4-4. Baffled expans ion chamber with dust hopper.

In practice, gravitational settling vel oc ities used in des ign must be based

on experi ence or on t ests conducte d under actual conditions, b ecause term inal

settling velocity may be influe nced by su ch factors as agglom e ration and

electrostatic charge.

4. 2. 4 Typical Applic ations

Settling chambers are usually insta lle d as pre- cl eane rs to r e m ove l arge

particles and aggl omera t ed partic l es, which can clog small-dia m e t er cyclones

4-1 3
 INLET
AIR PIPE

BAFFLE

Figure 4-5. Dust settling chamber.

Figure 4-6. Multiple-tray dust collector.

and other dust cleaning equipment. Because of space considerations, dust

7
charn~bers are usually limited to particles larger than 43 microns (325 mesh).

Dust settling chambers are most frequently used on natural draft exhaus·

from kilns and furnaces because of their low pressure drop and simplicity of
. 10
design. Other areas of application are in cotton gin operations and alfalfa
11
feed mills.

4-14
4. 3 DRY CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTORS

4. 3. 1 Introduction

Dry centrifugal collectors are gas cleaning devices that utilize the

centrifugal force created by a spinning gas stream to separate particulate

matter from the carrier gas. Spinning motion is imparted to the carrier gas

by a tangential gas inlet, vanes, or a fan. The dust particles, by virtue of

their inertia, move outward to the separator wall, from which they travel to
12
a receiver.

Three important forces that act on individual dust particles during the

separation process are gravitational, centrifugal, and frictional drag. The

force of gravity (F CY ), which causes the particulate matter to settle, is equal

0

to the product of the particulate mass (l\i ) and acceleration caused by gravity
p

(G).

F l\i X G
p

The major force causing the separation of particulate matter in a

cyclone separator is the centrifugal (radial) force caused by a uniform change

in linear velocity caused by rotation. The centrifugal force (F ) is equal to

c
the product of the particulate mass (l\I ) and centrifugal acceleration
p
(V 2 /R). 13, 14
p
9
F l\I x V ~IR
c p p

Where V is the particle velocity and R is the radius of motion (curvature).

p

4-15
 The ratio of centrifugal force to the force of gravity is often called the

.
separation f actor (s) : 15

2
s F /F
c g
V
p
/RG

In practice, S varies from 5 for large-diameter, low-resistance cyclones to

16
2500 for small-diameter, high-resistance units.

The frictional drag on a dust particle is caused by the relative motion

of the particle and gas, and acts to oppose the centrifugal force on the particle.

The frictional drag (Ff) is directly proportional to the product of (Cf), a drag

coefficient, the projected cross-sectional area of the particle (AP), particle

density (p), the square of the particle velocity relative to the gas stream

(V 2 ), and an inverse function of the acceleration due to gravity G.

r

The gravitational, radial, and frictional forces combine to determine the

path of the particle and collection efficie11cy.

4. 3. 2 Types of Centrifugal Collectors

Centrifugal collectors, commonly called cyclones, are made in a wide

variety of designs, which generally fall in the following categories:

1. Conventional reverse-flow cyclones

a. Tangential inlet.

b. Axial inlet.

2. Straight-through-flow cyclones.

3. Impeller collectors.

4-16
Figure 4-7 shows a typical cyclone of conventional reverse-flow design with a

tangential inlet. Dust laden gas enters the tangential inlet and flows in a

helical vortex path that reverses at the base of the cyclone to form an inner

cone. Dust particles are forced to the wall by centrifugal action and drop to

the bottom of the cyclone. There, dust must be removed without disturbing

the vortex of gas flow in the cyclone. Any disruption of the gas stream reduces

collection efficiency and causes particle reentrainrnent in the gas stream.

Tangential inlet cyclones are categorized as either high-efficiency or

high-throughput collectors. The high-efficiency design features a nanow gas

inlet which enhances collection because of the shorter radial settling distance

and large cross-sectional area between the wall and the dust-laden vortex.

These features are typical of many small diameter cyclones. The high-

throughput cyclone sacrifices efficiency for volume flow rate and is typical of

larger-diameter cyclones.

Although most cyclones use a cone to reverse the gas direction and

to deliver the collected dust to a central point for removal, a simple cylinder

can be used. Because the cylinder requires a greater axial distance than the

cone and thereby adds height and weight to the collector, it is not commonly

used.

The axial inlet cyclone is shown in Figure 4-8. Like the tangential

inlet cyclone, both the efficiency and pressure drop of axial inlet units are

affected by the dimensions of the gas inlet.

4-17
 CLEANED GAS

ZONE OF INLET
INTERFERENCE
~ OUTER
VORTEX

TOP VIEW

INNER
VORTEX
~
);
'
_,,.~GASOUTLET

\ \ t 11 BODY

GAS ~ INNER
INLET ~- --+----l-CYLINDER
- ,~ (TUBULAR
GUARD)
SIDE VIEW

OUTER
VORTEX

INNER
VORTEX )",

I~ \-DUST OUTLET

Figure 4-7. Conventional reverse-flow cyclone.

Figure 4-8. Axial inlet cyclone.

 In cyclones with straight-through flow (Figure 4-9), particulate matter is

collected around the periphery of the base and is bled off to a secondary collec-

tor that may be a cyclone or dust settling chamber. This type of cyclone is

used frequently as a fly ash collector and as a precleaner (skimmer) for other

types of dust cleaning equipment. The chief advantages of this design are low

pressure drop and high gas handling capacity.

In the impeller collector (Figure 4-10), the particulate-laden gas enters

the throat of the impeller and passes through a specially shaped fan blade where

the dust is thrown into an annular slot leading to the collection hopper.

The principal advantage of this unit is its compactness, which may be

of concern in a plant requiring a large number of collectors. The major

limitation is a tendency toward plugging and rotor imbalance from the buildup

of solids on the rotating impeller. Temperature limitations also exist because

of the use of bearings and seals in the device.

4. 3. 3 Design

High-efficiency, dry centrifugal collectors require that the separation

factor be high, and the number of gas revolutions large, and that collected dust

be removed to avoid reentrainment. Cyclone dimensional factors, gas

. . 15
characteristics, and dust properties affect dust collect10n.

Collection efficiency increases with:

1. dust particle size,

2. particle density,

4-19
 TOP VIEW

GAS FLOW

--r--- SWIRL VANES

SIDE VIEW

PURGE

'DEFLECTOR RING

Figure 4-9. Straight-through-flow cyclone.

(Courtesy of the American Petroleum In-
stitute)

4-20
 Figure 4-10. Dynamic cyclone showing method by which dust is dynamical ly
precipitated and delivered to the storage hopper .
( Co urtesy of American· Air Filte r Company )

3. inlet gas velocity,

4. cyclone body length,

5. number of gas revolutions,

6. s moothness of cyclone wall.

Collection efficiency decreases with increased:

1. gas viscosity,

2. cyclone diameter,

3. gas outlet duct diameter,

4. gas inle t area .

4-2 1
 Cyclone efficiencies are commonly classified as low, medium, and high,

corresponding to weight collection efficiency ranges of 50 to 80, 80 to 95, and

14
95 to 99 percent, respectively. A given cyclone design can fall into more

than one class, derending uron the mode of operation and the particle size being

collected. For example, a cyclone nominally considered a high-efficiency

cyclone could operate in the low collection efficiency range if it were used on a

gas stream containing a significant quantity of subrnicron particles.

In addition to the overall collection efficiency, based on the weight of

entrained particulate entering and leaving the collector, performance is also

related to cut size. Generally, cut size is defined as the particle diameter

collected with 50 percent efficiency on a weight basis.

Particle cut size may be estimated from the Hozin, Hammler, and
16
Intelmann formula:

D
pc
. v (9µ.b) I (27rN
e
v.i (p-g)

where:

Dpc =diameter of particle collected with 50 percent efficiency,

.c gas viscosity,
fi-
b - width of cyclone inlet,

N ·c number of effective tun1s within the cyclone,

e

4-22
 V = inlet gas velocity,
i
p = density of the particulate matter, and

g = density of the gas.

Well-designed, large-diameter, com·entional cyclones may be expected

to proYide high collection efficiency for particles from --±0 to .JO microns and
15
typically haYe cut sizes of S microns. High-efficiency cyclones ha1·ing

diameters of less than 1 foot operate efficiently on particles of LS to '.20 microns

in size and haYe cut sizes of 3 microns. Typical efficiencies for Yarious

particle size ranges are shmYn in Table --±-3.

Collection efficiency of small-diameter cyclones \\'ill be lmY if much of

the suspended material is smaller than .J microns. In special cases in \\'hich

the dust shmYs a high degree of agglomeration or high dust concentrations are

in1·01Yed (01·er 100 grains per cubic foot), cyclones \\·ill remo1·e dust particles

smaller than 5 microns in diameter. The size of the agg·lomerates is many

times larger than the original particles. Efficiencies of as high as 9S percent

ha1·e been attained on agglomerated dusts ha1·ing original particle sizes of

11
from 0.1 to '.2.0 microns.

Factors that commonly cause a reduction in cyclone collection efficiency

include infiltration of air at the bottom of the cyclone and the buildup of dust

on the cyclone \rnlls. A yariety of dust rernoYal methods is ::n-ailable (Figure

-±-11). The buildup of dust may be reduced by means of 1·ibrators and flexible
1;:;
rnbber cones. - Special Yafres may be used to discharge dust\\ ithout

admitting air.

--±-:23
Table 4-3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICLE SIZE RANGE
AND CYCWNE EFFICIENCY RANGE1 4

Particle size range, Conventional High

microns cyclone efficiency cyclone efficiency

Less than 5 -- Low

5 to 20 Low Medium

15 to 50 Medium High

Greater than 40 High High

4-24
 DOWNSPOUT
FROM
CYCLONE DOWNSPOUT
FROM
CYCLONE~
MANUAL
REMOVABLE ~SLIDE GATE
CONNECTION

CLOSED
/DRUM

TO
DUST~
BIN

SIMPLE CLOSED DRUM MOTOR-OPERATED

PERIODIC DUMP VALVE

DOWNSPOUT
FROM
CYCLONE .--~-....._.., ~
'COUNTER
WEIGHT

AUTOMATIC
FLAP
VALVES MECHANICALLY
OPERATED
SPHERICAL
SEGMENT
VALVES
OUT OF PHASE

I TO DUST

DUST
l /BIN

BIN
SPHERICAL SEGMENT VALVES
FOR HIGH-PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL

AUTOMATIC FLAP VALVES

DOWNSPOUT
FROM
/CYCLONE

SPRING-LOADED
CHOKE ON
SCREW
DISCHARGE

CHOKE DISCHARGE SCREW FEEDER

Figure 4-11. Various types of cyclone dust discharge.

(Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)

4-25
4. 3. 3. 1 Operating Pressure Drop - The pressure drop across a cyclone

depends on a number of variables, but usually ranges from 1 to 8 inches of

14
water. Efficiency increases with increasing inlet velocity, but at a lower

rate than that at which the pressure drop increases. For a given cyclone and

dust combination, an optimum velocity exists, beyond which turbulence increases

more rapidly than separation efficiency, and efficiency decreases.

Pressure drop in a cyclone is due to both frictional and dynamic energy

losses, which are interdependent. Frictional losses are determined by cyclone

surface roughness, gas velocity, and the physical properties of the gas and

aerosol. Dynamic energy loss, on the other hand, is caused by the energy

stored in the high-velocity rotating centrifugal gas stream. Part of this energy

is lost in the rotating gas leaving the cyclone.

Internal surface roughness can cause an increase in frictional pressure

drop, and result in a decrease in overall pressure drop by causing a decrease

in rotational gas velocity (dynamic pressure loss) along the outer circumference

of the cyclone, with a resultant decrease in collection efficiency.

To lower the pressure drop through a given collector, either a reduction

of the rotational velocity (dynamic pressure loss) of the clean exit gas or re-

duction of internal rotational energy (dynamic pressure gain) is used. Pressure

recovery from the exit gas may be accomplished by the use of deflection cones,

baffles, inverted cones, vanes, or drums and scrolls, but usually at the ex-

pense of reduced collection efficiency. Pres sure reduction values reported in

4-26
the liter::iturc vary from 10 to 25 percent of thC' total pressure drop n_cross
14
the cyclone.

Pressure reduction may also he ~1ccomplishcd hy thC' use of i111C't vanes

which reduce pressure drop ::rnd rotational velocity, and hence collection

efficiency. Vanes are usecl when gas handling c:1pacity is to he increased and/

or when normal collection efficiC'ncy is so high that loss in efficiency is

insignificant.

ln the impeller collector, pressure' drop and collC'ction efficiency may be

increased hy restricting the gas outlet. Pressure drop may he as lmY as 1/2

inch of water, and pressure gains may even be realized with some units because

of the pumping action of the n10tor-ci1'ivcn irnpelle1'.

-1. :l. :i. ~ Dust Loading - :\ cyclone can he designed to handle practically any

amount of material that can be moyed b)· gas flo\\' In b"l'nt:T~11 ' c\·clone
•

efficiency increases \\'ith incre~1sing dust 10~1cl. Since these characteristics

arc not possessed by other types of collectors \\'ith inhe1'entl)· higher efficiencies

cyclone's arc frequently used as precle~rners where clust loadings are too high

for the fin~ll collector.

Becaust' cyclone efficiencies decrease \\'ith decreasing dust load and

other t.\·pcs of collectors can opeL1tt• c'fficientl)· at lo\\' er dust loadings, eye lones

arc usually used (1) for dust loaclings of mo1·e than 10 t',"r::tins pe1' cubic foot,

(:2) for coarse or easily flocculated clust loadings of less than 10 grains per

cubic foot, or (3) if such factors as high tL'l11[)L'ratL1re ~rncl co1Tosion exert an

O\·erriding influence.

I •) r
ct-~1
4. 3. 3. 3 Other Design Considerations - Cyclones may be operated in parallel

as shown in Figures 4-12 and 4-13. In both configurations, gas distribution

becomes critical and collection efficiency is usually lower than the corresponding

single-unit efficiency. even in well-designed systems.

Figure 4-12. Cyc I ones arranged in para I le I.

Series operation is sometimes justified if the dust is subjected to

fragmentation and deflocculation as a result of bouncing within the cyclone, if

large particles must be removed to prevent clogging, if abrasion is a problem,

or if the primary cyclone loses efficiency. In these cases, the primary cyclone

is usually of large-diameter, low-pressure-drop design followed by progres-

sively smaller-diameter cyclones, each with increased efficiency and pressure

drop.

Erosion effects increase exponentially with increasing gas velocity.

Maximum erosion occurs at an impingement angle of from 20 to 30 degrees,

19
and is approximately twice the erosion occurring at 90 degrees. The effects of

4-28
 erosion m ay be mini mi zed by the use

of special alloys , abras ion-resistant

refra ctories, thicker walls, r ubber

lining , and by reducing gas ve lo city.

-±. 3. 4 Typical App l ications

Cyclones are freq ue ntly used

in both primary and secondary gas

c le an ing operations. The y are u sed i n

feed and gr ain mills , cotton gins , ferti-

li zer plants , petrole um r e fine ries,

asp halt mix ing plants, meta llurgical

operations, and che mical s , p lastics,

20, 21
a ncl m etals manufacture.

Cyclones designed for the collec -

Figure 4-1 3. Cyc lones a rranged in parall e l. tion of mist are sometimes m od ified by
( Courte s y o f We s t er n P r ec1p 1tot 1on D1v1 s 1o n )

placing an outer skirt on the gas o utle t to pr event liquid carryove r . Repre-

sentative performance and application s of centrifugal c ollec tors are li sted in

22
Tables 4-4 and 4-5.

4- 29
 Table 4-4. REPRESENTATIVE PERFORlVIANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTORS 20

Collector Airflow, Pressure drop, Efficiency, Inlet load, Inlet mass

type Process Material ft3/min in. H 0
2
wt% gr /ft3 median size, µ

Series cyclone Fluid-catalytic Catalyst 40,000 High 99.98 2800 37.0

cracking

Cyclone Abrasive Cleaning Talc 2,300 0.33 93.0 2.2 ---

Cyclone Drying Sand and Gravel 12,300 1. 9 86.9 38.0 8.2a

Cyclone Grinding Aluminum 2,400 1. 2 89.0 0.7 ---

Cyclone Planing mill Wood 3,100 3.7 97. 0 0.1 ---
Impeller Grinding Iron scale 11, 800 4.7 56.3 0.15 3.2b
collectors

Impeller Rubber dusting Zinc stearate 3,300 9.0 88. 0 0.6 0.7
collectors

~ Outlet mass median size= 3. 2 microns

Outlet mass median size = 2. 5 microns
 Table 4-5. APPLICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTORS

Type of air Collector

cleaning efficiency,
Operation or process Air contaminant equipment wt% Reference

Crushing, pulverizing, mixing,

screening
Alfalfa feed mill Alfalfa dust Cyclone, settling 85 23
chamber
Barley feed mill Barley flour dust Cyclone 85 23
Wheat air cleaner Chaff Cyclone 85 23

Drying, baking
Catalyst regenerator (petroleum) Catalyst dust Cyclone, ESP 95 23
Detergent powder spray drier Detergent powder Cyclone 85 23
Orange pulp feed drier Pulp dust Cyclone 85 23
Sand drying kiln Silica dust Cyclone 78 24
Sand and gravel drying Silica dust Inertial collector 50 25
Stone drying kiln Silica dust Cyclone 86 24

Mixing fluids
Asphalt mixing Sand and gravel dust Cyclone 50-86 24
Bituminous concrete mixing Sand and stone dust Cyclone, scrubber 95 22

Polishing, buffing, grinding,

chipping
Grinding (aluminum) Aluminum dust Cyclone 89 26
Grinding (iron) Iron scale and sand Cyclone 56 25
Grinding (machine shop) Dust Impeller collector 91 27

Surface coating
Fluffy zinc stearate Impeller collector 78-88 26
Rubber dusting

Surface treatment - physical

Talc dust Cyclone 93 26
Abrasive cleaning
Silicon carbide and 2 parallel cyclones 51 24
Abrasive stick trimming and
shaping alumina dust
Metallic and silica dust Impeller collector 97-99+ 27
Casting cleaning with metal
shot, sandblasting and tumbling
Dust Impeller collector 99 27
Foundry tumbling
Silicon carbide and Cyclone 58 24
Truing and shaping abrasive
products alumina dust

Woodworking, including plastics

rubber, paper board
Wood dust and chips Cyclone 97 26
Mill planing

4-31
4.4 WET COLLECTORS AND MIST ELIMINATORS

4. 4. 1 Introduction

Wet collectors use a liquid, usually water, in the separation process

either to remove particulate matter directly from the gas stream by contact

or to increase collection efficiency by preventing reentrainment.

4. 4. 1. 1 Collection Theory - Wet collectors increase particle removal efficiency

by two mechanisms: (1) fine particles are "conditioned" so that their effective

size is increased, enabling them to be collected more easily and (2) re-

entrainment of the collected particles is minimized by trapping them in a

. . . . 28, 29
liquid film and washrng them away.

The effective size of the particle may be increased by promoting con-

densation on fine particles, which act as nuclei when the vapor passes through

its dew point. Condensation can remove only a relatively small amount of

dust because the amount of condensation required to· remove high concentrations

is usually greater than can be readily achieved.

Forced conditioning or trapping of dust particles on liquid droplets is

usually accomplished by impact using inertial forces. Wetting agents do not

significantly increase collection efficiency, but they do help to prevent re-

entrainment of collected dusts that are not easily wetted by water. 30 Solubility

of the particle in the droplet is usually not a factor in increasing collection

effectiveness.

4-32
 The principal mechanisms by which particulate matter is brought into
29
contact with liquid droplets are:

1. Interception. Interception occurs when particles are carried by

a gas in streamlines around an obstacle at distances of less than the

radius of the particle.

2. Gravitational Force. Gravitational force causes a particle, as

it passes an obstacle, to fall from the streamline and settle on the

surface of the obstacle.

3. Impingement. Impingement occurs when an object, placed in

the path of a particle-laden gas stream, causes the gas to flow

around the obstacle. Larger particles, however, tend to continue

in a straight path because of inertia and may impinge on the obstacle

and be collected. (The impingement targ·et efficiency is represented

by the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the liquid droplets to the

area of the gas stream cleared of particles.)

4. Diffusion. Diffusion results from molecular collisions and,

except for submicron particles, plays little part in separation of

particles from a gas stream.

5. Electrostatic Forces. Electrostatic forces result when particles

and liquid droplets become electrically charged. An electrical charge

may be induced by flame ionization or friction, or by the presence of

charged matter. Electrostatic forces may affect collection

efficiency significantly.

4-33
 G. Thermal Gradients. Thermal gradients are important to the

removal of matter from a particle-laden gas stream because parti-

culate matter will move from a hot area to a cold area. The motion

is caused by unequal gas molecular collision energy on the surfaces

of the hot and cold sides of the particle, and is directly proportional

to the temperature gradient.

4. 4.1. 2 Efficiency - Efficiencies of wet-scrubbing devices are compared on

. 31 .
the basis of "contacting power" and the "transfer umt." Contactrng power

is that portion of useful energy expended in producing contact of the particulate

matter with the scrubbing liquid, as well as in producing turbulence and mixing

in the scrubber device. The contacting power represents the kinetic energy or

pressure head loss across the scrubber, kinetic energy or pressure head drop

of the scrubbing liquid, and other forms of energy dissipated in the gas stream,

such as sonic energy or energy supplied by a mechanical rotor.

The transfer unit, which is expressed as the numerical value of the

natural logarithm of the reciprocal of the fraction of the dust passing through

the scrubber, is a measure of the difficulty of separation of the particulate

matter.

Dust collection efficiency is believed by some investigators to be directly

related to contacting power and the properties of the aerosol and to have litte

4-34
 31
relationship to scrubber design and geometry. Others believe design details

are important in the effort to achieve ma'Cimum collection efficiency for a

given pressure drop.

Gas cleaning equipment is usually selected on the basis of required col-

32
lection efficiency. There are other factors such as gas temperature and

humidity and dust stickiness and abrasiveness that may exert an overriding

influence on the final choice. In the following discussion principal design

features of the various groups of wet collectors are reviewed from the point

of view of general suitability under different operating conditions.

In general, particle size distribution and operating conditions will de-

termine collection efficiencies, which, in turn, vvill determine power require-

ments for a given unit.

4. 4. 2 Equipment Description and Design

Collection efficiencies, operating pressure drop, water requirements,

and other operating characteristics reported herein were obtained from

manufacturers' equipment bulletins and other literature sources.

4.4.2.1 Spray Chamber - The simplest type of wet scrubber is a round or

rectangular spray chamber into which water is introduced by means of spray

33
nozzles.

4-35
 When spray chambers are used to remove coarse particles from hot

gases, they perform the additional functions of gas cooling and humidification.

Spray chambers also effect preliminary conditioning of the particulate matter

by causing condensation of moisture on particles, thus increasing collection

efficiency by increasing the size of the particles.

The principal three configurations in a spray chamber are cocurrent

' 34
flow, countercurrent flow, and cross f1ow .

In cocurrent flow, both the spray droplets and the gas containing par-

ticulate matter flow through the spray chamber in the same direction. The

relative velocity of the water droplet and gas stream causing effective

collision and capture of the particulate matter is at a minimum, as is col-

lection efficiency. Part of the kinetic energy of the spray droplets is expended

in inducing gas circulation and motion within the scrubber.

Countercurrent flow occurs when the liquid and gas flow in opposite

directions, as in a spray tower in which the liquid is introduced in the top of

the tower and falls against the rising gas stream. The relative velocity of the

liquid droplets and particulate matter in the gas stream is at a maximum, as

is collection efficiency.

In cross flow operation, the liquid is introduced at right angles to the

direction of gas flow and falls across the gas stream. The relative velocity

of the particulate and liquid droplet and the impaction efficiency lie between

the cross flow and countercurrent flow methods of operation.

4-36
 For a given spray chamber design, mixed flow usually occurs because of

turbulence, liquid droplet inertia, and gravitational force. Liquid droplets

travel in the direction of the liquid stream until inertial forces are overcome

by air resistance. Large droplets settle under the influence of gravity while

smaller droplets may be swept along with the gas stream.

Liquid droplets and particulate matter may be separated from the gas

stream by gravitational settling, impaction on baffles, filtration through

shallow packed beds, or by cyclonic action.

Spray chambers are used in exhaust systems for light dust cleaning,

electroplating fume control, and preconditioning dust from acid phosphate

34
fertilizers, as well as for providing a final cleanup of exhaust gases from
8
the recovery furnaces in the kraft pulp manufacturing process.
33
Figure 4-14 shows a spray system installed in the base of a stack.

When the system is properly adjusted and operated, 60 to 80 percent of the

36
solids entering the spray zone may be collected during soot-blowing operations.

·Approximately 1/2 gallon of liquid per minute per square foot of stack cross

sectional area is required.

The smokestack soot wet-out surface area may also be increased by

packing the smokestack (Figure 4-14). The pieces of packing are usually

stacked and of large diameter to minimize pressure drop and fouling of the bed.

Extra draft fan capacity must be available to make up for the decrease in draft

caused by lower flue gas temperature and by packing. The bed must be cleaned

periodically by flooding with water.

4-37
 FULLJET NOZZLE
16 FULLJET NOZZLES. 8 FULLJET NOZZLES.
13 REQUIRED IN TWO BANKS. 26 REQUIRED IN FOUR
MATERIAL TYPE 303 STAIN- BANKS. MATERIAL TYPE
LESS STEEL. PRESSURE 303 STAINLESS STEEL.
DROP 58 TO 62 p s , PRESSURE DROP 55 TO
65 p s i

NOZZLES TO PITCH NOTE NOZZLES TO PITCH

10° TOWARD CENTER 10° TOWARDCENTER
OF ST ACK OF STACK

SECTION A-A

\ FULLJET NOZZLE

INLET PIPE

'illl~~~,,~~ '' ~~ r, •

1111' iXXXX'IYXYXYXI
11111·~ ~ ,~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~. SECTION B-B

111 IXX)()(DC'!()(X~
1111 I·~~,~~".~"""
1 EXPECTED VARIATION OF LIQUID LOAD
A PACKING
1111~"~,~~"r·~'
PER SQUARE FEET APPROXIMATELY 10"0

111/l~"''~~""r' "~
11!1:~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ r. M

PACKED STACK UNPACKED STACK

Figure 4-14. Arrangement of nozzles in smoke stack spray system.

(Courf"esy of Spraying Systems Company)
4, 4. 2. 2 Gravity Spray Towers - One of the simplest types of wet scrubbers

is the gravity spray tower. Liquid droplets, produced by either spray nozzles

or atomizers, fall downward through a countercurrent rising gas stream con-

taining dust particles. To avoid spray droplet entrainment and carryover, the

terminal settling velocity of the spray droplets must be greater than the velocity

of the rising gas stream. In practice, the vertical gas velocity usually ranges

from 2 to 5 feet per second. For higher velocities, a mist eliminator must be

used in the top of the tower.

Collection impingement target efficiency in a gravity spray tower is in-

fluenced by the difference between the free-falling velocity of these particles

and the velocity of the rising gas stream. Droplet collection efficiency increases

with decreasing droplet size and increasing relative velocity. In a gravitational

settling chamber these two conditions are mutually exclusive. Hence, there is
37
an optimum droplet size for a maximum collection efficiency. In practice,

this optimum size is from 500 to 1000 microns.

Spray towers are often used as precoolers where large quantities of gas

are involved. Operating characteristics include low pressure drop (usually

less than 1 inch of water, exclusive of mist eliminator section and gas dis-

tribution plate), ability to handle spray liquid having a high solid content (us-

ing water recirculation because of large spray nozzle clearance and spray drop-

let size), and moderate liquid requirements (from 5 to 20 gallons per 1000 cfm).

Their chief disadvantages are low scrubbing efficiencies for dust particles in

4-39
331-716 0 - 69 - 13
the 1- to 2-micron range and large space requirements. Spray towers are

usually limited to the collection of particles of 10 microns or larger.

33
Figure 4-15 shows a typical spray tower layout. Gas entering the

base of the spray tower passes through inlet conditioning sprays, through a

distribution plate, through one or more banks of spray nozzles, and through a

mist eliminator section. The mist eliminator is usually necessary in a tower

operating at gas velocities of over 6 feet per second.

The base gas distributor plate may consist of a perforated plate with

uniform hole distribution or a support plate covered with from 6 to 12 inches of

tower packing.

4. 4. 2. 3 Centrifugal Spray Scrubbers - The efficiency of collection of

particles smaller than those recovered in a gravitational spray tower can be

improved by increasing the relative velocity of the droplets and gas stream.

This may be achieved by using the centrifugal force of a spinning gas stream.

Centrifugal spray scrubbers are of two types. In the first type the

spinning motion is imparted to the gas stream by a tangential entry such as

shown in Figure 4-16a. The principal benefit is derived from the wetted walls,

which prevent reentrainment of separated material. Best collection is obtained

by spraying countercurrently to gas flow in the inlet duct at water rates of from

5 to 15 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of gas and at pressure drops in excess of
37
3 inches of water. Figure 4-16b shows this principle employed with a

tangential base gas inlet. The liquid spray is directed outward from sprays

4-40
 PIPE

»)=-----:_-_-_-=----_---;::-=-- ~
(([=--==-=-=-=~-=-=- - - _ _- -_-_--
MIST ELIMINATOR

I \./ \
I /\ \

/\/\
I /\ \

GAS DISTRIBUTOR PLATE

GAS IN ...

Figure 4-15. Typical layout for spray tower.

(Courtesy of Spraying Systems Company)

4-41
 CLEAN GAS OUT
CLEANED GAS

DUSTY
GAS SPRAY RING
WATER SUPPLY

a. LARGE-DIAMETER IRRIGATED CYCLONE

b. PEASE ANTHONY CYCLONIC SCRUBBER

(Courtesy of Chemical Construction Corporation)

CLEAN GAS
OUT

t CLEAN GAS
-OUT

TOWER NOZZLES,
VERTICAL DIRECTED
SPRAY CROSS FLOW
RISERS.

FLEXIBLE
PIPING
QUICK-
OPENING
NOZZLE
LATCHES

-
GAS
IN
FRESH WATER
SUPPLY

FLUSHING JETS,
DIRECTED
i
DOWNWARD
WASTE OUT
WATER OUT

CYCLONIC SPRAY SCRUBBER. d. MUL Tl-WASH SCRUBBER.

(Courtesy of Buffalo Forge Company) {Courtesy of Claude B. Schne1ble Company)

Figure 4-16. Centrifugal spray scrubbers.

4-42
set in a central pipe. An unsprayed section above the nozzles is provided so

that the liquid droplets containing the collected particles will have time to reach

the walls of the chamber before coming into contact with the gas stream.

In the scrubber design illustrated in Figure 4-16c water is sprayed

tangentially inward from the wall as an aid in imparting centrifugal motion to

the gas stream. The scrubbing liquid is introduced through nozzles at a pres-

sure of 400 pounds per square inch (gauge) .

Water requirements are approximately 5 gallons per 1000 cubic feet

of gas. Operating pressure drop ranges from 1. 3 to 2. 3 inches of water with

38
removal efficiencies as high as 96 percent for 2- to 3-micron particles.

In the second design, (Figure 4-16d) the rotating motion is given to the

gas stream by fixed vanes and impellers, and the scrubbing liquid is introduced
39
centrally either as a spray or liquid stream.

This type of scrubber is used as a final cleanup after spray dryers,

calciners, coolers, crushers, classifiers, and cupolas.

4. 4. 2. 4 Impingement Plate Scrubbers - Impingement plate scrubbers,

shown in Figure 4-l 7a, consist of a tower equipped with one or more impinge-
37
ment stages, mist removal baffles, and spray chambers. The impingement

stage (Figure 4-17b) consists of a perforated plate that has from 600 to 3000

holes per square foot and a set of impingement baffles so arranged that a baf-

fle is located directly above each hole. The perforated plate is equipped with

a weir to control the level of scrubbing liquid on the plate. The liquid flows

over the plate and through a downcomer to either a sump or the lower stage.

4-43
 The dust-laden gas enters the lower section of the scrubber and passes

up through a spray zone created by a group of low-pressure sprays. As the

dust-laden gas passes through the impingement stage, the high gas and particle

velocity (from 75 to 100 feet per second) effectively atomizes the liquid at the

edges of the perforations. The spray droplets, about 10 microns in size,

enhance collection of fine dust.

Overall efficiency for a single plate may range from 90 to 98 percent

for 1-micron particles or larger, with pressure drops of from 1 to 8 inches of

water and water requirements of from 3 to 5 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of
37
gas.
4.4.2.5 Venturi Scrubbers - Obtaining high collection efficiency of fine

particles by impingement requires a small obstacle diameter and high relative

velocity of the particle as it impinges on the obstacle. In a venturi scrubber

this is achieved by introducing the scrubbing liquid at right angles to a high

velocity gas flow in the throat (vena contracta) of the venturi. Very small

water droplets are formed by the gas flow, and high relative velocities are

maintained until the droplets are accelerated to their full speed.

In the venturi scrubber the velocity of the gases alone causes the dis-

integration of the liquid. The energy expended in the scrubber is accounted

for by the gas stream pressure drop through the scrubber, except for the

small amount used in the sprays and mist separation chamber.

A second factor which plays a part in the effectiveness of the venturi

scrubber is the conditioning of dust particles by condensation. If the gas in

4-44
 TARGET
PLATE

WATER
LEVEL
IMPINGEMENT
BAFFLE STAGE

GAS FLOW

AGGLOMERATING ARRANGEMENT OF "TARGET PLATES"

SLOT ST AGE
IN IMPINGEMENT SCRUBBER

WATER DROPLETS ATOMIZED

AT EDGES OF ORIFICES

-.:.- ..

GAS FLOW

DOWNSPOUT TO
LOWER STAGE -,_...__,.,..,

u. IMPINGEMENT SCRUBBER b. IMPINGEMENT PLATE DETAILS

Figure 4-17. Impingement plate scrubber.

4-45
the reduced-pressure region in the throat is fully saturated, or (preferably)

supersaturated, some condensation will occur on the particles in the throat due to

the Joule-Thompson effect. Condensation will be more pronounced if the gas is

hot, due to the cooling effect of the scrubbing liquid. This helps the particle to

grow, and the wetness of the particle surface helps agglomeration and separation.

Gas velocities of from 200 to 600 feet per second are attained in the

40
venturi throat. Water is either injected into the throat of the venturi as a

spray (Figure 4-18a) or by means of a weir box (Figures 4-18b and 4-18c) in

quantities of from 5 to 7 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of gas.

Figures 4-18b and 4-18c show a scrubber that uses an overflow weir on

the walls upstream of the venturi. This method of water injection has the ad-

vantage of allowing the scrubbing water to be recirculated to much greater

extent than is possible with systems using small jets.

Recent developments have taken the form of finding methods of injecting

water to reduce nozzle wear and pump requirements, and in maintaining pres-

sure drop with varying gas flows. Methods of maintaining pressure drop and

scrubbing efficiency with varying gas flow rates have been centered in the

development of variable venturi throats.

The flooded disk (variable-throat-orifice scrubber) illustrated in Figure

41
4-19 is a relatively new development. Scrubbing liquid is fed to the center

of the orifice plate, which serves to distribute the liquid across the orifice

throat. The pressure drop and efficiency performance is comparable to other

4-46
 b.

Figure 4-18. Venturi scrubber may feed liquid through jets (a),
over a weir (b), or swirl them on a shelf (c}.
(Courtesy of UOP Air Correc tion Division)

4-47
venturi scrubbers. The scrubbing effi c iency and pressure drop may be ad-

justed by changing the position of the disk.

CLEAN GAS OUTLET

DUST Y GAS
INLET CYCLONE MIST
SEPARATOR

ADJUSTABLE DIS K - -

STUFFING BO X -

SCRUBBING WATER INLET--

DISK-POSITIONING ROD

SCRUBBING WATER OUTLET

Figure 4-19. Flooded disk (variable throat orifice) scrubber.

( Courtesy of ReseOTch Cottrell Incorp orated )

The operating pressure drop across the unit ranges from 6 to 70 inches

of water. Water recirculation rate is about 5 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of

gas ; make-up water requir ed is abo ut a gallon per 1000 cubic f eet.

4-48
 In the venturi jet scrubber the scrubbing liquid may be supplied in the

form of a high-velocity jet directed along the axis of a venturi throat. The

ejector venturi scrubber uses the velocity of the contacting liquid to pump, scrub,

and/ or absorb the entrained gas.

The mechanical efficiency of the venturi jet stream in pumping the gas

may range as high as 16 to 17 percent of the total energy input. The energy

requirements range from 1 to 5 horsepower per 1000 cubic feet per minute.

Corresponding liquid requirements range from 20 to 50 gallons per 1000 cubic

feet of gas. Increased collection efficiency requires increased energy ex-

42, 43
penditure.

In the multiple-venturi jet scrubber (Figure 4-20), a nozzle sprays

a hollow cone of water into the belled venturi entrance so that the spray strikes

the throat wall and rebounds in the form of a fine spray at right angles to the

gas stream. The water passes through the gas stream twice before passing

through the venturi diffuser section. Features of the design are low water
44
usage and low pressure drop.

The vertical venturi differs from the conventional venturi scrubber in

that the gas flow is directed upward to produce a turbulent mixing action of the

gas stream and suspended scrubbing liquid in the diffuser section of the venturi

(Figure 4-21). Liquid recirculation occurs both internally by eddy mixing

action in the diffuser and externally by return of the scrubbing liquid, after

partial solids separation, to the venturi throat. The carryover slurry, when

4-49
F ig ure 4-20. Multiple-venturi je t scrubber.
(Co urtesy of Bue l l Corporation)

4- 50
 separate d b y the centrifugal ac tion

of the gas stream c ause d by the sta -

tio na r y impeller, r e turns by gravity

t o the solids conce ntrat or. The

princ ipal advantage s of this des ign

MIST ELIMIN A TOR
SECT ION a r e high solids content of s lurry, low

water usage (1 to 3 gallons per 1000

c ubic feet of gas), e limination of a

rec irculation pump, re lativel y low

pres sure drop, and low operating

-15
CUTAW AY V IE W OF
A EROM I X SHOWIN G
costs .
FLOW P A TTERN . NOTE
,.,, . RECIRCULATIO N ZON E.
/·." :·
-L 4 . 2. G Packed Bed Sc rubbers - A

tower or box packed with su ch pack-

ing a s Raschig r ings, s addles, tile,

a nd m arbles may be used for dust

D I FF U SER
SEC TI ON

and mist collection as we ll as for gas

ab sor ption (Fig11re 4- 22). Two basic

pack e d b e d designs , c r oss - flow

£ GAS I N

(Fig-u re 4-23a) and counte r current

F ig ure 4-21. Vertical ventur i scrubber.
(Co urtes y of UOP Air Corr ectio n fl ow (F igure 4- 23b) exi st. The
D iv i s i o n)

packed bed may be he ld in place

(fixed ), fre e to move (fluid), or

4- 5 1
 PALL RING

PLASTIC INTALO X
SADDLE

RASCHIG LESSING CROSS-PARTITI ON

RING RING RIN G
TELLERETTE

SIN GLE SP IRA L DOUBLE SPIRAL TRIPL E SPIRAL

RING RING RING

BERL INT ALO X

SADD LE SADDLE

CERAMIC PACKINGS

MASP AC

Figure 4-22. Wet scrubber packings.

4 - 52
 GAS OUTLET
c:..__
, ,.-:::i
MIST
t ,,,.,.../"ELIMINATOR
SECTION

I T I
LIQUID ...!
LIQUID
DISTRIBUTION
PACKING HEADERS
UNWETTED
, SECTION FOR ~
. _
-INLET
::i
SUPPORT, / ,-' MIST ELIMINATION ' · 'V' WEIR
GRID ,_,.. Q< QQ< DISTRIBUTOR
I
"' )C
""'
..... :IQ
""""' IQ<

"' """'
...,
..,, ..... ..... ---SCRUBBING
PACKED
:x SECTION
DIRTY .... ;<.;

GAS IN CLEAN GAS .N

"" CJ-,;

OUT I I I I ,. --- PACKING

L SUPPORT
GAS INL ET-

~
I
I
FRONT / LIQUID
CLEANING/ \
OUTLET
SPRAYS 'SUMP

a. CROSS-FLOW SCRUBBER b. COUNTERCURRENT-FLOW SCRUBBER

Figure 4-23. Packed-bed scrubbers.

(C ourt9S y of C h"m ica I Eng 1n9eri ng Magazine)
covered with water (flooded). The irrigating liquid serves to wet, dissolve,

and/ or wash the entrained particulate matter from the bed. Dry beds may be

used for the elimination of mists. In general, smaller-diameter tower packing

gives a higher particle target efficiency than larger-sized packing for a given

gas velocity.

The cross flow, fixed bed, packed scrubber (Figure 4-23a) operates

with the gas stream moving horizontally through the packing while the irriga-

ting liquid flows by gravity vertically through the packing. This type of scrub-

ber operates with a very low pressure drop and water requirements, both of

which are about 40 percent of that required for counter flow operation. The

leading face of the packed bed is usually slanted from 7 to 10 degrees (depend-

ing on gas velocity) in the direction of the oncoming gas stream to ensure com-

plete wetting and washing of the face of the bed by the falling irrigation liquid.

Inlet sprays are usually included in this design to condition the inlet gas and

scrub the face of the packed bed. The first few inches of the bed may be irri-

gated more heavily to prevent build-up of solids. The back of the bed is usually

. t·ing sec t·10n. 4G

operat e d d ry t o ac t as a d em1s

Liquid requirements range from 1 to 4 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of

gas, with pressure drops of from 0. 2 to O. 5 inch of water per foot of bed.

Collection efficiency in excess of 90 percent may be achieved when collecting

particles of 2 microns or larger, with dust loadings as high as 5 grains

. f 47
per cub ic oot. Higher dust loadings may be handled if the dust is readily

soluble.

4-54
 Countercurrent flow (Figure 4-23b) is the most common design used in

packed beds. Gas is forced upward through the packing against gravity flow of

the liquid.

Countercurrent flow works best at a pressure drop and gas velocity

that cause the buildup of water in and on top of the bed, usually 0. 5 to 1. O
48
inch of pressure drop per foot of packing depth. Pressure drop in excess

of this amount will usually result in excessive liquid entrainment and reduced

efficiency. Liquid flow rates of from 10 to 20 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of

gas are common. Water efficiency will then be at a maximum and bed clogging

at a minimum.

In co current, or parallel flow, the gas stream and liquid pass through

the bed in the same direction. In this type of operation the irrigation liquid

keeps the packed bed from being clogged, and the gas and liquid both assist in

washing solids through the bed. The advantage of this type of operation is the

small liquid requirement, 7 to 15 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of gas. The

operating pressure drop is on the order of 1 to 4 inches of water per foot of

packed bed.

The flooded-bed packed scrubber is operated as a counterflow packed tower

(Figure 4-24). The packing consists of a 6-inch thick bed of spherical packing.

Dust- and fume-laden air enters below the bed of glass marbles and passes through

a spray section and up through the flooded bed of spheres. Bubbles forn1ed in

the bed create a turbulent layer approximately 6 inches in depth. The marbles

4-55
331-716 0 - 69 - 14
have a constant, gentle rubbing action which makes them self-cleaning. En-

trained moisture is removed by impaction or inertial separation in a mist

elimination section. The scrubber is reported to be 99 percent efficient in re-

moving particles 2 microns and larger with a pressure drop of from 4 to 6

49
inches of water. Scrubbing liquid requirements are from 2 to 2-1/ 2 gallons

per 1000 cubic feet of gas. Liquid with a high solid content can be recirculated.

The scrubber is capable of handling dust loads of up to 40 grains per standard

cubic foot. Flooded bed packed scrubbers may be used to control emissions

of acid vapors, carbon black, ceramic frit, chlorine tail gas, cupola gas, and

ferrite dusts.

Fluid bed packed scrubber (Figure 4-25) packing consists of low density

polyethylene or polypropylene spheres about 1-1/2 inches in diameter that are

45
continually in motion between the upper and lower retaining grid.

The scrubbing liquid is sprayed downward over the balls in a counter-

current flow of dirty gas. Gas and liquid are brought into contact on the sur-

face of the wetted spheres and in the spray between them.

The spheres are continually cleaned by constant motion, and the bed is

not readily plugged.

Pressure drop ranges from 6 to 8 inches of water, and collection

. . . . 49
e ff icienc1es are m excess of 99 percent for particles of 2 microns and larger.

Liquid and dust handling capacities are comparable to the flooded bed packed
45
scrubber.

4-56
 GAS OUTLET

MIST
E L IMI NATO R

GAS
INLET

-w: - T URBULENT
L AY E R

GLASS SPHERES

SPR A Y
WATER INLET

F igure 4-24. F looded - bed scr ubber.

(Courtesy of N o t1 o no l D usi Co ll ector Corporo t 1on)

4 - 57
 CLEAN GAS

SCRUBBING LIQUOR

RETAINING GRID

FLOATING BED OF LOW-

DENSITY SPHERES

RETAINING GRID

FEED
GAS

TO DRAIN
OR RECOVEF

Figure 4-25. FI oat i ng-ball (fluid-bed) packed scrubber.

(Courtesy of UOP Air Correclion Division)

4-58
4. 4. 2. 7 Self-Induced Spray Scrubbers - The particle collection zone of the

self-induced spray scrubber is a spray curtain that is induced by gas flow through

a partially submerged orifice or streamlined baffle. Mist carryover is minimized

by baffles or swirl chambers. In the submerged orifice scrubber (Figure 4-26a)

the impingement gas velocity of about 50 feet per second creates droplets in the
50
300- to 400-micron range. Blaw Knox (Figure 4-26b) and Doyle (Figure

4-26c) scrubbers operate with impingement velocities of from 120 to 180 feet
51
per second.

Pressure drop ranges from 2 to 15 inches, and water requirement is

about 1 gallon per 1000 cubic feet of gas when water is recycled.

The chief advantages of the self-induced spray scrubber design are

its ability to handle high dust concentration and concentrated slurries.

Sludge removal may be accomplished by drag chains or by sluicing the

sludge to suitable separators.

4. 4. 2. 8 Mechanically Induced Spray Scrubbers - In the mechanically induced

spray scrubber (Figures 4-27a and 4-27b) high-velocity sprays are generated

at right angles to the direction of gas flow by a partially submerged rotor.

Scrubbing is achieved by impaction because of both high radial droplet velocity

and vertical gas velocity. Liquid atomization occurs at the rotor and at the
52
outer wall.

4-59
 GAS OUTLET

SEPARATOR
PLATES

PRIMARY
-· SEPARATOR

GAS
INLET

~
I
O'l b. LIQUID VORTEX CONTRACTOR
0 (CourtHy of Bio..., l<noJI! Co. )

DIRTY GAS

'y CL~~
GA?-

r
-

WATER
~

a. SCHM I EG SWIR L -OR I F I CE DUST COLLECTOR

(Courtesy of United Sheet Metal Co., Inc.)

DOYLE SCRUBBER
CC o~•••y ol Wes tern P r • c l p l •ot l on O lvl • l on)

Figure 4-26. Self-induced-spray scr ubbers.

 Power and liquid requirements range from 3 to 10 horsepower and from

4 to 5 gallons per 1000 cubic feet of gas for the high-velocity design (Figure
53
4-27b), depending on particle size and the desired level of scrubbing efficiency.

Advantages of this type of scrubber are relatively low liquid requirements,

small space requirements, high scrubbing efficiency, and high dust load capac-

ity. The rotor, however, is susceptible to erosion from large particles

and abrasive dusts, and high-energy scrubbing applications may require

the use of additional mist elimination equipment.

4. 4. 2. 9 Disintegrator Scrubbers - A disintegrator scrubber consists of a

barred rotor within a barred stator. Water is injected axially through the rotor

shaft and is separated into fine droplets by the high relative velocity of rotor and

stator bars. Dust particles are impacted by the high velocity liquid droplets.

Water and power requirements range from 4 to 9 gallons per minute

and from 7 to 11 horsepower, respectively, for each 1000 cubic feet per minute of

gas handling capacity. Scrubbing efficiency is about 95 percent for 1-micron

particles and may be improved by increasing either the water rate or the num-

ber of stator and rotor bars. Scrubbing efficiency is independent of dust load-

ing, and exit dust concentrations range as low as 0. 004 grain per standard cubic
54
foot.

Advantages of this scrubber are high collection efficiency for submicron

particles and low space requirements. The principal disadvantage is its large

power requirement.

4-61
 ,,..
l

a. SCHMIE G VERTICAL - ROTOR DUST COLLECTOR b. CENTER SPRAY HIGH-VELOCITY SCRUBBER

(Courtesy of United Sheet Metol Co., Inc.) (Courtesy of Air Engineering Magazine )

Figure 4-27. Mechanically induced spray scrubbers.

4. 4. 2.10 Centrifugal Fan Wet Scrubbers-This type of scrubber, (Figure

4-28) consists essentially of a multiple-blade centrifugal blower.

Design pressure drop is about 6-1/2 inches with a maximum pressure

drop of 9 inches. Water requirements range from 3/4 to 1. 5 gallons per 1000

cubic feet of gas and power requirements range from 1 to 2 horsepower per
55
1000 cubic feet per minute.

The chief advantages are low space requirements, moderate power

requirements, low water consumption, and a relatively high scrubbing effici-

ency.

4. 4. 2. 11 Inline Wet Scrubbers-In this axial-fan-powered gas scrubber

(Figure 4-29), a water spray and baffle screen wet the particles, and centrifugal

fan action eliminates the wetted particles through concentric louvers.

Pressure drop is about 5 inches of water, and v:ater consumption is

about 1 gallon per 1000 cubic feet of gas. The moisture removal capacity of

the eliminator section is sensitive to changes in gas flow rate. Average re-

moval efficiency is in excess of 99 percent for particles ranging in size from

. 56
5 to 10 microns.

Advantages of the inline wet scrubber are low installation space re-

quirements and low installation costs. Coal and metal mining industries use

inline scrubbers.

4-63
 DIR TY
IN L ET GAS
DISCH~~~t
DIRT A
TER
BLADE TIPS A T

WAT ER SPRAY
NO ZZLE

Figure 4-28. Ce ntrifuga l f an we t

(C our tes y of A . scrubber.
mer1con A ir Filt e r Company)

4- 64
Figure 4-29. lnl ine wet scrubber.
(Court esy of Joy Man ufacturing Company)

4- 65
4. 4. 2. 12 Irrigated Wet Filters - Irrigated wet filters (Figure 4-30a) con-

sist of an upper chamber, containing wet filters and spray nozzles for clean-

ing the gas, and a lower chamber for storing scrubbing liquid. Liquid is re-

circulated and sprayed onto the surface of the filters on the upstream side of the

bed. Two or more filter stages constructed in series are used. A dry bed

containing small diameter fibers may be added as a final cleanup stage to re-
57 58
move spray mist. ' A wetted impingement plate may be used in the first com-
59
partment to reduce the particle load on the following stage (Figure 4-30b). • GO

The number of cleaning stages to be used is determined by the character-

istics of the gas stream and cleaning requirements. Gas velocities range from

200 to 300 feet per minute with a liquid requirement of approximately three

gallons per minute per square foot of filter area (8 to 10 gallons per 1000 cubic

feet of gas). Pressure drop, which ranges from 0. 2 to 3 inches of water per

4-inch bed depth, is dependent on the gas loading, liquid loading, and fiber bed

density. Normal bed thickness may range from 1 to 4 inches, based on

.
scru bb mg .
reqmremen t 57
s.

The chief mechanism of irrigated wet filters involved in the capture of

particulate matter is interception by individual filaments in the filter. Both

particle removal and gas absorption can be accomplished, and the irrigation

feature aids in removal of solid particulate matter.

4. 4. 2. 13 Wet Fiber Mist Eliminators - Two mechanisms Brownian diffu-

'
sion and inertial impaction, are involved in the separation of mist and dust

particles in wet fiber mist eliminators.

4-66
 SPRAY HEADER CONNECTION

z@ ~ ~

FLOAT VA L VE

c(J QUIC K FI LL

OVERFLO W

LIQUID LE VEL INDICATOR S

SUCTIO N CONNECTIO N

a. WETTED FILTER

DUST- LAD EN GAS

V ENA CO N TRACT A

IMPAC T ION

··~.

WATER FILM WATER F I LM

WATER DROPLET S

b. IMPINGEMENT PLATE F ILTER

Figure 4-30 . Wetted and impingement pl ate filters.

(Courtesy of Buffalo Forge Company)

4-67
 Brownian diffusion dominates in mist collection in which fiber beds with

large specific surface areas are used, gas velocities range between 5 and 30

feet per minute, and the mist consists largely of submicron particles. A char-

acteristic of Brownian diffusion control is that collection efficiency increases

with decreasing gas velocity because of increased filter bed retention time.

This collection mechanism has some effect on the collection of 3-micron parti-

cles and a major effect on the collection of 0. 5 micron particles. Brownian

motion is an important factor in particle capture by direct interception.

Inertial impaction dominates in particle collection above 3 microns in

size at gas velocities in excess of 30 feet per second in coarse filter beds.

Inertial impaction efficiency increases with increasing gas velocity.

Fiber diameter and the distance between adjacent fibers are important

in determining collection efficiency and pressure drop. Because high mechani-

cal bed stability is necessary for operation in the high pressure drop range,

design of mounting and support structures becomes critical. 56

Wetted filters are available in two designs, low-velocity (5 to 30 feet

per minute), illustrated in Figure 4-31, and high-velocity (30 to 90 feet per

minute), illustrated in Figure 4-32. The low-velocity design consists of a

packed bed of fibers retained between two concentric screens. Mist particles

collect on the surface of the fibers, coalesce to form a liquid film that wets

the fibers, and are moved horizontally and downward by gravity and the drag

4-68
of the gases. The liquid flows down the inner screen to the bottom of the

element and through a liquid seal to a collection reservoir. Collection effi-

ciencies are reported to be in excess of 99 percent on particles smaller than

3 microns at operating pressure drops of from 5 to 15 inches of water. Effi-

ciencies increase when the scrubber is operated below design capacity.

The high-velocity filtering element (Figure 4-32a) consists of a packed

fiber bed between two parallel screens. A multiple mounting is shown in

Figure 4-32b. Liquid flow patterns are similar to those of the low-velocity

filter, and removal efficiencies range from 85 to 90 percent for 1- to 3-micron

62
particles and pressure drops of from 5 to 10 inches of water.

This type of wet filter finds application in the collection of sulfuric,

phosphoric, and nitric acid mists and in the separation of moisture and oil

from compressed gases. Disposable filters are used in the recovery of

platinum catalysts used in nitric acid manufacture and in the collection of

63
viruses and bacteria, and radioactive and toxic dusts.

The wire mesh filter consists of an evenly spaced knitted wire mesh

and is usually mounted in horizontal beds (Figure 4-33). The principal

collection mechanism is inertial impaction. Rising mist droplets strike the

wire surface, flow down the wire to a wire junction, coalesce, and flow to the

4-69
 CLEAN
GAS OUT
CLEAN GASES
TO STACK

TUBE SHEET

BRINK MIST
ELIMINATOR

ELEMENTS

RECOVERED
H2S04

ACID-LADEN
GASES
LIQUID
.........-SEAL
POT

LIQUID BACK TO PROCESS

a. LOW-VELOCITY FIL TE RING ELEMENT b. MULTIPLE MOUNTING OF LOW-VELOCITY FILTER-

ING ELEMENTS
Figure 4-31. Low-velocity filtering elements.
(Courtesy of Monsanto Company)
 CLEAN
0 GAS
OUT

FIBER
ELEMENTS

--=)
)
DIRTY GAS DRAIN
IN /PIPE
LIQUID
_...LEVEL
///////// ///////I'//
///////// //////////
///////// //////////
////////// //////////
/////////1 //////////
/////////, ///,//////
/////////ii //////////
/////////,1 ,.,,,.,.,,,,.,.,.,. ACID
/////////;
/////////, ~~~~~~~~~~-OUT
"

a. HIGH-VELOCITY FILTERING ELEMENT b. MULTIPLE MOUNTING OF HIGH-VELOCITY FILTER-

ING ELEMENTS

Figure 4-32. High-velocity filtering elements.

(Courtesy of Monsanto Company)
 STACK

EFFLUENT FROM
ABSORBER

a. MIST ELIMINATOR ARRANGEMENT IN VESSEL

ABOVE ACID PLANT ABSORBER b. ONE-PIECE DEMISTER®
(Courtesy of Chemical Engineering Progress Magazine) (Courtesy of Otto H. York Co., Inc.)

Figure 4-33. Wire mesh mist eliminators.

bottom surface of the bed, where the liquid disengages in the form of large

. t o tlie process eqmpment.

. 64
droplets and returns b y granty

Operating pressure drop is usually less than 1 inch of water with gas

,-elocities of from 10 to 15 feet per second. Recent de,·elopment has centered

on the area of high energ.\· filtration in \Yhich pressure drops of from 35 to 40

inches of water gauge ha,·e been used.

Factors governing ma..'\.imum allowable gas ,-elocities include gas and

liquid density, surface tension, viscosity, bed specific surface area, liquid

64
loading, and suspended solids content.

•.\dvantages in the use of fiber filters and wire mesh mist collectors

are high removal efficiency, simplicity of operation, lmY maintenance in dust-

free sen-ice, lmr initial cost, and reco\·er.\· of Yaluable products \\·ithout dilu-

ti on.

-1. -1. 2. 14 Impingement Baffle :\list Eliminators - Baffle mist eliminators

offer one of the simplest methods of controlling large-diameter solid and

liquid particulate emissions. A Yariety of designs are in use. Figures 4-34,

-1-35, 4-36, and 4-37 show the arrangement of baffles successfull.\· used in the
6-0
reduction of emissions from coke quenching operations. :.\n :3 5 to 90 per-

cent reduction of emissions \\·as achie,·ed on particulate matter "·hich ranged

from 16 to 200 mesh at gas yelocities ranging to a high of 36 feet per second.

A significant reduction in \rnter droplet fallout \YaS also achie,·ed. The baffles

we re operated dry with short spray periods to preYent the buildup of solids . 65

.J:-73
 A A

L u
WATER SPRA y
MANI FOLD TO P VIEW

T OP OF
----- QUENCH
-=l~~~~~~-"""-r.=;> TOWER

SPRAY
NOZZLES

BAFFLES

SECTION A-A b. MIST ELIMINATOR BAFFLES

SIDE VIEW

a. DIAGRAM OF BAFFLE SYSTEM SHOWING CLEAN-

ING WATER SPRAYS AND BAFFLE ARRANGEMENT

Figure 4-34. Coke quench mist elimination baffle system.

(Courles y of U. S. Stee I Corp.)

Figures 4-35, 4-36, and 4-37 show the common lay-

outs of mist eliminator baffles used in spray chamber

35 66
scrubbers. • Mist removal efficiencies of as

high as 95 percent may be achieved for the removal

of 40-micron spray droplets up to a maximum gas

velocity of 25 feet per second and pressure drops of

from 1 to 2 inches of water. Velocities in excess of

25 feet per second result in the re-entrainment of

60° BENT PLATE UNIT

liquid droplets.
Figure 4-35. Detai Is of baffle
design.
(C curies y of Che mica I Engineering 4. 4. 2. 15 Vane-Type Mist Eliminators - Vane-
Progress Magazine)
type mist eliminators (Figure 4-36) have a range

of operation of from 10 to 50 feet per second, with

4-74
 6666666
66666666
6666666
66666666
6666666
66666666 GAS
FLOW

Figure 4-36. Streamline mist eliminator baffles.

FLUE
GAS

Figure 4-37. Screen and mist eliminator details.

(Courtesy of Poper Trade Journal)

4-75
collection efficiencies reported to be as high as 9 9 percent for 11-micron par-

ticles and with pressure drops from 0.1to2 inches of water. Theprin-

cipal advantage of vane type over baffle mist eliminators is the wider range of
67
operation at comparable collection efficiencies.

4. 4. 2.16 Packed Bed Mist Eliminators - Figure 4-38 shows a packed bed

stack mist eliminator. Removal efficiencies of such devices may range to as

high as 65 percent at gas velocities of from 7 to 10 feet per second. Mist re-

entrainment occurs at higher gas velocities because of the turbulent nature of

gas flow in packed beds. This type of mist eliminator is often used for tail
68-70
gas cleanup in sulfuric and phosphoric acid manufacture.

4. 4. 2.17 Mist and Vapor Suppression - Mist formation from bubbling

solutions, such as plating baths and acid pickling baths, may be reduced by the

addition of wetting agents. Foaming and non-foaming types are presently used

71 74
to reduce both surface tension and bubble size. - Smaller bubbles escape

the treated bath with less violence and with a corresponding reduction in the

formation of mist particles. Foaming agents reduce mist formation by reduc-

ing bubble escape energy and by trapping the mist particles in a dense foam.

The use of surfactants in chrome plating baths can reduce chromic acid losses

by as much as 45 percent with a corresponding reduction in air and water pol-

lution.

Foam, which has the disadvantage of trapping hydrogen gas, can create

a fire hazard and must be continually replaced. Floating plastic objects such

4-76
 as polyethylene balls, hollow rods,
BERL SADDLES
75
and cylinders are also used.

The floating plastic used to

cover the surf ace serves as a

tank top and mist eliminator and

reduces heat losses and ventila-

tion requirements.

In one case the use of 3/ 4-

inch balls to cover 90 percent of

Figure 4-38. Bed of Berl sadd I es added to the surface area of sulfuric acid
discharge stack.
(Courtesy of Chemical Engineering Progress Magazine) solutions used in the electro-re-

fining of copper resulted in a 90 percent reduction in evaporation losses and a

70 percent reduction in heat loss. The savings from the reduction in loss

of methylated spirits (an addition agent) over a 2- week period paid for the

balls. In addition to a 90 percent reduction in air pollution from sulfuric acid

mist, there was a noticeable reduction in corrosion rates. The approximate

75
cost of the ball cover is $1. 50 to $2. 00 per square foot of tank surface area.

4. 4. 2.18 Liquid Distribution - Wet scrubbers require a uniform and con-

sistent liquid distribution pattern for the maintenance of high scrubbing effici-

encies at minimum water rates. Liquid distribution in wet scrubbers is ac-

complished by spray nozzles or spinning disk atomizers. Weir box or sieve

plate distributors may be used for packed towers.

4-77
4. 4.,i2.19 Spray Nozzles - Spray scrubbers require liquid droplets that are
closely sized in order to avoid liquid entrainment at maximum gas flow rates.
Since the scrubbing liquid is often recirculated, the spray nozzles must be
capable of handling liquids with fairly high solids content.
The basic functions of liquid spray nozzles and atomizers are to
create small droplets with large surface areas, to distribute the liquid in a
specific pattern, to control liquid-flow metering, and to generate high-velocity
76 79
droplets. - At 1east one o f t h e a b ove f unc t•ions is
. mvo
. 1ve d m
. every industrial

spraying process, and spray nozzle selection depends on the specific function
to be performed. The spray devices used in wet scrubbers may be classified
as pressure nozzles (hollow and solid cone and impingement and impact),
rotating nozzles (spinning atomizers), and miscellaneous nozzles.
In hollow-cone spray nozzles, the fluid is fed to a whirl chamber-
a tangential inlet (Figure 4-39a) or a fixed spiral (Figure 39b) - so that the
fluid acquires rapid rotation. The orifice is on the axis of the chamber, and
the fluid exits as a hollow conical sheet and then breaks up into droplets.
The angle of the spray is determined by the dimensions of the swirl chamber
and the pitch of the nozzle. A spiral with a short pitch produces a wide-

angle spray; conversely, a long pitch produces a narrow-angle spray.

The spray angle may range from 15 to 135 degrees.

4-78
,. HOLLOW CONE SPRAY b. HOLLOW CONE SPRAY HOLLOW CONE SPRAY
c..
NOZZLE NOZZLE NOZZLE
Courtesy of Spray Systems (Courtesy of Schulle & (Courtesy of Schutte &
:ompony) K oerl i ng) Koerling)

f. CLUSTER SPRAY NOZZLE

(Courtesy of Spray Engineer-
ing •Company)

d. SOLID CONE SPRAY

NOZZLE
(Courlos y of Spray Engineer-
ing Company)

"· SOLID CONE SPRAY

NOZZLE
(Courtesy of Bete Company)

g. PIN JET IMPINGEMENT

h. SPINNING DISK SPRAY
SPRAY NOZZLE
NOZZLE
(Courtesy of Spray Engineer-
(Courtesy of Schutte &
Koerting) ing Compohy)

1. MONOFAN NOZZLE
(Courtesy of Spray Engineer-
ing Company)

Figure 4-39. Spray nozzles commonly used in wet scrubbers.

4-79
 Hollow cone spray nozzles with cone angles of from 15 to 20 degrees

(Figures 4-39b and 4-39c) are used in venturi jet scrubbers for maximum

turbulence and mixing in the throat and diffuser section. Larger noz~de angles

are used in air washers and humidifiers.

The solid cone nozzle (Figure 4-39d) is a modification of the hollow cone

nozzle used when complete coverage of fixed area is desired. The nozzle is

essentially a hollow-cone nozzle with the addition of a central axial jet. The

jet strikes the outer rotating fluid inside the nozzle orifice and is broken into

droplets. The angle of the spray is a function of nozzle design and is nearly

independent of pressure. A second type of solid cone spray nozzle (Figure 4-39el

consists of an orifice and external helical spiral. The nozzle is essentially non-

clogging and finds use in packed column distributor design. Commercial solid

cone nozzles are available with included angles of from 30 to 100 degrees.

Wet scrubbers nearly always use nozzles with large angle sprays. Solid-cone

spray nozzles are frequently mounted in clusters (Figure 4-39f\. Liquid dis-

tribution is enhanced by using several small sprays instead of one large spray

of the same capacity. Liquid distribution is also improved by the proper sel-
78
.
ec t 10n o f pipe
. mam"fo ld size.
.

In the impingement-type nozzle (Figure 4-39g), a high-velocity liquid

jet is directed at a solid target or a liquid stream. Proper orientation and

shape of the target or control of the size and shape of the two fluid streams

produces a hollow cone, fan, or dish-shaped spray pattern. The nozzles are

4-80
robust and simple in shape, and despite higher cost, they are frequently used

in wet scrubbing towers because of their more uniform distribution of droplet

size.

Rotating nozzles (spinning atomizers) are a type of liquid distributer

(Figure 4-39h) less frequently used in gas scrubbing than either hollow cone

or solid cone nozzles. The droplets produced by rotating nozzles are uniform

in size and can be controlled without regard to liquid feed rate by changing the

disk speed. Spinning atomizers are used in some wet scrubbers and have the

advantage of being able to handle slurries that could clog conventional nozzles.

Among miscellaneous atomizers, the fan jet (Figure 4-39i) is used in wetting

and light humidification operations.

In packed tower and cross flow scrubber liquid distributor design, spray

nozzles and drilled pipe headers may be used to distribute liquid. Most packed

tower liquid distributors are of the weir box V-notch type (Figure 4-40a). For

low rates of gas flow, weir risers (Figure 4-40b) may be used. Submerged

orifice plate distributors (Figure 4-40c) are also used. Liquid distribution
79
is critical in determining scrubber performance.

Because spray nozzles frequently wear or clog and produce an uneven

liquid pattern, they require frequent replacement and maintenance. Weir box

distribution, on the other hand, is dependable and requires little maintenance

after initial leveling. Pumping heads are also lower and result in lower power

requirements and less maintenance.

4-81
o. PACKED TOWER WEIR BOX LIQUID DISTRIBUTOR
b. PACKED TOWER "WE IR RISER" LIQUID DISTRIBUTOR
(CoLKlesy of Koch Engineering Company)
(Courtesy of U.S. Stoneware Company)

"'SUBMERGED ORIFICE" PLATE DISTRIBUTOR

(ColNt••Y of U.S. St'on•ware Company)

F lgure 4-40. Weir and sieve plate liquid distributors commonly used in packed towers.
 Liquid distribution within a packed bed is also very important. Initial

distribution of liquid onto the top of the bed is often enhanced by the use of

small sized packing in the top of the bed.

Normal drip point requirements for weir box distribution range from 8

to 10 points per square foot for vertical packed beds and from 15 to 30 points

for cross flow scrubbers.

Cross flow scrubbers normally contain baffles or corrugated walls

around the periphery of the packed bed to prevent gas channeling. Packed beds

above 15 feet in height frequently require liquid redistribution.

4. 4. 3 Typical Applications of Wet Scrubbers

Typical applications of wet scrubbers are tabulated in Table 4-6.

4. 4. 4 Water Disposal

Water usage and waste disposal may become critical factors in the final

selection of a wet scrubber. Waste quantity, particle size distribution in the

slurry, recovery value, corrosiveness of the solutions, and materials of con-

struction are important factors. The final selection of a water treatment or

disposal system should not result in water, soil, or air pollution. Refer to

references 80 through 92 for additional information.

4. 4. 4.1 Settling Tanks and Ponds - This method of disposal may be applied

to scrubber discharges containing solid particulate matter that readily settles

or is easily flocculated by chemical treatment. Tank or pond size may be

e as1·1 Y determined by laboratory sedimentation tests. 80 Separation by

4-83
 Table 4-6. TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF WET SCRUBBERS

Scrubber type Typical application

Spray chambers Dust cleaning, electroplating, phosphate fertilizer, kraft paper, smoke
abatement

Spray tower Precooler, blast furnace gas

Centrifugal Spray dryers, calciners, crushers, classifiers, fluid bed processes, kraft
paper, fly ash

Impingement plate Cupolas, driers, kilns, fertilizer, flue gas

Venturi
Venturi throat Pulverized coal, abrasives, rotary kilns, foundries, flue gas, cupola gas,
Flooded disk fertilizers, lime kilns, roasting, titanium dioxide processing, odor
Multiple jet control, oxygen steel making, coke oven gas, fly ash

Venturi jet Fertilizer manufacture, odor control, smoke control

Vertical venturi Pulverized coal, abrasive manufacture

Packed bed
Fixed Fertilizer manufacturing, plating, acid pickling

Flooded Acid vapors, aluminum inoculation, foundries, asphalt plants, atomic

wastes, carbon black, ceramic frit, chlorine tail gas, pigment manufac-
ture, cupola gas, driers, ferrite, fertilizer

Fluid (floating) ball Kraft paper, basic oxygen steel, fertilizer, aluminum ore reduction,
aluminum foundries, fly ash, asphalt manufacturing

Self-induced spray Coal mining, ore mining, explosive dusts, air conditioning, incinerators

Mechanically-induced spray Iron foundry, cupolas, smoke, chemical fume control, paint spray

Dlsintegrator Blast furnace gas

Centrifugal fan Metal mining, coal processing, foundry, food, pharmaceuticals

Jnline fan

Wetted filters Electroplating, acid pickling, air conditioning, light dust

Dust, mist eliminators

Fiber filters Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acid mists; moisture separators; house-
hold ventilation; radioactive and toxic dusts, oil mists

Wire mesh Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acid mists; distillation and absorption

Baffles Coke quenching, kraft paper manufacture, plating

Packed beds Sulfuric and phosphoric acid manufacture, electroplating spray towers

4-84
sedimentation is usually limited to particlAs larger than 1 micron or to particles

that readily flocculate. Advantages are that waste products to be disposed of

may be sluiced to a burial pit, waste water may be chemically treated and re-

used, operational costs are low, and abrasive solids can be handled. Disadvan-

tages are that a large area is required for the settling of small particles, ground

water contamination from ponds is possible, and natural evaporation to the

atmosphere occurs.

4. 4. 4. 2 Continuous Filtration - This method of slurry treatment is usually

applied where the solids have some recovery value or are porous or incom-
81
pressible. Advantages are a dewatered waste product and moderate space

requirements. Disadvantages are high initial cost and relatively high mainten-

ance and operational costs.

4. 4. 4. 3 Liquid Cyclones - The wet cyclone has come into prominence in the

last few years as a method for concentrating solids. The advantages are low

initial cost, low maintenance, ability to handle abrasive solids, and low space

requirements. Disadvantages are the production of high solids filtrate or over-

82
flow and relatively high power requirements.

4. 4. 4. 4 Continuous Centrifuge - This method of solids separation can some-

83
times be applied to submicron slurries at fairly high collection efficiencies.

The advantages are low space requirements and a large variety of designs for

special requirements. Disadvantages are high capital and operating costs and

susceptibility to abrasion and corrosion.

4-85
4. 4. 4. 5 Chemical Treatment - Chemical treatment of liquid wastes includes

treatment with chlorine, lime, soda ash, carbon dioxide, ammonia, corrosion
. 84-93
inhibitors, coagulants, and/ or limestone soak pits.

4-86
4. 5 HIGH-VOLTAGE ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

4. 5.1 Introduction

The high-voltage electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is used at more large

installations than any other type of high-efficiency particulate matter collector.

For many operations, such as coal-fired utility boilers, the high-voltage elec-

trostatic precipitator is the only proven high-efficiency control device available

today. High-voltage single-stage precipitators have been used successfully to

collect both solid and liquid particulate matter from smelters, steel furnaces,

petroleum refineries, cement kilns, acid plants, and many other operations.

Figures 4-41 and 4-42 show typical electrostatic precipitator installations.

Electrostatic precipitators are normally used when the larger portion of

the particulate matter to be collected is smaller than 20 microns in mean diam-

eter. When particles are large, centrifugal collectors are sometimes employed

as precleaners. Gas volumes handled normally range from 50, 000 to 2, 000, 000

cubic feet per minute. Operating pressures range from slightly below atmos-

pheric pressure to 150 pounds per square inch gauge and operating tempera-

tures normally range from ambient air temperatures to 7 50 ° F.

4. 5. 2 Operating Principles

Separation of suspended particulate matter from a gas stream by high-

voltage electrostatic precipitation requires three basic steps:

1. Electrical charging of the suspended particulate matter.

2. Collection of the charged particulate matter on a grounded surface.

3. Removal of the particulate matter to an external receptacle.

331-716 0 - 68 - 16
4-87
Figure 4-41 . Multiple precipitator ins tallation in basic oxygen furnace plant.
(Courtesy o f Koppers Co. Inc. )

4-88
r· !II - -

Figure 4-42. Detarrer precipitators in sta lled in s tee l mill.

( C our tes y o f Koppe r s Co . I n c . )

4- 89
 A charge may be imparted to particulate matter prior to the electrostatic

precipitator by flame ionization or friction; however, the bulk of the charge is

applied by passing the suspended particles through a high-voltage, direct-cur-

94
rent corona. The corona is established between an electrode maintained at

high voltage and a grounded collecting surface. * Particulate matter passing

through the corona is subjected to an intense bombardment of negative ions

that flow from the high-voltage electrode to the grounded collecting surface.

The particles thereby become highly charged within a fraction of a second and

migrate toward the grounded collecting surfaces. This attraction is opposed

by inertial and friction forces.

After the particulate matter deposits on the grounded collecting surface,

adhesive, cohesive, and primary electrical forces must be sufficient to resist

any gas stream action and counter electrical forces that would cause reen-

trainment of the particulate matter. Free flowing liquids are removed from

the collecting surface by natural gravity forces. Successful removal of other

particulate matter depends on a complex interrelationship of particle size,

density, and shape and electrical, cohesive, adhesive, aerodynamic, and rap-

ping forces. This particulate matter is dislodged from the collecting surfaces

by mechanical means such as by vibrating with rappers or by flushing with

liquids. The collected material falls to a hopper, from which it is removed.

* The terms"collecting electrode" and "grounded collecting surface" are often

used synonymously.

4-90
4. 5. 3 Equipment Description

Two major high-voltage electrostatic precipitator configurations are

used: the flat surface and tube types. In the first, particles are collected on

flat, parallel collecting surfaces spaced from 6 inches to 12 inches apart with

wire or rod discharge electrodes equidistant between the surfaces. In tube-

type high-voltage electrostatic precipitators, the grounded collecting surfaces

are cylindrical instead of flat with the discharge electrode centered along the

longitudinal axis. Figures 4-43 and 4-44 show typical electrode and collecting

surface layouts for both types of high-voltage electrostatic precipitators. A

complete precipitator consists of many of these units as shown in Figures 4-45

and 4-46.

4. 5. 3. 1 Voltage Control and Electrical Equipment- High-voltage electro-

static precipitators operate with unidirectional current and with voltages of

from 30 to 100 peak kilovolts. Transformers are used to provide high-voltage

current. Rectifiers convert the alternating current to unidirectional current.

In addition, precipitators are usually equipped for automatic power control.

Electrical power energization and control equipment is usually furnished in

the form of several packaged units complete with instrumentation.

Transformers are usually oil cooled and are integrally connected to

silicon rectifiers. The transformer single-phase output may be rectified to

either double-half-wave or full-wave direct current. Earlier types of high-

voltage sets consisted of separate transformers using either vacuum tube or

4-91
 CHARGING FIELD HIGH-VOLTAGE DISCHARGE ELECTRODE I· I

CHARGED (·)PARTICLES
COLLECTING BAFFLE

GROUNDED(+) COLLECTING SURFACE

DISCHARGE ELECTRODE TENSION WEIGHT

PARTICLE PATH

Figure 4-43. Schematic view of a flat surface-type electrostatic precipitator.

GROUNDED
COLLECTING SURFACE

CHARGED PARTICLES

HIGH-VOLTAGE
DISCHARGE ELECTRODE
(NEGATIVE )

GROUNDED COLLECTING SURFACE

Figure 4-44. Schematic view of tubular surface-type electrostatic precipitator.

4-92
 SAFETY RA ILING
HI GH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER/ RECTIFIER

RAPPER-H . V. ELE C TRODE

RAPPER · CO LL ECT I NG SURF ACE
PENTHOUSE ENCLOS ING IN SULAT ORS AND GAS SEALS

r AC C E SS P AN E L

IN SULATO R

H . V. DISCHARGE E L ECT RODE

PERFO RA TE D DIST RIBUT ION BAFFLE

GROUN DED COLLEC TI NG SURFACE

SUPP ORT COLUMNS

i 11 1
••••
..•••
·u···
··: :I': I
,, I I!
~..------;.---QUI CK OPEN ING DOOR
( IN SPECTI ON PASSAGE BET WE EN STAGES )

I I
I
WIRE WEI GHTS

HOPPER S

Figure 4-45. Cutaway view of a flat surface-type electrostatic precipitator.

(Co urtesy of UOP Air Corre ction Divis i on }
 GAS INLET

GAS OUTLET INSULATOR COMPARTMENT

HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEM
HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPORT INSULATOR
CONDUCTOR

WATER SPRAYS

DISCHARGE ELECTRODES

ll
• TUBULAR COLLECTING
--+----SURFACES

DIFFUSER f - - - - - CASING
VANES

WEIGHTS

~~ DISCHARGE SEAL

Figure 4-46. Cross-sectional view of irrigated tubular blast furnace precipitator.

(Courtesy of Koppers Co. Inc.)

4-94
mechanical rectifiers. Silicon rectifier conversion equipment is available for

modernizing existing vacuum tube or mechanical rectifiers.

Figure 4-47 shows one type of transformer-rectifier unit, and Figure 4-48

shows one type of power control unit.

4. 5. 3. 2 Discharge Electrodes- The discharge electrodes, which are almost

always negatively energized, provide the corona. Although round wires about

1/8-inch in diameter are usually used, discharge electrodes can be twisted

rods, ribbons, barbed wire, and many other configurations. steel alloys a re

commonly used; other materials include stainless steel, silver, nichromeqD

aluminum, copper, Hastello~, lead-covered iron wire, and titanium alloy.

Any conducting material with the requisite tensile strength that is of the proper

configuration is a feasible discharge electrode. Figure 4-49 shows some com-

mon discharge electrode configurations.

4. 5. 3. 3 Collecting Surfaces- A variety of flat collecting surfaces is available.

The use of smooth plates, with fins to strengthen them and to produce quiescent

zones, has become common in recent years. Special shapes are designed pri-

marily to prevent reentrainment of dust. Figure 4-49 shows some types of

collecting surfaces. Essentially all tubular collecting surfaces are standard pipe.

4. 5. 3. 4 Removal of Collected Particulate Matter- Collected particulate mat-

ter must be dislodged from the collecting surfaces and discharge electrodes and

moved from the electrostatic precipitator hopper to a storage area.

4-95
 L~
~ ------
!

Figure 4-47 . Typical double half wave silicon

rectifier with twin output bushings.

4- 96
Figure 4-48. Internal view of one type of rect i-
fier control console showi ng com-
ponent parts.
(Co urte sy of Koppers Co. Inc .)

4- 97
 ROD CURTAIN VEE POCKET

a. COLLECTING PLATES

0 0

~I
I

~I
I
I

u:

SQUARE ROUND BARBED STAR PUNCHED

RIBBON
b. DISCHARGE ELECTRODES

Figure 4-49. Electrostatic precipitator collecting plates and discharge electrodes.

4-98
 Liquid collected particulate matter flows down the collecting surfaces and

discharge electrodes naturally and is pumped to storage.

Solid collected particulate matter is usually dislodged from collecting

surfaces by pneumatic or electromagnetic vibrators or rappers. At times,

motor driven hammers are used for this purpose or sprays are used to flush

materials from collecting surfaces. Solid materials are transferred from the

hopper to storage by air, vacuum, or screw conveyors. Swing valves, slide

gates, or rotary vane-type valves are installed at the hopper outlet. Figures

4-50 and 4-51 show some types of hopper valves and rapper mechanisms.

u. ROTARY VALVE b. SWING VAL VE

Figure 4-50. Hopper discharge valves. (a) Rotary valve and (b) swing valve.

4. 5. 4 High-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitator Equipment Design

Design of high-voltage electrostatic precipit ator equipment is a highly

complex and specialized field. It is therefore important that design decisions

be made only by those qualified by extensive knowledge and experience.

4-99
,.,.
I
I-'
0
0

Figure 4-51. Electrostatic prec ipitat or rapper mechani sms. (a) Pne uma tic impulse rapper .
(b) Magnetic impu l se rapper . and (c) pneumat ic reciprocating rapper.
(Co u rt es y o f Ko ppers Co. Inc . )
 The basic elements of design of electrostatic precipitators involve both

performance requirements and physical requirements. Voltage, electrical

energy, gas velocity, flow distribution, sectionalization, collecting surface

area, treatment time, number and type of discharge electrodes, nun1ber and

type of collecting surfaces, collecting surface and discharge electrode spacing,

and number and type of rappers are some performance requirement factors to

consider. Layout, structure, materials handling, and construction material

requirements are some physical factors to consider.

Information on the design of high-voltage ESP is reported by Ramsdell,

94-96
White, and Archbold.

4. 5. 4. 1 Conditioning Systems-Conditioning systems that change the pro-

perties of the gas stream or the particulate matter are sometimes installed

ahead of the electrostatic precipitator. The need for such a system depends

on the application. Conditioning may involve gas cooling, gas humidification,

air dilution, or the injection of agents such as sulfur trioxide and ammonia.

4. 5. 4. 2 Voltage, Electrical Energy, and Sectionalization Requirements-

Voltage, electrical energy, and sectionalization are interrelated. The design

4-101
of the high-voltage electrostatic precipitator should provide for a peak voltage

sufficient for consistent operation of the unit within required performance limits.

The design should also provide for automatic power control and sufficient elec-

trical power to handle all load conditions. When necessary, the design should

provide for sectionalization so that voltage may be adjusted to compensate for

different conditions in different sections of the electrostatic precipitator.

The peak voltage requirements of a high-voltage electrostatic precipita-

tor depend on the application and design, and usually range from 30 to 100 kilo-

volts. Peak voltage requirements depend largely on the spacing of

electrodes and collecting surfaces. The composition, pressure, and tempera-

ture of the gas stream and the concentration of particulate matter in the gas

stream also influence peak voltage design requirements.

For continuous high-efficiency performance, sectionalization usually is

required. The power supply and controls for each precipitator section are

energized separately to prevent power fluctuations from spreading from section

to section. The power controls regulate current, voltage, and sparking. The

number of sections required depends on performance requirements and the

application. For some applications sparking is not desirable. Where sparking

is desirable, there is often an optimum spark rate that will give the best per-
97
formance. An example of this effect is shown in Figure 4-52.

4. 5. 4. 3 Gas Velocity, Treatment Time, and Flow Distribution Gas veloci-

ties range from 3 to 15 feet per second. Low linear gas velocities promote

4-102
 ~ z 80
0
>- -
u~
zU
w w 75
- I/)

~w
u.. z
LL 0 70
w

SPARKS PER MINUTE

Figure 4-52. Variation of precipitator efficiency

with sparking rate for a given fly-
ash precipitator.

deposition and help minimize re-entrainment of particulate matter. The cross-

sectional area of the electrostatic precipitator determines the linear gas

velocity for a given gas volume. Longer treatment time promotes more ef-

fective deposition of particulate matter. The length of the treatment section of

the electrostatic precipitator determines the treatment time for a given linear

gas velocity.

Uniform flow distribution is an important design factor. Perforated

plates are installed at the inlet and sometimes at the outlet of the electrostatic

precipitator, and vanes are often installed in the inlet and out let ductwork to

distribute the flow of the gas stream. \A/hen it is necessary to install bends or

elbows near the inlet or outlet, turning vanes are helpful. Experimental gas

flov. models are most useful as an aid to flow distributor design.

4. 5. 4. 4 Collecting Surfaces and Discharge Electrodes- The number, type,

size, and spacing of collecting surfaces and discharge electrodes required is

331-7!6 0 - 69 - 17 4-103
dependent on the application and desired performance. For a given application,

an increase in the total collecting surface area will usually improve perform-

ance provided adequate corona power is supplied.

4. 5. 4. 5 Materials of Construction- Choice of materials for shells, collecting

surfaces, electrodes, hoppers, and other surfaces is governed by cost and

serviceability. Corrosion and temperature resistance are the two most im-

portant factors to consider. Steel construction is used wherever possible;

however, alun1inum, lead, concrete, wood, ceramics, plastics, plastic

coated metals, and many other materials can be employed.

4. 5. 4. 6 Collected Particulate Matter Handling Systems- Electrostatic pre-

cipitator hopper walls should be sloped to promote free flow of collected

rn_aterial. When materials stick or bridge in the hopper, vibrators or rap-

pers should be attached to the outside of the hopper walls at strategic locations.

Hopper outlet valves should be designed to operate freely under all con-

ditions. The hopper discharge system should also be designed to minimize gas

l8akage into or out of the electrostatic precipitator to prevent re-entrainment of

the collected particulate matter.

4. 5. 4. 7 Controls and Instruments- Useful controls and instruments are:

1. Individual electrical set controls and indicators.

2. Spark rate indicators.

3. Rapping cycle, frequency, intensity, and duration controls and in-

dicators.

4-104
 4. wtlet opacity indicator.

5. Line voltage indicators.

Recorders are useful for providing a permanent record of performance.

Alarms are used to signal when control variables deviate from normal and when

control valves, gates, or conveyors fail to function properly.

4. 5. 4. 8 Layout-An electrostatic precipitator system should be designed to

conserve space and to minimize costs. Other factors to consider are provision

for future additions of equipment and the effect of the layout on gas flow distribu-

tion.

4. 5. 5 Specifications and Guarantees

Little published information is available on design criteria for electro-

static precipitators. It is therefore advisable for persons without e2'.'tensi ve

knowledge of and experience with the application of electrostatic precipitators

to rely on several different vendors or consultants to furnish specifications.

Forms used by members of the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute are helpful

for reporting and tabulating necessary information. These forms specify the

information that the vendor needs to make a comprehensive proposal. This

form includes information on:

1. The purchasing company.

2. The proposal.

3. The application.

4. Operating and design conditions.

4-105
 5. Properties of the particulate matter and the gas stream.

6. Inlet particulate matter loadings.

7. Desired outlet loadings.

8. Desired efficiency.

When the purchaser lacks sufficient information to complete the form,

the vendor can often draw on his knowledge and experience to supply missing

information or can advise the purchaser on further action. The purchaser may

also retain consultants for guidance.

Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute publication No. EP-4 is useful for bid

evaluation. Major sections of this form relate to:

1. Operating and performance data.

2. Precipitator arrangement.

3. Collecting system.

4. Electrical systems.

5. Other auxiliary equipment and services.

The purchaser should select specifications from the information sub-

mitted by the several vendors. Any differences in equipment or services

proposals should be reconciled by consultation with the vendors or other ex-

perts. The specifications selected should be used to solicit final bids.

4-106
 The purchase agreement should include a performance guarantee (when

deisrable), conditions for measuring performance, and specifications. In-

formation that may be used for guidance in the preparation of purchase agree-
9
ments is published by the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute. S-lOO

4. 5. 6 Maintaining Collection Efficiency

A well designed precipitator properly maintained and operated within

design limits will perform consistently at or above design efficiencies through-

out its serviceable life.

Loss of efficiency is commonly caused by overloading, process changes,

or inadequate maintenance. Increasing output or process gas flows

without adding precipitator sections usually reduces electrostatic precipitator

efficiency. Changes in raw materials, products, fuels, and gas stream con-

ditions can also lead to poor performance. If these factors are anticipated in

the original design, loss of efficiency can often be avoided.

It is not always possible to anticipate changes in the properties of

particulate matter and the gas stream. It is therefore important that collec-

tor performance be monitored frequently by sampling the outlet gas stream.

- When inspection and maintenance fail to bring performance to within design

·: limits and overloading is not a factor, the cause of poor performance is usually

traceable to changes in properties of the particulate matter or the gas stream.

Should this occur, consultation with the manufacturer of the equipment or with

other experts is in order.

4-107
4. 5. 7. Improvement of Collection Efficiency

Process changes or changes in air pollution control requirements may

make it necessary to improve the efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator.

When no provision has been made for future additions, it may be less costly to

scrap the older unit and to install a modern, more efficient unit. If provision

has been made originally for layout and installation of additional units to

increase capacity, the changes may be made at nominal cost.

Before action is taken to improve efficiency, all of the elements of design

mentioned in Section 4. 5. 4 should be considered and compared with process re-

quirem.ents. The modifications required will depend on the degree of improve-

ment required and the application.

When process conditions have changed, changing the voltage or power

supply of the unit may improve the performance. Increasing the number of

high-tension bus sections may at times improve performance. The installation

of automatic power controls alone seldom results in significant improvement;

however, use of this technique in conjunction with other techniques such as in-

creased sectionalization is often effective.

Installing additional high-voltage electrostatic precipitator sections is

the most common technique for improving collection efficiency. At times ef-

ficiency may be improved sufficiently by distributing the flow more uniformly

within the unit or in the ductwork leading to the unit. In exceptional cases,

modification of material handling systems may bring about the necessary

improvement.

4-108
 Changing the temperature of the gas stream or injecting other materials

. ff 101, 102
into the gas stream may improve e iciency. Whenever

foreign materials are injected the air pollution aspects of these materials

should be considered.

4. 5. 8 Typical Applications

High-voltage electrostatic precipitators have been used sucessfully to

collect a wide variety of solid and liquid particles. Various applications for

high-voltage electrostatic precipitators are included in Table 4-2.

4. 5. 8. 1 Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants-The arrangement in Figure 4-53

. depicts a pulverized coal unit. Typical of older systems, the mechanical

precleaner (multiple cyclone) and the electrostatic precipitator are located

downstream of the air heater. Gases range in temperature from. 220° to

350° F. 111e best precleaners seldom exceed 80 percent efficiency. Assuming

an 80 percent cleanup, the electrostatic precipitator would have to collect 95

percent of the remaining particulate matter to achieve an overali efficiency

. of 99 percent. When soot is blown, particulate matter concentrations are well

in excess of average emission levels.

A recently installed collection system locates the electrostatic preci-

pitator before, instead of behind, the air heater on a large steam generator.

4-109
 STACK

MECHANICAL
COLLECTOR
PLATE
TYPE
ESP
250-300°F
GAS

FAN
C!.::::=:::::::::::=::=::=:::::::!:=::::::f:":f:.:::;~!:::::~;i;!~~==ASH CONVEYOR

FAN

COAL
STORAGE

HOT
AIR
BOILER

COAL
PULVERIZER-
BASE LEVEL

Figure 4-53. Electrostatic preclpitator Installed after air heater in power plant steam generatorsystem.

4-110
The collector is rated at 99 percent efficiency and handles gases at from

600° to 700° F. In this temperature range resistivity of particles is favorable

for collection; particularly for fly ash generated from low sulfur coals and

residual fuel oil. fustallations of this type must handle greater volumes of gases

and, therefore, are more expensive. Long-term evaluations are necessary to

compare the performance of this unit with cold-side electrostatic precipitators

of the same rating.

4. 5. 8. 2 futegrated Steelmaking Operations- High-voltage electrostatic pre-

cipitators are frequently used in integrated steel plants. A comn1on application

is the detarring of coke oven gas. Wet-type electrostatic precipitators are

used for final cleaning of blast furnace gases. Exit loadings as low as 0. 005
103-106
grain per standard cubic foot have been reported for this application.

High-voltage electrostatic precipitators applied to sintering strands reportedly

reduce particulate emission concentrations to less than 0. 04 grain per standard

. f 00t , 107-109
CUblC

Precipitator equipment applied to oxygen-lanced open hearths, basic

oxygen furnaces, and electric arc furnaces reduces particulate emission levels
104, 108, 110-115
:o less than 0. 05 grain per standard cubic foot.

4. 5. 8. 3 Cement Industry- Electrostatic precipitator system efficiencies in

excess of 98 percent have been reported for dry-process rotary cement kiln
116
}PPlications. Efficiencies exceeding 99 percent have been reported for

electrostatic precipitator systems applied to wet-process rotary cement

dln s. 116

4-111
4. 5. 8. 4 Kraft Pulp Mills-The electrostatic precipitator is a common gas

cleaning device used on kraft mill recovery furnaces. A survey of 50 plants

indicated that the rated efficiency of electrostatic precipitators installed

117
ranged from 90 to 98 percent. In some applications efficiencies of at least
118
99 percent have been reported. Electrostatic precipitators have been ap-

plied to emissions from kraft mill lime kilns.

4. 5. 8. 5 Sulfuric Acid- The efficiency of electrostatic precipitators in re-

moving acid mist from contact-type sulfuric acid manufacturing processes

119
ranges from 92 to 99. 9 percent.

4-112
4.6 LOW-VOLTAGE ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

4. 6. 1 Introduction

The low-voltage, two-stage, electrostatic precipitator is a device

.originally designed to purify air, and is used in conjunction with air-

conditioning systems. Cleaning of incoming air at hospitals and industrial

and commercial installations is also a major use for the low-voltage

precipitator, and it is sometimes called an air conditioning precipitator or

120
. electronic air filter. As an industrial particulate matter collector, the

device is used for the control of finely divided liquid particles

discharged from such sources as meat smokehouses, asphalt paper saturators.

pipe coating machines, and high-speed grinding machines.

Low-voltage precipitators are limited almost entirely to the collection

of liquid particles, which will drain readily from collector plates. Two-

stage precipitators cannot control solid or sticky materials, and become

ineffective if concentrations exceed 0. 4 grain per standard cubic foot.

There is a limited number of ways of removing collected materials

from the two-stage precipitator. This limitation causes the primary use of

the equipment to be restricted to systems with low grain loadings in which

the collector plates need to be cleaned only at infrequent intervals. This has

been a deterrent to widespread use of two-stage precipitators in air pollution

control. Also, electrostatic precipitators do not collect or remove gases

or vapors responsible for objectionable odors and eye irritation.

4-113
4. 6. 2 Major Components of Low-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitators

The feature of the low-voltage precipitator (Figure 4-54) that distin-

guishes it from the high-voltage electrostatic precipitator is the

121
separate ionizing zone located ahead of the collection plates. The ionizing stag(

consists of a series of fine ( 0. 007-inch diameter) positively charged wires

equally spaced at distances of from 1 to 2 inches from parallel grounded

tubes or rods. A corona discharge between each wire and a corresponding

tube charges the particles suspended in the air flowing through the ionizer.

The direct-current potential applied to the wires amounts to 12 or 13 kilovolts.

Positive polarity is regularly used to minimize the formation of ozone.

The second stage consists of parallel metal plates usually less than an

inch apart. In some designs, alternate plates are charged positively and

negatively, each to a potential of 6 or 6-1/2 kilovolts direct current, so that

the potential difference between adjacent plates is 12 or 13 kilovolts.

In other cases, plates are alternately charged to a positive potential

of 6 to 13 kilovolts and grounded. (The lower voltages are used with closely

spaced plates.) This arrangement is shown in Figure 4-54. The illustration

shows particles entering at the left,receiving a positive charge in the ionizer,

and being collected at the negative plates in the second stage. Liquids drain

by gravity to a pan located beneath the plates. Rapping or shaking is not

employed, primarily because of the close spacing of plates.

4-114
 IONIZER COLLECTOR

)
STAGE STAGE
DUST
PARTICLE

(+)
.¢
0
0
(-

/11 ------
1111
-
I PA TH

c::r====
(+) - - - - - - - -
1111---------
1fi\ _=_::======='-111(-)
-
( )

GAS
0:.~II
1111 ·----- (+) - - - - - - - -
FLOW-+ • •• 11 (-) ========>-111 (-)
• 0 11
•0111 (+)--------

_:l~~~:;(+)-------~I·(-)
DUST~
0

U 2nd STAGE
..l.. EMITTER PLATES(+)
(:) 1st STAGE -:- 6,000-8,000 VOL TS
EMITTER WIRES AND (-)
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
FIELD / 10,000-12,000 VOL TS GROUNDED
RECEIVER
ELECTRODE COLLECTOR PLATES(-)

GROUNDED
COLLECTOR PLATES(-)

DUST\
ITTER WIRE (+l

~-
0

0
0

0 0
0

0
0
0 0

GAS/
FLOW

EMITTER PLATE
6,000-8,000 VOL TS (+l

Fl ELD RECEIVER
ELECTRODES(-)

Figure 4-54. Operating principle of two-stage electrostatic preclpitator.

4-115
 The package unit shown in Figure 4-55 is used to collect oil mist from

122
grinding machines. Oil droplets agglomerate on the plates and drain to

the bottom. Because solids or viscous liquids will not drain freely,

systems removing such materials have to be shut down occasionally for

cleaning of the plates to prevent arcing.

Semi viscous materials can be collected by the low-voltage precipitator

if an adequate washing system is provided. The frequency of washing will

depend on the inlet loading and the characteristics of the collected particulate

matter.

4. 6. 3 Auxiliary Equipment

Pretreatment of particles may be required to improve their electrical

properties before they enter the precipitator. The system shown in Figure 4-56

includes a low-pressure scrubber, mist eliminator, and tempering coil to

control temperature and humidity. Removal of large particles by the scrubber

allows longer operating periods without shutdown for cleaning of the electrostatic

precipitator. Mist eliminators remove water droplets and prevent excessive

sparkover. Heating coils allow flexibility in setting optimum conditions. For

many materials, a relative humidity greater than 50 percent in the gas stream

is beneficial.

4. 6.4 Design Parameters

When a low-voltage electrostatic precipitator is used in conjunction with

air conditioning, velocities range between 5 and 10 feet per second (fps).

However, for pollution control purposes, where the particulate loadings are

4-116
 l
F Ml OUTLE T
D AMP ER

FAN

POWER
PACI\
_!\_ __ .~
COLLECTOR
CELL

IONIZ ER

FILTER

AIR AND
OIL MIST
IN

F ig ure 4-5 5. T wo- s tage prec i p i ta tor

l 01' I mi' s t from mach 1n 1
( Cour l es y o f wes 11ngho u se E lecused
t ri c Corto con
p orol 1ontro
) · ng operations .
 PERFORATED
PLATE

MIST
ELIMINATOR

0
CLEAN
0 GAS -+-
FLOW

LOW
PRESSURE
SCRUBBER TEMPERING
COIL
COLLECTOR
STAGE

Figure 4-56. Two-stage electrostatic precipitator with auxiliary scrubber, mist eliminator, tempering
coil, and gas distribution plate (top view).
much higher, the superficial gas velocity through the plate collector section

should not exceed 1. 7 fps. The relationship between air velocity and collection

efficiency is illustrated by the Penney equation which assumes streamline flow.

The Penney (1937) equation for two-stage precipitators is:

F = wL
vd

where:

F = efficiency expressed as a decimal.

w =drift velocity, feet per second.

L = collector length, feet.

v = gas velocity through collector, feet per second.

d = distance between collector plates, feet.

The upper limit for streamline flow through these two-stage precipitators is

600 feet per minute (fpm). Mechanical irregularities in units now manufactured

may reduce this upper limit.

331-716 0 - 69 - lB
4-119
The effect of gas velocity on collection efficiency for several industrial opera-

tions is shown in Figure 4-57. Efficiencies of 80 percent and greater are

shown for the collection of oil mist at asphalt paper saturators and for air

conditioning applications. Collection efficiencies ranging from 60 to 80

percent are possible for meat smokehouses at a velocity of 1. 5 fps. For

smokehouses, collection decreases rapidly at higher velocities. Test data for

typical installations are shown in Table 4-7.

The practical voltage limit for low-voltage precipitators is 18 kilovolts.

Most units operate at 10 to 13 kilovolts. Current flow under these conditions

is small (4 to 10 milliamperes). The collecting plates are usually energized

at 5. 5 to 6. 5 kilovolts, but potentials up to 13 kilovolts are possible. Actual

current flow is small because no corona exists between the plates.

The degree of ionization may be increased by increasing the number of

ionizing electrodes, either by decreasing spacing or by installing a second

set of ionizing wires in series. Because decreased spacing requires reduced

voltage to prevent sparkover, there appears to be an advantage in

the series arrangement. Decreased spacing, however, lowers first cost and

space requirements.

Low-voltage precipitators of standard design for capacities up to

20, 000 cfm are supplied by manufacturers in preassembled units requiring

only external wiring and duct connections. The installed weight of the

precipitator is approximately 80 pounds per square foot of cross-sectional

4-120
 -
c
C>
u
80
B
Ci
Q. 70
~
u
z 60
w
u
LL
LL so
w
z
0 40
.+:-
I I-
I-' u
['..:> w
I-' ...J 30
...J
0
u A. SMOKEHOUSES, EXTRAPOLATED WITH PENNEY EQUATION (OPERATING TEST DATA
20 FOLLOW CLOSELY).
B. ASPHALT SATURATOR, OPERATING TEST DATA.
C,D. AIR CONDITIONING, MANUFACTURER'S RECOMMENDATION.
10

0
1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

GAS VELOCITY, ft/sec

Figure 4-57. Efficiency of two-stage precipitator as function of velocity for several industrial
ooerations.
 121
Table 4-7. INDUSTRIAL OPERATION OF TWO-STAGE PRECIPITATORS

Number of Inlet
Contaminant Contaminant Ionizing ionizer Collector Efficiency, Velocity, concentration
source type voltage banks voltage wt% fpm gr/scf

Tool grinding Oil aerosol 13,000 1 6,500 90 333 ---

Meat smokehouse Wood smoke, 13,000 2 6,500 90 60 0.103

vaporized fats

Meat smokehouse Wood smoke, 10,000 1 5,000 50 50 0.181

vaporized fats

Deep fat cooking Bacon fat aerosol 13,000 2 6,500 (75% opacity 68 ---
reduction)

Asphalt saturator Oil aerosol 12,000 1 6,000 85 145 0.384

(roofing paper)

Muller-type mixer Phenol-formal- 13,000 1 6,500 87 75 0.049

dehyde resin
area measured perpendicular to the gas flow. These standard units are

usually sized so that the air flow for air pollution applications is about 100 fpm.

4. 6. 5 Materials of Construction

The standard material used in the construction of low-voltage precipita-

tor collector cells is aluminum. The precipitator housing is usually made of

galvanized steel and frames are of aluminum. Where washing is to be frequent

and even mildly corrosive conditions exist, ionizer wires should be made of

stainless steel.

4. 6. 6 Typical Applications of Low-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitators

Applications of low-voltage precipitators to air pollution control have

developed slowly since 1937 when the first installation was successfully used

to collect ceramic over spray from pottery glazing operations. Other applica-

tions have been the collection of oil mist from high-speed grinding machines and

the cleaning of gases from deep fat fryers, asphalt saturators, rubber curing

ovens, and carpet mill dryers. See Table 4-7 for operational data.

4. 6. 6.1 Machining Operations - High speed grinding machines generate mist

from cutting oils, which must be vented from the working area. Package

units of the type shown in Figure 4-55 are used to collect the mist. A filter

is provided ahead of the precipitator to remove metal chips and any other

large particles. Concentrations of solids and tars are usually low enough to

be flushed from the plates with the collected oil droplets.

4-123
4. 6. 6. 2 Asphalt Saturators-In the manufacture of roofing paper, low-voltage

electrostatic precipitators are used to remove the steam-distilled organic

materials from hot liquid asphalt. Moisture evolved from the paper carries

oil from the process. Oils that are collected flow readily from the plates of the

electrostatic precipitator; only occasional cleaning is required.

4. 6. 6. 3 Meat Smokehouses-Smokehouses are used by meat packing houses to

cook and smoke a variety of products. During the cooking cycle, exhaust

products are reasonably innocuous and exhaust gases can be discharged directly

to the atmosphere. Smoke generated from hardwood sawdust contains liquid

aerosols, most of which are partially oxidized organics. In addition to aerosols,

odorous, eye-irritating gases and vapors are discharged in exhaust products.

Two-stage precipitators have been used with limited success to control

visible aerosols from smokehouses. All such operations use the design of

Figure 4-56 with a scrubber, mist eliminator, and tempering coil. Under

optimum operation, these units have reduced visible emissions to about 10

percent opacity. Maintenance is a problem, however and the exhaust gases

have a strong odor and a lachrymose character.

The collected particles are principally tars and gums. When the unit is

warm (120 to 180° F), at least some of these tars drain from the plates.

4-124
When the plates are not cleaned regularly, arcing occurs in the collector

section, particularly near the lower edges of the plates.

4. 6. 6. 4 Other Applications - Two-stage precipitators offer the promise of a

low-cost control device for such operations as rubber curing and carpet mill

drying, where oil mists are generated. Conceivably, these devices can be used

wherever the liquid separates easily from the plates and wherever other

considerations such as odors and eye irritants are not a problem.

4. 6. 7 Air Distribution

Proper air distribution through the precipitator is essential for efficient

collection. Precipitators are usually installed with horizontal air flow and

frequently in positions requiring abrupt changes in gas flow preceding the

unit. Installations of this type can result in turbulent and uneven flow with

high local velocities, leading to low overall efficiencies.

Where a straight section of at least 8 duct diameters is not available

ahead of the precipitator, mechanical means for balancing the air flow must

be used. Several types of distribution baffles and turning vanes have been

devised. The most effective device has been found to be one or more perfor-

ated sheet metal plates fully covering the cross section of the plenum preced-

ing the ionizers. The optimum open area for the plate is about 40 percent of

the cross-section.

4-125
4. 6. 8 Maintenance

To assure optimum performance, the internal parts of the precipitator

must be kept clean enough to prevent arcing. In addition, voltages have to be

held within proper ranges, and plate and wire spacings have to be maintained

within reasonably small tolerances.

The frequency of internal washing will depend on the application.

High particulate loadings in the gas stream and sticky materials

present the greatest problems. On the other hand, two-stage precipitators

can be operated indefinitely where relatively clean, free-flowing oils are

collected.

4-126
4. 7 FABRIC FILTRATION

4. 7. 1 Introduction

One of the oldest and most positive methods for removing solid particulate
123
contaminants from gas streams is by filtration through fabric media. The

fabric filter is capable of providing a high collection efficiency for particles as

small as O. 5 micron and will remove a substantial quantity of particles as

124
small as 0. 01 micron.

With a fabric filter, the dust-bearing gas is passed through a fabric in

such a manner that dust particles are retained on the upstream or dirty-gas

side of the fabric while the gas passes through the fabric to the downstream or

clean-gas side. Dust is removed from the fabric by gravity and/or mechanical
125
means. The fabric filters or bags are usually tubular or flat.

The structure in which the bags hang is known as a baghouse. The number

of bags may vary from one to several thousand. The baghouse may have one

compartment or many so that one may be cleaned while others are still in

service. Figure 4-58 illustrates one type of baghouse.

4. 7. 1. 1 Range of Application-Approximately 80 percent of all manufacturing

plants contain operations that produce dust and particles of such a small size
123
that use of a highly efficient collection device such as a baghouse is desirable.
In many cases, a fabric collector is an integral component of the plant operation.

4-127
CLEAN A IR
OU TLET

._-I--+---- F I LTER
BAGS

DI RTY A IR
IN LE T

CELL PLATE

CO LL ECTION
HOPPER

Fi gure 4-58. Typical simple fabric filter bag-

house design.

4-1 28
For example, filters are used to collect metal oxides, carbon black, and

dehydrated milk, and to recover reusable materials such as nonferrous

126
grinding dusts .

In other cases, fabric collectors are used to reduce equipment maintenance.

to improve product quality, to filter ventilation air entering a clean room, to

prevent physical damage to the plant or equipment, and usually to collect mists,
126
fumes or particulate matter that contribute to atmospheric pollution.

The initial selection of gas cleaning equipment for a given plant frequently

is made on the basis of past performance of the equipment. However, in making

a choice, the ability of the equipment to continue satisfactory operation under

anticipated conditions must also be considered. In short, design collection

efficiency is not the sole criterion of performance. The ability of the equip-

ment to continue high collection efficiency throughout its lifetime is also

important. Other parameters considered in the selection are the costs of

purchase, operation, and maintenance (detailed in Section 6), as well as a

variety of technical factors (listed in Section 4. 7. 4).

4. 7. 2 Mechanisms of Fabric Filtration

The particulate matter is removed from the air or gas stream by

. . . on or a dh ering to the fibers. 127' 128 The f'l

impmgmg i ter f'b
i ers are usua 11y

woven with relatively large open spaces, sometimes 100 microns or larger.

The filtering process is not simple fabric sieving, as can be seen by the fact that

4-129
high collection efficiency for dust particles 1 micron or less in diameter has

been achieved. Small particles are initially captured and retained on the

fiber of the fabric by direct interception, inertial impaction, diffusion,

electrostatic attraction, and gravitational settling. Once a mat or cake of

dust is accumulated, further collection is accomplished by mat or cake

sieving as well as the above mechanisms. Periodically the accumulated

dust is removed, but some residual dust remains and serves as an aid to

further filtering.

4. 7. 2. 1 Direct Interception - Air flow in fabric filtration is usually laminar.

Direct interception occurs whenever the fluid streamline, along which a particle

approaches a filter element, passes within a distance from the element equal

to or less than one half the particle diameter. If the particle has a very

small mass it will not deviate from the streamline as the streamline curves

around the obstacle, but because of van der Waal forces it will be attracted

to and adhere to the obstacle if the streamline passes sufficiently close to

130
the obstacle. (See path A in Figure 4-59 for illustration.)

4. 7. 2. 2 Inertial Impaction - Inertial impaction occurs when the mass of the

particle is so great that it is unable to follow the streamline rapidly curving

130
around the obstacle and continues along a path of less curvature, so that the

particle comes closer to the filter element than it would have come if it had

approached along the streamline. Collision occurs because of this inertia

4-130
 C ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION effect even when flow line intercep-

tion would not take place. (See path

-.--~~~----1 .......-----
-+- ~~~~~~ .....--~ Bin Figure 4-59). Impaction is not
-.-@_lip~~~+----
v0--+-
-. --------- a significant factor in collecting par-

ticles of 1 micron diameter or less.

Impaction is considered significant

B INERTIAL IMPACTION

for the collection of particles of two

Figure 4-59. Streamlines and particle trajectories
approaching filter elements. (Of repre- microns diameter and becomes the
sents the filter element diameter; Dp
the diameter of the particles; V 0 is the
velocity of the gas stream.) predominant factor as particle size
. 131
mcreases.

4.7.2.3 Diffusion-For particles ranging in size from less than 0.01 to

0. 05 micron diameter, diffusion is the predominant mechanism of deposi-

tion. Such small particles do not follow the streamline because collision

with gas molecules occurs, resulting in a random Brownian motion that

increases the chance of contact between the particles and the collection

surfaces. A concentration gradient is established after the collection of a

few particles, and acts as a driving force to increase the rate of deposition.

Lower air velocity increases efficiency by increasing the time available for
131
collision and therefore the chance of contacting a collecting surface.

4-131
4. 7. 2. 4 Electrostatic Attraction - Electrostatic precipitation will result from

electrostatic forces drawing particles and filter element together whenever either

or both possess a static charge. (See path C in Figure 4-59.) These forces

may be either direct, when both particle and filter are charged; or induced,

when only one of them is charged. Such charges are usually not present un-

less deliberately introduced during the manufacture of the fiber. Electrostatics

assists filtration by providing an attraction between the dust and fabric, but it

also affects particle agglomeration, fabric cleanability, and collection efficiency.

A triboelectric series of filter fabrics may be useful in selecting fabric with

132
desirable electrostatic properties.

4. 7. 2. 5 Gravitational Settling - Settling of particles by gravity onto the filter

surface may result from particle weight as the particle passes through the

filter. A simple method of judging the usefulness of a mechanism, based on

133
particle size, is shown in Table 4-8.

4. 7. 3 Filter Resistance

Two forms of resistance, clean cloth resistance and dust mat resistance,

affect the design of baghouses containing fabric filters.

4. 7. 3. 1 Clean Cloth Resistance - The resistance to air flow offered by clean

filter cloth is determined by the fiber of the cloth and the manner in which the

fibers are woven together. A tight weave offers more resistance than a loose

weave at the same air flow rate and, because the air flow is laminar, resistance

varies directly with air flow. One of the characteristics of filter fabrics

4-132
 3
Table 4-8. CONTROL MECHANISM FOR PARTICLE SIZE COLLECTIONl 3

Primary collection mechanism Diameter of particle, microns

Direct interception >1

Impingement >l

: Diffusion O.OOlto0.5

Electrostatic 0. 01 to 5

Gravity >1

4-133
frequently specified is the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
permeability, which expresses the air volume in cubic feet per minute passing
through a square foot of clean new cloth with a pressure differential of 0. 50 inch
water gauge. The usual range of values is from 10 to 110 cfm per square foot.134
With normal design conditions, the resistance of the clean cloth does not exceed
0. 10 inch of water gauge and is often less. The average flow rate in use for an
operating cloth is 1. 5 to 3. 0 cubic feet per minute per square foot of woven cloth.
This is lmown as the air-to-cloth ratio or the filtering velocity in feet per
134
minute.
4. 7. 3. 2 Dust Mat Resistance - The pressure drop of the dust mat at the end of
any elapsed time is related to the concentration of dust in the gas stream, the
mass density of the gas, and the face velocity of the gas through the fabric by
the equation:

2
_ Gpgv t
(.6. p t) mat - K ( C )

where:
(.6.pt) mat = pressure drop of the dust mat, inches of water
t = elapsed time, seconds
3
G = dust concentration in gas stream, lb/ft
p =mass density of gas, slugs/ft3
2
g =acceleration of gravity, ft/sec
v =face velocity of gas through the fabric, ft/sec.
K = resistance coefficient
C = dimensional constant
The values of K, the resistance coefficient modified to include a factor for con-
version of dust cake thiclmess to mass with constant viscosity, must be deter-
mined experimentally. C is a dimensional constant adjusted as required for the
131 135
actual units used. '

K values are usually determined by means of a scale model unit either in

the laboratory or in the field. Care must be exer'cised in applying such

4-134
 . 136 If
results to a full-sea 1e umt. a vertical bag is used, elutriation of par-

ticles may occur so that the true value of K varies with time and position on
136
the bag. The measured value of K is an average value tlrnt may not be the

same when the scale or the configuration is changed. This is borne out by failure

of some full-scale units to function as anticipated on the basis of pilot studies.

1°5
0
Table 4-9 gives K values for a number of dusts. These data were

obtained by laboratory eAlJeriments using an air flow of 2 cubic feet per

minute through 0. 2 square foot of cloth area (equivalent to a filtering velocity

of 10 ft/min). The tests were terminated at a maximum pressure differen-

tial of 8 inches of water column.

Investigators have found that K varies as a power function of the filter

137
velocity, and velocities greater than 2. 3 ft. /min. seriously affect the K
138
value of the fly ash being studied. These recent studies indicate that K

values listed in Table 4-9 should be used only for estimates. Further research

is needed to define more precisely the factors affecting the resistance

coefficients of filter cakes. The values in Table 4-9 may be used when such

limitations are considered.

The pressure drop across the collected dust increases uniformly with

time, indicating a linear relationship between resistance and the thickness of

the accumulated dust mat. The data clearly show a trend of increasing resist-

.ance with decreasing particle size. In a full-scale baghouse, particularly if

relatively long vertical bags are used, a substantial amount of elutriation can

331-716 0 - 69 - 19 4-135
 Table 4-9. FILTER RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS (K) FOR
135
INDUSTRIAL DUSTS ON WOVEN FABRIC FILTERS

Filter resistance coefficients (K)a

-
for particle size smaller than

Dusts 20 meshb, c 140 meshb, c 375 meshb, d 90 µd, e 45 µd, e 20 ii 2 µf

Granite 1. 58 2.20 19.8

Foundry 0.62 1. 58 3.78

Gypsum 6.30 18.9

Feldspar 6.30 27. 3

Stone 0.96 6.30

Lampblack 47. 2

Zinc oxide 15. 7g

Wood 6.30

Resin (cold) 0.62 25.2

Oats 1. 58 9.60 11. 0

Corn 0.62 1. 58 3.78 8.80

a
K = inches water gauge per pound of dust per square foot per foot per minute of
b filtering velocity.
U. S. standard sieve.
c
d Coarse, smaller than 20 mesh or 140 mesh.
Medium, smaller than 350 mesh, 90 µor 45 µ.
e .
Theoretical size of silica; no correction made for materials having different
f densities.
Fine, smaller than 20 µ or 2 µ.
g Flocculated material, not dispersed, size actually larger.

4-136
 139
be expected. The dust-laden gas usually enters the filter bag at the bottom

and travels upward. As the gas filters through the cloth, its upward velocity

decreases so that only very fine dust remains airborne to be deposited on the

upper portion of the bag. Because the actual pressure loss through the bag

must be the same through all areas, the volume and filtering velocity through
136
some portions of the bag reach high values. Investigators found that local

filtering velocities vary by a factor of 4 or more throughout a single filter

139
bag. This, in turn, may lead to collapse or puncture of the filter cake.

Punctures (small holes in the dust mat) are usually self-repairing because the

increased air flow through the small area of low resistance brings more dust

with it. Collapse of the filter cake, on the other hand, is a shift in cake

structure to a more compacted condition with a greater resistance.

Collapse and puncture of the filter cake are phenomena caused by

excessive filtering velocities. Some dust is embedded and remains in the

interstices of the cloth when puncture or collapse occurs so that normal

cleaning does not completely remove this dust. The embedded dust "blinds"

or plugs the fabric pores to such an extent that the fabric resistance becomes

permanently excessively high. Once begun, blinding becomes worse rapidly.

For example, transient local filtering velocities of 100 ft/min through areas of
. 139
puncture were found when the average filtering velocity was on 1y 0. 75 f t I mm.

4. 7.3.3 Effect of Resistance on Design - Resistance of the cloth filter and

dust cake cannot be divorced from the total exhaust system. The operating

4-137
characteristics of the exhaust blower and the duct resistance determine the

ways in which increases in the baghouse resistance affect the gas rate. If the

blower performance curve is steep, the gas flow rate may be reduced only
131
slightly when the resistance of the filter bags changes markedly. Some varia-

tion in resistance and air volume occurs normally in all baghouses. Proper

design requires that the volume be sufficient to capture the emissions at the

source when the system resistance is maximum and the gas volume minimum.

To prevent blinding of fabric from particle impaction, the filter ratio must

not be excessive immediately after cleaning when the pressure drop is at a

minimum and the air volume at a maximum.

4. 7. 4 Equipment Description and Design

The selection or design of industrial dust collection equipment requires

consideration of many factors. Figure 4-60 illustrates the complex nature of

the final selection of a fabric collector. Exhaust system design considerations

include:

1. Determination of the minimum volume to be vented from the basic

equipment.

2. Estimation of the maximum desirable resistance.

3. Selection of the blower operating point that will provide the

minimum required volume at the maximum system resistance.

4. Estimation of the minimum resistance for the condition immediately

after a thorough cleaning of the filter bags.

4-138
BAG ECONOMICS PRECOOLERS

P RECL EANERS

DUST AND GAS TEMPERATURE VOLUME

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
0 F DUST AND GAS STREAM M - - - INLET DUST
LOADING

DUST PARTICLE - - - - - - - - A I R TO CLOTH__., FILTER SURFACE PRODUCT

SIZE DISTRIBUTION RATIO AREA REQUIREMENTS

DESIRED COLLECTION _ _ ___ DESIRED

EFFICIENCY COLLECTION

1 EFFICIENCY

GAS DEW POINT

GAS TEMPERATURE------
!
FILTRATION CYCLE-+- BAG CLEANING _____
TECHNIQUE

BAGHOUSE FABRIC FILTER ENERGY ECONOMICS

EQUIPMENT
MAINTAINABILITY -----Mt---1::.~HOUSING ~COLLECTOR DESIGN
BAG ECONOMlcs---M

ECONOMICS PRODUCT HANDLING

Figure 4-60. System analysis for fabric filter collector design.

 5. Determination of a second operating point on the blower character-

istic curve for the clean bag condition.

6. Determination of the minimum filtering area required by the

maximum filtering velocity permissible for the particular dust or

fume being collected.

7. Rechecking of the calculations, with the filtering area thus

determined, to assure compatibility.

The rule of thumb for air-to-cloth ratios for conventional baghouses

with woven-cloth, fabric filters is 1. 5 to 3. 0 cubic feet per minute per

square foot for dusts and 1. 0 to 2. 0 cubic feet per minute per square foot for

fumes. The pressure drop for the woven cloths normally ranges from 2 to 8

inches of water. Physical characterisitics of bag fabrics tested in a pilot

plant are given in Table 4-10. Typical relationships between filter ratio and
140
pressure drop across bags for the three fabrics in Table 4-10 are shown

. F.igure 4 - 61 . l 4 0
m

Typical filter ratios and dust conveying velocities for various dusts and

fumes collected in woven cloth bags are shown in Table 4-11. 141

The rule of thumb for air-to-cloth ratios for reverse jet baghouses with

felted or napped woven fabric filters is 1 O to 16 cubic feet per minute per

square foot of cloth for dust, and 6 to 10 cubic feet per square foot of cloth

for fumes. Table 4-12 shows typical filter ratios of fabrics used for various

dusts and fumes being collected in reverse jet bag-houses. 142

4-140
 Table 4-10. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BAG FABRICS
TESTED IN PILOT PLANT 14 0

Fabric

A B c

Material Siliconized glass Siliconized Dacron Siliconized glass

Thread count 54 x 52 73 x 68 65 x 35

Yarn type

Warp Filament Filament Filament

Fill Filament Filament staple

Weave Crowfoot Twill Twill

Weight, oz/sq yd 9.36 4.59 9.00

i\STM permeability 15-20 25-35 60-80

4-141
 Table 4-11. RECOMl\!IENDED 1V1AXI1VIU:M TILT ERING RATIOS AND DUST
CONVEYING VELOCITIES FOR VARIOUS DUSTS AND FUMES IN
CONVENTIONAL BAGHOUSES WITH WOVEN FABRicsl41
Maximum filtering Branch pipe
ratios, velocity,
')
Dusts or fumes cf m/ft""' cloth area fpm

Abrasives 3.0 4500

Alumina 2.25 4500

Aluminum oxide 2.0 4500

Asbestos 2. 75 3500 - 4000

Baking powder 2. 25 - 2. 50 4000 - 4500

Batch spouts for grains 3.0 4000

Bamdte 2.5 4500

Bronze powder 2.0 5000

Brunsvvick clay 2.25 4000 - 4500

Buffing wheel operations 3.0-3.25 3500 - 4000

Carbon 2.0 4000 - 4500

Cement crushing and grinding 1. 5 4500

Cement kiln (wet process) 1. 5 4000 - 4500

Ceramics 2.5 4000 - 4500

Charcoal ')
"-'.
') ,-
~o 4500

Chocolate 2.25 4000

Chrome ore 2.5 5000

Clay 2.25 4000 - 4500

Cleanser 2.25 4000

~

Coca 2.25 4000

4-142
 Table 4-11. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FILTERING RATIOS AND DUST
CONVEYING VELOCITIES FOR VARIOUS DUSTS AND FUMES IN
CONVENTIONAL BAG HOUSES WITH WOVEN FABRICS (Continued)

Maximum filtering Branch pipe

ratios, velocity,
Dusts or fumes cfm/ft2 cloth area fpm

Coke 2.25 4000-4500

Conveying 2.5 4000

Cork 3.0 3000-3500

Cosmetics 2.0 4000

Cotton 3.5 3500

Feeds and grain 3.25 3500

Feldspar 2.5 4000-4500

Fertilizer (bagging) 2.4 4000

Fertilizer (cooler, dryer) 2.0 4500

Flint 2.5 4500

Flour 2.5 3500

Glass 2.5 4000-4500

Granite 2.5 4500

Graphite 2.0 4500

Grinding and separating 2.25 4000

Gypsum 2.5 4000

Iron ore 2.0 4500-5000

Iron oxide 2.0 4500

4-143
 Table 4-11. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FILTERING RATIOS AND DUST
CONVEYING VELOCITIES FOR VARIOUS DUSTS AND FUMES IN
CONVENTIONAL BAGHOUSES \VITH WOVEN FABRICS (Continued)

Maximum filtering Branch pipe

-
rttios, velocity,
Dusts or fumes cfm/ft cloth area fpm

Lampblack 2.0 4500

Lead oxide 2.25 4500

Leather 3.5 3500

Lime 2.0 4000

Limestone 2.75 4500

Manganese 2.25 5000

Marble 3.0 4500

Mica 2.25 4000

Oyster shell 3.0 4500

Packing machines 2.75 4000

Paint pigments 2.0 4000

Paper 3.5 3500

Plastics 2.5 4500

Quartz 2.75 4500

Rock 3.25 4500

Sanding Machines 3.25 4500

Silica 2.75 4500

Soap 2.25 3500

4-144
 Table 4-11. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM TILT ERING RATIOS AND DUST
CONVEYING VELOCITIES FOR VARIOUS DUSTS AND FUMES IN
CONVENTIONAL BAGHOUSES WITH WOVEN FABRICS (Continued)

Maximum filtering Branch pipe

ratio, velocity,
Dusts or fumes cfm/ft 2 cloth area fpm

Soapstone 2.25 4000

Starch 2. 25 3500

Sugar 2.25 4000

Talc 2.25 4000

Tobacco 3.5 3500

Wood 3.5 3500

4-145
 Table 4-12. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FILTERING RATIOS AND FABRIC
FOR DUST AND FUME COLLECTION IN REVERSE-JET BAGHOUSEsl42

Filtering
Material or operation Fabric ratios, cfm/ft2

Aluminum oxide Napped cotton 11

Bauxite Cotton sateen 10

Carbon, calcined Napped cotton, wool felt Sa

Carbon, green Orlon felt 7

Carbon, banbury mixer Wool felt s

Cement, raw Cotton sateen 9

Cement, finished Cotton sateen 10

Cement, milling Cotton sateen s

Chrome, (ferro) crushing Cotton sateen 10

Clay. green Cotton sateen 10

Clay, vitrified silicious Cotton sateen 12

Enamel, (porcelain) Napped cotton 12

Flour Cotton sateen 14a

Grain Wool felt, cotton sateen 16

Graphite Wool felt 7a

Gypsum Cotton sateen, orlon felt 10

Lead oxide fume Orlon felt, wool felt Sa

Lime Napped cotton 10

4-146
 Table 4-12. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FILTERING RATIOS AND FABRIC
FOR DUST AND FUME COLLECTION IN REVERSE-JET BAGHOUSES
(Continued)

Filtering
2
Material or operation Fabric ratios, cf m/ft

Limestone (crushing) Cotton sateen 10

Metallurgical fumes Orlon felt, wool felt lOa

Mica Napped cotton 11

Paint pigments Cotton sateen 10

Phenolic molding powders Cotton sateen 10

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Wool felt lOa

Refractory brick sizing Napped cotton 12

(after firing)

Sandblasting Napped cotton, wool felt 6-8a

Silicon carbide Cotton sateen 9-11

Soap and detergent powder Dacron felt, orlon felt 12a

Soy bean Cotton sateen 14

Starch Cotton sateen 10

Sugar Cotton sateen, wool felt lOa

Talc Cotton sateen 11

Tantalum fluoride Orlon felt Ga

Tobacco Cotton sateen 12

Wood flour Cotton sateen 10

Wood sawing operations Cotton sateen 12

4-147
 Table 4-12. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FILTERING RATIOS AND FABRIC
FOR DUST AND FUME COLLECTION IN REVERSE-JET BAGHOUSES
(Continued)

Filtering
Material or operation Fabric 2
ratios, cfm/ft

Zinc, metallic Orlon felt, dacron felt 11

Zinc oxide Orlon felt Sa

Zirconium oxide Orlon felt 8

a 2
Decrease 1 cfm/ft if dust concentration is high or particle size is small.

4-148
 A typical range of dust

loading for woven bag filters is

c

"'
0 6 from 0. 1 to 10 grains per cubic
<
co
l/J
l/J 5 foot of gas. Higher concentrations
0
Cl:
u
<
0.. 4 of particulate matter in some
0
Cl:
0
w industries are removed by a pre-
Cl: 3
:::>
l/J
l/J
w cleaning device, such as a low
Cl: 2'--_ _.__ _........._ ___..____ __.__ __.___ __,
0.. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
efficiency cyclone. Maximum dust
FILTERING RATIO, f13/ft2 - min

Note: A and C are siliconized gloss fobrics, B is a loading reported for felted bag
siliconized Dacron fobric.

Figure 4-61. Pressure drop versus filter ratio filters with reverse jet or pulse
for fabrics on 60-minute cleaning
cycle for electric furnace dust.
jet cleaning is 80 grains per cubic
(Courtesy of the Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association)
foot. Figure 4-62 presents dust
143
loading versus filter ratio data for typical products.

4. 7. 4.1 Baghouse Design-Many design considerations for handling waste gases

from various operations are the same regardless of the process involved. How-

ever, this is not necessarily true of baghouse type - a most important design

decision - which ranges from the open-pressure type to the closed, welded,

fully insulated baghouse. Generally the type of baghouse required is dictated

by the moisture in the waste gas. The higher the dew point, the greater the

precaution that must be taken to prevent condensation which can moisten the

filter cake, plug the cloth, and corrode the housing and hoppers. Three

designs, open pressure, closed pressure, and closed suction are used in
144
fabric filter baghouse construction. The cost of the open pressure system

is the least of the three; that of the closed suction system is the greatest.
4-149
 Open pressure - An open
M

';;,
80 2 4 5
O> pres sure baghouse, in which the
z'
0
t-- 60 fan is located on the dirty gas
<{
a::
t--
z 40 side of the system, can be oper-
UJ
u
z
0
u nted with open sides as long o.s
t-- 20
"':::::>
0 protection from the weather is
0 30
0 5 10 15 20 25
provided. Under some circum-
FILTERING RATIO, 113/112 - min

KEY
stances, a completely open bag-
1. MAGNESIUM KAOLIN6.
TRI SILICATE 7.
CEMENT OR
2. CARBON BLACK LIMESTONE DUST . 144
3. STARCH DUST 8. COAL DUST
house is satisfactory, and
4. RESINOX 9. LEATHER BUFFING
5. DIATOMACEOUS EARTH DUST
FOR NUMBERS l THROUGH 6, 99.94 99.99 PER- allows hotter inlet gas tempera-
CENT PASSING 325 M!:SH. FOR NUMBERS 7 AND
8, 95 PERCENT PASSING 200 MESH. NUMBER 9, 60
tures to be used because the
MESH AVERAGE.
Figure 4-62. Typical performance of reverse-jet
baghouses using felted fabrics on cooling is better in an open bag-
a variety of dusts (dust load versus
filtering ratio at 3.5 in. w.c.
house. Better cooling allows
pressure drop).
(Courtesy of the lndustriol Chemist Magazine)
lower temperature filter media to
131
be used with higher inlet gas temperatures than might otherwise be possible.

In an open pressure system, the blower must handle the entire dust load, which

causes the blower to wear substantially. Thus, maintenance cost is higher than

that for a blower on the clean gas side of a baghouse. Because air flows from

the inside of the filter bags, bag replacement is facilitated because a leaky bag

is easier to locate. The open pressure unit is normally constructed with cor-

rugated steel or asbestos cement walls. It may have open gratings at the cell

plate level and may not require hopper insulation. Figures 4-63 and 4-64

. 144 145
illustrate the open pressure baghouse. '

4-150
 Closed pressure -A closed

pressure baghouse is ~1lso constructed

with the fan on the clirly gas side of

the system, but the structure is

CORRUGATED
HOUSING
closed.

The closed pressure unit is

OPEN
GRATING used for g::i.ses with high clew points
DIRTY
GAS
FROM -t:=::?:-_...i. and for toxic gases, that cannot be
FAN
SIDE VIEW
released at low elevations. Blower
Figure 4-63. Open pressure baghouse.
maintenance problems are identical

to those of the open pressure baghouse. Asbestos cement walls without insula-

tion are sometimes used to construct closed pressure baghouses. The floor of

such a unit is closed and the hoppers are insulated. Figures 4-65 and 4-66
. 144,145
illustrate the closed pressure baghouse.

Closed suction - A closed suction baghouse is one in which the fan is

located on the clean gas side of the closed, all-welded, air tight structure. The

closed suction unit is used for gases with dew points between 165 F and 180 F.

The floor of such a unit is closed and the structure walls and hopper are

insulated, particularly for dew points in the upper range. Blower maintenance

is cheaper because the blower is on the clean gas side of the system. The

inspection for holes in the bag is difficult.

331-716 0 - 69 - 20 4-151
Figure 4-64. Open pressure baghouse unit showing insta ll ation without a separate clean gas
housing.
!Court e sy of the Whee lob rotor Corporoloon )

4-1 52
 Figures 4-67 and 4-68 illustrate
144 145
the closed suction baghouse. '

Structural considerations -
CORRUGATED
HOUSING Metal used to construct the baghouse

walls and hoppers must be strong

CLOSED
enough to withstand the pressure

SIDE VIEW differentials involved. A pressure

differential of 8 inches water

Figure 4-65. Closed pressure bag house.
column represents approximately

42 pounds per square foot. The total air pressure exerted on a side panel of
131
a closed suction baghouse may be in excess of 2 tons.

Easy access to the baghouse interior must be provided to change bags

and to perform maintenance. The open pressure unit has easy access to the

cell plate at the bottom of the baghouse, even when the unit is operating. How-

ever, at the bag top level, the hot and possibly toxic gases prevent bag changing

without taking the unit off stream. To overcome this difficulty, many units are

furnished with internal partitions between compartments so an individual

compartment can be isolated. Thus, the remaining compartments continue to

filter while the one removed from service is maintained.

Hoppers are sized to hold the collected dust while or until it is removed

for disposal. The slope of the sides of the hopper must be steep enough to

4-153
Figure 4-66 . Closed pressure baghouse unit.
(Courte•y of the Wheelabrator Corporat ion)

4- 154
 CLEAN GAS permit the dust to slide or flow
TO FAN

freely. The des igner mus t a lso

consider the possibi lity of bridging.

Continuous removal of dust will help

to prevent bridging of material , and

will prevent ope rating difficulties

with m a terials that becom e less

SIDE VIEW

fluid with time .

4. 7 . 4. 2 Fabric F ilte r Shape -

Figure 4-67 . Closed suction baghouse.

Filter s hape i s de pendant on the use

to which the filter will be put. Two major bag shapes, the envelope (flat) and

the tube , are used.

The enve lope b ag is illustrated

14 5
in Figure 4- 69. Dust is collected

on the outside of the bag, which is

I

prevented from collapsing by the use

of internal scree ns or frames. How-

ever , the inte rn a l screen complicates

bag c ha nging and the contact of the

screen and fabric reduces c loth life.

The e nve lope bag has the advant age

=igure 4-68. Closed suction concrete baghouse of providing more fi lte r ing s urface
unit.
(Courtesy of the Wheelabrator Cor p orati on)

4-1 55
 per volume than the tubular bag

TOP VIEW because of the close spacing of

the envelopes. If the dust has a

tendency to bridge, every other

bag may be removed to prevent

plugging.

The tubular bag, illustrated

in Figure 4-7 0, is open at one

Figure 4-69. Typical flat or envelope dust
collector bag. 145
end and closed at the other.

Tubular bag design is more varied than flat bag design. Multi-bag and bottom

or top entry uni-bag filters are in widespread use. Air flow may be either

from the outside or inside.

A multi-bag is a group of either three or six tubular bags sewn together

145
as shown in Figure 4-71. Multi-bag suspension is limited to a top loop

suspension. A disadvantage of the top loop suspension is the difficult adjustment

required occasionally because of the multi-bag dimensional instability.

The uni-bag is a single tubular bag, not attached to other bags, into

which gas may enter from the top or bottom. Bottom entry allows gas to

enter from the hopper section and flow upwards into the filtering area as shown

igure 4 -72. 145

. F.
rn

Bottom entry allows pre-separation of the coarse particles in the hopper,

and the fabric handles the suspended dust. Gas flows down in a top entry unit

4-156
 into the filtering area as shown in

TOP VIEW 145

Figure 4-73. The entire dust

load passes through the entire tube

of the top entry design before dust

reaches the hopper. A cell plate

SIDE VIEW
ceiling, as well as a cell plate

floor, increases the difficulty of

J J
adjusting top entry bags. The top

Figure 4-70. Typical round or tubular dust col-

lector bag. entry baghouse creates a dead gas

pocket in the hopper that can be a

source of trouble because of con-

densation of water vapor in mois-

ture-laden gases.

The direction of gas flow in

TOP VIEW
tubular bags can be either inside

out or outside in. If the direction

I is outside in, then a frame is

I
I
I inserted in the bag to prevent
I
I SIDE VIEW
I the bag from collapsing. Collecting
I
\ (' t ~
the dust on the outside of the bag

requires that the unit be inspected on

Figure 4-71. Typical multi-bag dust collection
system. the dirty gas side and increases

4-157
Figure 4-72. Bottom entry design uni-bag. Figure 4-73. Top entry design uni-bag.

the difficulty of bag replacement. Also, shorter bag life is experienced because

of bag and frame contact.

4. 7. 4. 3 Cloth Type - Two basic types of cloth are used in fabric filters. They

are wm·en cloth or "cake" filter media, and felted cloth or "fiber" filter
. 146, 147
me d ia.

Wm·en fabric acts as a support on which a layer of dust is deposited to

form a microporous layer capable of removing additional particles by sieving

123
and other basic filtration mechanisms. Cake filtration is the most important removal

mechanism \\·hen new filter cloth becomes thoroughly impregnated with dust. A

wide variety of woven and felted fabrics are used in fabric filters. Clean felted

fabrics are more efficient dust collectors than clean woven fabrics, but woven materials

are capable of giving equal filtration efficiency after a dust layer accumulates on

the surface. When new \voven fabric is placed in service, visible penetration of

dust may occur until the cake builds up. This takes a period of a few hours to a few days

4-158
for industrial applications, depending on the dust loading and the nature of the

particles. When dealing with extremely low grain loadings and fine dusts, fabrics

may be precoated with asbestos floats or similar materials to form an artificial

filter cake to prevent dust leakage.

Another method of reducing dust leakage in fabrics is based on the use of

electrostatics. Electrostatic forces used in dust collecting mechanisms are

explained in Section 4. 7. 2. 4. Electrostatics not only assists filtration by pro-

viding an attraction between the dust and fabric but also may affect particle

agglomeration, fabric cleanability and collection efficiency.

Electrostatic charges are induced in both fabrics and dusts by friction.

The maximum charge and the charge dissipation rate are measured for each

fabric and dust. Fabrics are arranged in relation to each other in a triboelectric
. 132
series. Attempts to develop such a series for dusts have not been successful.

Agglomeration of some charged dusts may be aided by selection of a fabric

with an opposite charge. For example, a negatively charged dust would agglom-

erate with a positively charged fabric.

Dust leakage through a fabric may be reduced by maximizing the electro-

static differential between dust and fabric, thus maximizing the electrostatic

attraction forces. Leakage may also be reduced by selecting a fabric with a

low dissipation of electrostatic charge. A fast dissipation of charge reduces too

quickly the electrostatic attraction between fabric and dust. When this occurs,

fabric overcleaning during the cleaning cycle is possible with no residual dust

remaining on fabric to act as a precoat.

4-159
 Electrostatic charging has been introduced in some bonded fiberglass

fabrics used for air conditioning installations. However, until more informa-

tion is available for large industrial fabric filters, the relative importance of

electrostatics in determining the best filter fabric for a specific installation

cannot be evaluated. Certainly, if one fabric does not work effectively, other

fabrics should be tried. Both the physical characteristics and the electrostatic
properties of the fabrics may serve as ?Uides.

Woven fabrics - Woven fabric filters in conventional baghouses usually

.
have air-to-cloth rat10s o f 1: 1 to 5: 1. 126, 130 woven f a b r1c. permeab"l"t b
i i y can e

varied, which, in turn, varies the operating air-to-cloth ratio. Permeability

and air-to-cloth ratio have been discussed in Section 4. 7. 3. 1.

Woven fabric permeability or porosity is varied by using different yarns,

fabric count, cloth weights (expressed as ounces per square yard), and weave

patterns. The three basic forms of yarn used for woven fabrics are monofila-
147
ment, multifilament, and spun-staple. Monofilament yarn is a synthetic

fiber made in a single, continuous filament. Multifilament yarn is made by

twisting two or more monofilaments together. Spun-staple yarn is made by

twisting short lengths of natural or synthetic fiber into a continuous strand.

Warp is the yarn that runs lengthwise in a cloth and fill (pick) is the yarn that
147
interlaces with warp yarn to form a woven fabric. The count of a fabric is

the number of warp and fill yarns per square inch in a woven fabric.

Another method for decreasing woven fabric porosity is to weave cloth

from napped yarn or plied yarn. The napped yarn is made by abrading the

4-160
 148
surface of the filament yarn to produce a fuzzy, fibrous condition. The

plied yarn is made by twisting lighter weight yarns together in a single, con-
149
tinuous strand of yarn. For example, a fabric made from 800 denier yarn

(weight in grams of a single continuous strand of yarn, 9000 meters long) may

be made from plied yarn by using four strands of 200 denier yarn. These four

200 denier strands of yarn may be twisted together to give the plied strand of

yarn which may be used to weave the 800 denier cloth. The weight of the cloth

remains unchanged while its dust retentivity is improved.

The basic weaves usually used for fabric filters are plain, twill, and

satee1~ 9 These are illustrated in Figure 4-7 4. The plain weave has a simple

"one up and one down" construction. This construction permits maximum yarn

interlacing per square inch, and, if woven tightly, allows high impermeability.

If the count is lowered, this weave can be as open as desired. The plain weave
149
is common in certain cotton ducks and many synthetic fabrics.

The twill weave is recognized by the sharp diagonal "twill" line formed by

the passage of a warp yarn over two or more fill or pick yarns with the inter-

lacing advancing one pick with each warp. In equivalent construction, twills

have fewer interlacings than the plain weave and, hence, greater porosity,

although this naturally depends on the count. Cotton and synthetic filter twills
149
are commonly used.

The sateen weave with even fewer pick interlacings, spaced widely and

regularly, provides a smooth surface with increased porosity. These qualities

4-161
make them particularly valuable in dust collection. Cotton fabrics in this

weave are commonly known as sateens. Cotton sateen is probably more com-

monly used than any other fabric in fabric filters operated at ambient tempera-

tures.

PLAIN TWILL SATEEN

Figure4-74. Basic fabric weaves used for woven filter bags.

(Courtesy of West Point Pepperell, lndustrlal Fabrics Division)

Dimensional stability is an important factor in filter fabric. Cotton and

wool fabrics must be preshrunk, and synthetics are usually given a corre-
131
sponding treatment known as "heat-settingn. This process contributes to a

more even balance of warp and filling yarn tension, controls porosity, and

virtually eliminates shrinkage. Dimensional stability may be lost if the fabric

is subjected to temperatures near that used in the original heat-setting process.

Excessive temperatures in operation can cause a shrinkage of 3 or 4

percent. Shrinkage may cause a bag to pull loose from its connection to the

floor plate or the upper support structure.

4-162
 woven natural fabrics may be treated with flameproofing, moldproofing,

shrinkproofing, and/ or dust-releasing coatings, such as silicone to increase

131
service life. Woven synthetic fibers are often treated with flameproofing

and dust-releasing coatings.

'Noven fabric bags are made from cotton, wool, Dacron, Nylon, Orlon,

Nomex, polypropylene, Teflon, and fiberglass.

Fiberglass fabric bags are treated with silicone, mixtures of silicone

and collodial graphite, and Teflon lubricants to provide protection against

150
abrasion and flex failures caused by fiber-to-fiber rubbing. These lubri-

cants are effective at temperatures of from lOOu F to 550° F.

Felted fabrics - Felted fabrics serve as filter media and are used in
126
reverse jet and pulse jet baghouses with air-to-cloth ratios of 6:1to16:1,
131
or ratios 5 to G times those woven fabric filters.

Felted bags are more expensive than woven bags. Wool is the only

fiber that will produce a true felt. However, synthetic fibers can be needled

to function as a felt filter fabric. Hence, felt is limited to wool and such

synthetic fibers as Dacron, Nylon, Nomex, polypropylene, and Teflon. Cotton

and fiberglass fibers do not make felted fabrics.

Felted fabrics are complex, labyrinthine masses of randomly oriented

fine fibers. The relative thickness provides the advantages of maximum dust

impingement and changes of direction of flow to entrap small dust and fume

particles. Felted fabric filters operate with extremely high collection efficiencte5J-.

4-163
 In some cases, felted bags do not function well in the collection of

extremely fine fumes because the fine particles are embedded in the felt and are

very difficult to remove in the cleaning cycle. In general, felted bags are cleaned

by high-pressure reverse jet and jet pulse devices that operate at frequent inter-

vals. In one unit, each felted bag is cleaned individually by reverse air flow

from a pressure blower and a burst of compressed air released when the bag has
151
been expanded.

Principal considerations for proper selection of the most economical felt

150
for a particulate process include:

1. Necessary characteristics of the fiber to meet chemical and

thermal resistance needs.

2. Type of construction.

3. Such physical properties of the felt as density, breaking strength,

elongation, bursting strengh, air permeability. and particle size

retention.

4. 7. 4. 4 Fabric Cleaning - Fabric flexing and reverse air flow through the

cloth are two methods of cleaning collected particulate matter from fabric filters.

Fabric flexing - Manual shaking, mechanical shaking, and air shaking are

three methods of fabric flexing used in cleaning filters. Air shaking is further

broken into four methods: air bubbling, jet pulsing, reverse air flexing and sonic

vibration.

4-164
 Manual shaking is used in baghouses of about 500 to 600 square feet of

cloth. A rap is transmitted to the framework from which the filtering bags are

suspended. Vibration from the rap shakes the dust loose. Thorough cleaning

is rarely achieved because the shaking action is dependent on the operator's

131
vigor. This method is the least expensive and least desirable.

Mechanical shaking (Figure 4-7 5) removes dust from woven fabrics in a

126
manner similar to that achieved by hand shaking a rug. The shaker mecha-

nism provides a gentle but effective cleaning action on the bags without exerting

undue stresses on the fabric.

The shaker design must allow for easy installation, alignment, and main-

tenance. Shaking is usually used for inside out filtering and is considered too

vigorous for fiberglass bags unless special provisions are made for reducing
145
the intensity of shaking.

Air shaking (Figure 4-76) is done by flowing air between rows of bags,
139
windwhipping the bags to make a dancing, cleaning action. Bags are over-

cleaned near the orifice or jet and undercleaned in blind areas out of the wind-

whipping action. This method requires a minimum of hardware but is usually

.
t oo vigorous 145
for fiberglass bags.

Air bubbling is done by releasing a traveling air bubble at the top of the

bag during the cleaning cycle, as shown in Figure 4-77. The bubble travels down

the bag during repressuring and causes it to ripple, thus cleaning the bag by

shaking. The compressed air requirements are high and cleaning at higher

4-165
air-to-cloth ratios has not been fully proven. This method is used for inside
145
out filtering and sometimes for fiberglass bags.

The jet pulse method employs a jet action of compressed air through a

venturi section at the top of the barrb

(Figure 4-78). Smaller diameter

tubular bags are held in place

over a supporting screen, and

dust is collected on the outside of

INSIDE OUT
FILTERING an open-end-up tubular bag. Com-

pressed air released at frequent

SIDE VIEW

Figure 4-75. Mechanical shaking of bottom entry intervals to a row of bags causes
design uni-bag dust collector.
the bags to pulse outward, thus

vibrating the fabric, and removing

the dust. The dust is cleaned off by

000 000
0001 [000
000 000~ a flicking action on the collection
ggg][ggg~
000] [000
000 000 surfaces rather than a reverse
000' rooo TOP VIEW

flow through the fabric. Felted

AIR JETS
FOR SHAKING fabrics usually are used with out-

side in filtering. The jet pulse

~ '/,
SIDE VIEW provides uniform pressure drop

and continuous and automatic

Figure 4-76. Air shaking wind-whip cleans dust
collector bags.
cleaning with no moving parts and

4-166
permits higher air-to-cloth ratios, resulting in smaller units for equivalent

capacity. The cost of a supporting frame and higher replacement costs of

145
felted fabrics over woven fabrics are disadvantages of this method.

Reverse air flexing is achieved by a double or triple cycle deflation of the

bags followed by gentle inflating through low-pressure reverse flow. as shown in

Fig1Ire 4-79. The cloth cleaning is not exclusively shaking, because some back-

washing occurs. This method is used for inside out filtering with fiberglass

bags.

Occasionally, sonic generators are used to provide additional fabric vibra-

145
tions for cleaning action. Sonic generators vibrate the dust loose from the

collecting fabrics as shown in Figure 4-80. They are sometimes used to

supplement repressuring and reverse flow cleaning. Some carbon black and

zinc oxide installations are using repressuring and sonic horns to clean fiber-
145
glass bags.

The second cleaning category, reverse air flow. is divided into three

methods: repressuring cleaning, atmospheric cleaning, and reverse jet

cleaning.

Repressuring cleaning is a low-pressure, high-volume, reverse flow of

air through the bags as shown in Figure 4-81. It is used for woven or felted

bags.

Atmospheric cleaning is used in closed suction baghouses. An atmos-

pheric vent is placed into the clamper of the fan so that when the compartment

damper valve closes, the vent opens to the atmosphere allowing a backwash of

331-716 o _ 69 _ :.n 4-167

 rlh

INSIDE OUT
FILTERING

SIDE VIEW

t
Figure 4-77. Bubble cleaning of dust collector Figure 4-78. Jet pulse dust collector bag cleaning.
bags.

EXHAUST

INLET
VALVE

REPRESSURING
VALVE
SIDE VIEW

FIL TERI NG COLLAPSING CLEANING

Figure 4-79. Reverse air flexing to clean dust collector bags by repressuring.
 AIR HORN

SIDE VIEW

Figure 4-80. Sonic cleaning of dust collector bags.

INSIDE OUT
FILTERING

SIDE VIEW

Figure 4-81. Repressuring cleaning of dust collector bags.

air to clean the cloth,as shown in Figure 4-82. This action is gentle and is only

used with fiberglass cloth and easily removed dust. Sonic horns may be used to

supplement the cleaning action. The amount of backwash air is dependent on

cloth resistance. If the resistance is high the amount of backwash air is

145
diminished, thus reducing the cleaning action.

4-169
 EXHAUST CLOSED

TO FAN

VENT OPEN

TO NEXT
COMPARTMENT

SIDE VIEW SIDE VIEW

OPERATING CLEANING

Figure 4-82. Cloth cleaning by reverse flow of ambient air.

Reverse jet cleaning uses a traveling compressed air ring which moves up

and down the outside of a tubular filter bag, thus blowing the dust back through

the cloth and off the inside of the bag with compressed air as shown in Figure

4-83. Re-entrainment of fine dust during cloth cleaning has caused high pressun

drops across some baghouses collecting fine fumes. The design is used success·

fully with felted bags with high air-to-cloth ratios collecting relatively coarse,

nonabrasive dusts. The replacement costs of bags is somewhat high. The unit
145
allows a compact installation.

The volume of air blown through the slot of the blow ring usually ranges
131
from 1. 0 to 1. 5 cubic feet per minute per linear inch of slot. Slot widths
152
range from 0. 03 to 0. 2 5 inch.

4-170
 TOP ENTRY

CROSS-SE CT ION

Figure 4-83. Reverse jet cleaning of dust collector bags.

4. 7.4. 5 Fabric Selection - Fabrics that are presently applied in commercially

123 147 153
ava1·1 abl e bag h ouses are s h own m
. Ta bl e 4-13. • • T h e f inis h app 1ied to

these fabrics is described in Section 4. 7. 4. 3.

When comparing fabric cost ranks given in Table 4-13, other factors also

should be considered. Use of a high-temperature fabric reduces the amount of

15
dilution cooling required. 4A. high-temperature fabric requires less filtering

area. For example, when cooling gases from 400° F to 250° F with ambient air

at 90° F, the final gas volume is increased by 60 percent. The filter operating

at 400° F requires only 62. 5 percent as much cloth area as at 250° F. These

reductions will also lower power costs for operating the fi lt~ ~:

Fabric materials less commonly used are carbon, metals and ceramic
155
fibers that will filter gases at temperatures up to 1600° F. Beta fiberglass,

4-171
 123 147 153
Table 4-13. FILTER FABRIC CHARACTERISTICs ' '

Operating
exposure Air Resistanceb
•F Supports permeabilitya Mineral Organic Coste
Fiber Long Short combustion cfm/ft2 Composition Abrasion acids acids Alkali rank
Cotton 180 225 yes 10-20 Cellulose G p G G 1
Wool 200 250 no 20-60 Protein G F F p 7
I

Nylond 200 250 yes 15-30 Polyamide E p F G 2

Orlond 240 275 yes 20-45 Polyacrylonitrile G G G F 3
Dacrorid 275 325 yes 10-60 Polyester E G G G 4
Polypropylene 200 250 yes 7-30 Olefin E E E E 6
Nomexd 425 500 no 25-54 Polyamide E F E G 8
Fiberglass 550 600 yes 10-70 Glass P-F E E p 5
Teflond 450 500 no 15-65 Polyfluoroethy lene F E E E 9

a cfm/ft.2 @ 0. 5 in. W. G.
bp =Poor, F =Fair, G =Good, E =Excellent.
ccost rank, 1 = lowest cost, 9 = highest cost.
dDupont registered trademark.
a relatively new product, is more flexible than regular fiberglass and abrades
. 149
less in service.

4. 7. 4. 6 Auxiliary Equipment -Auxiliary equipment that is selected during

-
the original design includes dust handling equipment and precooling equipment.

Dust handling equipment - For collectors that are regularly cleaned and

re-used, such dust handling equipment as hoppers must be provided for the

collected dust. Hoppers empty through a dust gate. rotary lock or trickle
130
valve into a screw or belt conveyor, a truck body, or a tote bin. The dust

is then conveyed to the final disposal point.

Careful consideration must be given to the dust handling system at the

time the fabric collector is originally designed.

13
° Failure to do so may result
in leakage in the system that will redisperse the collected dust and create air

pollution problems. Inaccessability of the handling equipment for servicing will

make maintenance difficult. Undersizing of the dust disposal mechanism may

block the upstream flow of process materials.

Precooling equipment - The application of cloth filtration to the cleaning

of furnace gases in most cases requires that the gases be cooled in order to

protect the filter fabric and to ensure economical bag life. The following three
156
. met h od s are emp l oyed smg
coo 1mg . 1y or m
. various
. com b'ma t'18nS:

1. Radiation and convection cooling, this requires a relatively large

investment in U-tube coolers, or heat exchangers.

4-173
 2. Admission of outside air for cooling, this results in relatively

large filtration volumes with a resultant increase in the size of the

gas cleaning equipment.

3. Spray cooling, this is the most economical with respect to

capital investment, but requires careful control of cooling water

sprays in order to keep the temperature of gases high enough (7 5° F

above dew point) to prevent condensation, which causes plugged filters.

Radiation and convection cooling,and spray cooling cannot be used for a

gas of high moisture content. Only the tempering air method can be used to

avoid condensation of the moisture. Regulation of temperature is accomplished

easily by this method, however, the outside air used for cooling also must pass

through the filter, so the filter must be considerably larger than a filter used

with U-tubes or spray cooling methods.

Spray cooling of hot gases is the least expensive method because the

initial cost is reasonable, the maintenance is relatively easy, and the increase

in gas volume to be filtered is nominal. However, careful control of cooling is

145
needed to hold the temperature of hot gases 50° F to 7 5° F above the dew point.

4. 7. 4. 7 Individual Collectors Versus Large Collecting Systems - The individual

fabric collector has several advantages over a large central collecting system
157
in manufacturing plants where relatively few dust sources must be controlled.

The unit collector is self-contained, and has a lower erection cost because the

unit is shipped erected, or nearly so, and because it can be installed at the

point of neecl with minimum duct work. The unit collector's mobility is often

4-174
economically important in a plant with idle batch processes where idle unit

collectors may be moved to sites requiring dust control. The large central

collecting system requires considerable floor space ancl is often erected outdoors.

Outdoor erection of a central system may require insulation and even supple-

mentary heat input to avoid chilling the gas to the dew point. The large central

system is preferred in large manufacturing plants where many dust sources of

continuous processes must be controlled.

4.7.5 Typical Applications

The following examples of fabric collector application are presented to

show how they may be applied to control particulate matter from various sources.

The use of fabric filters has been extended by the introduction of fiberglass

bags capable of operations at temperatures up to 550° F. The use of synthetic

fabric bags has resolved many problems associated with corrosive or moderate

temperature dust emissions.

4. 7. 5.1 Cement Kilns-The collection of the dust from rotary cement kilns has

long been a difficult problem. The difficulty arises from the large volumes of

gas involved, the heavy loading of very fine particles, the high gas temperatures,

and in the case of wet-process kilns, the presence of a large amount of water
158
vapor.

The conventional cyclone will collect a high percentage of the clust, but

beyond this point the electrostratic precipitator is the only device besides the
. 159-161
fabric collector capable of final ancl complete cleanup. Efficiencies as

4-175
high as 99. 5 percent, outlet loadings below . 02 grains per standard cubic foot,

and plume opacities less than 10 percent have been reported for fabric filter
160
applications to cement kilns.

4. 7. 5. 2 Foundry Cupolas-Emissions from a gray iron cupola are a prime

example of particulate matter than can be controlled with high temperature

fabric filtration. Cupola exhaust temperatures range from 1000 F to 2200° F

162
. f oo t .
with an average effluent loading of about 1 grain per cub lC M uc h of

the emission is fine metal oxide fume less than O. 5 micron in diameter. Gas

cooling and high-temperature fabric filters are required. Evaporation cooling

by water sprays is the most common technique used in gas cooling. Off-gas

temperatures are reduced to about 450" F before filtration through fiberglass

bags. In a typical installation the gas is filtered at rates of about 2. 5 feet

2
cfm/ft through tubular bags that are 11-1/2 inches in diameter and 15-1/2

feet long. A bag life of one or two years can be expected if bags are used

continuously. In noncontinuous service, averaging 20 to 40 on-stream hours

162
per week, bags have been reported to last four or five years.

4. 7. 5. 3 Electric Arc Steel Furnaces-The electric arc steel furnace presents

an emission control problem that is characterized by fine particulate matter

containing a high percentage of oxides of iron, dispersed in a gas stream that

is highly variable in temperature, loading, and volume during the different

process cycles. Effluent volume is dependent on the type of hooding arrange-

ment employed because the dilution air flow is adjusted to provide for gas

4-176
cooling and in-plant dust control. Stack temperatures may reach 750° F or
163
higher with closed, hooded units.

The first large-scale fiberglass filter in the steel industry was installed
163
in 1959 at a Seattle steel mill. This unit handles 105, 000 cfm at tempera-

tures up to 500° Fusing fiberglass bags 11-1/2 inches in diameter and 25 feet

long that operate at an air-to-cloth ratio of 1. 4. The fiberglass bags are

cleaned by collapsing.

Another example is a furnace melting 45 tons of steel scrap in four hours

and using an Orlon fabric filter to handle a volume of 60, 000 cfm at 200° F.

The bag replacement costs are approximately $1400 per year with a five year
163
bag life.

4. 7. 5. 4 Open Hearth Furnaces-A major steel company conducted a study

which found that iron oxide fumes generated by an oxygen- lanced open hearth
164
furnace could be collected efficiently by fiberglass bags.

The 10-compartment baghouse used in the study handles 145, 000 cfm at
2
500° F, based on a filter ratio of 2 cfm/ft when nine of the ten compartments

are in operation. Each of the ten compartments contains 80 fiberglass bags,

11-1/2 inches in diameter and 34 feet long (or 8070 square feet of filter surface

per compartment). Reverse air flex cleaning, supplemented by sonic horns,

is used. The efficiency of the baghouse is well over 99 percent under all con-

ditions of inlet gas volume and dust loading. Inlet particulate loading has been

as high as 20 grains per cubic foot during periodic cleaning of heat regenerative

4-177
surfaces. The outlet dust loading has been measured at 0. 007 grains per

1G5
cubic foot.

4. 7. 5. 5 Nonferrous Metal Furnaces-One of the largest secondary lead smelters

in the country has converted from synthetic fiber to fiberglass bags to permit

fume collection at temperatures higher than 400° F. This installation cleans the

combined effluent from a reverberatory furnace and a lead blast furnace. Higher

filtering temperatures were desired in order to eliminate the deposition of

organic tars on the bags. After lG months' experience with fiberglass bags,
2
operated at 1. 2 cfm/ft and cleaned by shaking, results are reported as
1G2
satisfactory.

After completion of pilot-scale studies with both synthetic and fiberglass

media at an integrated smelter producing primary copper and zinc, a baghouse

equipped with 222, 000 square feet of fiberglass bags was constructed to clean
162
the effluent streams from a reverberatory furnace and copper converters.

Fiberglass fabric was selected because of its corrosion resistance and because

operation at 450' F reduced by 50 percent the radiation-convection heat trans-

fer area that would have been required for cooling to temperatures safe for
2
organic media. The average filter ratio is 1. G cfm/ft . Bags 5 inches in

diameter and 10 feet long are used. Bag cleaning involves collapse every half

hour supplemented by mechanical shaking every eight hours. Sonic cleaning

equipment has been tried experimentally. Based on present know ledge, an

average bag life in excess of two years is anticipated.

4-178
4. 7, 5. 6 Carbon Black Plants-Baghouses equipped with fiberglass bags are

reported to be in use for the final cleaning in 35 of the 37 carbon black plants
166 .
in the United States. Earlier baghouses used synthetic bags and kept the

filtration temperature below 250° F to protect the media. However, the

temperature was regulated by evaporative cooling, which brought the gas stream

close to the acid dew point and caused serious corrosion of fabric. The intro-

duction of fiberglass in 1953 minimized this problem by allowing operation at

temperatures of 400° F to 500° F. Bag collapse, with some supplementary vibra-

tion from sonic horns or other gentle means is the most common technique

used for cleaning the fiberglass filters. Air-to-cloth ratios are usually 1. 5: 1.

The average baghouse capacity is around 50, 000 cfm, and bag life is 12 to 18
166
months.

4. 7. 5. 7 Grain Handling Operations-The important sources of grain dust

emissions are cleaning, rolling, grinding, blending, and the loading of trucks,

rail cars, and ships. Conveying and storing grains also cause dust emissions.

Low- and medium-efficiency cyclones only have been used because of the

increased operating costs and maintenance problems associated with high-

efficiency multiple cyclones. For grain dusts larger than 10 microns in

diameter, medium-efficiency cyclones are satisfactory. For grain dusts

167
smaller than 10 microns, the fabric filter is preferred. Often, air streams

containing large amounts of dust are passed through a cyclone to remove coarse

particles before being directed to a fabric filter. This technique relieves the

4-179
fabric filter from handling a high volume of large particles. Receiving,

handling, and storing operations require hooding the emission source and

conveying the dust-laden air to dust collection equipment. For receiving

hoppers used in unloading rail cars and trucks, a method of control is to

exhaust air from below the grating. The indraft velocity required will range

from 100 to 300 feet per minute depending on whether the hopper is in a building

or outside and exposed to winds.

The fabric filters with the open pressure or closed pressure baghouse

with mechanically shaken woven cotton bags are reported to remove 99. 9 per-
123
cent of grain particles in the size range of 1 to 5 microns. The air-to-cloth

ratios are about 5:1.

Reverse jet filters which use felted fabrics are reported to remove 99. 9

percent of grain particles in the size range of 1 to 5 microns with an air-to-

168
cloth ratio as high as 15:1, although ratios of 12:1 are more common.

4. 7. 6 Operational Practices

Operational practices are somewhat different for woven fabrics and

felted fabrics. The bag life of woven fabrics is related to cleaning frequency.

The more often a fabric, especially fiberglass, is cleaned, the shorter the

bag life; this assumes that cleaning is conducted often enough to avoid fabric

blinding by a dust overload. Fabric cleaning may be done when the pressure

drop across the baghouse, or one of its compartments, increases to 6 inches of

131
water. In large baghouses, fabric cleaning is scheduled by compartment

based on previous operating experience.

4-180
 To avoid plugging of woven fabrics because of condensation, the gas tern-

perature in the baghouse should be 50° F to 75° F higher than the dew point of
145
the gas. In some cases, insulated duct work and baghouses are needed to

maintain gas temperatures. In some installations, a small auxiliary heater is

used to prevent condensation in a baghouse when it is shut down.

131
The bag life of felted fabrics is prolonged by reducing the frequency of

cleaning. The cleaning cycle may be scheduled to hold the pressure drop across
169
a reverse jet baghouse with felted bags to 3-5 inches of water. Figure 4-84

illustrates the effect of pressure control on filter resistance in a reverse jet

. 152
filter for dusts and fumes.

To avoid plugging of felted fabrics when handling gases with high moisture
131
content, the use of preheated air for reverse jet cleaning may be necessary.

4. 7. 7 Maintenance Procedures

Maintenance of a fabric collector is often related to adequacy of the

original design. The installation of filters with high air-to-cloth ratios is often

responsible for rapid replacement of bags. The replacement may be needed

because of blinding of fabric or excessive bag wear.

An unusually heavy grain loading may cause excessive wear or blinding

of a woven fabric. As a rule of thumb, particulate loadings above 10 grains per

cubic foot are often handled by a precleaner such as a medium- or low-efficiency

130
cyclone. The cyclone will remove a large amount of particulate matter

4-181
O'reater
b
than 10 microns in diameter. Reverse jet and pulse jet collectors can

handle, without a precleaner, dust loadings up to 80 grains per cubic foot for
131
particulates larger than 60 microns.

60
.,uc:
.,
a.
w 50
u DUST AT 5 TO 10 gr/ft3
z OR METALLURGICAL FUME
<
I- AT 1 gr/ft3
t/)
t/l 40
w
et:
et:
w
~ 30
lL

~
w
t/l 20
<
w
et:
u
z
10

20 40 60 80 100

REVERSE JET OPERATION, percent

Figure 4-84. Effect of cleaning frequency on

filter resistance in reverse-jet
bag house.
(Courtesy of Air Conditioning, Heating, and
Ventilating Magazine)

Many baghouses are designed with compartments so that one compart-

ment can be shut down while the rest of the dust collector continues operating.

Means for easy access to the bags should be included in the original design.

Leakage through the filter is perhaps the most important service problem.

Each bag must be regularly inspected for holes or tears. Regular measurement

4-182
of down-stream dust concentration should be made either manually or with an
141
electronic-eye, to warn of an increase in dust content of the stream.

Bag spacing is important. Sufficient clearance must be provided so that

one bag does not rub another. A minimum clearance of 2 inches is needed
131
between bags 10 or 12 feet long, while longer bags require greater clearance

distances.

The fan motor and bearings, shaking device, reverse jet blow rings, valves,
130
and dampers must be lubricated regularly and checked for wear. To avoid

extended downtime, worn parts should be replaced before they fail in service.

Regular inspection of ducts, hoods, framework, and housing for signs of

wear from corrosion, erosion, excessive heat, and excessive moisture should
130
be made.

Pressure gauges, thermocouples, flow meters, and all other instruments

130
must be checked regularly to ensure that they are functioning accurately.

A preventive maintenance program should be established and followed.

Regular routine inspection of major lubricant locations is needed. The schedule

130
may be altered to fit specific installations of dust collectors.

4. 7. 8 Safety

Whenever dust is a combustible material, the principal hazard in the

operation of fabric collectors is that of explosion and fire. Other hazards may

arise in special cases, depending upon the toxicity or abrasiveness of the dust,

331-716 0 - 69 - 22 4-183
i.e., human health hazards such as metal poisoning and silicosis.

Continuous monitoring of discharge effluents is needed to avoid any mishaps. 13 0

4. 8 AFTERBURNERS

4. 8. 1 Introduction

Afterburners are gas cleaning devices which use a furnace for the combus-

tion of gaseous and particulate matter. Combustion is accomplished either by

direct flame incineration or by catalytic combustion.

The disposal of particulate matter by combustion is limited to residue-free

vapors, mists, smoke, and particulate matter which is readily combustible,

as well as to particle sizes which require short furnace retention time and small

furnace size. Afterburners are usually used to dispose of fumes, vapors, and

odors when relatively small volumes of gases and low concentrations of partic-

ulate matter are involved.

4. 8.1. l Definition of Terms-

Direct flame combustion-The use of a separately-fired burner in direct

flame contact with the particle-laden gas to sustain rapid oxidation. Heat

transfer occurs by conduction, convection, and radiation.

Catalytic combustion-A method of oxidizing combustible gases and

vapors on the surface of a catalyst, without flame and at a lower temperature

than corresponding flame temperatures.

Catalyst-A substance which increases the combustion rate and theoret-

ically is unchanged by the combustion process.

4-184
 Flash point temperature-The lowest temperature at which the vapors

above a volatile combustible substance ignite momentarily in air, tested

usually by applying a small flame under specific test conditions. Flash point

temperatures are dependent on the geometry of the vapor-filled space, and differ

from open and closed containers.

Auto-ignition temperature-The lowest temperature at which a volatile

17
flammable substance will ignite and sustain combustion. O

4. 8.1. 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Afterburners-The advantages and

disadvantages of direct flame and catalytic afterburners are cited to allow

a comparison to be made of the two types of gas cleaning devices.

Direct flame-Advantages of the direct flame incineration afterburner

include: (1) High removal efficiency of submicron odor-causing particulate

matter, (2) simultaneous disposal of combustible gaseous and particulate

matter, (3) compatibility with existing combustion equipment, (4) relatively

small space requirements, (5) simple construction, (6) and low maintenance.

Disadvantages include: (1) high operational costs including fuel and

instrumentation, (2) fire hazards, and (3) excessive weight.

Catalytic-Advantages of the catalytic afterburner include: (1) reduced

fuel requirements, (2) and reduced temperature, insulation requirements, and

fire hazards.

4-185
 Disadvantages include: ( 1) high initial cost, (2) sensitivity to catalytic

poisoning, (3) inorganic particles must be removed and organic droplets must

be vaporized before combustion to prevent damage and plugging of the catalyst,

(4) catalysts may require frequent reactivation, and (5) lower efficiency at

the usual catalytic afterburner operation temperature.

Catalytic afterburners frequently require a direct flame air preheater

to initiate and sustain catalytic combustion, thereby further reducing the relative

advantage of the catalytic afterburner. Methane from the incomplete combustion

of the direct flame preheater fuel is not oxidized at low temperature in the

catalyst bed. Incomplete combustion and the formation of oxygenated com-

pounds may be prevented by operating the catalyst bed at elevated temperatures

with a consequent reduction in the thermal advantage and fuel savings over

direct flame combustion.

Catalytic afterburners frequently are unable to meet local code

requirements as to combustion efficiency at the usual catalytic afterburner

operating temperature.*

4. 8. 1. 3 Combustion Theory - Combustion is the chemical reaction of a fuel

with an oxidant, involving the disappearance of the original reactants and the

*Los Angeles County Rule No. 66: 90 percent or more of the carbon in the
organic material being incinerated must be oxidized to carbon dioxide.

4-186
production of heat and oxides. Combustion usually takes place in a thin

reaction zone.

When solid fuels burn, the reaction zone is confined to the surface of the

particle. At low temperatures the combustion rate is limited by the chemical

reaction rate, whereas at higher temperatures the chemical-reaction rate is so

. . 171 172
rapid that the rate of air supply controls the combustion rate. '

Combustion of liquid droplets and volatile solids occurs away from the

surface of the particle and combustion rate may be dependent on the rate of

heat transfer to the surface, which causes evaporation and thermal decom-

position of the solid. Combustion is influenced by the gas velocity, the rate
173,174
of mixing, and the supply of oxygen.

The temperature in the combustion zone surrounding the particulate

matter may exceed the temperature at the interior of the particle and in the

surrounding gas by several hundred degrees. Heat transfer is largely by

radiation from the incandescent surface of the particle, or from the incan-
175
descent carbon formed as an intermediate step in the combustion process.

Catalytic combustion - The mechanism of surface catalysis is very

complex. The catalytic combustion process occuring on the surface of the

catalyst involves diffusion of the reacting molecules to the surface of the

catalyst through a stagnant gas film which surrounds the surface of the

catalyst, adsorption of the reactants on the surface, chemical combination of

the reactants, desorption of the combustion products, and diffusion of the

4-187
combustion products from the surface of the catalyst to the main gas stream.

The rate of catalytic oxidation is usually controlled by adsorption, chemical

176
combination, desorption, or a combination of these.

Catalytic combustion occurs at a lower temperature than direct flame

oxidation by substituting catalytic adsorption energy for thermal energy of

activation (energy necessary for chemical combination) and by ,increasing the

concentration of the reactants on the surface of the catalyst.

The chemical union of the oxygen with the organic compounds occurs

without flame on the surface of the catalyst, with the transfer of the heat of

combustion from the catalytic bed to the gas stream.

Many substances exhibit catalytic properties, but metals in the platinum

family are recognized for their ability to produce combustion at minimum tern-

peratures. Because catalysis is a surface phenomenon, relatively small

amounts of metal are used and supported to expose a maximum of surface area.

Other catalysts include copper chromite, and the oxides of copper, chromium,
. 176 177
vanadium, manganese, nickel, and cobalt. '

Catalysts may be subject to poisoning from such materials

as zinc, arsenic, lead, mercury, copper, iron, antimony, and phosphates.

other materials which commonly suppress catalysis include halogen, and

178, 179 .
sulfur compounds. Poisoned catalysts may be reactivated by

periodically washing the catalyst with acid solutions.

4-188
4. 8. 2 Afterburner Design Criteria

4. 8. 2.1 General - Variables which must be considered in the selection and/ or

design of afterburners for particle-containing gaseous wastes are heat transfer,

reaction temperature, particulate size, mixing, flame contact, residence time,

inlet gas temperatures, and compositim. The variables are interdependent and,

as a consequence, design criteria are semi-empirical because of the large

range of materials dealt with, the lack of design data, and the relatively loose

control of operating conditions.

4. 8. 2. 2 Heat Transfer - The transfer of heat from burner flame to gaseous

and particulate matter is an important factor in determining the furnace size,

operating temperatures, and fuel requirements of direct flame contact incin-

erators. Heat transfer is best achieved by mixing when gases are burned,
180, 181
and best achieved by radiant heat transfer when particulate matter is burned.
For purposes of burning particulate matter, radiant heat transfer and

furnace temperature uniformity may be increased by increasing the emissivity

of the burner flame. This can be accomplished by limiting the air supply to

produce a sooty flame, by using high carbon-to-hydrogen ratio (C/H) fuels,

by adding soot or fuel oil (by carburetion) to gas flames, by using low-velocity
182-184
burners, through poor mixing of air and fuel, and by altering furnace design.

4. 8. 2. 3 Reaction Temperature - Most direct flame burners operate in the

1200 ° F to 1500° F temperature range in order to obtain maximum combustion

wi'th'm the limits of flame contact, mixing, and residence time in the furnace. 185

4-189
.
"-
E
l 000
Figure 4-85 illustrates

u the effect of air velocity and

u
~

0. particle diameter on the

0
u
N
+ combustion rate of carbon. 186-188
0
+
u The effects of particle size,
z 100
0
I-
u reaction temperature, combus-
<( "'
w
a::
'Eu
_J
<( ~
~ tion gas composition, and gas
u- 1-- Dp=
::E z 1 cm
WW velocity on the combustion rate
I -
uu
u... u... 10
0 u... of carbon, coal, and a number of
I- w
zO
WU
- w other compounds have been in-
~ t-
u.. <(
u... a:: 171-174, 189-191
w _J
vestigated.
0 _J
u <(
w a::
I- w Adsorption catalysts are
<( >
a:: 0 1 l....L..-'---'--'--'--.l---'----L-...L---L-"---'---'
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
TEMPERATURE (° K) used in fume burners operated

Figure 4-85. Effect of air velocity and particle in the 800 °F to 1200 °F tempera-
diameter on the combustion rate of
carbon. (D 0 = particle diameter)
ture range . Furnace and catalyst

temperatures, space, velocity, and bed deoth are used to achieve the desired

192 194
level of combustion efficiency (Figures 4-86 and 4-87). -

Compounds such as methane, which are difficult to oxidize, require a

catalytic bed temperature approximately 200°F higher than ethane, propane,

195
butane, and other members of the paraffin series. Carbon monoxide, which

is difficult to oxidize by direct flame combustion at low temperatures, is easily

4-190
oxidized by platinum at a temperature of approximately 300 °F and by hopcalite
176, 196
catalysts at room temperature.

4.s.2.4 Retention Time - Pre-heat (induction) and combustion times will

dictate the overall residence time

l 00 of the particulate matter in the

LESS METHANE
90 o11>-'- ----
"!..-- - afterburner. Residence time
80

70 requirement will determine both

0..
::> 60
:z
~ ..••
.. combustion chamber dimensions
50
•• ••
UJ
...J
u •• ••
~

30
40

~-<-
~,.....
•••
..
_,<(:.. ••• and efficiency.
~x..••••
•• The time required to heat
20 •••
10
the waste gas to peak furnace
0
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
TEMPERATURE, ° F temperature is dependent on the

Figure 4-86. Combustion efficiency of catalytic burner combustion chamber

afterburner.

dimensions and efficiency.

The time required to heat the waste gas to peak furnace temperature is

dependent on the burner combustion intensity aad inlet gas temperature and may

be computed as follows:

3
h t t'heat capacity of gas (Btu/ft -°F) x temperature rise ( °F) (l)
ea up ime (seconds) = combustion intensity (Btu/ft3-sec)

Values of combustion intensity will vary from 1 Btu per cubic foot per

second for low-pressure gas jet mixers to 500 Btu per cubic foot per second for

4-191
 premix mechanical burners. A
SPIRAL-WOUND
MET AL FOILS
Z c
2
I- Ci
e BO 4 in. DEEP
BED
typical value is 140 Btu per
Ill· a.
~ uJ 60
~z cubic foot per second for premix
0<
Ut-
..Ja. 40
.:(W high-pressure gas jet multiple-
I- J:
OU.
1-0 20
port burners.
oL-~..L.~-'-~--l'---~.1..-~~~--'-~--'
212 392 572 752 The time required to heat
REACTOR INLET TEMPERATURE, ° F
a gas with a heat capacity of
Figure 4-87. Effect of temperature and velocity
3
on abatement effectiveness: spiral- o. 0182 Btu/ft - °F, from
wound metal foils catalyst support.
(Courtesy of the Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association) 200° F to 1800° F in a furnace

with a combustion intensity of 140 Btu per cubic foot per second would be:

Time (seconds) == 0. 0182 x ( 1800 - 200)/ 140 == 0. 208 seconds

Combustion time required is dependent on particle size, oxygen content

of the furnace atmosphere, furnace temperature, particle composition, gas

velocity, and mixing of combustibles. Combustion times for a number of

different materials have been determined and correlated on the basis of

196
the following equations:

2
td == p RrT m x / (96</>D p ~ for diffusion-controlled combustion rate (2)
0

t
c
== p x
0
I (2K s p g') for chemical reaction-controlled cumbustion rate (3)

Where: td ==diffusion-controlled combustion time (seconds);

tc == chemical reaction rate-controlled combustion time (seconds);

4-192
 3
p = density of carbon residue or coke (gm/cm );
3
R 1 = universal gas law constant (82. 06 atm cm /mole/°K);

T mean temperature of stagnant gas film (°K);

m

x original diameter of particle (cm);

0

combustion mechanism = 1 for CO and 2 for CO formation;

2
2
D diffusion coefficient of oxygen at temperature T (gm/cm );
m

partial pressure of oxygen in combustion air (atm); and

2
surface reaction rate coefficient (gm/cm sec atm).

K may be calculated by means of the following equations:

s
-1/2 4 -39,300/RT
K = 1. 085 x 10 x e x T s (for soot) (4)
s s
-35, 700/RT .
K = 8710 x e s (for coke and carbon residue) (5)
s
Where: T =surface temperature of the carbon.
s

Equation 2 holds at high temperature, zero gas velocity, and large particle

sizes. The equation can be corrected for the effects of gas velocity and turbu-

lence by use of the dimensionless Nusselt conventional heat transfer relationship

. 1 partlc
f or spherica . 1es: 181

1/') 1/2
N 2 + 0. 68 N ° x N
Nu Pr Re

Where: NNu Nusselt Number;

NPr = Prandtl Number, a function of the physical properties of

the gas; and

N Reynolds Number, a function of the physical properties of

Re
the gas, particle diameter, and gas velocity.

4-193
 The Nusselt Number N = h x/k = 2 at zero gas velocity where: h::: con-
Nu
2
vectional heat transfer coefficient (cal/cm °C sec); x =particle diameter (cm).

h is an inverse function of the stagnant gas film thickness, x/2, surrounding the

particle and directly proportional to the thermal conductivity of the furnace at-
2
mosphere, k (cal/cm °C cm sec).

The film thickness decreases with increasing velocity and decreasing particlE

size to such an extent that the combustion rate for particles smaller than 100

microns is limited only by chemical kinetics at normal afterburner temperatures.

Equation 2 is of limited value in afterburner design because particles

larger than 100 microns are easily collected by other gas cleaning devices and

would require excessive retention time and furnace volume.

Equation 3 holds for particle sizes smaller than 100 microns and for tern-

peratures at which the combustion rate is determined by chemical kinetics.

Total combustion time for a carbon residue-forming particle then becomes:

t =t +t · K +t (7)
r i d v c

where: t total residence time (sec);

r
t. induction time (sec); and
1

K volatile matter correction factor determined by the equation:

v

K
v
= (1 + E/100) I (1 + E/100 - v /100) (8)

where: E percent excess air and

V = percent volatile matter.

4-194
 The combustion time for hydrocarbon liquid droplets larger than 30 microns
188
at zero gas velocity may be computed using the following equation:

M T -1 . 75 .x 2 (9)
w 0

where: M molecular weight and

w
T = furnace temperature (°K)

The combustion time of particles smaller than 30 microns is dependent on

the combustion rate of the hydrocarbon vapors.

6
The time required to burn a 5 x 10 - cm soot particle of 2 grams/ cubic

centimeter density in a furnace atmosphere containing 0. 20 atmosphere of oxygen

at 1800 °F can be computed using equations 3 and 4. The time required would be

0. 51 second.

Total residence time in the furnace, including heat up time from 200 ° F,

would be induction time + combustion time = total time, or:

t = 0. 208 + 0. 510 = 0. 718 second

r
In practice, minimum gas furnace retention time is about 0. 30 second at

a temperature of 1200 °F. Particle retention time may be increased by design-

ing the combustion chamber in the shape of a cyclone using a small tangential
185
inlet, and by introducing the gases at a high velocity (Figure 4-88).

Cyclone furnace dimensions are chosen using a gas velocity of from 15 to

185 194
30 feet per second. ' Good mixing is attained by using appropriate design

parameters to provide turbulent flow in the afterburner.

A tangentially fired, portable hood, smoke afterburner is shown in

Figure 4-89.

4-195
 The combustion constants

for a number of organic compounct1

are presented in references 171

REFRACTORY
LINED
STEEL SHELL through 17 5, 186 through 191, and

195 through 197.

4. 8. 2. 5 Heat Recovery - Inlet

waste gas temperatures should

be as high as possible to mini-

mize additional fuel and preheat

198-201
requirements. The

maximum recoverable energy

INLET FOR CONTAMINATED in afterburner stack gases as a

GAS STREAM

function of exhaust gas tempera-

Figure 4-88. Typical direct-fired afterburner
with tangential entries for both
fuel and contaminated gases. ture is shown in Figure 4-90,

with waste gas energy content and temperature as parameters.

Heat recovery equipment used to recover heat from the flue gas may be

grouped under two classifications: recuperative and regenerative. Recuperative

(recovery) heat exchangers recover heat on a continuous basis and include cross

flow, countercurrent flow, and cocurrent flow heat exchangers (Figures 4-91

through 4-93). For a given heat flow and temperature drop, heat exchanger sur-

face requirements will be at a minimum in the counterflow heat exchanger (Figure

4-91). 202

Cocurrent flow heat exchangers are often used where a moderate level of

heat recovery is required. Countercurrent flow heat exchanger construction

4-196
 Figure 4-89 . Portable canopy hood with stack afterburner.
(Courtesy of Eclips e Fuel Enc inee ring C ompony)

may be more costly tha n that for cocurrent flow, because of operation at lower

temperatures (near the dewpoint) , whi ch may requi re us e of specia l alloys or

alloy steels.

Regenerative heat excha ngers recove r heat by intermittent heat exc hange

by the alternate heating a nd cooling of a s olid . Heat flow s a lte rna te ly into a nd

out of the same excha nger, as a i r and flue gas fl ow are periodically reversed.

Regenerative heat exchangers are of fix ed and movi ng bed types.

4 - 197
 A fixed bed, pebble-stove
'
AFTERBURNER TEMPERATURE regenerative afterburner is
z 1350 ° F
u
u. "'
0
0
"-
:> shown in Figure 4-94. When
" cO
w
> \/')-
OW gas is passed through the pair
co \/')
<{ ;:5
>- I-
t:> \/') of pebble-type regenerators
0:: ::i
w <{
z J:
wX connected back to back, the gas
w
I-
<{ 0::
wW
J: z is heated on the upstream side
0::
.....J ::i
<{ co
j:: 0::
and cooled on the downstream
zW
w I-
I- u.
0 <{
a.. .'-""'C--+---.1c:----t-4 8 l 4 side. When the upstream bed
; ...::.'*---+---.1c:----t---"1 70 7
and gas temperature drop, gas
100 200 300 400 500 600
PROCESS EXHAUST TEMPERATURE, ° F
flow is reversed and the heat

Figure 4-90. Afterburner energy requirements transfer process is repeated.

with fume energy content and tem-
perature parameters.
Particulate matter is effectively

retained and incinerated. Heat recovery efficiencies in excess of 95 percent

.
can b e ac h ieve d . 203

A commonly used rotary regenerative heat exchanger consists of a

partitioned rotating cylinder containing heat sink and heat transfer surface area.

The cylinder is partitioned along its axis by appropriate gas seals so that hot

flue gas and cold waste gas may be passed through the heat exchanger on opposite

sides of the cylinder. Heat is absorbed from the hot flue gas by the heat

exchanger surface and transferred by the continuous rotation of the heat exchange

4-198
 'iTACK GASES!

~~
I
'
AIR AIR
nlt1 AIR
I~
AIR

Figure 4-91. Counter-flow type. Figure 4-92. Parallel-flow type.

STACK GASES

i
AIR ,.____ AIR

'~-·-
STACK GASES

Figure 4-93. Cross-flow type.

NATURAL GAS

FROM KILN

TO CHIMNEY ~ t=:==~

Figure 4-94. Fixed-bed, pebble-stone, regenerative destencher.

(Courtesy of Research Cottrell)

331-716 0 - 69 - 23
4-199
surface to the cold waste gas side where the heat is absorbed by the incoming
. . 200
cold gases. Heat recovery efficiency ranges from 85 to 95 percent.

4. 8. 2. 6 Fuel Requirements - Maximum fuel consumption for one-pass catalytic

afterburners may be as high as 10 Btu per standard cubic foot of waste gas flow,

while systems with heat exchangers can economically reduce heat requirements
199
to about 4 Btu per standard cubic foot. The heating value of the waste gas

stream is usually limited by insurance underwriters to combustible vapor con-

centrations of less than one-fourth of the lower explosive limits of the gas mix-

ture. For organics, this is equivalent to about 13 Btu per standard cubic foot

and represents a total temperature rise of approximately 675 ° F, equivalent to

52° F to 55 ° F per Btu per standard cubic foot. Catalytic combustors are usually

equipped with automatic safety controls when treating high organic concentrations.

The heat generated by the combustion of solvent and paint fumes may be

directly recovered by recirculating the combustion gases to the oven (Figure

4-95), or indirectly recovered by means of heat exchangers (Figure 4-96).

Direct heat recovery may be advantageous in the case of catalytic combustion

.
b ecause o f l ower oxygen reqmremen t . h
s rn t e cata l ytic combustion zone. 204, 205

This can be advantageous with materials having a low explosive limit.

Fuel savings from the use of the heats of combustion of paint bake-oven

solvent vapors may be large enough to provide a 50 percent return on invest-

ment in the case of catalytic combustion. 204

4-200
 FRESH MAKE-UP AIR

PREHEAT
BURNER

SUPPLY
FAN

HEATED DECONTAMINATED
AIR RETURN TO OVEN
PAINT BAKE OVEN

Figure 4-95. Direct recirculation of combustion gases to recover heat.

CLEAN GASES

COLD
FRESH
AIR

CATALYTIC SYSTEM
HEAT EXCHANGER

SUPPLY FAN

HEATED MAKE-UP AIR

PAINT BAKE OVEN

Figure 4-96. Heat exchanger to recover heat from combustion gases.

(Courtesy of Universal Oil Products Co.)

4-201
 Fuel requirements and burner capacity may be determined by means of

a heat balance, using the heat of combustion of the fuel and the sensible heat

needed to raise the temperature of the waste gas and the products of combustion

up to the desired combustion temperature. The heating value of the contaminant

. 185,205-208
must be deducted to determine net fuel reqmrements.

4. 8. 2. 7 Modified Furnace Afterburners - Existing boilers, rotary kilns, and

furnaces have been successfully modified and used for direct flame incineration.

Requirements for successful operation are:

1.. Contaminants must be combustible and non-corrosive.

2. The oxygen content of the contaminated gas must be high, or of such

volume that it does not upset or reduce furnace capacity.

3. The furnace must be operated continuously or modulated to ensure

adequate furnace temperatures.

4. The furnace must be large enough to ensure adequate residence time.

5. Conditions must be such that there is little or no deposition of par-

ticulate matter on the burner or furnace walls.

Furnace modifications, design calculations, and proven methods for

185
introducing waste fumes are given in the literature.

Odors from kraft pulp manufacture have been successfully disposed of by

introduction into a modified furnace kiln with fuel savings of over $450 per
209, 210
mon th .

4-202
4.S.2. 8 Hood and Duct Design Considerations - Furnace inlet gases, and vapors

from paint and varnish cooking kettles, as well as from other sources, must be

maintained at temperatures above condensation to avoid exhaust duct fouling.

Collection ductwork is usually insulated and may be heated by means of an ex-

ternal duct which serves to recover heat from the flue gas, effecting a reduction
208
in combustor fuel requirements (Figure 4-97).

Duct gas velocities are usually high, ranging from 4000 to 5000 feet per

minute, to prevent the settling of particulate matter, to effect a high heat re-

covery rate between the flue gas and furnace feed gas, and to minimize the
. 211 212
danger of flashback and fire hazards. '

Other safety devices to minimize fire hazards may include diluting

vapors to below the lower explosive limits, using flame arrestors, and

including a wet scrubber between the direct flame combustor and the vapor

source. Dilution of the vapors may be accomplished by recirculation of a por-

tion of the flue gas, with a substantial reduction in fuel requirements, as shown

. F"igure - . 208-213
rn 4 97

Flame arrestors may consist of a packed bed of pebbles, metal tower

packing, aluminum rings (Figure 4-98), or corrugated metal gridwork (Figure

4-99), in conjunction with a blast gate or other pressure release device. Flash-

back through the bed is prevented by bed gas velocities in excess of flame pro-

pagation velocities, by pressure drop, as well as by cooling the flame to below

. 213 214
combust10n temperatures. '

4-203
 Other types of flame arrestors include spray chambers, wet seals, and

dip legs (Figure 4-100). Wet flame arrestors have the disadvantage of cooling

and humidifying the exhaust gas, with a consequent increase in fuel requirements.

Wet sprays are capable of removing up to 80 percent of the solids involved in

.
paint making; there is no noticeable re d uct10n . o d or 1eve 1. 185
m

Other safety devices include high- and low-temperature combustion and

flame-out control instruments.

Exhaust hoods should be close fitting to minimize ventilation requirements.

Guidance on hood design and ventilation rates is offered by the American Con-
215
ference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

4. 8. 2. 9 Gas Burners - Figure 4-101 shows a crossectional view of an open-

type inspiration (venturi mixer) premix burner. This mixer uses the energy

of the gas to induce primary air in proportion to the gas flow and is limited to

cases in which high pressure gas (5 to 10 pounds per square inch) is available.

Luminous flames may be produced by conventional burners by operation

at low capacity and by restricting air supply. Minimum burner capacity is

212,216,217
determined by the burner throat velocity at which flashback can occur.

The turndown ratio (ratio of maximum to minimum flow rate for satisfactory

burner operation) will range from 3:1 to 5:1.

Pressure-type burners, illustrated in Figure 4-102, permit a higher rate

of heat release within a relatively small space and are available in a multitude

of designs for special applications. They are characterized by a single mixing

4-204
 STACK 1 COLD OUTSIDE
DISCHARGE '!' AIR

PREHEATED
FACTORY
1 EXHAUSTER SUPPLY AIR
2 PREHEAT BURNER
3 CATALYST
4 RECYCLING DAMPER
5 HEAT EXCHANGER

COOLING COOKING
STATION STATION

Figure 4-97. Integration of fume disposal from a kettle cooking operation with factory make-up air
heating. (Courtesy of Cotolytic Combustion Co.)
 ~WASTE GAS

BODY

~ 1----BLAST GATE
TO TUBE BANK
COMBUSTOR

Figure 4-98. Packed bed flame arrester. TUBE BANK

SHELL

HANDLE
a::
0
1-
Vl
::>
co
::<
0
u
0 Figure 4-99. Corrugated metal flame arrester
I-
with cone removed and tube bank

t pulled partly out of body.

{Courtesy of Gene<ol Precision Systems, Inc.)

~WASTE GAS
r----1~

OIL
OR
WATER

Figure 4-100. Dip leg flame arrester.

4-206
port or nozzle which produces a short hot flame. Gas premixing is accomplished

by use of forced inlet combustion air, usually supplied by a fan. This type of

burner has a high turndown ratio and is capable of producing an accurate control

of the gas combustion mixture.

Waste gas may be used as a source of primary and secondary air, with a

consequent reduction in fuel requirements, if the oxygen content is high and the

gas is free from deposit-forming solids.

Burners of the cyclone design, shown in Figure 4-88, are usually mounted

to fire tangentially into the combustion chamber and to assist in the cyclonic

motion and mixing of the furnace atmosphere. Burners must be capable of con-

185 202 215 218

tinuous modulation to accommodate changes in waste gas flow rates. • • •

To prevent the emission of smoke when the flame is operated to produce

a luminous flame, secondary air or waste gas may be introduced above the burner.

Combustion intensity may be further increased by the use of forced air,

premixing, multiple-port burners of the type shown in Figure 4-103. Com bus-

tion intensities as high as 500 Btu per cubic foot per second have been obtained

using a combination of multiple port burners and flame impingement on the sur-
. . . 182
face of refractory brick which acts as a catalytic surface. Typical uses and

combustion characteristics for a number of burners are listed in Table 4-14.

The combustion intensity of a given burner is related to the furnace tern-

198
Perature an d f ue 1 composition as rn · ted rn
· d ica · th e equa t·10n:

4-207
 NUT AND STUD DISC BODY

AIR INLET

Figure 4-101. Cross-sectional view of open-type

inspirational premix burner.

TILE

-----------+ I

'

HOLE FOR PILOT TIP

Figure 4-102.Cross-sectional view of forced air,

premix, multiple-port burner.

4-208
 Table 4-14. GAS BURNER CLASSIFICATIONS

Velocity Combustion inten-

of sity, approximate
mixture maximum heat re-
through Required Required lease per cubic foot
Extent of mixture nozzle, Mixing gas air Temperature Combustion of combustion Typical burner
Classification of air and gas ft/min method pressure pressure range, °F speed chamber space assemblies
Atmospheric Partial, usually 50 Gas jet mixer Under 0 100° Very 10 Btu/ft3 I sec Ring burners
or low-pressure less than 50 % to or injector using 1 lb. to slow Pipe burners
burner system of air required 1,200 low-pressure gas 1200° Torch burners
for combustion Box burners
Immersion burners
Wheel burners

Air and gas not 400 Not mixed until Under Under 600° Slow 28 Btu/ft3 I sec Diffusion burners
mixed; low-veloc- to in combustion 4 oz. 4 oz. to Radiant flame burners
ity stratified or 10,000 zone 2400° Variflame burners
diffused in com- Radiant tube burners
bustion chamber Static pressure burners

Air and gas not 400 Not mixed until 4 4 1000° Fast 70 Btu/ft3 /sec Nozzle mixing
mixed; turbulent to in combustion to to to burner
mixing close to 36,000 zone 16 oz. 32 oz. 2800°
nozzle but in com-
Blast or high-
bustion chamber
pressure burner
system
Completely mixed 1,200 Premixed by air 4 oz. 4 1200° Very 70 Btu/ft3 /sec Oper. burners
or nearly so before to jet mixer to to fast
reaching nozzle 36,000 32 oz. 3000°
Gas jet mixer 1 0
HP gas to
25 lb.
Mechanical 4 oz. 0 555 Tunnel burners
mixer to
1400
Combination
of the above Btu/ft3 I sec
 2 3 2 - A / RT
CI= k · p · T -. / C · C · e a (10)
a f o
3
Where: CI = combustion intensity (Btu/ ft sec atm);
k is a constant;

p = atmospheric pressure;
T =fur nace atmosphere temperature absolute; 0

a
C C =fuel and oxygen concentration,
f' 0
e = natura l log base;
A = ene r gy of activation (approxim ately 42, 000 calories/ gm atom);
and
R = universal gas law constant .

A heat loss of approx imately 5 percent from the combustion gas can re-

duce combustion gas t e mperature and reduce combustion intensity by as much

as 20 percent, with a consequent reduction in a fterburner combustion efficiency.

Hence it is important that combustion zone heat losses be kept at a minimum.

Heat losses can be reduc ed by proper insulation and by shie lding the burner

from cold objects, such as ironwork, heat exchangers , masonry, or even the

sky.

Combus tion efficiency is

improved if combustion takes

place at the base of the furnace

and the was te gases pass upward.

This minimizes opportunity for

c hanneling and bypassing.

Figure 4-103. Mult ipl e-port high-intensity premix
burner.
(Courtesy of Maxon Premix Bu rner Company)

4-210
4. s. 2.10 Construction Materials - Afterburner surfaces exposed to high tern-

peratures and erosive or corrosive conditions must be constructed of alloys

capable of withstanding high temperatures or must be lined with refractory

materials.

Metals - Temperatures at which alloy steels are used are limited by

Underwriters 1 Laboratories, Inc. to approximately 200° F below the temperature

at which scale formation occurs. Martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are

recommended for use in areas that are exposed to wide ranges of temperature
218
· cond't·
and to corrosive i ions. T empera t ure 1imitations f or oth er meta 1s an d
207
alloys are determined by design stress and safety requirements.

Refractories - Refractories used in direct flame afterburners increase

radiant heat transfer, insulate, act as a support structure, and resist abrasion

and corrosion. In so doing, they must be capable of withstanding thermal shock.

Fire clay refractories are commonly used in incinerator and afterburner con-

struction because of low cost, spall resistance, and long service life. Fire

clay refractory bricks are classified (Table 4-15) into maximum service classes
202
according to American Society for Testing and Materials standards (ASTM).

Their softening points, as determined by pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) help

219
determine their maximum service class. Other requirements include limits

on shrinkage, spalling loss, and deformation under load. Castable fire clay
217
refractories commonly used (Table 4-16) are of two ASTM classes.

4-211
 Table 4-15. ASTM CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE CLAY REFRACTORIES

Refractory type PCE Temperature, ° F

Low heat duty 19 2768

Intermediate heat duty 29 2984

High heat duty 21-32 3056-3092

Super duty 33 3173

Table 4-16. COMMONLY USED CASTABLE FIRE CLAY REFRACTORIES

Density,
ASTM No. Temperature, ° F lb/ft 3 Special properties

24 2400 70-85 Insulating light weight

27 2700 110-125 General purpose

 service temperature range and physical properties of various refractories

for corrosive conditions are shown in Figures 4-104 and 4-105 and in Table 4-17.
. f t" 202, 203, 219
The literature contains f urt h er m orma 10n.

4. s. 2. 11 Typical Applications - A summary of the afterburner applications is

presented in Table 4-18. The information was taken from published literature

and manufacturers' bulletins.

4-213
 4000 r n
BASIC I
I
-, .I
I

u.. 3500

~
u.J
a::
::> NEUTRAL
t- ACIDIC
< 3000
*'" a::

I
I w
tv Cl.
f-' ~
w
*"" t- 2500

2000

1500
FIRECLAY SILICA CASTABLES, INSULATING HIGH CHROME, ZIRCONIA, GRAPHITE
MORTARS, BRICK ALUMINA MAGNESITE ZIRCON CARBIDES,
PLASTICS BORIDES,
NITRIDES

Figure 4-104. Service temperature ranges for refractories.

(Courtesy of McGraw·H1ll Book Co.)
 2000
u
0

w-
Cl:'.
::>
I-
<{ 1900
Cl:'.
w
a..
::E
w
I-
<.'.)
1800
z
z
w
~ I-
LL
I
N> 0
v>
~
()1 w 1700
I-
<
:::,;;
x
0
SILICA+~ILICIOUS +- + -------+-
ALUMINA

I
er.
a._ FIREBRICK-- ----------- ALUMINOUS BRICK -- -
1600
a._
BRICK BRICK BRICK
<(

I I
3A 1203 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
%Si0 2 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT

Figure 4-105. Degree of refraction for alumina-silica system products.

(Courtesy of Chemical Engineering Magazine)
 Table 4-17. GENERAL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF CLASSES OF REFRACTORY BRICK

Dufur-
Apµrux. mull on
1)1.llcal IJulk Fu111011 um.ler Ap1mrent 'lllermal
Chemloal re•l1tance

Type of brick
chemical
compo8lllon
density,
1111nJ .,
poli1t, <.'hemlcnl
n:-iture
hot
landing
porotslly,
·~
Per me-
1:1l>lllty
llol
strength
shock
reeletu.nce to acid to alkall
BIO·l· 95'\', 115 ~HOO Acid ~xcellenl 21 lltgh Excellent Poor" Good Good al low temper11.turet
tHlloa

Hlgh-dut} SIO',l, 54'{i 1:H Jl2:> Acid Fnlr 1• Moderate Fair Fair Good Good at low temperaturei
flreclay Al20:1• 40%

Super-duty SlO,, 02't 140 3170 Acid Good 16 Hlgh Fair Good Good Good at low temperaturee
flreolay Alz0-3, '2'l>

Actd-real•tant 810-,?. 61~% 1<2 3040 Aold :>oor 7 Low Poor Good Insoluble In aold1 Very resistant In
(type H) Al20:l• 34% except HF and moderate concen-
bolllng pho1phorlo treUon1

In1ulatlng Veriee 30-75 Varte1 .. Poor 05-85 High Poor Excellent Poor Poor
brtok

High-alumina Alz03, 170 3200- Allghtly Good 20 Low Good Good

50-~5·~ 3400 acid

Extra-high Al203, 1B5 :woo- Neutral Excellent 23 Low Excellent Good Good except for Very 1ll1Jhl Qltuk
alumina 90-99% :rnso HF and aqua regla with hot 1olutton1

Mulllte Al20:l• 71 't 153 3290 Slightly Excellent 20 Low Goo« Good ln1oluble In Bltght reaction
acid moat aold11

Chrome-ft red Chrome ore, 196 VArt89 Neutral Fair 20 Low Good Poor Fair to good Poor
IOO'l

Ma.gne1lte- 190 Good 12 Very Low Good Excellent

chrome bondedb

Ma.gneatt&- MgO, 60-RO'J, 180 Vartee Ba11'c Excellent 20 Hll(h Good EJtoellent Fair except Fat r rMlll.ance at
chrome fired CR20:l. 6- lB" to l!ltrong acld11 low temperature.
Fe20:l· 3-l!l't
Al20:J, O-ll'J

Ma.gneel te- BIC>z, !. 2-5'J, 180 Excellent 18 High Excellent Exce1lenl

chrome
high-fired

Magneelte-
bondedb 181 Good II Low Good Good Soluble In Good re1l11t.ance 11t
moet acld11 low temperatuN1e

Magne11tte-nred MgO, 95q, 178 3900 Basic Good 19 Moderate Good Good

Zircon z..o,. 67'J, 200 3100" Acid EJtcellent 25 Very low 'E:Jtcellent Good Verv ellght Very ellRht
Sl()z, 33'J,

Zlroonla ZrOz, 94'J, 245 4800 Sllghtlv Excellent 23 Low EJlcellent EJtcellent Very 111\!Jht Very Slight
(1ta.bllh:ed) cao, 4'J, acid

Silicon-ca rblde SIC, 80-90'1 160 4176 Sllghtly Excellent 15 Very low EJtcellent EJtcellent Slight re- Attacked at high
acid a.ctlon with HF temperature•

Graphite C, 97't 106 fl400 Neutral Excellent 16 !Aw Excellent F.xcellent lneolub1e lneoluble

:Good a.bove 1200° r.

c~=~~:~ ~~~too•F.

4-216
Table 4-18. SUMMARY OF AFTERBURNER APPLICATIONS AND LITERATURE REFERENCES

References References
Applications Catalytic Flame Applications Catalytic Flame

Acrylate Nut roasting 204

polymerization 204 178
Oil hydrogenatlon8 204
Asphalt blowing and
Oil quencbing8 204
saturati.nga 204
Oil sulfurizatlon 204
Automotive paint
baking 227b, 204, 195 Paint and va mis h 178, 195, 220
cook!ng8 204, 227 209, 220, 225, 226
Bakelite manufacturing .ill..
Paper coating 204
Bonding and burn-off 204, 225
Pharmaceutical
Burnoff ovensa 204 178
manufacture 204
Carbon furnacesa 204, 223 178
Phthalic and maleic anhy-
Chemical processing 194 .lib 201 dride mant•facturea llQ, ZQi, 227 ~ 220
Coffee roasting8 204, 224 w_. 224 Potato chip cookingB 204 178
Coil and strip coating 204 179 PrintingS ~ 221 178
Corn poppingS 204 Rendering8 204 178, 185
Cupola gasa 209 Resin manufacturing
and acrylate 204 1.1§, 220
Deep fat frying8 204
polymerizatlona
Fabric curing 185 185
Rice browningB 204
Fish and vegetable
Sewage treatment 204 203, 229
oil proces sinlf 204
Smoke abatement'1 228, 230
Food processing 204
Smoke houaesa 185, 209
Foundry core baklngB 185, 204
Stationary diesel engines 194, 227
Fungicide manufacture8 204
Synthetic rubber
Grinding wheel
manufacture 204 200
slntering lli
Tar coating 204
Hardboard coating
and curing 204 Textile finishing 198
Inc!neratorsa 228 ~itamin manufacture 204
Kraft paper manufacture ~ 222 Wax burnout,
investment castinga 185, 204
Metal decorating8 185, 204 178
204
Wire enameling8 !J!.1. 204, 227 178, 226
Metal chip drying

alnvolves discharge of particulate matter.

bunaerscored references contaill quantitative data.
 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 4

1. Wilson, E. L. 11 Statement on Air Pollution. 11 In: Hearings before

Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public
Works, United States Senate, 90th Congress, Part 4, 11 Air Pollution,
1967," p. 2637.

2. "Industrial Gas Cleaning Equipment Shipments and End Use - 1967. 11

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington,. D. C., 1968.

11
3. Stephan, D. G. 11 Dust Collector Review. Trans. Foundrymen 1 s
Soc., Vol. 68, pp. 1-9, 1960.

4. Stairmancl, C. J. ' 1Removal of Grit, Dust, and Fume from Exhaust

Gases from Chemical Engineering Processes. 11 Chem. Eng., pp. 310-
326, Dec. 1965.

5. Stairmand, C. J. "The Design and Performance of Modern Gas-Cleaning

Equipment." Inst. of Fuel, Vol. 29, pp. 58-76, Feb. 1956.

6. Duprey, R. L. ' 1 Particulate Emission and Size Distribution Factors."

U.S. Dept.. of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for
Air Pollution Control, Durham, North Carolina, May 1967. (Prepared
for: New York-New Jersey Air Pollution Abatement Activity.)

11
7. Lapple, C. E. 11 Fluid and Particle Mechanics. University of Delaware,
Newark, 1951, pp. 292-324, 353.

8. Strauss, W. 11 Inclustrial Gas Cleaning. 11

Pergamon Press, New York,
1966, pp. 144-160, 171.

9. "Engineering Data on Dust Collecting Systems. 11

Bulletin No. 63,
Schmieg Industries, Detroit, Michigan, 14 pp.

10. Jackson, R. 11 Survey of the Art of Cleaning Flue Gases. 11

British Coal Utilization Research Assoc., Leatherhead-Surrey,
England, 1959, 427 pp,

11. "What We Know about Air Pollution Control. 11 Special Bulletin No. 1,
Texas Cotton Ginners' Association, Dallas, Texas, March 1965, 43 PP·

4-218
12 , Lapple, C. E. "Fluid and Particle Dynamics." University of Delaware,
Newark, 1952, 353 pp.

13 , Strauss, W. "Industrial Gas Cleaning." Pergamon Pres3, New York,

1966, 471 pp.

14. "Cyclone Dust Collectors." American Petroleum Institute, Engineering

Dept., New York, 1955, 65 pp.

15. Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual. ' 1 U.S. Dept.
of Health, Education, ancl Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

16. Rosin, P. , Rammler, E. , and Intelmann, W. "Grundlagen, und

Grenzen der Zyklonentstaublmg" (Principles and Limits of Cyclone-
Dust Removal), V.D.I. Zeits, No. 76, pp. 433-437, April 1932.

17. Perry, R. H., Chilton, C. H., and Kirkpatrick, S. D. "Chemical

Engineers Handbook," 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.

11
18. Hughson, R. V. "Controlling Air Pollution. Chem. Eng., Vol.
70, pp. 71-90, 1966.

11
19. Stoker, R. L. "Erosion Due to Dust Particles in a Gas Stream.
Ind. Eng. Chem., 41(6):1196-1199, June 1949.

20. Stern, Arthur C. (ed.) "Air Pollution." Vol. II, Academic Press,
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21. "Plugging $8, GOO Leak. 11

Chem. Proc., pp. 13-14, June 19G7.

22. "Inventory of Air Contaminant Emissions." New York State Air

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23. Larson, G. P., Fisher, G. I., and Hamming, W. J. Evaluating

Source of Air Pollution. Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 45, pp. 1070-1074,
1953.

24. Friedlander, S. K., Silverman, L., Drinker, P., and First, M. W.

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4-219
25. Dennis, R., Johnson, G. A., First, M. W., and Silverman, L. "How
Dust Collectors Perform." Chem. Eng., Vol. 59, pp. 196-198, Feb.
1952.

26. Silverman, L., First, M. W., Reichenbach, G. S., Jr., and Drinker, P.
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Report NY0-1527, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. c.
Feb. 1, 1950, 65 pp.

27. First, M. W., Silverman, L., Dennis, R., Rossano, A. T., Billings,
C. , Conners, E. , Moschella, R. , Friedlander, S. , and Drinker, P.
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June 30, 1952, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C.,
Feb. 16, 1953.

28. Perry, J. H., (ed.) "Chemical Engineers' Handbook." 3rd edition,

McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950, pp. 1013-1050.

29. Gilbert, N. "Removal of Particulate Matter from Gaseous Wastes -

Wet Collectors." American Petroleum Institute, New York, N. Y.,
1961, 47 pp.

30. "Air Tumbler." Bulletin No. 661, Dust Suppression and Engineering
Co., Lake Orion, Michigan, 1956, pp. 19-20.

31. Semrau, K. T. "Dust Scrubber Design - A Critique on the State of the

Art." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 13 (12) :587-594, Dec. 1963.

32. Wilson, Earl L. "Statement Presented at Subcommittee on Air and

Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works." U.S. Senate,
90th Congress, First Session on S. 780, Part 41. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1967, 2630 pp.

33. "Pollution Abatement Manual. Spraying Nozzles and Accessories."

Spraying Systems Co., Bellwood, Illinois, 1966, 18 pp.

34. Teller, A. J. "Control of Gaseous Fluoride Emissions." Chem. Eng.

Prog., 63(3):75-79, March 1967.

35. Blosser, R. O. and Cooper, H. B. H., Jr. "Trends in Reduction of

Suspended Solids in Kraft Mill Stack." Paper Trade J., 151 (11) :46-51,
March 13, 1967.

4-220
36. "Stack Sprays to Reduce Dust Emissions During Soot Blowing. 11
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1957,
4 pp. (Aid to Industry 500-330).

37, Stairmand, C. J. "The Design and Performance of Modern Gas

Cleaning Equipment." J. Inst. Fuel, Vol. 29, pp. 58-76, Feb. 1956.

38. "Hydraulic Scrubbing Towers." Bulletin AP525A, Buffalo Forge Co.,

Buffalo, N. Y., 1957.

39, Montross, C. F. "Entrainment Separation." Chem. Eng., Vol. 60,

pp. 213-236, Oct. 1953.

40. "Pease-Anthony Gas Scrubbers." Bulletin M 102, Chemical Construction

Corp., New York, N. Y., 1950.

41. Walker, A. B. and Hall, R. M. "Operating Experience with a Flooded

Disk Scrubber - A New Variable Throat Orifice Contactor." J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 18(5):319-323, May 11, 1968. (Presented
at the Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Cleveland,
Ohio, June 11-16, 1967. Paper #67-147)

42. Harris, L. S. "Fume Scrubbing with the Ejector Venturi System."

Chem. Eng. Prog., 62(4):55-59, April 1966.

43, Kristal, E., Dennis, R., and Silverman, L. "A Study of Multiple
Venturi Wet Collector." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 10(4):204-
211, Feb. 1957.

44, Pallinger, J. "A New Wet Process for Separation of Very Fine Dust."
Staub, 22(7):270-275, 1962.

45, "U.O.P. Wet Scrubbers." Bulletin 608, U.O.P. Air Correction Div.,
Greenwich, Connecticut, 1967, pp. 4-5.

46, Sheppard, S. V. "Control on Noxious Gaseous Emissions." In:

Proc. Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources Symp. "New
Developments in Air Pollution Control," New York, N. Y. , 1967,
pp. 21-28.

47, Teller, A. J. "Crossflow Scrubbing Process." U.S. Patent No.

3,324,630, June 13, 1967, 8 pp.

4-221
48, Eckert, .J. S. "Use of Packed Beds for Separation of Entrained
Particles and Fumes from an Air Stream." J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 16(2):95-98, Feb. 1966.

49 0
"Hydro Filter," Bulletin N-20, National Dust Collector Corp.,
Skokie, Illinois.

50. ''Schmieg Swirl - Orifice Dust Collectors. ii Schmieg Industries

Catalog lOOA, Detroit, Michigan, 1963.

5L Doyle, H., and Brooks, A. F. "The Doyle Scrubber." Ind. Eng.

Chem., 49(12) :57 A-62A, Dec. 1957.

52. "Schmieg Vertical - Rotor Dust Collector. " Schmieg Industries

Catalog 101A, Detroit, Michigan, 1963.

53. Jamison, R. M., Hanson, V. W., and Arnold, O. M. "Performance

Testing Data on Mechanically Energized Spray Wet Type Dust
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S4. Rice, O. R., and Bigelow, C. G. "Disintegrators for Fine Cleaning

Blast Furnace Gas." Amer. Inst. of Mining and Metall. Eng.,
Feb. 1950.

55. "Poto-Clone Dynamic Precipitator Type W. 11 American Air Filter

Bulletin 274-F, Louisville, Kentucky, 1965, pp. 1-15.

56. "The Joy Microdyne Dust Collector. 11 Western Precipitator Co.

Bulletin JllO, Los Angeles, California, 1966, 7 pp.

57. "Gas absorbers. n Buffalo Forge Co. Bulletin AP 225, Buffalo, N. Y.

53. First, M. W., Moschella, R., Silverman, L., and Berly, E.

"Performance of Wet Cell Washers for Aerosols." Ind. Eng. Chem.,
43(6):1363-1370, June 1951.

59, "Neva-Clog Metallic Medium. ii Multi-Metal Wire Cloth, Inc.

Bulletin 613A, Tappan, N. Y., 1961.

GO. Morash, N., Krouse, M., and Vasseller, 'vV. P. "Removing Solid
ancl Mist Particles from Exhaust Gases." Chem. Eng. Prog.,
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4-222
61. Brink, J. A., Jr. "Air Pollution Control with Fiber Mist Eliminators.
Can. J. Chem. Eng., Vol. 41, pp. 134-138, June 1963.

62. Brink, J. A., Jr., Burggrabe, W. F., and Rauscher, J. A. "Fiber

Mist Eliminator for Higher Velocities." Chem. Eng. Prog., 60(1):68-73,
Nov. 1964.

63. Blasewitz, A. G. and Judson, B. F. "Filtration of Radioactive

Aerosols by Glass Fibers." Chem. Eng. Prog., 51(1) :6-11, Jan. 1955.

64. York, 0. H. and Poppele, E. W. "Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators."

Chem. Eng. Prog., 59(6):45-50, June 1963.

65. Fullerton, R. W. "Impingement Baffles to Reduce Emissions from

Coke Quenching." U.S. Steel Corp. Paper 67-93, Applied Research
Lab., Monroeville, Pennsylvania, 1967. Also: J. Air Pollution
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66. Houghton, H. G. and Radford, W. H. "Measurements on Eliminators

and the Development of a New Type for Use at High Gas Velocities. ii
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67. Perry, R. H., Chilton, C. H., and Kirkpatrick, S. D. "Chemical

Engineers' Handbook." 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963,
pp. 18-85.

68. Massey, 0. D. "How Well do Filters Trap Stray Stack Mist?"

Chem. Eng., pp. 143-146, July 13, 1959.

69. storch, H. L. "Product Losses Cut with a Centrifugal Gas Scrubber."

Chem. Eng. Prog., 62(4):51-54, April 1966.

70. Powers, E. D. "Control and Collection of Industrial Dusts." Rock

Prod., Vol. 48, pp. 92-94, June 1945.

71. Jackson, J. "Gas Cleaning by the Foam Method. ii Brit. Chem. Eng.,
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72. Pozin, M. E., Mukhlenov, I. P., and Tarant, F. Ya. "The Foam
Method of Treating Bases and Liquids." Goskhimizdat, 1955.
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73. "Anti-Spray." R. o. Hull and Co., Bulletin 717, Cleveland, Ohio, 1964.

4-223
74. "Rohco No-Cro-Mist." R. 0. Hull and Co., Bulletin 706, Cleveland,
Ohio, 1964.

75. Scheldhammer, A., (ed.) ''Allplas System is Simple Cure for Acid
Fumes." Air Eng., 10(1) :12, Jan. 1968

76. Tate, R. W. "Sprays and Spraying for Process Use - Part I. Types
and Principals." Chem. Eng., pp. 157-162, July 19, 1965.

77. Tate, R. W. "Sprays and Spraying for Process Use - Part II.
Application and Selection." Chem. Eng., pp. 111-116, August 2, 1965.

78. Senecal, J. E. "Fluid Distribution in Process Use." Ind. Eng. Chem.,

49(6):993-997, June 1957.

79. Eckert, J. S., Foote, E. H., and Huntington, R. L. "Pall Ring -

New Type of Tower Packing. Chem. Eng. Prog., 54(1):70-75,
Jan. 1958.

80. Conway, R. A. and Edwards, V. H. "How to Design Sedimentation

Systems from Laboratory Data." Chem. Eng., 68(10):167-170,
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81. Rickles, R. W. ''Waste Recovery and Pollution Abatement." Chem.

Eng., pp. 133-152, Sept. 27, 1965.

82. Zhevnovatyi, A. N. "The Influence of the Basic Parameters of

Hydrocyclone-Thickeners on their Operating Efficiency." Ind. Chem.
Eng., ~(4):580-584, Oct. 1962.

83. Busch, A. W. "Liquid-Waste Disposal System Design." Chem. Eng.,

pp. 83-86, March 29, 1965.

84. Brooke, M. "Corrosion Inhibitor Checklist." Chem. Eng., pp. 134-

140, Feb. 5, 1962.

85. Jacobs, H. L. "In Waste Treatment, Know Your Chemicals, Save

Money." Chem. Eng., pp. 87-92, May 30, 1960.

86. Dickerson, B. W., and Brooks, R. M. "Neutralization of Acid

Wastes." Ind. Eng. Chem., 42(4):599-605, April, 1950.

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87• "Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes." Vol. II. "Waste Gases and
Particulate Matter. " 5th edition, American Petroleum Institute, Div.
of Refining, New York, N. Y., 1957, 68 pp.

88. "Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes." Vol. III. "Chemical Wastes,"

4th edition, American Petroleum Institute, Div. of Refining, New York,
1960, 28 pp.

89. "Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes." Vol. VI, "Solid Wastes,"

1st edition, American Petroleum Institute, Div. of Refining, New York,
1963, 51 pp.

90. Warner, D. L. "Deep-Well Disposal of Industrial Wastes." Chem. Eng.

72(1) :73-78, Jan. 4, 1965.

91. Betz, W. H., and Betz, L. D. "Handbook of Industrial Water Condition-

ing." 4th edition, W. H. and L. D. Betz Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1953,
248 pp.

92. Air Pollution Control Equipment. Ceilcote Co. Bulletin 12-1, Berea,
Ohio, 1967, 23 pp.

93. Jackson, R. and Waple, E. R. "The Elimination of Dust and Drizzle

from Quenching Towers." Gas World, pp. 75-84, May 7, 1960.

94, White, H. J. "Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation." Addison-Wesley,

Reading, Massachusetts, 1963.

95, Ramsdell, R. G., Jr. "Design Criteria for Modern Central Station
Power Plants. 11 Consolidated Edison Co. of New York, Inc.,
April 1968.

96. Archbold, M. J. "Combustion Observations and Experience Resulting

from a Precipitator Improvement Program." In: Proc., American
Power Conference, Chicago, Illinois, March 1961, Vol. 23,
pp. 371-390.

97, White, H. J. "Electrostatic Precipitators for Electric Generating

Stations. 11 Trans. of American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
Paper 72, pp. 229-41, 1953.

98. "Terminology for Electrostatic Precipitators." Industrial Gas Cleaning

Institute, Pub-EP-1, Rye, New York, Oct. 1967, 4 pp.

4-225
 99. "Procedure for Determination of Velocity and Gas Flow Rate."
Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, Pub-EP-2, Rye, New York ,
June 1965, 6 pp.

100. "Criteria for Performance Guarantee Determinations." Industrial

Gas Cleaning Institute, Pub. EP-3, Rye, New York, Aug. 1965.

101. Reese, J. T., and Greco, J. "Experience with Electrostatic Fly-Ash

Collection Equipment Serving Steam-Electric Generating Plants. f'
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 1.§_(8) :523-528, Aug. 1968.

102. Baxter, W. A. "Recent Electrostatic Precipitator Experience with

Ammonia Conditioning of Power Boiler Flue Gases. If (Presented at
the 6lst Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
St. Paul, Minnesota, June 23-27, 1968, Paper 68-67.)

103. O'Mara, R. F. "Dust and Fume Problems in the Iron and Steel
Industry. 11 Iron-Steel Eng. , Oct. 1953.

104. "Air Pollution in the Iron and Steel Industry. " Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963
135 pp.

105. Dunn, C. W. "Modern Blast Furnace Blowing and Recovery Systems."

Iron-Steen Eng., Oct. 1962.

106. Howell, G. A. "Air Pollution Control in Steel Industry. If Iron-Steel

Eng., Oct. 1953. Also: Air Repair, ~(3):163-166, Feb. 1954.

107. Brandt, A. D. "Air Pollution Control in the Bethlehem Steel Co. If

Air Repair, :2_(3):167-69, Feb. 1954.

108. Punch, G. and Yow1g, P. A. "Gas Cleaning in the Iron and Steel
Industry." In: Fume Arrestment, Iron and Steel Institute, Spec.
Report 83, London, 1963, pp. 1-23.

109. Frame, C. P. "The Effects of Mechanical Equipment on Controlling

Air Pollution at No. 3 Sintering Plant,. Indiana Harbor Works, Inland
Steel Company. " Preprint. (Presented at the 56th Annual Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, Detroit, Michigan, 1963.)

4-226
110. Lloyd, H. B. and Bacon, N. P. "Operating Experiences with Oxygen-
Assisted Open Hearth Furnaces. 11 In: Fume Arrestment, Iron and
Steel Institute, Spec. Report 83, London, 1964, pp. 65-70.

111. Elliot, A. C. and Lafreniere, A. J. "The Collection of Metallurgical

Fumes from an Oxygen Lanced Open Hearth Furnace." J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 14(10):401-406, 1966 and J. Metals (Japan), .!§_(6): 743-
747, 1966. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association Annual
Meeting, Houston, Texas, 1964.)

112. Smith, W. M. and Coy, D. W. "Fume Collection in a Steel Plant."

Chem. Eng. Prog., 62(7) :119-123, July 1966.

113. "Dust Removal in Oxygen Steel Making." Stahl u. Eisen, Nov. 1959.
(Translated and abstracted from report of meeting of the Eisenhutte,
Osterreich. )

114. Mitchell, R. T. "Dry Electrostatic Precipitators and Waagner-Biro

Wet Washing Systems." In: Fume Arrestment, Iron and Steel Institute,
Spec. Report 83, London, England, 1964, William Len and Co., Ltd.,
pp. 80-85.

115. Glasgow, J. A. "Operating Results of Jones and Laughlin Steel

Corporation's New 230-Ton BOF Shop at the Cleveland Works." Iron-
Steel Eng., Dec. 1963.

116, Kreichelt, T. E., Kemnitz, D. A., and Cuffe, S. T. "Atmospheric

Emissions from the Manufacture of Portland Cement." U.S. Dept.
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-4, Nov. 1963, 122 pp.

117. Kenline, P. A. and Hales, J. M. "Air Pollution and the Kraft Pulping
Industry." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-4, Nov. 1963.
122 pp.

118, Wilson, Earl J,, Jr. Private communication. Industrial Gas Cleaning
Institute.

119. "Atmospheric Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes."

U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-13, 1965, 127 pp.

4-227
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154. ' 1 Dust Collection with Fabric of Nomex - Preliminary Information. 11

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163. Adams, R. L. "Application of Baghouses to Electric Furnace Fume

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164. Herrick, R. A. "A Baghouse Test Program for Oxygen Lanced Open
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165. Herrick, R. A., Olsen, J. W., and Ray, F. A. "Oxygen-Lanced Open

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166. Drogin, I. "Carbon Black." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 18(4):

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167. Cote. W. A. "Grain Dust Emissions and Our Atmosphere." Proc.

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173. Hottel, H. C., Willians, G. C., and Simpson, H. C. "Combustion of

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175. Orning, A. A. "Combustion of Pulverized Fuel-Mechanism and Rate of

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176. Griffiths, J. C., Thompson, C. W., and Weber, E. J. "New or Unusual

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177. Innes, W. B., and Duffy, R. "Exhaust Gas Oxidation on Vanadia-

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178. Decker, L. D. nodor Control by Incineration. 11 Universal Air Products

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180. Topper, L. "Radiant Heat Transfer from Flames in a Turbojet Combus-

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181. Eckert, E. R. G. and Drake, R. M., Jr. "Heat and Mass Transfer. 11

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182. Trinks, W. and Keller, J. D. "Tests of Radiation from Luminous

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183. Sherman, R. A. "Radiation from Luminous and Non-Luminous Natural

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184. Thring, M. W. "The Radiative Properties of Luminous Flames." In:

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185. Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Public

Health Service, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
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186. Yagi, Sakae and Kunii, D."Combustion of Carbon Particles in Flames

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187. Browning, J. A., Tyler, T. L., and Kran, W. G. "Effect of Particle

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188. Godsave, G. A. E. "Studies of the Combustion of Drops in a Fuel

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189, Gregory, C. A., Jr. and Calcote, H. F. "Combustion Studies of

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191. Parker, A. S. and Hottel, H. C. "Combustion Rate of Carbon. 11

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192. Krenz, W. B., Adrian, R. C., and Ingels, R. M. "Control of Solvent

Losses in Los Angeles County. 11 (Presented at the 50th Annual Meeting
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193. Miller, M. R. and Wilhoyte, H.J. "A Study of Catalyst Support Systems
for Fume-Abatement of Hydrocarbon Solvents. 11 J. Air Pollution Con-
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194. Volheim, G. "The Catalytic Afterburning of Industrial Effluents."

25(11):20-26, Nov. 1965.

195. Gamble, B. L. "Control of Organic Solvent Emissions in Industry. 11

Paper 68-48, 6lst Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Assoc., St.
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196. Field, M. A., Gill, D. W., Morgan, B. B. and Hawksley, P. G. W.

ncombustion of Pulverized Coal. 11 British Coal Utilization Research
Association, Leatherhead, England, 1967, 413 pp.

197. Mills, J. L., Hammond, W. F., and Adrian, R. C. "Design of After-

burners for Varnish Cookers. 11 (Presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, Los Angeles, Calif., June
1959.) J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol 10, pp. 161-168, 1960.

198. Thring, M. W. "The Science of Flames and Furnaces." 2nd edition

John Wiley and Sons, 1962, 625 pp.

199. Benforado, D. M., Pauletta, C. E., and Hazzard, N. D. "Economics

of Heat Recovery in Direct- Flame Fume Incineration. 11 Air Eng. ,
Vol. 9, pp. 29-32, March 1967.

200. Sandomirsky, A. G., Benforado, D. M., Grames, L. D. and Pauletta,

C. E. "Fume Control in Rubber Processing by Direct- Flame Incinera-
tion." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 16(12):673-676, Dec. 1966.

4-234
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Air at Elevated Temperatures." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
16(7):378-382, July 1966.

202. Trinks, W. and Mawhinney, M. H. "Industrial Furnaces," 5th edition

Vol. I, John Wiley and Sons, 1961, 486 pp.

203. Perry. R. H., Chilton, C. H. and Kirkpatrick, S. D. "Chemical

Engineers' Handbook." 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, 1963, 1911 pp.

204. Catalytic Combustion Systems for Ovens and Dryers." Universal Oil
11

Products Bulletin 602, Air Correction Division, 11 pp.

205. Goodel, P. H. "Industrial Ovens Designed for Air Pollution Control. "
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 10, pp. 234-238, 1960, (Presented
at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Los
Angeles, Calif. , June 22-26, 1959).

206. Vandaveer, F. E. and Sedeler, C. G. "Combustion of Gas." American

Gas Assoc., Inc., New York, 1965, 53 pp.

207. Ingels, R. M. "The Afterburner Route to Pollution Control." Air Eng.,

No. 6, pp. 39-42, June 1964.

208, Ruff, R. J. "Profits from Waste Gases." Reprint. Catalytic Combus-

tion, Detroit, Mich., 4 pp.

209, Caplan, K. J. (ed.) "Air Pollution Manual- Part II- Control Equipment."
American Industrial Hygiene Association, Lansing, Mich., 1968, pp.
112-135.

210, DeHaas, G. G., and Hansen, G. A. "The Abatement of Kraft Pulp Mill
Odors by Burning. TT TAPP!, 38(12):732-738, Dec. 1955.

211, Industrial Air Pollution Control. Sly Manufacturing Co., Cleveland,

Ohio, Bulletin 204, 1967, 35 pp.

212, Weil, S. A. "Burning Velocities of Hydrocarbon Flames." Inst. Gas

Tech., Chicago, Illinois, Research Bulletin 30, 1961, 48 pp.

213, nstandards for Ovens and Furnaces." National Board of Fire Under-
writers," NBFU No. 864, Aug. 1963.

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377-381, 1939.

215. "Industrial Ventilation-A Manual of Recommended Practice." 10th

edition, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Lansing, Mich., 1968, 150 pp.

216. Barr, J. 11 Diffusion Flames." In: Proceedings of the 4th Symposium

on Combustion, Cambridge, Mass. Williams and Wilkins Co., Balti-
more, Maryland, 1952, pp. 765-771.

217. Griffiths, J.C. and Weber, E. V. 11Influenceof PortDesignandGas

Composition on Flame Characteristics of Atmospheric Burners. 11
American Gas Association Laboratories, Cleveland, Ohio, Research
Bulletin 77, 1958, 63 pp.

218. "Standards for Safety-Commercial-Industrial Gas Heating Equipment-

UL. 795. n Underwriters Laboratories, Nov. 1952, Revised 1960.

219. Burst, J. F., and Spieckerman, J. A. "A Guide to Selecting Modern

Refractories." Chem. Eng., 74(16): 85-104, July 1967.

220. Benforado, D. M. "Air Pollution Control by Direct Flame Incineration

in the Paint Industry." J. Paint Tech., 39(508):265-266, May 1967.

221. Wallach, A. "Some Data and Observations on Combustion of Gaseous

Effluents from Baked Lithograph Coatings." J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 12(3):109-110, March 1962.

222. Benforado, D. M. and Cooper, G. 11 The Application of Direct-Flame

Incineration as an Odor Control Process in Kraft Pulp Mills. ff Preprint.
(Presented at the 22nd Engineering Conference, Process Systems and
Controls, Water and Air Pollution, TAPPI, Atlanta, Ga., Sept. 19-22,
1967.)

223. Banner, A. P., and Ilgenfritz, E. M. "Disposal of Coal Tar Pitch

Distillate Obtained from Carbon Baking Furnace by Catalytic Combus-
tion. ff J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 13(12):610-612, Dec. 1963.

224. Sullivan, J. L. nAn Evaluation of Catalytic and Direct Fired After-

burners for Coffee and Chicory Roasting Odors. J. Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc., 15(12):583-586, Dec. 1965.

4-236
225. Jares, J. "Fume Oil and Varnish Disposal by Combustion. Chem. Eng.,
11

Vol. 56, pp. 110-111, Jan. 1949.

226. Benforado, D. M. and Waitkus, J. "Exploring the Applicability of

Direct- Flame Incineration to Wire Enameling Fume Control. 11 Wire
Prod., Vol. 42, pp. 1971-1978, 1967. (Presented before the Electrical
Conductor Division of the Wire Association, Chicago, Illinois, Oct. 23,
1967.)

227. Moody, R. A. "Examples of Catalytic Afterburning in Stationary Installa-

tions and Motor Vehicles." Staub, 25(11):26-30, Nov. 1965.

228. Truitt, S. M. "The Application of Gas Burner Equipment for Elimination

of Smoke and Odors from Flue-Fed Incinerators." North American
Manufacturing Co., Cleveland, Ohio, Reprint CB-552-44-D, 4 pp.

229. McKenzie, D. "Burn Up Those Lift-Station Odors." North American

Manufacturing Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

230. Bailey, J. M. and Reed, R. J."Fume Disposal by Direct Flame Incinera-

tion." North American Manufacturing Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

4-237
 5. EMISSION FACTORS FOR PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS

An emission factor is a statistical average of the rate at which pollutants

are emitted from the burning or processing of a given quantity of material.

Emission factors can also be established on the basis of some other meaningful

parameter, such as the number of miles traveled in a vehicle. To determine

emission factors, available reliable data on emissions from a particular source

or group of sources are gathered and correlated with information on process

use. The individual emission factors derived are tabulated, and either an

average or a range of values is selected for use.

Some emission factors are based on very limited data; others are based

on extensive data that are highly variable; and still others are based on ex-

tensive, consistent data. It is, therefore, important that the accuracy of the

data on which an emission factor is based be evaluated before the factor is

used for estimating emissions.

In general, the emission factors for particulate air pollutants are not

precise indicators of what particulate emissions might be from any single

process even though all the details of the process are known. Emission fac-

tors are more valid when applied to a number of processes.

5-1
 Emission factors listed in Table 5-1 are taken from Compilation of Air

Pollutant Emission Factors, Public Health Service publication No. 999-AP-42

'
except where noted. The factors are for uncontrolled sources except as qualified

in the table. Examples of how emission factors are used follow.

Coal Combustion

Given: Source burns 10, 000 tons per year in a spreader stoker without fly

ash reinjection.

85 percent efficient multiple cyclones

Ash content-10 percent (Note: Expressed as the number 10 in making

the computation)

From Table 5-1:

Emission factor = 13A pounds per ton of coal, where A equals ash content.

Therefore:

Particulate emissions = (Process weight) (Emission factor) (Collection

efficiency factor)

Particulate emissions = [10, ooo tons of coall 1( 13 ) (l O) pounds of particulate

year J ~ tons of coal
[l-O.
851 = 195 000 pounds of particulate
' year

Solid Waste Disposal

Given: Commercial operation burning 2, 000 tons per year of refuse

in multiple-chamber incinerator.

5-2
from Table 5-1:

Emission factor-3 pound per ton of refuse

Therefore:

Particulate emissions = [2, 000 tons of refuse] [3 pounds of particulate]

year ton of refuse
, pounds of particulate
6 000
year

Process Industries

Given: Secondary brass and bronze smelting operation with

fabric filter 99 percent efficient.

Furnace type-electric.

Metal charged into furnace-20, 000 tons per year

From Table 5-1:

Emission factor = 3 pounds per ton of metal charged

Therefore:

Particulate emissions =
0,000 tons of metal charged] [ pounds of particulate}
[2 year
3 0
· ton of metal charged
(1-0. 99]

pounds of particulate
=600..__~~~~~~~-
year

5-3
 Table 5-1. PARTICUIATE EMISSION FACTORS 1

Source Particulate emission ratea

Fuel combustion - stationary sources

Coal
Pulverized
General (anthracite and bituminous) 16A blb/ton of coal burned
Dry bottom (anthracite and bituminous) 17A lb/ton of coal burned
Wet bottom (anthracite and bituminous)
Without fly ash reinjection 13A lb/ton of coal burned
With fly ash reinjection 24A clb/ton of coal burned
d
Cyclone (anthracite and bituminous) 2A lb/ton of coal burned
Spreader stoker (anthracite and
bituminous)
Without fly ash reinjection 13A lb/ton of coal burned
With fly ash reinjection 20A c lb/ton of coal burned
All other stokers (anthracite and
bituminous)
Greater than 10 X 10 6 Btu/hr 5A lb/ton of coal burned
Less than 10 X 10 6 Btu/hr 2A d lb/ton of coal burned
Hand-fired equipment 20 lb/ton of coal burned
(Bituminous coal only)

Residual oil
Greater than 100 x 10 6 Btu/hr 10 lb/1000 gallons of oil burned
6
Less than 100 X 10 Btu/hr 23 lb/1000 gallons of oil burned

Distillate oil
10 to 100 x 10 6 Btu/hr 15 lb/1000 gallons of oil burned
Less than 10 X 10 6 Btu/hr 8 lb/1000 gallons of oil burned

5-4
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS

Source Particulate emission ratea

Natural gas
Greater than 100 X 10 6 Btu/hr 15 lb/million ft3 of gas burned
10 to 100 x 10 6 Btu/hr 18 lb/million ft3 of gas burned
Less than 10 x 106 Btu/hr 19 lb/million ft3 of gas burned

Wood 2 10 lb/ton of wood burned

Fuel combustion - mobile sources
Gasoline-powered motor vehicle 12 lb/1000 gallons consumed
Diesel-powered vehicle 110 lb/1000 gallons consumed
Aircraft
Jet (fan-type)
4 engine 7. 4 lb/flight e
3 engine 5. 6 lb/flight
2 engine 3. 8 lb/flight
1 engine 1. 9 lb/flight
Jet (conventional)
4 engine 34. 0 lb/flighte
3 engine 25. 5 lb/flight
2 engine 17. 0 lb/flight
1 engine 8. 5 lb/flight
Turboprop
4 engine 2. 5 lb/flighte
2 engine 0. 6 lb/flight
Piston
4 engine 1. 4 lb/flighte
2 engine 0. 6 lb/flight
1 engine 0. 3 lb/flight

5-5
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS
Source Particulate emission ratea

Solid waste disposal

Open burning of leaves and brush 1 7 lb/ton of refuse burned
Open-burning dump 16 lb/ton of refuse burned
Municipal incinerator 1 7 lb/ton of refuse burned
On-site commercial and industrial 3 lb/ton of refuse burned
multiple-chamber incinerator
(Los Angeles design)
Single-chamber incinerator 10 lb/ton of refuse burned
Domestic gas-fired incinerator 15 lb/ton of refuse burned
On-site residential flue-fed incinerator 28 lb/ton of refuse burned
Process industries - (specific examples)
Chemical industry
Paint and varnish manufacture
Varnish cooker 60-120 lb/ton of feed
Alkylresin production - total
operation 80-120 lb/ton of feed
Cooking and blowing of oils 20-60 lb/ton of feed
Heat polymerization acrylic resins 20 lb/ton of feed
Phosphoric acid manufacture
f
Thermal process absorber tail 0. 2-10. 8 lb/ton of phosphorus
gas with control (acid mist) burned
Sulfuric acid manufacture - contact 0. 3- 7. 5 lb/ ton of acid produced
process (acid mist)
Food and agriculture industries
Coffee roasting
Direct fired roaster 7. 6 lb/ ton of green beans
Indirect fired roaster 4. 2 lb/ton of green beans
Stoner and cooler 1. 4 lb/ton of green beans
Instant coffee spray dryer - always 1. 4 lb/ton of green beans
controlled with cyclone and wet
scrubber

5-6
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICUIATE EMISSION FACTORS

Source Particulate emission ratea

Cotton ginning operation (includes cotton 11. 7 lb/bale of cotton

gin and incineration of cotton trash) (500 lb)
Feed and grain mills
General with 90% efficient cyclones 6 lb/ton of product
Wheat air cleaner with cyclone 0. 2 lb/ton of product
Barley flour mill with cyclone 3.1 lb/ton of product
Alfalfa meal mill with settling chamber 4. 0 lb/ton of product
and cyclone
Orange pulp dryer with cyclone 11. 3 lb/ton of product
Starch manufacture - natural gas direct- 8 lb/ton of starch
fired flash drier
Primary metal industry
Iron and stee 1 manufacture
Sintering machine gases 20 lb/ton of sinter
Sinter machine discharge 22 lb/ton of sinter
Open hearth furnace
Oxygen lanceg 22 lb/ton of steel
No oxygen lanceg 14 lb/ton of steel

Basic oxygen furnaceg 46 lb/ton of steel

Electric arc furnace
Oxygen lanceg 11 lb/ton of steel
No oxygen lanceg 7 lb/ton of steel
Blast furnace
Ore chargingg 110 lb/ton of iron
Agglomerate chargingg 40 lb/ton of iron
Scarfing 3 lb/ton of steel processed
Coking operations - charging, pushing, 2 lb/ton of coal
quenching

5-7
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS

Source Particulate emission ratea

Secondary metal industry

Aluminum smelting
Chlorination - lancing of chlorine gas 1000 lb/ton of chlorine used
into molten metal bath
Crucible furnace 1. 9 lb/ton of metal processed
Reverberatory furnace 4. 3 lb/ton of metal processed
Sweating furnace 32. 2 lb/ton of metal charged
Brass and bronze smelting
Crucible furnace 3. 9 lb/ton of metal charged
Electric furnace 3. 0 lb/ton of metal charged
Reverberatory furnace 26. 3 lb/ton of metal charged
Rotary furnace 20. 9 lb/ton of metal charged
Gray iron foundry
Cupola 17. 4 lb/ton of metal charged
Electric induction furnace 2. 0 lb/ton of metal charged
Reverberatory furnace 2. 0 lb/ton of metal charged
Lead smelting
Cupola 300 lb/ton of metal charged
Pot furnace 0. 1 lb/ton of metal charged
Reverberatory and sweating furnace 154 lb/ton of metal charged
Magnesium smelting
Pot furnace 4. 4 lb/ton of metal charged
Steel foundry
Electric arc furnace 15. 0 lb/ton of metal charged
Electric induction furnace 0.1 lb/ton of metal charged
Open hearth furnace 10. 6 lb/ton of metal charged

5-8
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS

Source Particulate emission ratea

Zinc smelting
Galvanizing kettles 5. 3 lb/ton of metal charged
Calcine kilns 88. 8 lb/ton of metal charged
Pot furnaces 0. 1 lb/ton of metal charged
Sweating furnace 10. 8 lb/ton of metal charged
Mineral product industry
Asphalt saturators 3. 9h lb/ton of asphalt
Asphalt batch plant - rotary drier 5. 0 lb/ton of mix
Calcium carbide plant
Coke dryer 0. 2 lb/ton of product
Electric furnace hood 1. 7 lb/ton of product
Furnace room vents 2. 6 lb/ton of product
Main stack - vents to atmosphere - 2. 0 lb/ton of product
exhaust from furnace hoods always
passes through impingement scrubbers
Cement manufacture
Dry process - kiln 46 lb/barrel of cement
Wet process - kiln 38 lb/barrel of cement
Ceramic and clay processes
Ceramic clay - spray drier with cyclone 15 lb/ton of charge
Bisque with scrubber 2 lb/ton of charge
Catalytic material - drier, kiln and 6 lb/ton of charge
cooler with cyclone and scrubber
Concrete batch plant - total operation 0. 2 lb/yard of concrete
Frit manufacture - frit smelters 16. 5 lb/ton of charge
Glass manufacture - soda-lime process 2. 0 lb/ton of glass
with direct fired continuous melting

33l-7l6 0 - 69 - 26
5-9
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS

Source Particulate emission ratea

Lime production
Rotary kiln 200 lb/ton of lime
Vertical kiln 20 lb/ton of lime
Perlite manufacture - expanding furnace 21 lb/ton of charge
Rock wool manufacture
Cupola 21. 6 lb/ton of charge
Reverberatory furnace 4. 8 lb/ton of charge
Blow chamber 21. 6 lb/ton of charge
Curing oven 3. 6 lb/ton of charge
Cooler 2. 4 lb/ton of charge
Rock, gravel and sand production
Crushing 20 lb/ton of product
Conveying, screening, shaking 1. 7 lb/ton of product
Storage piles - wind erosion 20 lb/ton of product
Petroleum industry
Fluid catalytic crackers 0. l to O. 2i lb/ton of catalyst
circulated
Moving bed catalytic crackers
TCC-type unit 0. 05 to 0. 15j lb/ton of catalyst
circulated
HCC-type unit 0. 15 to 0. 25j lb/ton of catalyst
circulated
Kraft pulp industry
Smelt tank
Uncontrolled 20 lb/ton of dry pulp produced
Water spray 5 lb/ton of dry pulp produced
Mesh demister 1-2 lb/ton of dry pulp produced
Lime kiln 94 lb/ton of dry pulp produced
Recovery furnace with primary 150 lb/ton of dry pulp produced
stack gas scrubber

5-10
 Table 5-1 (continued). PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS

aEmission rates are those from uncontrolled sources, unless otherwise noted.

bWhere letter A is shown, multiply number given by the percent ash in the
coal.

cValue should not be used as emission factor. Values represent the loading
reaching the control equipment always used on this type of furnace.

dRevised from 5A.

8
Flight is defined as a combination of a landing and a takeoft.

f
Depends on type of control.

gBased on data from NAPCA Contract No. PH 22-68-65.

~ncludes only solid particulate matter. In addition, about 65 lb/hr of oil

mist may be evolved from asphalt saturators.

iRevisedfrom 0.1.

jRevised from 0. 04.

5-11
 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 5

1. Duprey, R. L. "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emissions Factors." u. s

Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Durham, N.C., PHS-Pub-999-AP-42, 1968.

2. "Procedure for Conducting Comprehensive Air Pollution Surveys. " New

York State Dept. of Health, Bureau of Air Pollution Control Services,
Albany, New York, Aug. 18, 1965.

5-12
 6. ECONOl\IlC CONSIDERATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

6, l SELECTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Most air pollution emission control problems can be solved in several

ways. In order to select the best method of reducing pollutant emissions,

each solution should be thoroughly evaluated prior to implementation. Steps

such as substitution of fuels and raw materials and modification or replace-

ment of processes should not be overlooked as possible solutions. Such

emission reduction procedures often can improve more than one pollution

problem. For example, particulate matter and sulfur oxides emissions both

may be reduced by switching from high-sulfur coal to natural gas or low-

sulfur oil. Such steps also may have the benefit of reducing or eliminating

solid waste disposal and water pollution problems. Often it is cheaper to

attack two air problems together than to approach each problem individually.

If steps such as process alterations and substitution of fuels are not feasible,

it may be necessary to use gas cleaning equipment

Figure 6-1 shows the factors to be considered in selecting of gas clean-

ing system. The first consideration is the degree of reduction of emis-

sions which may be required to meet emission standards. The degree of

6-1
 EMISSIONS AND EMISSIONS
STANDARDS

DETERMINES COLLECTION EFFICIENCY

t ~ ~ _=:l
I CONTROL E'QUIPMENT ALTERNATIVES
I
+ + t + +
FABRIC ELECTROSTATIC WET MECHANICAL AFTER·
f l l TER PRECIPITATOR COLLECTOR COLLECTOR BURNER

L ' ~
_J

'
.,, .,,
v VOLUME IGNITION POINT
v
~f- f-
<.,, TEMPERATURE SIZE DISTRIBUTION Won
w ii: MOISTURE CONTENT ABRASIVENESS ...J-
IXw CORROSIVENESS HYGROSCOPIC NATURE v°'
_w
PROCESS
f- f-
.,,v ODOR ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES :;t;
.,, < EXPLOSIVENESS GRAIN LOADING <<
<e:: DENSITY AND SHAPE o.. ll:
<-' < VISCOSITY <
J: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES J:
v v

WASTE TREATMENT WATER AVAILABILITY

PLANT
SPACE RESTRICTION FORM OF HEAT RECOVERY
FACILITY
PRODUCT RECOVERY
. -
(GAS OR LIQUID)

.
POWER
ENGINEERING STUDIES WASTE DISPOSAL
HARDWARE WATER
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT MATERIALS
COST OF
LAND GAS CONDITIONING
CONTROL
STRlJCTURES LABOR
INSTALLATION TAXES
START-UP INSURANCE
RETURN ON INVESTMENT
.
~
SELECTED
GAS CLEANING SYSTEM

t
DFSIRED EMISSION RATE

Figure 6-1. Criteria for selection of gas cleaning equipment.

6-2
emission reduction or the collection efficiency required is dependent upon the

relationship between emissions and emission standards as shown at the top of

the figure. This is an important factor in making the choice among control

equipment alternatives. Although a control system may include two or more

pieces of control equipment, collection efficiency, as used in this chapter,

applies to individual pieces of control equipment. The usual ranges of collec-

tion efficiency for various equipment alternatives are shown in Table 6-1. The

important factors to be considered next are the gas stream and particle char-

acteristics of the process itself, as shown in the center of Figure 6-1. High

gas temperatures without cooling, for example, preclude the use of fabric

filters; explosive gas streams prohibit the use of electrostatic precipitators;

and submicron particles cannot generally be efficiently collected with

mechanical collectors. A number of factors that relate to the plant facility

should also be considered, some of which are listed in Figure 6-1. Each al-

ternative will have a specific cost associated with it, and the components of

this cost should be carefully examined. Those alternatives which meet the

requirements of both the process and the plant facility can then be evaluated

in terms of cost; on this basis, the gas cleaning system may be selected.

6-3
 Table 6-1. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
COLLECTION EFFICIENCIES!, 2, 3
Efficiency Range
(on a total weight basis)
Equipment type
percent
a
Electrostatic precipitator 80 to 99. 5+
b
Fabric filters 95 to 99. 9

Mechanical collector 50 to 95
Wet collector 75 to 99+
Afterburner:
Catalytic c 50 to 80
Direct flame 95 to 99

aMost electrostatic precipitators sold today are designed for 98 to 99. 5 per-
cent collection efficiency.

bFabric filter collection efficiency is normally above 99. 5 percent.

cNot normally applied in particulate control; has limited use because most
particulates poison or desensitize the catalyst.

6-4
6. 2 COST-EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIPS

Meaningful quantitative relationships between control costs and pollutant

reductions are useful in assessing the impact of control on product prices,

profits, investments, and value added to the product.* With such relationships

at hand the alternates for solution of an air pollution problem can be evaluated

for more effective program implementation by the user of the control equip-

ment and by the enforcement agency. These cost-effectiveness relationships

sometimes are applied collectively to a meteorological or air quality control

region, where they describe the total cost impact on polluters as a result of

controlling sources; the discussion here, however, centers around cost-

effectiveness as applied to an individual source. Cost-effectiveness is a meas-

ure of all costs to the firm associated with a given reduction in pollutant emis-

sions. For computing the costs for a given system, one should consider (1) raw

materials and fuels used in the process, (2) alterations in process equipment,

(3) control hardware and auxiliary equipment, and (4) disposal of collected

emissions.

Figure 6-2 shows an example of a theoretical cost-effectiveness relation-

5
ship. The actual total costs of control may depart from this curve because

some cost elements, such as research and development expenditures and fixed

*Value added is generally considered to be the economic worth added to a prod-

uct by a particular process, operation, or function. 4

6-5
 charges (taxes, insurance, deprecia-
cc
tion) are not directly related to the

1t-
operation of the equipment and to the

en level of emissions in a given year.

0
u
The cost of control is represented on

QUANTITY OF POLLUTANTS the vertical axis and the quantity of

Figure 6-2. Cost of control. pollutants emitted on the horizontal

axis. Point P indicates the uncontrolled state, in which there are no control

costs. As control efficiency improves, the quantity of emissions is reduced

and the cost of control increases. In rn os t cases, the marginal cost of control

is smaller at the lower levels of efficiency, near point P of the curve. The

curve also illustrates that as the cost of control increases, greater increments

of cost usually are required for corresponding increments of emission reduc-

tion. Process changes sometimes may result in emission reduction without

increased costs. Research and development expenditures resulting in new or

improved equipment design, improved process operations, or more efficient

equipment operations will improve the economics of control. All these factors

may substantially reduce control costs at most emission levels and shift the

cost of the control curve (CC) as illustrated by CC in Figure 6-3. Note that
1

as control technology develops, the cost of attaining a desired emission level

will be reduced from C to C .

a b

6-6
 cc, Cost-effectiveness information is use-

ful in emission control decision-

making. Several feasible systems

usually are available for controlling

each source of emissions. In most

q--~

QUANTITY OF POLLUTANTS
cases, the least-cost solution for

Figure 6-3. Expected new cost of control.

each source can be calculated at

various levels of control. After

evaluating each alternative and after considering future process expansions and

more rigid control restrictions, sufficient information should be available on

which to base an intelligent control decision.

Cost-effectiveness relationships vary from industry to industry and from

plant to plant within an industry. The cost for a given control system is signif-

icantly dependent on the complexity of the installation and the characteristics

of the gas stream and pollutant. Geographical location is another significant

factor that influences the total annual cost; for example, the components of

annual cost, such as utilities, labor, and the availability of desired sites for

waste material, vary from place to place.

6-7
6. 3 COST DATA

It is the purpose of this chapter to develop basic information and tech-

niques for estimating the costs of installing and operating control equipment.

Such information can be useful in developing cost-effectiveness relationships

for application of various control systems.

The control cost information included in this chapter is based on experi-

ence, a careful study of the literature, and a survey of more than 250 sup-

pliers, users, installers, and operators of air pollution control equipment.

The cost information was reviewed by a panel from the gas cleaning equip-

ment industry for reasonableness of data and methodology. The cost data

reported reflects 1968 prices, except as noted.

6. 4 UNCERTAINTIES IN DEVELOPING COST RELATIONSHIPS

Cost information for control devices is indicated in Section 6. 7 where,

for various types of equipment, operating capacity is plotted against cost.

The upper and lower curves indicate the expected range of costs, with the

expected average cost falling approximately in the middle. Although quanti-

tative values for collection efficiency and gas volume capacity are not listed,

higher collection efficiency, which involves more intricate engineering de-

sign, results in higher costs. Control equipment is designed for a nominal

gas volume capacity, but under actual operating conditions the volume may

vary. Similarly, the efficiency of control equipment will vary from application

6-8
to application as particle characteristics, such as wettability, density, shape,

and size distribution, differ. For example, a control device designed to oper-

ate on 50, 000 acfm of gas with a nominal collection of 95 percent may have an

effective operating range of from 45, 000 to 55, 000 acfm, and its collection

efficiency may range from 90 to 97 percent.

The effect of these independent variations is to make single point esti-

mates of cost versus size and efficiency difficult to determine. Based on the

data available, all estimates must be constructed over an interval of uncer-

tainty for each of the three variables. To make the cost estimation problem

manageable in this report, nominal high, medium, and low collection efficien-

cies have been selected for each type of control equipment, except fabric

filters. For fabric filters, the nominal high, medium, and low curves reflect

construction variations. The purchase, installed, and total annualized costs

of operation are plotted for each of the three efficiency levels over the gas

volume range indicated. Purchase, installed, and total annualized costs for

fabric filters are plotted for variations in filter construction and cleaning

methods.

Generalized categories of control equipment are discussed rather than

specific designs because of uncertainties in size, efficiency, and cost. If

required, more detailed information on the cost of various engineering innova-

tions (e.g., packed towers of specific design to accommodate a corrosive gas

stream) should be requested from the manufacturers of the specific equipment.

6-9
Cost variations associated with wet collectors are reported in Table

3
6-2.

Other difficulties exist in developing cost information for existing control

devices, especially cost estimates on the maintenance and operation of control

equipment. Individual firms may remember what a control device cost origi-

nally, but they may forget what it costs to install and operate. In addition,

internal bookkeeping and auditing systems often bury these expenditures in

total plant operating costs. For example, water and electricity used by a

control operation are not always separately metered and accountable as a

specific air pollution control cost item. Some of these costs can be identified

and assessed on the basis of industrial experience or engineering estimates.

6. 5 DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL COST ELEMENTS

6. 5. 1 General

The actual cost of installing and operating air pollution control equipment

is a function of many direct and indirect cost factors. An analysis of the con-

trol costs for a specific source should include a.n evaluation of all relevant

factors, as outlined in Figure 6-4. The control system must be designed and

operated as an integral part of the process; this will minimize the cost of con-

trol for a given emission level. The definable control costs are those that are

directly associated with the installation and operation of control systems.

These expenditure items from the control equipment user's point of view have

a breakdown for accounting purposes as follows:

6-10
 3
Table 6-2. APPROXIMATE COST OF WET COLLECTORS IN 1965

Cost, dollars/ cfm

Capacity, cfm
a
Tlloe of collector 1,000 5,000 20,000 40,000
b,c
Cyclonic:
Small diameter multiples 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.20
Single chamber, constant 1. 40 0.45 0.35 0.25
water level
Single chamber, multiple 0.95 0.40 0.25 0.20
stage, overhead line
pressure water feed
Single chamber, internal 3.00 1. 50 1. 00 0. 75
nozzle spray
b,c,d
Self-induced spray 0. 80 0.40 0.25 0.25
b,c
Wet impingement 1. 00 0.50 0.25 0.25
.c, d
Venturi 3.00 1. 50 1. 20 0.50
Variable pressure drop 1. 00 - - 0.30
inertial c ' d
Mec h amca
. le, d 1. 75 0.75 0.35 -

a
Basic designs, mild steel construction.
b
Add 30 to 40 percent to base price for fan, drive, and motor (standard
construction mate rials).
c
Special materials construction costs for 1000- to 40, 000-cfm range units
are approximately as follows:

Rubber lining - base increase of 65 to 115 percent.

Type 304 stainless steel - base increase of 30 to 60 percent.
Type 316 stainless steel - base increase of 45 to 100 percent.
d
Add from 10 to 40 percent to base price per additional stage as in some
cyclonic and wet impingement designs.

6-11
 ENGINEERING
STUDIES

OPERATIONAL GAS CLEANING SYSTEM COST AREAS DETERMINING

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NET COST OF CONTROL LAND
VARIABLES INFLUENCING
CONTROL COSTS CONTROL COSTS

WASTE
SITE
TYPE DISPOSAL PREPARATION

CONTROL
SIZE HARDWARE
VOLUME
.......__ _.,_~--~--+--~~
UJ
a:: CONSTRUCTION AUXILIARY
t-
V> MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
V>
14_ _._;:;-----+-~

POLLUTANT
EFFICIENCY INSTALLATION

PRESSURE DROP MATERIALS AND

WASTE SUPPLIES
MATERIAL
UTILIZATION

POWER AND FUEL MAINTENANCE

AND OPERATION
BENEFIT
COSTS
CAPITAL
CHARGES

Figure 6-4. Diagram of cost evaluation for a gas cleaning system.

 Capital Investment

Engineering studies

Land

Control hardware*

Auxiliary equipment*

Operating supply inventory

Ins talla ti on*

Startup

Structure modification

Maintenance and Operation

Utilities*

Labor*

Supplies and materials*

Treatment and disposal of collected material

Capital Charges

Taxes*

Insurance*

Interest*

Of the expenditure items shown above, only those denoted by an asterisk

were considered in developing the cost estimates used in this chapter. Other

*Denotes cost items considered in this report

331-716 0 - 69 - 27
6-13
factors, such as engineering studies, land acquisition, operating supply inven-

tory, and structural modification, vary in cost from place to place and there-

fore were not included. Costs for the treatment and disposal of collected

material, while also not included, are discussed in some detail in Section 6-8.

6. 5. 2 Capital Investment

The "installed cost" quoted by a manufacturer of air pollution equipment

usually is based on his engineering study of the actual emission source. This

cost includes three of the eight capital investment items-control hardware

costs, auxiliary equipment costs, and costs for field installation.

The purchase cost curves that are shown in Section 6. 7 illustrate the

control hardware costs for various types of control equipment. These purchase

costs are the amounts charged by manufacturer for equipment of standard con-

struction materials. Basic control hardware includes built-in instrumentation

and pumps. Purchase cost usually varies with the size and collection efficiency

of the control device. The purchase costs plotted on the curves are typical

for the efficiencies indicated, but these costs may vary ± 20 percent from

the values shown. Of course, equipment fabricated with special materials

(e.g., stainless steel or ceramic coatings) for extremely high temperatures

or corrosive gas streams may cost much more.

The remaining capital investment items, auxiliary equipment and installa-

tion costs, are aggregated together and referred to as "total installation costs."

6-14
These costs are shown in Table 6-3, expressed as percentages of the purchase

costs. These costs include a reasonable increment for the following items:

(1) erection, (2) insulation material, (3) transportation of equipment, (4) site

preparation, (5) clarifiers and liquid treatment systems (for wet collectors), and

(6) auxiliary equipment such as fans, ductwork, motors, and control ins tru-

mentation. The low values listed in the table are for minimal transportation

and simple layout and installation of control devices. High values are for

higher transportation cost and for difficult layout and installation problems.

The extreme high values are for unusually complex installations on existing

process equipment. Table 6-4 lists the major cost categories and related

conditions that establish the installation cost range from low to high. The

"installed cost" estimates reported in Section 6-7 are the sum of the purchase

costs and the total installation costs.

6. 5. 3 Maintenance and Operation

The following sections describe the working equations for the operation

and maintenance costs of various control devices. Numerical values for the

variables expressed in these equations are found in Tables 6-5 and 6-6.

6. 5. 3.1 General

The costs of operation and maintenance will vary widely because of dif-

ferent policies of control equipment users. This variance will depend on such

factors as the quality and suitability of the control equipment, the user's under-

standing of its operation, and his vigilance in maintaining it. Maintenance

6-15
Table 6-3. TOTAL INSTALLATION COST FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONTROL
DEVICES EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF PURCHASE COSTS
Cost, percent
Equipment type Low Typical High Extreme high
Gravitational 33 67 100 -
Dry centrifugal 35 50 100 400
Wet collector:
Low, medium energy 50 100 200 400
a
High energy 100 200 400 500
Electrostatic 40 70 100 400
precipitators
Fabric filters 50 75 100 400
Afterburners 10 25 100 400

a
High-energy wet collectors usually require more expensive fans and motors.

6-16
Table 6-4. CONDITIONS AFFECTING INSTALLED COST OF CONTROL DEVICES

Cost category Low cost High cost

Equipment transportation Minimum distance; simple Long distance; complex procedure for
loading and unloading loading and unloading
procedures

Plant age Hardware designed as an Hardware installed into confines of old

integral part of new plant plant requiring structural or process
modification or alteration

Available space Vacant area for location of Little vacant space requires extensive
control system Hteel support construction and site pre-
pa ration

Corrosiveness of gas Noncorrosive gas Acidic emissions requiring high alloy

accessory equipment using special han-
dling and construction techniques

Complexity of startup Simple startup, no exten- Requires extensive adjustments; testing;

sive adjustment required considerable down time

Instrumentation Little required Complex instrumentation required to assure

reliability of control or constant monitoring
of gas stream

Guarantee on None needed Required to assure designed control effi-

performance ciency

Degree of assembly Control hardware shipped Control hardware to be assembled and

completely assembled erected in the field

Degree of engineering Autonomous "package" Control system requiring extensive in-

design control system tegration into process, insulation to
correct temperature problem, noise
abatement

Utilities Electricity, water, Electrical and waste treatment facilities

waste disposal facilities must be expanded, water supply must be
readily available developed or expanded

Collected waste material No special treatment Special treatment facilities and/ or han-
hanclllng facilities or handling re- dling required
quired

Labor Low wages in geographical Overtime and/ or high wages in geographical

area area

6-17
 Table 6-5. ANNUAL MAINTENANCE COSTS FOR ALL
GENERIC TYPES OF CONTROL DEVICES

Dollars per acfm

Generic type Low Typical High

Gravitational and dry 0.005 0.015 0.025

centrifugal collectors

Wet collectors 0.02 0.04 0.06

Electrostatic precipi-
tators:
High voltage 0.01 0.02 0.03
Low voltage 0.005 0.014 0.02

Fabric filters 0. 02 0.05 0.08

Afterburners:
Direct flame 0.03a 0.06b 0. lOb
Catalytic 0.07 0. 20 0.35

a
Metal liner with outside insulation.

b
Refractory lined.

6-18
 Table 6-6. MISCELLANEOUS COST AND ENGINEERING FACTORS

Fan efficiency == 60 percent Pump efficiency == 50 percent

Power cost, dollars/kw-bra

All devices Low Typical High

0.005 o. 011 0.020

Hours of operation

8760 hours per year

24 hr/day x 365 days/yr == 8760

Power requirements vs efficiency for high-

voltage electrostatic precipitators, 10-3 kw/acfm

Low Medium High

0. 19 0.26 0.40

Power requirements vs efficiency for low-

-3
voltage electrostatic precipitators (10 kw/acfm)

Low High

0.015 0.040

Liquor cost in 10- 3 dollars per gallon per hour (for wet system)

Low Typical High

Wet scrubber 0.35 0.50 1. 00

Make up liquor requirements, O. 0005 gal/hr - acfm

a
Based on national average of large consumers.

6-19
Table 6-6 (continued). MISCELLANEOUS COST AND ENGINEERING FACTORS

Power requirements

Low efficiency Medium efficiency High efficiency

"Scrubbing" (contact) 0.0013 0.0035 0.015
power, horsepower/ acfm

Scrubber liquor data

Low Typical High
Liquor circulation rate, 0.001 0.008 0.020
gal/acfm
Minimum head require-
ments, feet water *l 30 60

Pressure drop through equipment, inches of water

Generic type Low Typical High

Dry centrifugal collector - 2-3 4

Fabric filter 2-3 4-5 6-8

Afterburners 0.5 1. 0 2

Electrostatic precipitators 0.1 0.5 1

and gravitational
collectors

* 1 psig = 2. 3 ft water

6-20
and operation usually are very difficult to define and assess, but often may

be a significant portion of the overall cost of controlling air pollutant emis-

sions. Although the combined operating and maintenance costs may be as

low as 10 percent of the annualized total cost for a gravitational settling

chamber, for example, they may be as high as 90 percent of the total an-

nualized cost for a high-efficiency wet collector.

Maintenance cost is the expenditure required to sustain the operation of

a control device at its designed efficiency with a scheduled maintenance pro -

gram and necessary replacement of any defective parts. On an annual basis,

maintenance cost in the following equations is assumed proportional to the

capacity of the device in acfm. Table 6-5 shows annual maintenance cost

factors for all types of particulate control devices. 8imple, low-efficiency

control devices have low maintenance costs; complex, high-efficiency devices

have high maintenance costs.

Annual operating cost is the expense of operating a control device at

its designed collection efficiency. This cost depends on the following factors:

(1) the gas volume cleaned, (2) the pressure drop across the system, (3) the

operating time, (4) the consumption and cost of electricity, (5) the mechan-

ical efficiency of the fan, and (6) the scrubbing liquor consumption and costs

(where applicable).

6-21
6. 5. 3. 2 Gravitational and Centrifugal Mechanical Collectors

In general, the only significant cost for operating mechanical collectors

is the electric power cost, which varies with the unit size and the pressure

drop. Since pressure drop in gravitational collectors is low, operational costs

associated with these units are considered to be insignificant. Maintenance

cost includes the costs of servicing the fan motor, replacing any lining worn

by abrasion, and, for multiclone collectors, flushing the clogged small dia-

meter tubes.

Cost equation - The theoretical annual cost (G) of operation and main-

tenance for centrifugal collectors can be expressed as follows:

G = S [ 0. 7457 PHK + Ml
6356E J (1)

where:

S = design capacity of the collector, acfm

P =pressure drop inches of water (see Table 6-6)

E =fan efficiency, assumed to be 60 percent (expressed as o. 6)

O. 7457 =a constant (1 horsepower= O. 7457 kilowatt)

H = annual operating time (assumed 8760 hours)

K = power cost, dollars per kilowatt-hour (see Table 6-6)

M = maintenance cost, dollars per acfm (see Table 6-5)

For computational purposes the cost formula can be simplified as follows:

G ~ S [ 195. 5 x 10- 6 PHK + M ] (2)

6-22
6. 5. 3. 3 Wet Collectors - The operating costs for a wet collector power and

scrubbing liquor costs. Power costs vary with equipment size, liquor circula-

tion rate, and pressure drop. Liquor consumption varies with equipment size

and stack gas temperature. Maintenance includes servicing the fan or com-

pressor motor, servicing the pump, replacing worn linings, cleaning piping,

and any necessary chemical treatment of the liquor in the circulation system.

Cost equation - the theoretical annual cost (G) of operation and mainten-

ance for wet collectors can be expressed as follows:

G ~S [ O. 7457 HK (63 ~6 E + Qg + Qh ) + WHL +

1722F 3960F
Ml (3)

where:

S = design capacity of the wet collector, acfm

0. 7457 = a constant (1 horsepower = 0. 7457 kilowatts)

H =annual operating time (assumed 8760 hours)

K =power costs, dollars per kilowatt-hour

P =pressure drop across fan, inches of water (see Table 6-6)

Q = liquor circulation, gallons per acfm (see Table 6-6)

g = liquor pressure at the collector, psig (see Table 6-6)

h =physical height liquor is pumped in circulation system, feet (see

Table 6-6)

W = make-up liquor consumption, gallons per acfm (see Table 6-6)

6-23
 L = liquor cost, dollars per gallon (see Table 6-6)

M = maintenance cost, dollars per acfm (see Table 6-5)

E =fan efficiency, assumed to be 60 percent (expressed as 0. 60)

F =pump efficiency, assumed to be 50 percent (expressed as 0. 50)

The above equation can be simplified according to Semrau's total "con-

tacting power" concept. 6 Semrau shows that efficiency is proportional to the

total energy input to meet fan and nozzle power requirements. The scrubbing

(contact) power factors in Table 6-6 were calculated from typical performance

data listed in manufacturers' brochures. These factors are in general agreement

with data reported by Semrau. Using Semrau's concept the equation for operating

cost can be simplified as follows:

G=S [o. 7457 HK (z + .JTh_) + WHL + M]

\ 1980
where Z =contact power (i.e. , total power input required for collection

efficiency), horsepower per acfm (see Table 6-6). It is a combi-

nation of:

1. fan horsepower per acfm (= p ) , and

6356 E

2. pump horsepower per acfm ( - Qg the power to atomize water)

1722F through a nozzle

The pump horsepower, Qh/1980, required to provide pressure head

is not included in the contact power requirements.

6-24
6, 5. 3. 4. Electrostatic Precipitators - The only operating cost considered in

the operation of electrostatic precipitators is the power cost for ionizing

the gas and operating the fan. As the pressure drop across the equipment is

usually less than 1/2 inch of water, the cost of operating the fan is assumed

to be negligible. The power cost varies with the efficiency and the size of the

equipment.

Maintenance usually requires the services of an engineer or highly-

trained operator, in addition to regular maintenance personnel. Maintenance

includes servicing fans and replacing damaged wires and rectifiers.

Cost equation - The theoretical annual cost (G) for operation and

maintenance of electrostatic precipitators is as follows:

G =S [JHK + M] (4)

where

S = design capacity of the electrostatic precipitator, acfm

J =power requirements, kilowatts per acfm (see Table 6-6)

H =annual operating time (assumed 8760 hours)

K= power cost, dollars per kilowatt-hour (see Table 6-6)

M= maintenance cost, dollars per acfm (see Table 6-5)

6, 5. 3. 5 Fabric Filters - Operating costs for fabric filters include power costs

for operating the fan and the bag cleaning device. These costs vary directly

With size of equipment and the pressure drop. Maintenance costs include costs

for servicing the fan and shaking mechanism, emptying the hoppers, and

replacing the worn bags.

6-25
 Cost equation - The theoretical annual cost (G) for operation and maintenancE .
of fabric filters is as follows:

G = S [ 0. 7457
6356E
PHK +Ml (5)

where:
S = design capacity of the fabric filter, acfm
P =pressure drop, inches of water (see Table 6-6)
E = fan efficiency, which is assumed to be 60 percent

(expressed as 0. 60)
O. 7 457 = a constant (1 horsepower = 0. 7 457 kilowatt)

H =annual operating time (assumed 8760 hours)

K =power cost, dollars per kilowatt-hour (see Table 6-6)
M =maintenance cost, dollars per acfm (see Table 6-5)
For computational purposes, the cost formula can be simplified as follows:

G ~S [ 195. 5 x 10 -B PHK + M] (6)

6. 5. 3. 6 Afterburners - The major operating cost item for afterburners is

fuel. Fuel requirements are a direct function of the gas volume, the
enthalpy of the gas, and the difference between inlet and outlet gas temperatures.
For most applications, the inlet gas temperature at the source ranges from
300° to 400° F. Outlet temperatures may vary from 1200° to 1500° F for
2
direct flame afterburners and from 730° to 1200° F for catalytic afterburners.
The use of heat exchangers may bring about a 50 percent reduction in the
. 7 8
temperature difference. ' Table 6-7 lists hourly fuel costs based on a
natural gas cost of $0. 60 per million Btu. No credit was given for heat
of combustion of particulate or other matter. These costs were developed
9
from enthalpies (heat content) of the process gas at given temperatures.

6-26
Maintenance includes servicing the fan, repairing the refractory lining,
10
washing and rinsing the catalyst, and rejuvenating the catalyst.
The equation for calculating the operation and maintenance costs (G)
is as follows:

G =S [ 0. 7457 PHK
(7)
6356 E
where:
S =design capacity of the afterburner, acfm
P= pressure drop, inches of water (see Table 6-6)
E =fan efficiency, assumed to be 60 percent (expressed as 0. 60)
0. 7457 =a constant (1 horsepower= 0. 7457 kilowatt)
H= annual operating time (assumed 8760 hours)
K =power cost, dollars per kilowatt-hour (see Table 6-6)
F =fuel cost, dollars per acfm per hour (see Table 6-7)

M= maintenance cost, dollars per acfm (see Table 6-5)

l
For computational purposes, the cost formula is simplified as follows:

G ~S 195. 5 x 10-
6
PHK +HF + M] (8)

6. 5. 4 Capital Charges

Captial charge includes overhead expenses such as taxes, insurance,

and interest incurred in the operation of a control device. Such costs
frequently lose specific identity because of internal accounting practices.
It is possible, however, by reasonable assumptions, to include capital

charges in the annualized cost of control.

6. 5. 5 Annualization of Costs
Annualized capital costs are estimated by depreciating the capital
investment (total installed cost) over the expected life of the control
equipment and adding the capital charges (taxes, interest, and insurance).

6-27
 Table 6-7. HOURLY FUEL COSTS

~
Temperature, UF Temperature, Fuel cost, a
Device Inlet Outlet OF dollars/ acfm-hr

Direct flame (D F) 380 1400 1020 $0. 00057

DF with heat exchanger 1000 1400 400 0.00023
Catalytic afterburner (CAB) 380 900 520 0.00028
CAB with heat exchanger 650 900 250 0.00014

a These figures include the cost of heating an additional 50 percent excess air.
It is assumed there is no heat content in the material or pollutant being consumed.

Adding the recurring maintenance and operation costs to this figure gives
a total annualized cost of control. Total annualized cost estimates are shown
in Section 6. 7.
6. 5. 6 Assumptions in Annualized Control Cost Elements
Annualized control costs will differ from installation to installation
and from region to region, and certain simplifying assumptions have been
necessary to develop the cost figures of this section. If more information
for a given location is available, it is desirable to substitute this for the
assumptions used here.
6. 5. 6.1 Annualized Capital Cost Assumptions
The simplifying assumptions for computing the total annualized
capital cost are as follows:
1. Purchase and installation costs are depreciated over 15 years, a
period assumed to be a feasible economic life for control devices.

6-28
 2. The straight line method of depreciation (6-2/3 percent per year)
is used because it is the most common method used in accounting
practices. This method has the simplicity of a constant annual
write off.
3. Other costs called capital charges-which include interest, taxes,
insurance, and other miscellaneous costs-are assumed to be
equal to the amount of depreciation, or 6-2/3 percent of the
initial capital cost of the control equipment installed. Therefore,
depreciation plus these other annual charges amount to 13-1/3
percent of the initial capital cost of the equipment.
6. 5. 6. 2 Operating Cost Assumptions - The following assumptions were taken
into account for computing operation and maintenance costs.
1. Power costs included in annual operating expense reflect electricity
used by all systems directly associated with the control equipment.
Electrical power requirements are computed on a constant usage
basis at a specified gas volume.
2. For wet collectors, it is assumed that the liquor is recirculated
in a closed system. Liquor consumption consists of the makeup
liquor which must be added from time to time. Stack gas tempera-
ture influences the rate of liquor loss; this influence is partially
accounted for by assuming a constant loss per cubic foot of stack
gas volume. This assumption is necessary because of the ex-
tremely wide range of stack gas temperatures.
3. The costs for electricity and water are computed on the marginal
rate classes for each size user, which assumes that any additional
consumption will be priced at the lowest rate-highest volume class
available. Except where specifically indicated, the typical values
for the pressure drop and cost of electricity (see Table 6-7) were
assumed in all control cost calculations and illustrations.
4. The disposal cost and/or recovered value of collected effluents
are not included in the operating cost calculations because of
cost differences from process to process. Disposal cost fig-
ures for several major industrial categories are reported in
Section 6. 8.

331-716 0 - 69 - 28
6-29
6. 5. 6. 3 Maintenance Cost Assumption - It is assumed that a user of control
equipment establishes a preventive (scheduled) maintenance program and
carries it out to maintain equipment at its designed collection efficiency.
Further, it is assumed that unscheduled maintenance, such as replacement
of defective parts, is undertaken as required. The cost incurred for equip-
ment modification or repair due to an operational accident is not included.
6. 6 METHOD FOR ESTIMATING ANNUAL COST OF CONTROL FOR A
SPECIFIC SOURCE
6. 6. 1 General
As previously indicated, it is beyond the scope of this report to
identify and assess the cost of control for a specific source. Such assess-
ments can, however, be calculated by applying the steps outlined be low.
6. 6. 2 Procedure
The following procedure can be used to determine the expected cost
of control for any source.
Step 1. Describe the source (including characteristics of the process),
the characteristics and consumption of fuel for combustion, and the total
number of hours in operation annually. Emissions can be determined by
making stack gas tests or can be estimated by making calculations using the
emission factors.
Step 2. Select the applicable types of control equipment. Figure 6-1
illustrates what must be considered in selecting the optimum type of control
equipment.
Step 3. Specify pressure drops, efficiencies, construction material,
energy and fuel requirements, and size limitations for the selected control
equipment, taking into account any existing equipment.
Step 4. Determine the gas flow in acfm at the point of collector loca-
tion. For wet collectors, this would be the water saturated gas volume. This
should be done by taking measurements at maximum operating conditions.

6-30
 Step 5. Determine the estimated total purchase cost for the specific
selected device (curves found in Section 6. 7) at the required gas volume and
control efficiency. For fabric filters, select the proper filter medium for
the process.
Step 6. Multiply the cost found in step 5 by the low, typical, and
high installation cost factors (Table 6-3), and add the result to the estimated
total purchase cost to obtain the corresponding low, typical, and high total
installed costs. Conditions affecting the cost of installation are listed in
Table 6-4.
Step 7. Calculate the total annual capital cost as follows:
annualized capital cost depreciation + capital charges
0. 133 X total investment cost*
Step 8. Compute the cost of electricity, maintenance, and liquor
consumption.
Step 9. Compute low, medium, and high operating and maintenance
costs from the appropriate formulas:

Dry centrifugal collectors

-6
G= S [195. 5 x 10 PHK + M]

Wet scrubbers

G =S [o.7457 HK(z +~~o) +WHL+M]

Electrostatic precipitator

G=S [JHK + M]

Fabric filters
6
G =S [195. 5 X 10- PHK + M]

Afterburners
6
G =S [195. 5 X 10- PHK + M +HF]

*Based on the assumptions in Section 6. 5. 6.1

6-31
where:
G = theoretical value for operating and maintenance costs
S = the de sign capacity of the collection device, acfm
P =pressure drop of the gas, inches of water
H = annual operating time
K = power costs, dollars per kilowatt-hour
Q = liquor circulation, gallons per acfm
h = physical height that liquor is pumped in circulation system, feet
Z = total power input required for scrubbing efficiency, horsepower
per acfm
M =maintenance cost, dollars per acfm
W =liquor consumption, gallons per hour per acfm
L = cost of liquor, dollars per gallon
J = power requirement, kilowatts per acfm based on efficiency

F = fuel cost, dollars per hour per acfm

Step 10. Add the typical annualized capital cost to the typical
operating and maintenance cost to yield the estimated total annualized cost
of control.
Step 11. Because the above calculation is a point estimate, the range
of costs should be investigated. For this, a variance is calculated and applied
to the total estimated annual cost.The low cost variance (V ) and high cost
1
variance (V h) of an equipment combination can be computed by using the square
root of the sum of the squares. The formulas for these variances are as
follows:

J(cm - c
1
)2 + (Gm - Gl)2

2 2
J<ch Cm) + (Gh G
m
)

6-32
where:
c c , and Ch are the low, typical, and high annual capital cost estimates,
l' m
respectively, and G , and Gm' and Gh are the low, typical, and high operation
1
and maintenance cost estimates. These formulas are taken from the usual
definition of the standard error of a linear combination of statistically
independent variables. They permit computation of the most probable, rather
than the extreme, range of costs.
Step 12. The high cost variance (V h) is added to the total estimated annual
cost to yield the high cost limit.
Step 13. The low cost variance (V ) is subtracted from this total esti-
1
mated annual cost to yield the low cost limit.
6. 6. 3 Sample Calculations
The following calculations illustrate the method used to determine the
total estimated annual cost of control. The following example shows the
estimation of annualized cost for a 60, 000 cfm, 90 percent (medium efficiency)
wet collector.
Step 1. Annual operating time = 8760 hours (H)
Step 2. Wet collector (given)
Step 3. 90 percent efficiency (given)
Scrubbing power required - 0. 0035 horsepower per acfm (Z)
Step 4. Actual gas flow = 60, 000 acfm (given)
Step 5. Purchase cost = $17, 000 (from Section 6. 7. 4 for wet collectors)
Step 6. Installation factors from Table 6-3 are 50 percent, 100 percent,
and 200 percent
Installation factor 50% 100% 200%

Installation cost 8,500 17.000 34,000

Purchase cost 17,000 17,000 17,000

Total capital cost $25,500 $34,000 $51,000

Step 7. 0. 133 X ~otal capital cos~ annual capital cost (C)

6-33
 c = o. 133 x $25, 500 = $3400
1
c = 0. 133 x $34, 000 = $4530
m
c = o. 133 x $51, 000 = $6800
h
Step 8. Power cost, dollars/kw-hr (K)
Low Typical High

0.005 o. 011 0.020

Maintenance cost, dollars/acfm, (M)

Low Typical High

0.02 0.04 0.06
-3
Liquor cost, 10 dollars/gal, (L)
Low Typical High

0.35 0.50 1. 00

Head required for circulation in system, feet, (h)

Low Typical High
1 30 60
Liquor circulation, gallons per acfm, (Q)
Low Typical High
0.001 0.008 0.020
-3
Makeup liquor rate, 10 gal/hr-acfm, (W) = 0. 5
Step 9. Using the following formula to determine annual operating cost
(G),

G = s [ (z + l~~o) (0.7457 HK) + WHL + MJ

the low, typical, and high operating and maintenance costs are as

follows:

$8200 G = $18, 100 Gh = $35, 900

m

6-34
 Step 10. From the steps 7 and 9,

cm == $4530 G = $18,100
m
Then, the total estimated annual cost is as follows:
C +G == $22, 600
m m
Step 11. Using the square root of the sum of the squares of the
differences, the high and low cost variances are as follows:

2
V == /(C - C ) + (G - G )2
1 V m 1 m 1

2 2
v 1 v(4530 _ 3400) + (18, 100 _ 8200)

v == $10,000
1

Vh v(Ch - Cm)2 + (Gh - Gm)2

2 2
vh ==/(6800 - 4530) + (35,900 - 18,100)

vh $17,900

Step 12. From Step 10, the total estimated annual cost= $22, 600
From Step 11, v = $10, 000
1
Low cost limit= $22, 600-$10, 000 = $12, 600
Step 13. Total estimated annual cost== $22, 600
From Step 11, Vh == $17, 900
High cost limit= $22, 600 + $17, 900 = $40, 500
Step 14. The amount of particulate matter emitted may be calculated
if the inlet conditions are known.

6-35
6. 6. 4 Annualized Cost Variation
The previous section illustrated the probable high and low cost limits
for a single installation, taking into account the variation in costs for installa-
tion, maintenance, and operation. To compute the annualized cost for a given
emission reduction system, one must take into account four variables: (1)
collection efficiency of the system, (2) cost of installing the system, (3) cost of
operation, and (4) maintenance cost. A more complete summary of the range
of total annualized costs is shown in Table 6-8 for a 60, 000 acfm wet collector.
This table illustrates cost figures for 81 possible combinations of each of
the four variables, with each variable taking on three independent values-
low, typical, and high. It is constructed by the procedure outlined in Steps
1 through 10 in the previous section. The constants for computing these
values are taken from Tables 6-5 and 6-6. Table 6-8 shows that a low-
efficiency 60, 000 acfm wet collector with low installation, maintenance, and
operation costs will cost approximately $6100 per year to operate (extreme
upper left hand corner). The most efficient (99 percent efficiency) wet
collector, according to the table, will cost as high as $137, 400 per year
to operate. The most likely costs for efficiencies of 75 percent, 90 percent,
and 99 percent are $11, 300; $22, 700; and $74, 500, respectively. The type of
data shown in Table 6-8 is useful in developing cost-effectiveness relation-
ships. Note that this table does not show the variances, v and Vh; these
1
should be used only when the probable cost limits are desired.

6. 7 COST CURVES BY EQUIPMENT TYPE

6.7.1 General

For the convenience of those who may use the cost information described
in this chapter, the following sections contain a series of control cost curves
(see Figures 6-5 through 6-24). For each type of control equipment, a series
of curves is presented: (1) purchase cost curves, (2) installed cost curves,
and (3) annualized cost curves.

6-36
 Table 6-8. ILLUSTRATIVE PRESENTATION OF ANNUAL COSTS OF CONTROL
FOR 60, 000 acfm WET SCRUBBER (dollars)

E = 75%a,b E = 90% ~ = 99%

1 m
e d
I c
1
I
ll1 Ih Il I
m ~ Il I
m ~
M1 6,100 6,800 8,100 11, 800 13,000 15,200 35,500 37,800 42,300
01 Mm 7,300 8,000 9,300 13,000 14,200 16,400 36,700 39,000 43,500
Mh 8,500 9,200 10,500 14,200 15,400 17,600 37,900 40,200 44,700
M1 9,500 10,100 11,500 20,300 21,500 23,700 71, 100 73,300 77,900
om Mm 10,700 11,300 12,700 21,500 22,700 24,900 72,300 74,500 79,100
Mh 11, 900 12,500 13,900 22,700 23,900 26,100 73,500 75,700 80,300

Mi 18,300 18,900 20,300 36,900 38, 100 40,300 128,200 130,500 135,000
oh Mm 19,500 20,100 21,500 38,100 39,300 41,500 129,400 131,700 136,200
Mh 20,700 21,300 22,700 39,300 40,500 42, 700 130,600 132,900 137,400
a
E =efficiency factor.
b
Subscripts 1, m, and h indicate low, medium, and high ranges, respectively.
cl = installation factor.
d .
M = mamtenance factor.
e .
0 = operatmg factor.

Note: A similar table can be generated to show the various control costs for any type of control equipment
by specifying operating conditions and calculating each entry. This procedure provides complete information
to aid in the assessment of existing controls or other control alternatives.
 The estimated purchase cost curves show the dollar amounts charged by
manufacturers for basic control equipment, exclusive of transportation
charges to the installation site. This basic control equipment includes
built-in auxiliary parts of the control unit, such as instrumentation and
solution pumps. The installed cost curves include the purchase costs,
additional auxiliary equipment costs, and installation costs, as described in
Section 6. 5. 2. The annualized cost curves include elements discussed in
Section 6. 5. 3 through 6. 5. 6. The assumptions, sources of data, and the
limitations used to develop this information are discussed in Sections
6. 3 and 6. 4.
6. 7. 2 Gravitational Collectors
In computing the cost of gravity collectors, three collection efficiencies
were considered. These efficiencies were based on the assumption of essentially
complete removal of 87-micron, 50-micron, and 25-micron particles, and
are designated as low, medium, and high efficiencies, respectively. The low
and medium efficiency collectors are simple expansion chambers, and the
high efficiency collector is a multiple-tray settling chamber, commonly called
a Howard separator.
In actual operation, the collection efficiency for a gravitational collector
depends on the particle size distribution. In cleaning the flue gas from a

stoker-fired coal furnace, for example, low-, medium-, and high-efficiency

collectors would have particle removal efficiencies of approximately 64 per-
cent, 75 percent, and 88 percent, respectively. In cleaning the flue gas from
a pulverized coal furnace, these same collectors, because of the smaller-
sized particles emitted by the combustion unit, would have approximate
efficiencies of 21 percent, 34 percent, and 56 percent, respectively.
The purchase costs of gravitational collectors are shown for three
difference efficiences in Figure 6-5. These are approximate costs for typical

6-38
installations. If it were necessary to include insulation or a corrosion-
resistant lining, the costs would be higher. The total installed cost was also
calculated for each efficiency and is shown in Figure 6-6. The total installed
cost is the sum of the purchase and installation costs. The installation costs
were assumed to range from 33 percent to 100 percent of the purchase cost
(see Table 6-3), and this range results in a cost band for each efficiency, as
shown in the figure. No annualized cost curves are presented for these col-
lectors because operation and maintenance costs, other than for removal and
disposal of collected material, usually are negligible, except where corrosion
may be a problem. Section 6. 8 provides specific information on the disposal
of collected material.
6. 7. 3 Dry Centrifugal Collectors
The costs of purchasing, installing, and operating mechanical centri-
fugal collectors are given in Figures 6-7, 6-8, and 6-9 respectively. The
curves in these figures show costs for collectors that operate at nominal
efficiencies of 50 percent, 70 percent, and 95 percent (see Section 6. 4).
Costs are plotted for equipment sizes ranging from 10, 000 to 1, 000, 000 acfm.
The assumptions used in calculating annual operation and maintenance costs
for dry centrifugal collectors are as follows:
1. Annual operating time = 8760 hours
2. Collector pressure drop = 3 inches of water
3. Power cost= $0. 011/kw-hr
4. Maintenance cost= $0. 015/acfm
6. 7. 4 Wet Collectors
The costs of purchasing, installing, and operating wet collectors are
given in Figures 6-10, 6-11, and 6-12, respectively, as a function of equip-
ment size, The curves in these figures show costs for collectors that operate
at nominal efficiencies of 75 percent, 90 percent, and 99 percent (see Section

6-39
 ....
0
"'0 -0
0

("")
0
-0 0
("")
f-.
~
f-. "'
0
u
"'
0 0
u UJ
UJ ..J
0)
V') ..J
I <( <(

*'"
0 I
u
0:: 1.0
f-
V')
z 1.0
:::>
Q.

0.5 0.5

0. l L __ __..___..___.___.__._._._......__ __ . _ _ . _ _ . . _ _..........._._..........

l 5 l0 50 100
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLL ECTOR, 103 acfm

Figure 6-5. Purchase cost of gravitational Figure 6-6. Installed cost of gravitational
collectors. collectors.
 Ill

0
-0
M
0

1-'
V")

0 10
u
w
V")

< 5
J:
u
~
:::>
a_

Costs may vary by± 20 percent.

1'--~~L--'----'--'-...__._._._._~~.._ ........__........._._...............
10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm

Figure 6-7. Purchase cost of dry centrifugal

collectors.

Ill
~

0
-0
M
0

i-:-
V")

0
u 10
0
w
_J
_J 5
<
I-
V")

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 oclm

Figure 6-8. Installed cost of dry centrifugal

collectors.

6-41
 100

"'0 50 HIGH EFFICIENCY

0
-0
M
0

~
VJ
0
u 10 100
0
LU
N
_J 5 50
<
::J
z
z
<
300 500

1 "-~--'L----'--'--'-....L.J.....L...L..L..~~..........._.~.........._._...._........
10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm

Figure 6-9. Annualized cost of operation of

dry centrifugal collectors.

1000

"'0
0
-0
M
100
~
t-'
VJ
50
0
u
LU
VJ
<
:c
u
0::
::J
a.. 5

5 10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm

Figure 6-10. Purchase cost of wet collectors.

 "'0
a
-0
M
0

1-
V'l
0
u
0
w
...J
...J
<t'.
1-
V'l
z

5 10 50 1 00 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, J03acfm

Figure 6-11. Installed costofwetcollectors.

l 000

500
"'0
a
-0
M
~ 100
i-:-
\/')

0 50
u
0
w
N
...J
<t'. 10
::J
z
z 5
<t'.

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

Figure 6-12. Annualized cost of operation

of wet collectors.

6-43_
6. 4). The basic hardware costs for medium and high collection efficiency
equipment are reported by manufacturers to lie iri the same cost range and
both appear on the same curve in Figure 6-10. The higher installed cost of
a high collection efficiency system in Figure 6-11 results from the need for
larger, more expensive auxiliary equipment (based on Table 6-3). The
assumptions used in calculating annual operating and maintenance costs for
wet collectors are as follows:
1. Annual operating time = 8760 hours
2. Contact power requirements:
O. 0013 horsepower/acfm for 75 percent efficiency

0. 0035 horsepower/acfm for 90 percent efficiency

0. 015 horsepower/acfm for 99 percent efficiency
3. Power cost= $0. 011/kw-hr
4. Maintenance cost= $0. 04/acfm
5. Head required for liquor circulation in collection system=
30 feet
6. Liquor circulation= 0. 008 gallon/acfm
7. Liquor consumption= 0. 0005 gallon/hour-acfm
8. Liquor cost= $0. 0005/gallon
6. 7. 5 High-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitators
The costs of purchasing, installing, and operating high-voltage electro-
static precipitators are given in Figures 6-13, 6-14, and 6-15, respectively.
The curves in these figures show costs for collectors that operate at nominal
efficiencies of 90 percent, 95 percent, and 99. 5 percent. These costs are
plotted for equipment sizes ranging from 20, 000 to 1, 000, 000 acfm. The
assumptions used in calculating annual operation and maintenance costs for
high-voltage electrostatic precipitators are as follows:
1. Annual operating time = 8760 hours
2. Electrical power requirements:

6-44
 .. 500

"
...,0
M
~
f--
</)
0 100
u
w
</)

< 50
J:
u
et::
:J
a..

Costs may vory by± 20 percent.

10'------'----'-...,L._.L.......L....J..-'-LI'-----'---J.._-'-.J.....1-WLJ..J
10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

Figure 6-13. Purchase cost of high-voltage

electrostatic precipitators.

1000

"'
~ 500
"
...,0
M
0

f--
</)
0
u 100
0
w
_J
_J 50
<
f-
</)
z

10'-----'---...l--"--'--L..1...L...L.J'-------'---......___._..__._._.~

10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

Figure 6-14. lnstal led cost of high-voltage

electrostatic precipitators.

331-716 0 - 69 - 29
6-45
 100

50
"'0
0
-0
(")
0

i-.:
V>
0
u 10
0
w
N
_J
5
<{
:::> 300 500
z
z
<{

1
10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, J03 acfm

Figure 6-15. Annualized cost of operation

of high-voltage electrostatic
prec ipitators.

"'0
0
-0
(")
0

I-
V>
0
u
w
V>
<{
I
u
0::
:::>
a_

Costs may vary by± 20 percent.

1'--~-'-~-'----'--'- ......................_~~""'---'~.........'-'-.................
1 5 10 50 100
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm

Figure 6-16. Purchase cost of low-voltage

electrostatic precipitators.

6-46
 0. 00019 kw/acfm for low efficiency
0. 00026 kw/acfm for medium efficiency
0. 00034 kw/acfm for high efficiency
3. Power cost= $0. 011/kw-hr
4. Maintenance cost = $0. 02/acfm
6. 7. 6 Low-Voltage Electrostatic Precipitators

The curves in Figures 6-16, 6-17, and 6-18 indicate purchase cost,
installed cost, and operation cost of low-voltage electrostatic precipitators
for low and high collection efficiencies based on design gas velocities of
150 and 125 feet per minute, respectively. Packaged modular low-voltage
precipitators with flow rates of less than 1500 acfm are used to collect
oil mist from machining operations. Purchase cost of such a unit usually
is less than $1200. The assumptions used in calculating annual operation
and maintenance costs for low-voltage electrostatic precipitators are as
follows:
1. Annual operating time = 87 60 hours
2. Electrical power requirements:
0. 000015 kw/acfm for low efficiency
o: 000040 kw/acfm for high efficiency
3. Power cost= $0. 011/kw-hr
4. Maintenance cost = $0. 02/ acfm

6. 7. 7 Fabric Filters

Figures 6-19, 6-20, and 6-21 show purchase cost, installed cost, and
annualized cost of control for three different types of filters. Each of the
three filters is designed with about the same efficiency-99. 9 percent. Costs
are plotted for equipment sizes ranging from 10, 000 to 1, 000, 000 acfm.
The control cost curves represent the following different types of filter
installations:

6-47
 1000

"'0
,, 0

M
0

i-:-
V>
0
u (,-->...
0 '<.-~
w G'
__J ~:"
__J 50 x,«-
<(
I- -.(-{~
x--
V>
z

10
1 5 10 50 100
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

Figure 6-17. lnstal led cost of low-voltage

electrostatic precip itators.

100

Ill

"
,, 0

M
0

i-:-
V>
(,-->...
0 ~
u 10
cf
x,«-x'
0
w
N -.(-
__J
<(
5 -<-'0
:::>
z
z
<(

1~~~~_.____._...__.._.__.__._.~~--'-~..__.__.____.__.__,'-"-'

1 5 10 50 100

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

Figure 6-18. Annualized cost of operation

of low-voltage electrostatic
precipitators.

6-48
 100

.
0 ::'.'
50
0

....,0 ....,0
M
M
~ 0

..:
Vl
1-'
Vl
0 10
u 0
u
lJ.J
Vl 0
< w
I _J 5
u _J
et: <
:::> I-
a... 100 Vl
z
Q".l
1 Costs may vary by± 20 percent.
;I':-
<:.!)
1'------'---'---,__,'-'--'-'-'-L-----L-~--~~~~ 1
10 50 100 500 1000 --10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

A - HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND

A - HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC Cl tANiNG. B. MEDIUM-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND
B. MEDIUM-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS. WOVEN AND FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING. C. WOVEN NATURAL FIBERS. INTERMITTENTLY
C - WOVEN NATURAL FIBERS. INTERMITTENTLY CLEANED-SINGLE COMPARTMENT.
CLEANED - SINGLE COMPARTMENT.
Figure 6-20. Installed cost of fabric filters.
Figure 6-19. Purchase cost of fabric filters.
 1. Curve A represents a fabric filter installation with high-temperature
synthetic woven fibers (including fiberglass) and felted fibers cleaned
continuously and automatically.
2. Curve B represents an installation using medium-temperature synthetic
woven and felted fibers, such as Orlon or Dacron, cleaned contin-
uously and automatically.
3. Curve C is the least expensive installation. Woven natural fibers are
used in a single compartment. Filters are intermittently cleaned.
This equipment is rarely designed for processes handling over 150, 000
acfm.
These control cost curves do not include data for furnace hoods, ventilation
ductwork and pre-coolers that may appear only in certain installations. The
assumptions for calculating operating and maintenance costs are as follows:
1. Annual operating time = 8760 hours
2. Pressure drop of the gas through the three types of fabric filters= 4
inches of water
3. Power cost= $0. 05/acfm
4. Maintenance cost= $0. 05/acfm
6. 7. 8 Afterburners
Afterburners are separated into four categories: (1) direct flame, (2)
catalytic, (3) direct flame with heat recovery, and (4) catalytic with heat
recovery. Equipment and installation costs were obtained from both the litera-
ture and manufacturers of afterburners. Sufficient data was received on
catalytic afterburners to define the narrow purchase cost range shown in
Figure 6-22. The figure shows that purchase costs of direct flame after-
burners have a wider range than those of catalytic afterburners.
Figure 6-23 shows the installation costs for afterburners. Heat ex-
changers are considered accessory equipment and appear as part of the
installation cost. Installation costs may range from 10 percent to 100 percent
of the purchase costs, although in some situations they may be as high as 400
percent.

6-50
 .0 50

.,, 0

M
0

....:-
en
0
u 10
0
w
N
_J 5
<
::::>
z
z
<

1 ~~~~....__._~~~~~__,_~....__._~._._ .........
10 50 100 500 1000

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

A HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND

FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
B ·MEDIUM-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
C ·WOVEN NATURAL FIBERS. INTERMITTENTLY
CLEANED· SINGLE COMPARTMENT.

Figure 6-21. Annualized cost of operation

of fabric filters .

..
0

.,, 0

M
0

I-
V)

0
u
w
en
<
:x:
u
Q'.
::::>
ll.

1L-~-L~....L.-L...l-L...L...LL..L...-~--'~-'-_.__._ ................
1 5 10 100

GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

Figure 6-22. Purchase cost of afterburners.

6-51
 100

Ill

0
..
0

...,0 ...,0
('") ('")
0
!2
1-' 1-'
V)
V)

0 l0 0 10
u u
0
0 w
w N
....J 5 5
....J
....J
< <
:::::>
I-
V) z
m z z
I <
c.n
Nl

1 JL-~-L~-L.----L-L...4-LI....L...L.~~...J....--JL..-..L-1..-L...J....L..U
1 5 10 50 l 00 1 5 10 50 l 00
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm

CABHE - CATALYTIC AFTERBURNER WITH HEAT CABHE ·CATALYTIC AFTERBURNER WITH HEAT
EXCf-lANGER EXCHANGER
DFHE DIRECT FLAME AFTERBURNER WITH HEAT DFHE - DIRECT FLAME AFTERBURNER WITH HEAT
EXCHANGER EXCHANGER
CAB CATALYTIC AFTERBURNER CAB ·CATALYTIC AFTERBURNER
DF DIRECT FLAME AFTERBURNER DF - DIRECT FLAME AFTERBURNER

Figure 6-23. Installed cost of afterburners. Figure 6-24. Annualized cost of operation
of afterburners ..
Differences in installation costs are due to the differences in burner lo-
cations relative to the emission source, and differences in structural sup-
ports, ductwork, and foundations. Installation costs for the addition of
equipment to existing plant facilities will be higher than similar costs for
new plants. Other factors accounting for different installation fees are
the degree of instrumentation required, engineering fees in manufacturers'
bids, startup tests and adjustments, heat exchangers, auxiliary fans, and
utilities. The assumptions for calculating operation and maintenance costs
are as follows:
1. Annual operating time = 8760 hours
2. Fuel cost:
$0. 57 /1000 acfm-hour for direct flame afterburner with no heat
recovery
$0. 23/1000 acfm-hour for direct flame afterburner with heat
recovery
$0. 28/1000 acfm-hour for catalytic afterburner with no heat
recovery
$0. 14/1000 acfm-hour for catalytic afterburner with heat
recovery
3. Maintenance cost:
$0. 06/acfm for direct flame afterburner
$0. 20/acfm for catalytic afterburner
4. Pressure drop through all afterburner types= 1 inch of water
5. Power cost= $0. 011/kw-hr
Cost comparisons presented in Figure 6-24 show that the direct flame
afterburner without a heat exchanger is the most expensive. The lower
curve in Figure 6-24 shows that the annualized cost of a direct flame after-
burner with heat recovery is lower than the cost of a catalytic afterburner
without heat recovery.

6-53
6. 8 DISPOSAL OF COLLECTED PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
6. 8. 1 General
The installation of any pollution control system designed to collect par-
ticulate matter demands a decision regarding the disposal of the collected
particulate material. This section discusses the relevant factors and illustrates
the economic consequences of disposal of the collected material.
In the past, pollution control equipment often was installed either to
reduce a severe nuisance or to recover valuable material. Such equipment not
only prevented valuable material from escaping to the atmosphere but also
reduced costly cleaning of the plant grounds and facilities.
As industrial plants become more crowded together and as the public
desires a higher quality of air, more emphasis will be placed on intensive
control activities. This emphasis will increase the demand for more effective
air pollution control. Generally, most air pollution control systems collect
material that has little economic worth.
Basically, the alternatives for handling collected particulate material
are as follows:
1. Return the material to the process.
2. Sell the material directly as collected.
3. Convert the material to a saleable product.
4. Discard the material in the most economical manner.
The process of selecting an alternative should take into account the following
questions:

1. Can the material be used within the company?

2. Is there a profitable market for the material?
3. What is the most economical method of disposal?
4. Is there land available for a landfill?

6-54
 5. Is there a source of water available for:
a. a wet pipeline system
b. disposal at sea
c. transportation by barge
6. Is there space available for a settling basin or filtering system?
7. Is there process-related equipment presently available for trans-
porting or treating the collected material ?
8. Is there access to a municipal waste treatment system?
9. Can technology and/or markets be developed for utilization of the
waste material ?
6. 8. 2 Elements of Disposal Systems

After examining feasible solutions to the disposal problem, the least

costly alternative that is most compatible with other operating factors in the
plant should be chosen. The decision should result from consideration of
each of the four functional elements of the disposal system described below
and their relationships to the manufacturing process.
1. Temporary storage, which allows gathering sufficient quantities
of the collected material to make final disposal more economical.
The unit cost of disposal usually is lower for greater quantities.
Temporary storage may be convenient at many points in the overall
disposal scheme, such as in the hopper or settling chamber of a
pollution control device, or in a silo some distance from the plant.
2. Transportation that moves the collected material from the particulate
control device to some location where disposal is relatively econom-
ical. In most cases, transportation displaces the material to a
location where accumulation minimizes any potential interference
with plant activities. Any single disposal system may require more
than one method of transporting the material. For example, a con-
veyor system may be used at the control device, a truck may be
used to transport the material to a landfill area, and a bulldozer
may be used to push it to its final disposal location.
3. Treatment that changes physical and/ or chemical characteristics
for easier disposal. Such treatment may simplify operations and
reduce costs for handling and disposal of wastes. Frequently, for
easier transport, particulate matter is made into a slurry by adding

6-55
 water to it. This permits the use of a pipeline, which is often the
most economical method for transporting wastes over long distances.
Slurries from wet scrubbing pollution control systems frequently
are treated in an opposite manner: the water is removed and the
particulate matter is concentrated by filtration or sedimentation
This permits the ultimate disposal of a solid waste, rather than a
sludge or a slurry. The method of treatment should be selected
with a view to minimizing contamination of tre environment. Examples
of such treatment methods are the wetting of fine dust to prevent air
pollution, the neutralization and filtration of slurries to prevent con-
tamination of receiving waters, and the proper burial of solid
material in a sanitary landfill.

4. Final disposition, which pertains to discarding the unusable material.

Material which cannot be sold, converted, or re-used ultimately
can be discarded in landfills; or sometimes it can be disposed of in
lagoons or the sea.

The following list shows some examples of the four functional elements
for both wet and dry disposal systems:
A. Storage
(1) Slurry of suspended particulate matter in water
(a) Settling basin
(b) Lagoon
(c) Tank
(2) Dry collected particulates
(a) Mound
(b) Rail car
(c) Bin
(d) Silo
B. Transportation
(1) Slurry of suspended particulates in water
(a) Barge
(b) Pipeline
(c) Truck
(d) Rail

6-56
 (2) Dry collected particulates
(a) Truck
(b) Rail
(c) Front-end loader
(d) Conveying system
(e) Barge
c. Treatment
(1) Slurry of suspended particulate in water 11
(a) Sedimentation
(b) Filtration
(c) Flotation
(d) Thickening; wet combustion
(e) Lagoons and drying beds
(f) Vacuum filtration
(g) Centrifugation; incineration
(h) Neutralization
(2) Dry collected material
(a) Compressing
(b) Wetting
D. Final Disposition
(1) Landfill
(a) Public or private disposal sites
(b) Quarry
(c) Evacuated coal mine
(2) Lagoon
(3) Dump at sea
The arrangement of these elements in an overall disposal scheme is
shown in Figure 6-25. This flow diagram shows the movement of the collected
material through various stages toward fin al disposal.

6-57
 -----PRODUCT------

PROCESS
COLLECTION I_
EQUIPMENT ~
I''
'-----H20------1

STORAGE

CONVERSION
TRANSPORT ...... TREATMENT --+ TO
METHOD OPERATION SALEABLE
PRODUCT

STORAGE STORAGE

"
DISPOSITION OF UNUSABLE MATERIAL

Figure 6-25. Flow diagram for disposal of collected particulate material from air pollution control equipment.
 Environmental factors such as space, utilities, disposal facilities,
and the desired form of collected waste material usually have an important
bearing on the selection of a disposal system compatible with a specific type
of particulate pollution control equipment. Therefore, a specific type of
particulate pollution control equipment may not always call for the same waste
disposal system.
6. s. 3 Disposal Cost for Discarded Material
Table 6-9 describes various disposal systems and the related costs
within specific industries. Each system listed is specifically designed to cope
with the disposal problem and available facilities of the individual plant shown.
Therefore, drawing general conclusions about the relative costs of systems
listed in the table would be erroneous. The disposal costs shown include
capital charges and costs for labor and material. The disposal cost per ton
will be higher the smaller the quantity of material, because capital charges
for investment in facilities will remain the same regardless of quantity.
Fly ash, a residue from the combustion of coal and residual oil, probably
is the most common material collected in emission control systems. An
estimated 20 million tons of fly ash was produced in the United States in 1965.
12
Only 3 percent of this total was sold as a marketable product. If the cost for
discarding the remaining 97 percent of the fly ash as unusable waste were $1. 00
per ton or more, this would represent a total cost of $20 million or more. Based
on the data in Table 6-9, a cost of $1. 00 per ton is a typical unit cost.
In certain situations, the disposal cost of fly ash can be a major portion
of the total annualized cost for a complete pollution control system (including
disposal facilities). For example, the disposal costs can be as high as 80
percent of the total annualized cost for an emission control system with older
electrostatic precipitators which are no longer depreciated. The disposal cost
Still can be as high as 50 percent for similar systems with newly installed

electrostatic precipitators, which usually have high depreciation charges.

6-59
 Table 6-9. COSTS OF SPECIFIC DISPOSAL SYSTEMS

Final Cost estimate,

Industry Collected material Treatment Transport Storage Disposal dollars/ton
Power generation Fly ash Sedimentation Pipeline Settling Landfill o. 75
pond (Sediment)

Power generation Fly ash Truck Mound Landfill o. 55

Power generation F'ly ash Truck Mound City dump 1. 10
Power gene ration Fly ash Form pellets Vacuum sys- Transfer Landfill 2. 00
tern, truck, bins, stor- or dump
barge age silo at sea

Power generation Fly ash Form slurry Pipeline Settling Landfill 2. 00

pond (Sediment)

Power generation Fl.v ash Wetted Pneumatic Storage Landfill 2.00

pipeline silo
truck
Power generation Fly ash Sedimentation Pipeline Lagoon 1. 60
for chemical plant "
Power generation Fly ash Truck Silos Landfill 0.90
for chemical plant '
"
Chemical - Slurry (100, 000 Barge Tank Dump at 3. 00 I
gal/day) sea
Chemical Weak acid (large Barge Tank Dump at 1. 00
volume) sea , ..
Power generation Fly ash Sedimentation Pipeline Lagoon 2. 30 I
for pulp and paper
Gray iron Cupola dust Water Sediment Dempster Landfill 1. 40
-
foundry clarification by truck dump
Petroleum Non-dewatered Contract Landfill 4. 75
refining sludge hauling
Petroleum Dew ate red Contract Landfill 2. 50
refining sludge hauling
Petroleum Sludge, filter cake, Truck In-plant 20.00
refining oily solids landfill
Petroleum Oily solids Barge Dump at 7. 50
refining sea
Petroleum Catalyst fines Contract Landfill 2. 75
refining hauling
Portland Waste dust Slight Wetting Conveyor, Bins Landfill I. 05
cement truck
Soaps and de- Suspended solids Pipeline Municipal 2. 50
tergents treatment
plant

6-60
 Table 6-10 shows a summary of fly ash disposal costs for material col-
lected from electrostatic precipitators and mechanical collectors installed in
electric utilities and is taken from a recent survey. 13 This survey analyzed
the costs of disposal, the sales, and the uses of fly ash collected by 54 electric
utilities and reported an average disposal cost of $0. 7 4 per ton. Analysis of
the data for individual utilities revealed that disposal cost is partly a function
of geographical location. The average disposal cost per ton in the heavily-
populated East is higher than that reported elsewhere.

Table 6-10. COST OF ASH DISPOSAL BY ELECTRIC UTILITIES

Disposal costs, dollars/ton

Type and collection method
Low Medium High
Fly ash (mechanical collector) $0.15 $0.59 $1. 67
Fly ash (electrostatic precipitator) 0.12 0.77 1. 74
Bottom ash 0.15 1. 04 4.76

6. 8. 4 Return of Collected Material to the Process

In some process operations, collected material is sufficiently valuable to
warrant its return to the process. In these situations, the value of the recovered
material can partially or wholly pay for the collection equipment. In many ap-
plications, however, the cost for the high efficiency control systems necessary
to achieve desired ambient air quality will be greater than the revenue returned
for recovery of the material collected. This is illustrated by the hypothetical
example in Figure 6-26.
The figure shows a linear relationship between collection efficiency and
value of material recovered. It also shows a curvilinear relationship between

collection efficiency and related equipment costs. Up to the break-even point D

(which corresponds to an efficiency of about 97 percent), the recovery value
of material collected is greater than the cost to achieve the recovery.

331-716 0 - 69 - 30 6-61
 ASSUME: CFM, GRAIN LOADING CONSTANT

BREAK EVEN
V'l
POINT
ct'.
<(
...J
...J
0
0

VALUE OF MATERIAL
RECOVERED

_1<~-~'-L-_..__,__._.__,__,___;_.._.....___.__~_.._--_._..........__._...__.___..___._-..........._~---
0~; 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
EFFICIENCY, 3

Figure 6-26. Theoretical effect of dust value on control cost.

Equipment designed for efficiencies greater than 97 percent, according to the
curve, would have a higher cost than the potential recovery value.
If profit were the only control incentive, 85 percent collection efficiency
would achieve the maximum profit, as illustrated by the profit line AB. If

however, emission standards made 97 percent collection efficiency necessary,

no profit would be achieved at the break-even point D. For collection efficiency
greater than 97 percent, equipment costs would exceed recovery costs. At
99 percent efficiency, for example, control equipment would cost the amount

shown by FH, and the value recovered would be the amount GH. The difference
FG would represent an expense and can be considered as the net control cost.
The cement industry is one example where return of the collected
material to the process is commonly practiced. A survey conducted in 1956
shows that, out of 383 kilns, a total of 349 return collected dust to the pro-
14
cess. Not only does recovered dust, in such situations, have value as a
raw material, but its recovery also reduces disposal costs and decreases
other related costs for the preparation of raw materials used in the process.
6. 8. 5 Recovery of Material for Sale
Although material collected by air pollution control equipment may be
unsuitable for return to a process within the plant, it may be suitable for
another manufacturing activity. Hence, it may be treated and sold to another
firm that can use the material. Untreated pulverized fly ash, for example,
which cannot be reused in a furnace, can be sold as a raw material to a
cement manufacturer. It also can be used as a soil conditioner, or as an

asphalt filler, or as landfill material. For such uses, pulverized fly ash
requires no treatment and can be sold for as much as $1. 00 per ton. Pul-
verized fly ash which is treated can yield an even more valuable product.
A limited number of utilities, for example, sinter pulverized fly ash to

Produce a lightweight aggregate which can be used to manufacture bricks and

lightweight building blocks.

6-63
 At the present time, however, the sale of raw or treated collected

process material usually does not offer an opportunity to offset control costs
to a significant extent.

6-64
 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 6

1. Wilson, E. L. "Statement Presented at Hearings before the Subcommittee

on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works, u. s.
Senate, 90th Congress, First Session on S. 780, Part 4." U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967, p. 2632.

2. Danielson, John A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. s.

Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967.

3. Air Pollution Manual - Part II - Control Equipment." American Industrial

11

Hygiene Association, Detroit, Michigan, 1968.

11
4. Census of Manufacture 1963." Volumes 1, 2, and 3, U.S. Bureau of
Census.

o. Ridker, Ronald G. "Economic Costs of Air Pollution." Frederick A.

Praeger Publishers, New York, 1967.

6. Semrau, Konrad T. "Dust Scrubber Design - A Critique on the State of

the Art." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 13, pp. 587-594,
Dec. 1963.

7. Sandomirsky, Alex G., Benforado, D. M., Grames, L. D., and Pauletta,

C. E. "Fume Control in Rubber Processing by Direct-Flame Incinera-
tion." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 16, pp. 673-676, Dec. 1966.

8. Hein, Glen M. "Odor Control by Catalytic and High-Temperature Oxida-

tion." Annals, New York Academy of Science, 116(2):656-662, July 1964.

11
9. North American Combustion Handbook." 1st edition, North American
Manufacturing Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

10. Decker, L. D. "Odor Control by Incineration." (Presented at the

Meeting of the Middle States Air Pollution Control Association Section,
Nov. 1965.)

11. Eckenfelder, W. Wesley. "Industrial Water Pollution Control." McGraw-

Hill, New York, 1966, p. 4.

6-65
12. Gambs, Gerard C. "Report on Flyash in England, Europe, and Soviet
Union." Research Div. Library, Consolidated Coal Co. , July 1,
1966, p. 1.

13. "53 Utilities Give Data on Flyash Sales and Uses." Electrical World,
Vol. 168, pp. 61-63, Aug. 21, 1967.

14. Kannewurt, A. S. and Clausen, C. F. "1956Survey, Portland Cement

Association." Report MP-54, Chicago, May 1958, p. 37.

15. Gale, W. M. "Technical Aspects of a Modern Cement Plant." Clean

Air, ]j 2): 7 -13 , 1 9 6 7 .

6-66
 7. CURRENT RESEARCH IN CONTROL OF PARTICULATE MATTER

A total of 501 identified projects relating to air pollution research were

1
active in 1966. Of these projects, only 16 related directly to research on the

control of particulate matter. Five of the 16 projects were financed by the

Federal Government (both as in-house and contract projects), and the rest

were performed by control equipment manufacturers, public utilities, and

some of the larger basic industries.

To provide the research and development necessary to keep pace with

the particulate pollution problem and the increasing requirements for improved

control, the National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) has under-

taken a series of pollution device development system studies. These studies

will be conducted by industrial organizations under contract to NAPCA. Their

purpose is to systematically identify and carry out research needed to improve

the performance and extend the application of major pollution control equip-

ment.

These studies include research on high-temperature bag filtration directed

toward increasing bag life and determining the mechanisms that cause bags to

7-1
 2
rupture. Additional studies are under way to determine performance under

various dust inlet feed modes and the effects on filtration of particle size

distribution along the filter bag. In another study, the potential of fabric

filters for conh·olling fly ash emissions from power plants burning pulverized
3
coal was investigated.

Combustion research at the NAPCA includes an evaluation of emissions

4
from a pilot trench incinerator. Laboratory investigations into the effects

of fuel additives, burner operation, and burner modifications on particulate

5
emissions from oil combustion are being conducted.

Five basic types of wet scrubbers are being studied in an attempt to re-

late collection efficiency to cost of operation, to improve scrubber effectiveness

in the control of incinerator emissions, and to evaluate the scrubber as a gas-

liquid contactor. A 100-to 500-cfm test unit was constructed to carry out
6
these investigations.

Contract studies currently being conducted by NAPCA pertain to systems

analysis studies covering both theory and application of the various modes of

control of particulate matter.

A research program in the field of high-temperature electrostatic pre-

cipitation is being conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. Data from a pilot

plant at which fly ash is collected show collection efficiencies in the 90 to 98

7
percent range at a temperature of 1460°F and a pressure of 80 psig.

7-2
 Research by universities and manufacturers is under way to determine

the effects of sparking rates and gas and dust flow on collection efficiencies
8 9
of electrostatic precipitators. '

Wet scrubber research includes a study of the parameters affecting

10
particle collection in a venturi scrubber and removal of particles by foam
11
in a sieve plate column. Investigations into the performance parameters of
12 13
the flooded disc scrubber have been reported. '
Cloth filtration application studies by private companies are under way
. 14,15 . 16
on large oil- and coal-fired steam generators and smter plants.

Additional research is being conducted by equipment manufacturers in an

effort to improve technology on the collection of particulate matter.

The October 1968 issue of the Journal of the Air Pollution Control

Association is devoted entirely to current aerosol research progress reports.

7-3
 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7

1. "Guide to Research in Air Pollution. 11 U. S. Dept. of Health, Education,

and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Washington, D. C,
PHS-Pub-981, 1966.

2. Spaite, P. W. and Harrington, R. E. "Endurance of Fiberglass Filter

Fabrics." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!1(5):310-313, May 1967.

3. Borgwardt, R.H., Harrington, R. E., and Spaite, P. W. "Filtration

Characteristics of Fly Ash from a Pulverized Coal Fired Power Plant."
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!....§.(6):387-390, June 1960. (Presented
at the 60th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Cleveland, Ohio, June 1967, Paper No. 67-35.)

4. Burckle, J. 0., Dorsey, J. A. , and Riley. B. T. "The Effects of the

Operating Variables and the Refuse Types on the Emissions from a
Pilot Scale Trench Incinerator." In: Proceedings of the 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, pp. 34-41.

5. Wasser, J. H., Hangebrauck, R. P., and Schwartz, A. J. "Effect of

Air-Fuel Stoichiometry on Air Pollutant Emissions from an Oil Fired
Test Furnace. 11 J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!....§.(5):332-337, May
1968.

6. Private communication from Chief, Control Equipment Research Unit,

Process Control Engineering Program, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, 1968.

7. Shale, C. C. "Progress in High Temperature Electrostatic Precipita-

tion." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 17(3):159-160, March 1967.

8. Penney, G. W. "Electrostatic Precipitation Studies at Carnegie Institute

of Technology." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 17, pp. 588-589,
Sept. 1967.

9. Robinson, M. "Electric Wind Turbulence in Electrostatic Precipitation."

J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 17, pp. 605-606, Sept. 1967.

10. Theodore, L. "A Study of Venturi Scrubbers." J. Air Pollution Control

Assoc., .!1(9):598-599, Sept. 1967.

7-4
11. Taheri, M. and Calvert, S. "Removal of Small Particles from Air by
Foam in a Sieve-Plate Column." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ~(4):
240-245, April 1968.

12. Walker, A. B. and Hall, R. M. "Operating Experience with a Flooded

Disc Scrubber--A New Variable Throat Orifice Contactor. 11 J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., ~(5):319-323, May 1968.

13. Orr, C., Burson, J. H., and Keng, E. Y. H. "Aerosol Research in

Chemical Engineering at Georgia Tech. 11 J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., .!2(9):590-592, Sept. 1967.

14. Felgar, D. N. and Ballard, W. E. "First Years ExperiencewithFull-

Scale Filterhouse at Alamitos Bag Filter house." Southern California
Edison Company, Los Angeles, 1965.

15. Smith, R. I. "Baghouse Collectors on Oil and Coal Fired Steam Genera-
ting Plants. 11 Public Electric and Gas Company, Newark, New Jersey.
(Unpublished.)

16. Smith, J. H. "Testing Feasibility of Baghouse on Windbox End of

Sinter Plant." Kaiser Steel Corp., Fontana, California. (Unpublished.)

7-5
 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography contains a broad listing of articles pertaining to

particulate air pollution control. The articles are arranged according to spe-
cific source categories. The following arrangement of categories is intended
to aid the reader in locating articles in specific areas.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Piston Engines - Gasoline - Automotive Type 8-3
Piston Engines - Diesel 8-6

HEAT AND POWER SOURCES

Coal Combustion 8-8
Oil Combustion 8-14
Gas Combustion 8-17
Nuclear Power 8-18

REFUSE DISPOSAL SOURCES

Open Burning 8-18
Municipal Incinerators 8-19
On-Site Incinerators 8-21
Other Disposal Methods 8-24

METALLURGICAL PROCESS SOURCES

Aluminum 8-26
Copper 8-26
Iron and Steel 8-27
Lead 8-32
Zinc 8-32

CHEMICAL PROCESS SOURCES

Mineral Acids 8-33
Pulp and Paper 8-35
Oil Refineries 8-36
Paint and Varnish 8-37
Plastics and Resins 8-37
Other Chemicals 8-38

8-1
 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)

MINERAL PROCESS SOURCES

Bituminous Concrete Manufacturing 8-39
Calcium Carbide 8-40
Cement 8-40
Concrete Batch Plants 8-41
Ceramic, Clay, and Refractories 8-41
Glass and Frit 8-41
Gypsum 8-42
Lime 8-42
Pits and Quarries 8-42
Other 8-43

FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL SOURCES

Coffee Roasting 8-44
Cotton Ginning 8-44
Feed and Grain 8-44
Fish Meal Processing 8-45
Other 8-45

8-2
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

PISTON ENGINES - GASOLINE - AUTOMOTIVE TYPE

Beckman, E. W., Fagley, W. S., and Sarto, J. 0. "The Cleaner Air Package -
Exhaust Emission Control by Chrysler. " In: Hearings before the Subcommittee
on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Senate,
90th Congress, 1st Session, Feb. 13-14 and 20-21, ~967, pp. 411-424.

Bush, A. F. , Glater, R. A. , Dyer, J. , and Richards, G. "The Effects of

Engine Exhaust on the Atmosphere When Automobiles Are Equipped with
Afterburners." Univ. of Calif. Report 62-63, Dept. of Engineering, Los
Angeles, Dec. 1962, 38 pp.

Derndinger, Hans-Otto. "Motor Vehicle Engines." [Kraftfahrzeugmotoren.]

VDI (Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Z. (Duesseldorf), 108(19):842-845, July 1966.(Text
in German.)

Ebersole, G. D. and McReynolds, L. A. "An Evaluation of Automobile Total

Hydrocarbon Emissions." In: Vehicle Emissions, Part II, SAE Progress in
Technology Series, Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, 1966, Vol. 12,
pp. 413-428. (Presented at Mid-Year Meeting, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Detroit, Michigan, June 6-10, 1966, Paper 66048.)

Eldib, I. A. "Problems in Air Pollution and Their Solutions with New Tech-
nology. 11 In: Technical and Social Problems of Air Pollution, Symposium of
Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources, New York, 1966, pp. 7-28.

Fiala, E. and Zeschmann, E. G. "The Exhaust Gas Problem of Motor Vehicles,

Part I. 11 [Zurn Abgasproblem der Strassenfahrzeuge, Teil 1.] Automobiltech.
Z. (Stuttgart), 67(9):302-308, Sept. 1965.

Fiala, E. and Zeschmann, E. G. "The Exhaust Gas Problem of Motor Vehicles,

Part II. 11 [Zurn Abgasproblem der Strassenfahrzeuge, Teil 2.] Automobiltech.
Z. (Stuttgart), 67(12):419-422, Dec. 1965.

"The Control of Automobile Emissions (Ford Crankcase Emissions Control

System, Ford Thermactor System for Exhaust Control)." Ford Motor Co. ,
Dearborn, Michigan, 1966, 6 pp.

Gardner, J. W. "Automotive Air Pollution." 3rd Report of the Secretary of

Health, Education, and Welfare to the U.S. Congress Pursuant to Public Law
88-206, The Clean Air Act, 89th Congress, 2nd Session, Document No. 83,
March 25, 1966, 17 pp. ·

8-3
Grant, E. P. and Nissen, W. E. "California's Program for Motor Vehicle
Emission Control." In: Proceedings, International Clean Air Congress,
Part I, London, 1966, Paper VI/19, pp. 210-212.

Heinen, C. M. "The Development and Manufacture of Control Equipment."

Arch. Environ. Health, 16(1):98-104, Jan. 1968,

Hirao, O. "Problems of Air Pollution Due to Vehicle Emission Gases."

J. Japan Soc. of Mechanical Engineers (Tokyo), 69(575):1568-1572, 1966.

Hunigen, E. , Jaskulla, N., and Wettig, K. "The Reduction of Carcinogenic

Contaminants in Exhaust Gases of Petrol Engines through Fuel Additives and
Choice of Lubricants. " In: Proceedings, International Clean Air Congress,
Part I, London, 1966, Paper VI/12, pp. 191-193.

Jackson, M. W. "Effects of Some Engine Variables and Control Systems on

Composition and Reactivity of Exhaust Hydrocarbons." In: Vehicle Emissions,
Part II, SAE Progress in Technology Series, Vol. 12, Society of Automotive
Engineers, New York, 1966, pp. 241-247.

Jackson, W. E. "Air Pollution from Automobiles in Philadelphia." Preprint.

(Presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Toronto, Canada, June 20-24, 1965, Paper 65-137.)

Jensen, D. A. "Sources and Kinds of Contaminants from Motor Vehicles -

Informative Report No. 4." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(8):327-328,
Aug. 1964.

Jensen, D. A. "Separating Fact from Fiction in Auto Smog Control." Arch.

Environ. Health, 14(1):150-154, Jan. 1967. (Presented at the American
Medical Association Air Pollution Medical Research Conference, Los Angeles,
March 2-4, 1966.)

Kopa, R. D. , Tribus, M. , Scope, S. , and Treat, R. "Exhaust Control

Devices: An Investigation of Exhaust 'Scrubbing' Devices." In: 1st Report
of Air Pollution Studies, Univ. of Calif. at Los Angeles, Dept. of Engineering,
July 1955, 22 pp.

Larsen, R. I. "Motor Vehicle Emissions and Their Effects." Public Health

Rept., 77(11):963-969, Nov. 1962.

Lohner, Kurt, Muller, Herbert, and Zender, W. "About the Process Tech-
nique for the Combustion of Exhaust Gases in Gasoline Engines in Stationary

8-4
Operations. 11 [Uber die Verfahrenstechnik der Nachverbrennung der Abgase von
ottomotoren bei stationarem Betrieb.] VDI (Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Z. (Duesseldorf),

-
109(31):1488, Nov. 1967. (Text in German.)

Ludwig, J. H. "The Vehicle Pollution Problem. 11 Preprint. (Presented at the

American Public Power Association Conference, Denver, Colo. , May 8-11,
1967.)

Ludwig, J. H. "Progress in Control of Vehicle Emissions. 11

J. Sanit. Eng.
Div., Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., 93(SA-4):73-79, Aug. 1967.

Meurer, S. "Change in the Concept of Mixture Formation and Combustion in

Diesel Engine. 11 [Der Wandel in der Vorstellung von Ablauf der Gemisch-
bildung und Verbrennung im Diesel motor.] Motortech. Z. , 27(3):131-139,
~1arch 1966.

Morris, J. P. and Calonge, A. B. "Contamination Generation of Internal

Combustion Engines. 11 Preprint. (Presented at the 4th Annual Technical
Meeting and Exhibit, American Association for Contamination Control, Miami
Beach, Florida, May 25-28, 1965.)

Ridgway, Stuart L. and Lair, John C. "Automotive Air Pollution: A System

Approach. 11 J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!.Q.(4):336-340, Aug. 1960.

Rispler, L. and Ross, C. R. "Ventilation for Engine Exhaust Gases."

Occupational Health Rev., 17(4):19-22, 1965.

Rose, A. H. "Summary Report of Vehicular Emissions and Their Control."

Preprint. (Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Chicago, Illinois, Nov. 1965.)

Schenk, Rudolf, Flory, Fritz, and Hofmann, Hans. "Reduction of Harmful

Exhaust Gas Emissions in Gasoline Motors by Means of Suction-Tube Gasoline
Injection. 11 [Herabsetzung der schadlichen Abgasemissionen bei Ottomotoren
durch Saugrohr-Benzineinspritzung.] Motortech. Z. (Stuttgart), ~(10):399-
402, Oct. 1967. (Text in German.)

Starkman, E. S. "Engine Generated Air Pollution - A Study of Source and

Severity. 11 Preprint. (Presented at Federal International Des Societes
lngenieures Techniques de l 'Automobile, Germany, June 15, 1966.)

Varchavski, I. L. "Some Theoretical Problems of Providing Less Toxic

Operation of Automobile Engines. " Proceedings of the International Clean Air
Congress, Part I, London, 1966, p. 212. (Unpublished.)

33\-7\6 0 - 69 - 31 8-5
Yamaki, N. "Several Problems on Control of Motor Vehicle Exhaust Pollution.
J. Japan Petroleum Inst. (Tokyo), .§.(9):682-696, Sept. 1965. (Text in Japanese.

PISTON ENGINES - DIESEL

Braubacher, M. L. "Reduction of Diesel Smoke in California." Preprint.

(Presented at the West Coast Meeting, Society of Automotive Engineers, Los
Angeles, California, Aug. 8-11, 1966, Paper 660548.)

Chittawadgi, B. S. and Dave, N. R. "Reducing Smoke in Diesel Exhaust

Gases." Indian Eastern Engr. (Bombay), 109(5):221-225, May 1967.

Fawell, H. D. "Road Vehicle Pollution - Black Smoke - Some Causes and

Possible Method of Control." In: Proceedings, Clean Air Conference,
Harrogate, England, 1964, pp. 117-126.

Glover, I. "The Fuel Additive Approach Towards the Alleviation of the

Nuisance of Diesel Smoke." J. Inst. Petrol., 52(509): 137-160, May 1966.

Golothan, D. W. "The Use of a Fuel Additive to Control Diesel Exhaust

Smoke: Service Performance and Marketing Experience." Proceedings,
International Clean Air Congress, Part I, London, 1966, pp. 163-167,
Paper VI/13.

Grant, E. P. and Nissen, W. E. "California's Program for Motor Vehicle

Emission Control." Proceedings, International Clean Air Congress, London,
1966, pp. 210-212, Paper VI/9.

Groebler, H. "Exhaust Gas Washing and Noise Absorbing Device for Diesel
Motors." [Auspuffgaswasch- und Larmschluckgerat fuer Dieselmotoren.]

Hedlund, Folke, Ekberg, Gustav, Mortstedt, Sten-Erik, and Aslander, Alle.

"Diesel Exhaust Gases. Investigation with Proposals for Action." Communica·
tions Department, Stockholm, Sweden, Guidance Group Concerning Develop-
ment Work in the Field of Motor Vehicle Exhaust Gas, Sept. 1967.

Jensen, D. A. "Separating Fact from Fiction in Auto Smog Control." Arch.

Env. Health, 14(1):150-154, Jan. 1967. (Presented at the American Medical
Association, Air Pollution Medical Research Conference, Los Angeles,
March 2-4, 1966.)

Jensen, D. A. "Sources and Kinds of Contaminants from Motor Vehicles,

Informative Report No. 4." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(8):327-328,
Aug. 1964.

8-6
Johnson, K. R. "The Control of Smoke Emission from Diesel Engine Vehicles."
Jn: The Implications of Air Pollution Control, Vol. 1. National Physical
Research Laboratory, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Surban,
south Africa, 1964, pp. 2-1 - 2-16.

Ludwig, J. H. "Seminar on Air Pollution by Motor Vehicles." Preprint.

U.S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1967, 54 pp.

McConnell, G. and Howells, H. E. "Diesel Fuel Properties and Exhaust Gas--

Distant Relations?" Preprint. (Presented at the Automotive Engineering
Congress, Society of Automotive Engineers, Detroit, Michigan, Jan. 9-13,
1967, Paper 67 0091. )

Meyer, W. E. "Controlling Odor and Smoke from Diesel Exhaust." In:

Proceedings, Sanitary Engineering Conference on Air Resources Planning and
Engineering, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965, pp. 41-54.

Rao, T. V. L. "Diesel Smoke." J. Inst. Engrs., 46(1):5-19, Sept. 1965.

Reed, L. E. and Wallin, S. C. "Methods of Removing Smoke from the Exhaust

Gases of Diesel Engines. " In: Proceedings, Harrogate Conference, National
Society for Clean Air, London, England, 1960, pp. 3-7.

Rispler, L. and Ross, C. R. "Ventilation for Engine Exhaust Gases. "

Occupational Health Rev., 17(4):19-22, 1965.

Rose, A. H. "Summary Report of Vehicular Emissions and Their Control."

Preprint. (Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Chicago, Ill., Nov. 1965.)

Springer, K. J., Lepisto, P., and Wood, C. "Investigation of Diesel Powered

Vehicle Odor and Smoke. " Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas,
Proposal 10-4336A, Nov. 19, 1965, 46 pp.

Springer, K. J. "Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke. "

Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, March 26, 1967, 16 pp.
(Monthly Progress Report 2, Feb. 15-March 15, 1967.)

Springer, K. J. "Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke--

Part 2." Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, May 3, 1967,
12 pp, (Monthly Progress Report 3, March 15-April 15, 1967.)

8-7
Springer, K. J. "Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke--
Part 2." Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, May 26, 1967,
12 pp. (Monthly Progress Report 4, April 15-May 15, 1967.)

Springer, K. J. "Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke--

Part 2. " Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, July 1, 1967,
102 pp. (Monthly Progress Report 5, May 15-June 15, 1967.)

Springer, K. J. "Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke--

Part 2." Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, Aug. 1, 1967,
17 pp. (Monthly Progress Report 6, June 15 - July 15, 1967.)

Springer, K. J. "Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke--

Part 2. " Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, Sept. 1, 1967,
184 pp. (Monthly Progress Report 7.)

HEAT AND POWER SOURCES

COAL COMBUSTION

Barker, K. and MacFarlane, W. A. "Fuel Selection and Utilization." World

Health Organization Monograph Ser. 46 (Air Pollution), 1961, pp. 345-363.

Bins, R. V. "Air Pollution Control System at Bay Shore Generating Plant of

the Toledo Edison Company." Air Eng., ~(5):20-22, 24, May 1966.

Borgwardt, R. H., Harrington, R. E., and Spaite, P. W. "Filtration

Characteristics of Fly Ash from a Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plant." J.
Air Pollution Control Assoc., 18(6):387-390, June 1968. (Presented at the
60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Cleveland, Ohio,
June 11-16, 1967, Paper 67-35.)

Bavier, R. F. "Sulfur-Smoke Removal System. ff Preprint. (Presented at

the 26th Annual American Power Conference, Chicago, Ill., April 16, 1964.)

Bavier, R. F., Tigges, A. J., Verrochi, W. A., and Lambert, W. H.

"Solving a Valley Air Pollution Problem." Preprint. (Presented at the 54th
Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, New York, June 15, 1961.)

"Sonic Smoke Collecting--Background Information." Braxton Corporation,

Medfield, Mass., April 1965, 86 pp.

8-8
Burke, S. A. and Collins, K. E. "The Performance of the B. C. U. R. A.
Fully-Automatic Smokeless Stoker for Central Heating." J. Inst. Heating
Ventilating Engrs. (London), Vol. 34, pp. 114-128, July 19G6.

Cahill, William J. , Jr. "Control of Particulate Emissions on Electric

Utilities Boilers." In: Proceedings, Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air
Resources Symposium on New Developments in Air Pollution Control, New
York, Oct. 23, 19G7, pp. 7 4-84.

Chamberlin, R. L. and l\foodie, G. "What Price Industrial Gas Cleaning?"

In: Proceedings of International Clean Air Congress, Part I, London, 19GG,
pp. 133-135. (Paper V /7.)

Cuffe, S. T. and Gerstle, R. W. "Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants:

A Comprehensive Surnmary." Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-
AP-35, 1967, 26 pp.

Cuffe, S. T., Gerstle, R. W., Orning, A. A., and Schwartz, C.H. "Air
Pollutant Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants, Report No. 1." J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 14(9):353-362, Sept. 1964.

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 19G7, 892 pp.

Debrun, G. "The Continuous Measurement of the Dust Content of the Com-

bustion Gases, at the Exit of the Dust Collectors in the Large Central Power
Stations of Electricite de France." [La mesure en continu de l'empoussiere-
ment des gaz de combustion a la sortie des depoussiereurs des grandes
centrales thermiques E. D. F.] Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), _ll(34):84-90, April -
June 1967. (Text in French. )

"Dust Control Methods." Coal Age, 72(8):56-62, Aug. 19G7.

Engelbrecht, H. L. "Electrostatic Precipitators in Thermal Power Stations

Using Low Grade Coal. " Preprint. (Presented at the 28th Annual Meeting,
American Power Conference, April 26-28, 1966.)

Fernandes, J. H., Sensenbaugh, J. D., and Peterson, D. G. "Boiler

Emissions and Their Control." Preprint. (Presented at the Conference on
Air Pollution Control, Mexico City, April 28, 19GG, 19 pp.)

8-9
Flodin, C. R. and Haaland, H. H. "Some Factors Affecting Fly-Ash Collector
Performance on Large Pulverized Fuel-Fired Boilers." Air Repair, §,(1):27-
32, May 1955.

Fournier, M. and Jacquinot, P. "Fight Against Atmospheric Pollution from

Domestic Furnaces, Control Measures in Effect in the Special Protection
Zones in Paris during Winter of 1965-1966." [Lutte contre la pollution atmos-
pherique due aux foyers domestiques, controle exerce dans les zones de pro-
tection speciale a Paris hiver 1965-1966.] Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), ~(34):91-
99, April - June 1967. (Text in French.)

Gartrell, F. E. "Control of Air Pollution from Large Thermal Power

Stations." Rev. Soc. Roy. Belge Ingrs. Ind. (Brussels), No. 11, pp. 471-482,
Nov. 1966.

Gartrell, F. E. and Barber, J. C. "Pollution Control Interrelationships. 11

Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(10):44-47, Oct. 1966.

George, R. E. and Chass, R. L. "Control of Contaminant Emission from

Fossil Fuel-Fired Boilers. fl Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Fuel Chem. Preprints,
1.Q_(l):31-56, 1966. Also: J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ..!2.(6):392-395,
June 1967.

Gerstle, R. W., Cuffe, S. T., Orning, A. A., and Schwartz, C.H. "Air
Pollutant Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants, Report No. 2!' J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., _!2(2):59-64, Feb. 1965.

Glensy, N. "Mechanical Handling of Coal and Ash. fl Eng. Boiler House Rev.
(London), 81(6):170-177, June 1966.

Goldberger, W. M. "Collection of Fly Ash in a Self-Agglomerating Fluidized-

Bed Coal Burner." American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Report No. 67-
WA/FU-3, United Engineering Center, New York, 1967, 16 pp.

Gosselin, A. E., Jr. and Lemon, L. W. "Bag Filterhouse Pilot Installation

on a Coal-Fired Boiler, Preliminary Report and Objectives. 11 Proceedings,
American Power Conference, Vol. 28, pp. 534-545, 1966.

Griswold, S. S. "Control of Stationary Sources." Technical Progress Report,

Vol. 1, Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, April 1960, 179 pp.

"Guide to Air Pollution Control Methods." Modern Power Eng. , 60(6): 63-78,
June 1966.

8-10
Hangebrauck, R. P., von Lehmden, D. J., and Meeker, J. E. "Sources of
polynuclear Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere." Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio,
pHS-Pub-999-AP-33, 1967, 44 pp.

111nformative Air Pollution Problems in Fly Ash Sintering Plant, Informative

Report No. 6." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ~(3):123-124, March 1965.

Katz, J. "The Effective Collection of Fly Ash at Pulverized Coal-Fired

Plants." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vol. 15, pp. 525-528, Nov. 1965.
(Presented at 58th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Toronto,
Canada, June 20-24, 1965, Paper 65-131.)

King, D. T. "Dust Collection in Coal Preparation Plants. " Mining Eng. ,

~(8):64-69, Aug. 1967.

Kirov, N. Y. "Efficient Combustion - The Control of Air Pollution at the

SoLirce. 11 In: Proceedings, Clean Air Conference, Univ. of New South Wales,
Paper 22, 1962, 22 pp.

Kloepper, D. L., Rogers, T. F., Wright, C.H., and Bull, W. C. "Solvent

Processing of Coal to Produce a De-Ashed Product." Gulf Oil Corp. ,
Spencer Chemical Div., Merriam, Kansas, Research & Development Report
9, Feb. 27, 1965, 469 pp.

Laroche, M. "Special Fuels: The Parts Played by Charbonnages de France

in the Fight Against Air Pollution." [Combustibles speciaux la participation
des Charbonnages de France a la lutte contre la pollution atmospherique.] In:
Proceedings, International Clean Air Congress, Part I, London, 1966,
pp. 64-66. (Paper 111/9.)

11 Layout and Application of Overfire Jets for Smoke Control in Coal-Fired

Furnaces." National Coal Association, Washington, D. C., Dec. 1962,
18 pp.

Leavitt, J. M. "Air Pollution Studies and Control: TV A Coal Electric

Generating Plants. " In: Proceedings, Sanitary Water Resources Engineering
Conference, Vanderbilt Univ. , Nashville, Tennessee, 1965, pp. 200-207.

Lock, A. E. "Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution by Efficient Combustion

Control. 11 Plant Engineering (London), Q.(5) :305-309, May 1967.

8-11
Magnus, M. N. "History of Fly Ash Collection at the South Charleston Plant."
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 15(4):149-154, April 1965.

Martin, R. "Generator Can Double as Anti-Pollution Weapon." Petro/Chem.

Engr., 1_§(9):52, 55-56, Aug. 1966.

"Modern Dust Collection for Coal-Fired Industrial Heating and Power Plants."
A. I. A. No. 34-C, National Coal Association, Washington, D. C. , Sept. 1961,
14 pp.

Moore, W. W. "Reduction in Ambient Air Concentration of Fly-Ash-- Present

and Future Prospects." In: Proceedings, 3rd National Conference on Air
Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 170-178.

Plumley, A. L., Whiddon, 0. D., Shutko, F. W., and Jonakin, J. "Removal

of so 2 and Dust from Stack Gases." Combustion, 40(1): 16-23, July 1968.
(Presented at the American Power Conference, Chicago, Illinois, April 25-27,
1967.)

Pollock, W. A. , Frieling, G., and Tomany, J. P. "Sulfur Dioxide and Fly

Ash Removal from Coal Burning Power Plants." Air Eng., _Q(9):24-28,
Sept. 1967.

"Pollution of the Atmosphere in the Detroit River Area." International Joint

Commission, United States and Canada, 1960, 241 pp.

Pottinger, J. F. "The Collection of Difficult Mate rials by Electrostatic

Precipitation." Australian Chem. Process. Eng. (Sydney), 20(2):17-23,
Feb. 1967.

Pursglove, J., Jr. "Fly Ash in 1980." Coal Age, 72(8):84-85, Aug. 1967.

Quack, R. "Dust and Gas Emission from Thermal Power Stations." [Die
staub- und gasformigen Emissionen von Warmekraftwerken.) Brennstoff-
"
Warme-Kraft, _!§_(10):479-486, Oct. 1966.

"Report on Smoke Performance of Vessels Plying the Detroit River During

Navigation Season 1964." International Joint Commission, Detroit River Area,
Technical Advisory Board on Air Pollution, March 1965, 148 pp.

"Report on Sulfur Dioxide and Fly Ash Emissions from Electric Utility Boilers.
Public Service Electric and Gas Co., Trenton, N. J., Jersey Central Power
and Light Co., New Jersey Power & Light Co., Morristown; and Atlantic City
Electric Co., N. J. , Feb. 24, 1967, 67 pp.

8-12
11Restricting Dust Emission from Forced-Draft Boiler Installations, Capacity
10 ton/hr and Over, Hard- Coal Fired with Mechanical Grates. " [Staubauswurf-
begrenzung Dampfkessel Uber 10 t/h Leistung Steinkohlenfeuerungen mit
Unterwind-Zonenwanderrost.] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Kommission
Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany, VDI No. 2091, Nov. 1961, 22 pp.
(Translated from German.)

11Restricting Dust Emission from Forced-Draft Boiler Installations, Capacity

30 ton/hr and Over, Hard Coal-Dust Fired with Dry Ash Removal."
[Staubauswurfbegrenzung Dampferzeuger Uber 10 t/h Leistung Steinkohlen-
Staubfeuerungen mit trockenem Ascheabzug.] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure)
Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany, VDI No. 2092,
Nov. 1961, 22 pp. (Translated from German.)

"Restricting Dust Emission from Forced-Draft Boiler Installations, Capacity

30-600 ton/hr and Over, Hard Coal-Dust Fired with Liquid Ash Removal."
[Staubauswurfbegrenzung Dampferzeuger Uber 10 t/h Leistung Steinkohlen-
Staubfeuerungen mit flUssigem Ascheabzug.] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure)
Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany, VDI No. 2039,
Nov. 1961, 22 pp. (Translated from German.)

"Restricting Dust Emission from Natural-Draft Steam Generators, Capacity

25 ton/hr and Less, Lignite-Fired with Stationary or Mechanical Grates."
[Staubauswurf Dampferzeuger uber 10 t/h Leistung Braunkohlen-Rostfeuerungen
feststehende Roste oder mechanische Roste ohne Unterwind.] VDI (Ve rein
Deutscher Ingenieure) Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany,
VDI No. 2098, July 1958, 17 pp. (Translated fron1 German.)

11 Restriction of Dust Emission in Anthracite-Briquet Factories." [Staubaus-

wurfbegrenzung Steinkohlen-Brikettfabriken.] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure)
Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany, VDI No. 2292,
Oct. 1961, 10 pp. (Translated from German.)

Schueneman, J. J. "Air Pollution from Use of Fuel - Current Status and Future
of Particulate Emissions Control." Nat. Engr., G9(3): 11-12, March 1965.

Schueneman, J. J. "Some Aspects of Marine Air Pollution Problems on the

Great Lakes." Informative Report No. 1, TI-1 Marine Committee, J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 14(9):378-384, Sept. 1964.

Schwarz, K. "Dust Emissions from Coal-Fired Boilers in the Federal

Republic of Germany." [Die Staubemissionen kohlegefeuerter Dampfkessel-
grossanlagen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.] In: Part I, Proceedings
International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper V/8, PP· 136-141.

8-13
Smith, W. S. and Gruber, C. W. "Atmospheric Emissions from Coal Combus-
tion - An Inventory Guide." U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, & Welfare, Div.
of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-24, 1966, 112 pp.

Spencer, J. D. "Bureau of Mines Research and Technological Work on Coal,

1964." U. S. Bureau of Mines, Coal Research Center, Morgantown, W. Va.,
1965' 125 pp.

Strewe, W. "Heat Production from Solid Fuels." [Waermeerzeugung mit

festen Brennstoffen.] Gesundh. Ingr., 86(4): 111-116, April 1965.

Studies on Smoke Purification. " [Studio sui dupuratori di fumo.]

11 Fumi
Polveri (Milan), .§_(3):69-85, March 1966.

Tebbens, B. D. , Thomas, J. F. , and Mukai, M. "Particulate Air Pollutants

Resulting from Combustion." In: Symposium on Air-Pollution Measurement
Methods, American Society for Testing Materials, Spec. Techn. Pub. 352,
19 64' pp. 3-31.

Thieme, W. "Measures for Reducing Emission from Domestic Hearths Using

Solid Fuels. " Staub (English Translation), 25(11): 10-13, Nov. 1965.

Trenck, H. M. "Provisions Against Atmospheric Pollution Due to Domestic

Heating in the Federal Republic of Germany." [Provedimenti control l 'inguina-
mento atmosferico prodotto dal tis caldamento domestico nella Germainia
Federale.] Fumi Polveri (Milan), .§_(7-8):213-216, 1966.

Van Doornum, G. A. W. "Smokeless Combustion of Bituminous Coal." Coal,

Gold, and Base Minerals of S. Africa, 14(7):32-33, 37, Sept. 1966.

Watson, K. S. and Be lecher, K. J. "Further Investigation of Electrostatic

Precipitators for Large Pulverized Fuel Fired Boilers." International J. Air
Water Pollution (Oxford), .!.Q.(9):573-583, Sept. 1966.

Weyers, W. and Engels, L. H. "The Results of Technical Measures for Dust

Removal in Underground Coal Preparation and the Associated Conveying Plant.'
Staub (English Translation), ~(1):21-24, Jan. 1966.

OIL COMBUSTION

Alliot, L., Auclair, M., Labardin, A., Mauss, F., Four, R., and Iehle, F.
"Emission of Solid Particles by Combustion of Fuel Oils (Central Hot Water
Heating)." [Emission de particules solides par la combustion d'huiles combusti

8-14
fluides (Chauffage central a eau chaude).] Rev. Inst. Franc. Petro le Ann.
combust Liquids (Paris), 20(11):1755-1792, Nov. 1965.

Alliot, L. and Auclair, M. "Experiments on Combustion of Domestic Fuel in

an Experimental Boiler." [Essais de combustion de fuel domestique sur
chaudiere experimentale.] Rev. Inst. Franc. Petrole (Paris), 20(11):1757-
1771, Nov. 1965.

Axtman, W. H. 11 Heavy Oil Burners and Air Pollution. " Fuel Oil and Oil
Heat, 1_§(1):61-64, Jan. 1967.

Barker, K. and Mac Far lane, W. A. "Fuel Selection and Utilization. 11 In:
World Health Organization, Monograph Ser. 46, "Air Pollution," 1961,
pp. 345-3 63.

Belyea, H. A. and Holland, W. J. "Flame Temperature in Oil-Fired Fuel-

Burning Equipment and its Relationship to Carbonaceous Particulate Emis-
sions." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ..!2.(5):320-323, May 1967.

Chittawadgi, B. S. and Voinov, A. N. "Mechanism of Action of Ferrocene on

Smoke Reduction in Diffusion Flames." Indian J. Technol., ~(7):209-211,
July 1965.

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U.S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Etoc, Pierre. "The Use of Ammonia to Eliminate Acid Smuts from Oil-Fired
Plant." J. Inst. Fuel, 40(317):249-251, June 1967.

Fauth, Ulrich and Schule, Walter. "Gaseous and Solid Emissions from Oil-
Fired Stoves." Staub (English translation), 27(6):1-11, June 1967.

Finfer, E. Z. "Fuel Oil Additives for Controlling Air Contaminant Emissions."

J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!1.(1):43-45, Jan. 1967 -

Four, R. and Iehle, F. 11 Emission of Solid Particles as a Function of Power in

a Domestic Heating Plant. 11 [Emission de particules solides en fonction de la
puissance dans une installation de chauffage domestique.] Rev. Inst. Franc.
Petrole (Paris), 20(11): 17 83-1792, Nov. 1965.

Griswold, S. S. 11 Control of Stationary Sources. " Los Angeles County Air

Pollution Control District, Technical Progress Report Vol. 1, April 1960,
179 pp.

8-15
"Guide to Air Pollution Control Methods. 11
Modern Power Engr., 60(6):63-78,
June 1966.

Hagiwara, I. 11 Prevention of Smoke and Soot by Adding Additives to Heavy Oil."

Heat Engr. (Tokyo), 19(4): 31-35, April 1967. (Text in Japanese.)

Hangebrauck, R. P., von Lehmden, D. J., and Meeker, J. E. "Sources of

Polynuclear Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere." U.S. Dept. of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio,
PHS-Pub-999-AP-33, 1967, 44 pp.

Hattori, I. "Prevention of Urban Air Pollution and Regional Heating and

Cooling Systems." Clean Air (Tokyo), .'.?_(6):12-19, March 1966.

Kirov, N. Y. "Efficient Combustion - The Control of Air Pollution at the

Source." In: Proceedings of the Clean Air Conference, Univ. of New South
Wales, 1962, Paper 22.

Labardin, A. and Mauss, F. "Influence of Burner Function on the Emission

of Solid Particles." [Influence du fonctionment des bruleurs sur les emissions
de particles solides.] Rev. Inst. Franc. Petrole (Paris), 20(11):1771-1783,
Nov. 1965.

Lock, A. E. 11 Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution by Efficient Combustion

Control." Plant Eng. (London), lli5):305-309, May 1967.

Oiestad, A. and Brief, R. S. 11 Impingement Baffle Plate Scrubber for Flue

Gas." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(9):372-377, Sept. 1964.

Pesterfield, C. H. "Literature and Research Survey to Determine Necessity

and Feasibility of Air Pollution Research Project on Combustion of Commer-
cially Available Fuel Oils." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(6):203-207,
June 1964.

"Pollution of the Atmosphere in the Detroit River Area." International Joint

Commission, United States and Canada, 1960, 241 pp.

"The Present Aspect of Public Nuisance Prevention Control in the Electricity

Supply Enterprise in Japan." Clean Air Heat Management (Tokyo), 15(3): 6-8,
March 1966. -

Reminiczky, K. "High Soot Emission by Small Oil Stoves." [Kis olajtuzelesek

nagy Koromemisszioi.] Energia Atomtech (Budapest), 20(10):479-485, Oct.
1967. (Text in Hungarian. )

8-16
11Report on Smoke Performance of Vessels Plying the Detroit River During
Navigation Season 1964." International Joint Commission, Detroit River Area,
Technical Advisory Board on Air Pollution, March 1965, 148 pp.

Schueneman, J. J. "Air Pollution from Use of Fuel - Current Status and

Future of Particulate Emission Control." Nat. Eng., 69(3):11-12, March 1965.

Schueneman, J. J. "Some Aspects of Marine Air Pollution Problems on the

Great Lakes." Informative Report 1, J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
);!(9):378-384, Sept. 1964.

Smith, W. S. "Atmospheric Emissions from Fuel Oil Combustion - An Inven-

tory Guide." U.S. Public Health Service, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-2, 1962, 95 pp.

11studies on Smoke Purification. " [Studio sui depuratori di fumo.] Fumi

Polveri (Milan), 2_(3):69-85, March 1966.

Wasser, J. H., Hangebrauck, R. P., and Schwartz, A. J. "Effects of Air-

Fuel Stoichiometry on Air Pollutant Emissions from an Oil-Fired Test Furnace."
Preprint. (Presented at the 60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Associ-
ation, June 11-16, 1967, Paper 67-124.)

Wentink, G. "Measurements of Soot Concentration in the Combustion Gases of

Some Liquid Fuels." Staub (English Translation), 27(4):8-12, April 1967.

GAS COMBUSTION

Barker, K. and MacFarlane, W. A. irFuel Selection and Utilization." In:

World Health Organization, Monograph Ser. 46, "Air Pollution," 1961,
pp. 345-3 63.

Chass, R. L. and George, R. E. "Contaminant Emissions from the Combustion

of Fuels." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!.Q.(1):34-43, Feb. 1960.

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U.S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Griswold, S. S. "Control of Stationary Sources." Los Angeles County Air

Pollution Control District, Techn. Progr. Report, Vol. 1, April 1960, 179 pp.

"Guide to Air Pollution Control Methods." Modern Power Eng., 60(6):63-78,

June 1966.

8-17
Schueneman, J. J. "Air Pollution from Use of Fuel - Current Status and
Future of Particulate Emission Control." Nat. Eng., 69(3):11-12, March 1965.

NUCLEAR POWER

Ettinger, H. J. , Moss, W. D., and Busey, H. "Characteristics of the Aerosol

Produced from Burning Sodium and Plutonium." Univ. of Calif., Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory Report Nos. LA-3491 and TID-4500, Los Alamos, New
Mexico, July 1966, 51 pp.

Kitani, S. "Aerosol in Nuclear Safety - Collecting Capability of Aerosol Filter.

Nucl. Eng. (Tokyo), 13(2):21-26, Feb. 1967.

Morgenthaler, A. C. "Survey of Air and Gas Cleaning Operations." General

Electric Co., Report HW-61840, Hanford Atomic Products Operation, Richland,
Washington, Sept. 1, 1959, 22 pp.

Schwendiman, L. C. "Radioactive Airborne Pollutant - Effective Control in a

Nuclear Power Economy. " Preprint. (Presented at the Northwest Meeting,
Air Pollution Control Association, Portland, Oregon, Nov. 5, 1964, Paper
HWSA-3683.)

Silverman, L. "Performance of Diffusion Boards for Radioactive Gases and

Particulates." Proceedings, 8th Atomic Energy Commission Air Cleaning
Conference, Oak Ridge, Tenn., 1963, pp. 177-188.

"Techniques for Controlling Air Pollution from the Operation of Nuclear

Facilities." In: Report of a Panel on Techniques for Preventing Atmosphere
Pollution from the Operation of Nuclear Facilities, Vienna, Nov. 4-8, 1963.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Safety Series 17, 1966, 123 pp.

REFUSE DISPOSAL SOURCES

OPEN BURNING

Meland, B. R. and Boubel, R. W. "A Study of Field Burning under Varying

Environmental Conditions. 11 J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. , 1.§_(9): 481-484,
Sept. 1966.

11
Air Pollution Problems from Refuse Disposal Operations in Philadelphia and
the Delaware Valley." Dept. of Public Health, Philadelphia, Pa. , Div. of
Environmental Health, 1965, 8 pp.

8-18
MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS

Bender, R. J. "Incinerator Plant - Plus." Power, 111(1):62-64, Jan. 1967.

Beorse, B., Kurtz, P., Mizushima, J., Chipman, R. D., and Bush, A. F.
11A Study of Air Pollution Control Aspects of Refuse Incineration. 11 In: First
Report of Air Pollution Studies, Univ. of California, Report 55-27, June 30,
1955, 63 pp.

Bump, R. L. "The Use of Electrostatic Precipitators for Incinerator Gas

Cleaning in Europe." In: Proceeding of the National Incinerator Conference,
American Society Mechanical Engineers, New York, May 1-4, 1966, pp. 161-
166.

Calaceto, R. R. "Sludge Incinerator Fly Ash Controlled by Cyclonic Scrubber. "

Public Works, ~(2):113, Feb. 1963.

Cederholm, C. "Collection of Dust from Refuse Incinerators in Electrostatic

Precipitators Provided with Multicyclone After-Collectors." In: Part I,
Proceedings of International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper V /3,
pp. 122-125.

Corey, R. C. "Some Fundamental Considerations in the Design and Use of

Incinerators in Controlling Atmospheric Contamination." In: Air Pollution,
L. C. McCabe (ed.), McGraw-Hill, 1952, pp. 394-407.

Fernandes, J. H. "Incinerator Air Pollution Control Equipment. " Economic

Study of Solid Waste Disposal Needs and Practices, Vol. 4, Technical-
Economic Overview, Combustion Engineering, Inc. , Windsor, Connecticut,
Nov. 1, 1967.

Fife, J. A. "Control of Air Pollution from Municipal Incinerators. 11 In:

Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C. ,
1966, pp, 317-326.

Fife, J. A. and Boyer, R. A., Jr. "What Price Incineration Air Pollution
Control?" In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1966, pp. 89-96.

Flood, L. P. 11 Air Pollution from Incinerators - Causes and Cures." Civil

Engr., Amer. Society of Civil Engr., pp. 44-48, Dec. 1965.

8-19
Greeley, S. A., Clarke, S. M., and Gould, R. H. "Design and Performance
of Municipal Incinerators in Relation to Air Pollution." In: Summary of the
Conference of Incineration, Rubbish Disposal, and Air Pollution, F. R.
Bowerman (ed.), APF Rept. 3, Jan. 1955, pp. 25-26.

Jens, W. and Rehm, F. R. "Mtmicipal Incineration and Air Pollution Control. 11

In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference, 1966, pp. 74-83.

Kaiser, E. R. ''Prospects for Reducing Particulate Emissions from Large

Incinerators." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 16(6):324, June 1966.

Kirov, N. Y. "Emissions from Large Municipal Incinerators and Control of

Air Pollution." Clean Air, l. (2): 19-25, Sept. 1967.

Kreichelt, T. E. 11 Air Pollution Aspects of Tepee Burners Used for Disposal

of Municipal Refuse. 11 U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Div. of
Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-28, 1966, 35 pp.

Lenehan, J. W. 11 Air Pollution Control in Municipal Incineration. " J. Air

Pollution Control Assoc., 12(9) :414-417, 430, Sept. 1962.

Meissner, H. G. "Air Pollution from Incinerators." Civil Engr., 34:40-41,

Sept. 1964.

Meissner, H. G. "The Effect of Furnace Design and Operation on Air Pollution

from_ Incinerators." In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1964, pp. 126-127.

O'Connor, C. and Swinehart, G. "Baghouse Cures Stack Effluent." Power

Eng., pp. 58-59, May 1961.

Pascual, S. J. and Pieratti, A. "Fly Ash Control Equipment for Municipal

Incinerators." In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference, New
York, 1964, pp. 118-125.

"Air Pollution Problems from Refuse Disposal Operations in Philadelphia and

the Delaware Valley." Preprint. Philadelphia, Pa., Dept. of Public Health,
Div. of Environmental Health, 1965, 8 pp.

Rogus, C. A. "An Appraisal of Refuse Incineration in Western Europe." In:

Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 1-4, 1966,
pp. 114-123.

8-20
Rogus, C. A. "Control of Air Pollution and Waste Heat Recovery from Incin-
eration." Public Works, 97(6):100-103, June 1966.

Stahenow, G. "European Practice in Refuse Burning." In: Proceedings of the

National Incinerator Conference, New York, 1964, pp. 105-113.

Stenburg, R. L. "Modern Incineration of Community Wastes." In: Proceedings

of the National Incinerator Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, New York, May 1964, pp. 114-117.

Stenburg, R. L., Hangebrauck, R. P., von Lehmden, D. J., and Rose, A. H.,
Jr. "Field Evaluation of Combustion Air Effects on Atmospheric Emissions
from Municipal Incinerators. " J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. , ~ (2): 83-89,
Feb. 1962.

Stephenson, J. W. and Cafiero, A. S. "Municipal Incinerator Design Practices

and Trends. " In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 1-4, 1966, pp. 1-38.

Sterling, M. "Bush and Trunk Burning Plant in the City of Detroit." J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 15(12):580-582, Dec. 1965.

Syrovatka, Z. "New Incineration System for Town Refuse." Czech. Heavy

Ind., Vol. 11, pp. 15-18, 1966.

Walker, A. B. "Electrostatic Fly Ash Precipitation for Municipal Incinerators -

A Pilot Plant Study." In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference,
New York, 1964, pp. 13-19.

Wegman, L. S. "An Incinerator with Refractory Furnaces and Advanced Stack

Gas Cleaning Systems. 11 In: Proceedings of Metropolitan Engineers Council
on Air Resources, Symposium on Incineration of Solid Wastes, New York, 1967,
pp. 34-42.

Williamson, J. E. and MacKnight, R. J. "Incineration." In: Air Pollution

Engineering Manual, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-
999-AP-40, 1967, pp. 413-428.

ON-SITE INCINERATORS

Albinus, G. "Reducing the Emission of Small Waste Incinerators by Structural

and Control Measures. 11 Staub, ~(11):17-20, Nov. 1965.

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8-21
"How to Control Particulate Emissions to Abate Air Pollution." Heating, Piping,
and Air Conditioning, pp. 137-152, June 1959.

"Apartment House Incinerators (Flue-Fed)." National Academy of Sciences,

Building Research Advisory Board, Washington, D. C., Pub. 1280, 1965, 38 pp.

Calaceto, R. R. "Sludge Incinerator Fly Ash Controlled by Cyclonic Scrubber."

Public Works, 94(2):113, Feb. 1963.

Challis, J. A. "Three Industrial Incineration Problems." In: Proceedings of

the National Incinerator Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, May 1-4, 1966, pp. 208-218.

Fernandes, J. H. "Incinerator Air Pollution Control Equipment." In: Econom-

ic Study of Solid Waste Disposal Needs and Practices, Vol. 4, Technical-Eco-
nomic Overview, Combustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn., Nov. 1, 1967.

Fife, J. A. "Refuse Disposal and the Mechanical Engineer." (Compounding

Problems Promise a Major Role for the Mechanical Engineer.) Heating, Piping,
Air Conditioning, ~(11):93-100, Nov. 1966.

Flood, L. P. "Air Pollution from Incinerators - Causes and Cures." Civil

Eng., pp. 44-48, Dec. 1965.

Haedike, E. W., Zavodny, S., and Mowbray, K. D. "Auxiliary Gas Burners

for Commercial and Industrial Incinerators." In: Proceedings of the National
Incinerator Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
May 1-4, 1966, pp. 235-240.

Houry, E. and Kain, H. W. "Principles of Design of Smokeless, Odorless

Incinerators for Maximum Performance." American Gas Assoc., Cleveland,
Ohio, Research Bulletin 93, Dec. 1962, 41 pp.

Kaiser, E. R. and Tolciss, J. "Control of Air Pollution from the Burning of

Insulated Copper Wire." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 13(1):5-11, Jan.
1963.

Kaiser, E. R. and Tolciss, J. "Smokeless Burning of Automobile Bodies."

J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ~(2):64-73, Feb. 1962.

Lieb, H. "Dust Separation and Flue Gas Composition of the Industrial Refuse
Incineration Plant of the Base." Mitt. der Grosskesselbesitzer, Vol. 93,
pp. 434-437, Dec. 1964.

8-22
MacKnight, R. J., Williamson, J. E., Sableski, J. J., Jr., and Dealy, J. O.
"Controlling the Flue-Fed Incinerator." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. ,
10(2):103-109, 125, April 1960.

"Apartment House Incinerator Criteria." New York City Dept. of Air Pollution
Control, March 1966.

"Criteria Used for Upgrading Existing Apartment House Incinerators in the

City of New York." New York City Dept. of Air Pollution Control, Jan. 1967,
21 pp.

"Criteria for Incinerator Design and Operation." Dept. of Health, Air Pollu-
tion Control Service, Ontario, Canada, May 1966, 20 pp.

"Air Pollution Control Section." In: Domestic Incinerator Report, Phila-

delphia, Pa., Feb. 1963.

Papovich, M., Northcraft, M., Boabel, R. W., and Thornburgh, G. E.

"Wood Waste Incineration." Oregon State College, Engineering Experiment
Station, Corvallis, 1961, 8 pp.

Smith, S. "New Way to Scrub Incinerator Gases." Air Eng., ~(5):40-42,

May 1960.

Stenburg, R. L. "Modern Incineration of Combustible Material - Industrial

and Commercial." Preprint. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Div. of Air Pollution. (Presented at the East Central Section, Air Pollution
Control Association Meeting, Columbus, Ohio, Sept. 20, 1962.)

Stenburg, R. L. "Modern Methods of Incineration." Air Eng., Vol. 6,

pp. 20-21, 34, March 1964.

Stenburg, R. L. "Status of the Flue-Fed Incinerator as a Source of Air

Pollution." Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., Vol. 24, pp. 505-516, Oct. 1963.

Sterling, M. "Air Pollution Control and the Gas Industry." J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 11:(8):354-361, Aug. 1961.

Vickerson, G. L. "Fly Ash Control Equipment for Industrial Incinerators."

In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 1-4,
1966, pp. 241-245.

8-23
Voelker, E. M. "Control of Air Pollution from Industrial and Household
Incinerators." In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Air Pollu-
tion, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 332-338.

Voelker, E. M. "Essentials of Good Planning." In: Proceedings of the National

Incinerator Conference, New York, 1964, pp. 148-152.

Williams, R. E. 11 Incineration Practice and Design Standards. 11 In: Proceed-

ings of Clean Air Conference, Univ. of New South Wales, Vol. 2, Paper 27,
p. 26.

Williamson, J. E., Netzley, A. B., Sableski, J. J., Talens, P. G., Walters,

D. F., and Brown, R. S. 11 Incineration." In: Air Pollution Engineering
Manual, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, pp. 428-506.

Williamson, J. E., MacKnight, R. J., and Chass, R. L. "Multiple-Chamber

Incinerator Design Standards for Los Angeles County. " Los Angeles County
Air Pollution Control District, Calif. , Oct. 1960, 32 pp.

Woodland, R. G., Hall, M. C., and Russell, R. R. "Process for Disposal of

Chlorinated Organic Residues." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 15(2) :56-58,
Feb. 1965.

Woodruff, P. H. and Wene, A. W. "General Overall Approach to Industrial

Incineration. 11 In: Proceedings of the National Incinerator Conference,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, May 1-4, 1966, pp.
219-225.

OTHER DISPOSAL METHODS

Bowerman, F. R. 11 Transfer Operations. 11 In: Proceedings of the National

Conference on Solid Waste Research, American Public Works Association,
Chicago, Feb. 1964, 75 pp.

Bugher, R. D. 11 Transportation Systems." In: Proceedings Surgeon General's

Conference on Solid Waste Management, U.S. Public Health Service, National
Center for Urban and Industrial Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-1729, 1967,
pp. 73-86.

"Car Junkyards Try Sophistication." Business Week, No. 1904, pp. 108-112,
Feb. 26, 1966.

8-24
"Compositing - Is it Economically Sound?" Refuse Removal J., Summer 1965.

"Do You Need a Sanitary Landfill?" U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and

Welfare, Public Health Service, Washington, D. C., PHS-Pub-1012, 1963,
5 pp.

Golueke, C. G. and McGaughey, P. H. "Future Alternatives to Incineration

and their Air Pollution Potential. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Con-
ference on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C. , Public Health Service,
PHS-Pub-1649, 1967, pp. 296-305.

Harding, C. I. "Recycling and Utilization. " In: Proceedings of the Surgeon

General's Conference on Solid Waste Management, Cincinnati, Ohio, U. S.
Public Health Service, PHS-Pub-1729, 1967, pp. 105-119.

Haug, L. "When Does Transfer Pay Off." Refuse Removal J. , Aug. 1966.

"How to Build a Fill." 1963 Sanitation Industry Yearbook, p. 20.

"Scrap and Salvage. 11

1963 Sanitation Industry Yearbook, p. 24.

Seely, R. J. "Solid Waste Report for the City of Chicago." Chicago, Illinois,
1966, 33 pp.

Vogely, W. A. "Abandoned and Scrap Automobiles." In: Proceedings of the

Surgeon General's Conference on Solid Waste Management, Cincinnati, Ohio,
PHS-Pub-1729, 1967, pp. 51-60.

Weaver, L. "The Sanitary Landfill." Preprint. U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, March 1956.

Weston, R. F. "Future Alternatives to Incineration and their Air Pollution

Potential. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Air Pollution,
Washington, D. C., U. S. Public Health Service, PHS-Pub-1649, 1967,
pp. 306-308.

Wiley, J. S. and Krochtitzky, O. W. "Composting Developments in the United

States. 11 Compost Science, .§.(2): 5-9, Summer 1965.

8-25
 METALLURGICAL PROCESS SOURCES

ALUMINUM

Barenstein, M. "Air Pollution Control in Non-Ferrous Metallurgical Industry -

The Use of \Vet Scrubbers. 11 Ind. Heating, 43(10):1866-1868, 1870, Oct. 1967.

Junker, E. "Electrostatic Filters for Exhaust Gas Cleaning at Pressure Die

Casting Machines. 11 [Electrofilter zur Abluftreinigung an Druckgiessmaschinen.]
Giesserei (D~sseldorf), 54(6):152-154, March 16, 1967.

Ott, R. R. and Hatchard, R. E. "Control of Fluoride Emissions at Harvey

Aluminum, Inc. - Soderberg Process Aluminum Reduction Mill. 11 J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 13(9):437-443, Sept. 1963.

Rothman, S. C. "Engineering Control of Industrial Air Pollution: State of the

Art, 1966." Heating, Piping, Air Conditioning, pp. 141-148, March 1966.

Schnitt, H. and Moser, E. "Further Developments of the Fluorine Problems

in the Aluminum Industry." [Weitere Entwicklungen zum Fluorproblem in der
Aluminum Industrie.] Z. fuer Erzbergau Metallhuettenwesen, ~(3):111-115,
March 1965.

Teller, A. J. "Control of Gaseous Fluoride Emissions." Chem. Eng. Progr.,

63(3):75-79, March 1967.

Wagner, K. "Possibilities for Exhaust Air Cleaning in Pressure Die Casting

II 11
Foundries." [Moglichkeiten fur Abluftreinigung in Druckgiessereien.]
II
Giesserei (Dusseldorf), 54(6): 150-152, March 16, 1967.

COPPER

Haus berg, G. and Klee berg, U. "Installation for Purification of Waste Gases
Generated during Chlorine 11 Treatment of Light Metal Foundry Melts."
[Abgasreinigungsanlagen fur die Chlorbehandlung von Leichtmetallschmelzen.]
Giesserei (Duesseldorf), 53(5):137-141, March 3, 1966.

Jackson, N. H. "Fume Emissions from the Melting of Copper and its Alloys."
In: Part I, Proceedings of the Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper VI/7,
pp. 177 -178.

8-26
 11
Johnson, R. K. "The New Hayden Smelter - Its Unique Design Features.
J. Metals, pp. 376-381, June 1959.

"Restricting Dust Emission from Copper - Ore Smelters." [Staubauswurf-

begrenzung, Kupfererzh{itten.] VDI, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft, D{lssel-
dorf, VDI No. 2101, Jan. 1960, 24 pp.

IRON AND STEEL

Adams, R. L. "Application of Baghouses to Electric Furnace Fume Control. 11

J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(8):299-302, Aug. 1964.

Archer, A. "Clean Air and the Iron Foundry." In: Part I, Proceedings of the
International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper IV /8, pp. 99-102.

Basse, B. "Gases Cleaned by the Use of Scrubbers." Blast Furnace Steel

Plant, pp. 1307-1312, Nov. 1956.

Bloomfield, B. D. "Costs, Efficiencies, and Unsolved Problems of Air

Pollution Control Equipment." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 11.(1) :28-32,
Jan. 1967.

Brandt, A. D. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Steel Industry Air

Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Air
Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 236-241.

Broman, C. "Scrubbing for Clean Air." Preprint. (Presented at the 59th

Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, San Francisco, Calif. ,
June 20-24, 1966.)

Campbell, W. W. and Fullerton, R. W. "Development of an Electric Furnace

Dust-Control System." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 12(12) :574-577, 590,
Dec. 1962.

Chamberlin, R. L. and Moodie, G. "What Price Industrial Gas Cleaning?"

In: Part I, Proceedings of the International Clean Air Congress, London,
Paper V /7, 1966, pp. 133-135.

Cooper, R. L. and Lee, G. W. "Alleviation of Air Pollution in the Coking

Industry. 11 In: Part I, Proceedings of the International Clean Air Congress,
London, 1966, Paper V /1, pp. 117-119.

8-27
Cosby, W. T. "The Impact of Oxygen on Gas Cleaning in the Steel Industry."
Iron & Steel, 36(14) :632-637, Dec. 18, 1963.

Davies, E. and Cosby, W. T. "The Control of Fumes from Arc Furnaces."

In: Fume Arrestment, Spec. Report 83, William Lea and Co., Ltd. , London,
1964, pp. 133-143.

Douglas, I. H. "Direct Fume Extraction and Collection Applied to a Fifteen

Ton Arc Furnace." In: Fume Arrestment, Spec. Report 83, William Lea and
Co., Ltd., London, 1964, pp. 144-149.

Dublinskaya, F. E. , Zaitsev, M. M., and Zhigalina, I. S. "Purification of

Gases Originating from Melting Steel in Oxygen Converters when Removed
with the Combustion of the Carbon Monoxide." Steel (English translation),
Vol. 6, pp. 500-501, June 1966. (From Russian.)

"Dust Out of Foundries." Metal (London), 1Jl) :55, June 1966.

Elliott, A. C. and Lafreniere, A. J. "Collection of Metallurgical Fumes from

Oxygen Lanced Open Hearth Furnaces." J. Metals (Japan), _1!(6) :743-747,
June 1966. Also: J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(10) :401-406, Oct. 1966.

Ellison, W. and Wechselblatt, P. M. "Cupola Emission Cleaning Systems -

Utilizing High Energy Venturi Scrubbing." Modern Casting, 50(2) :76-82,
Aug. 1966.

Engelberg, F. "Dust Generation and Removal in Shot-Blasting Chambers."

[Staubentwicklung in Schleuderradputzraunrnn und Entstaubung. ] Giesserei
(Dllsseldorf), 54(6) :144-148, March 16, 1967.

Engels, L. H. "Feed Gas Cleaning in Coke Oven Larry Cars. " (A Contribu-
tion to the Wet Separation of Dusts.) Staub (English Translation), 26(11) :23-31,
Nov. 1966.

"Foundry Fume Disappears - Gas Cleaning at Ford's Leamington Plant. " Iron
and Steel (London), 40(1):8-9, Jan. 1967.

Frame, C. P. and Elson, R. J. "The Effects of Mechanical Equipment on

Controlling Air Pollution at No. 3 Sintering Plant, Indiana Harbor Works,
Inland Steel Company." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 13(12) :600-603,
Dec. 1963. -

8-28
Fullerton, R. W. 11 Impingement Baffles to Reduce Emissions from Coke
Quenching.'' J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. , 17 (12) :807-809, Dec. 1967.

"Gas Scrubber Installation Successfully Controls Foundry Cupola Emissions."

Air Eng., ~(3) :8, 11, March 1966.

Greaves, M. J. 11 The Effect of Modern Burdens on Blast Furnace Design. 11

J. Metals (Japan), 1.§_(3):378-384, March 1966.

Harris, E. R. and Beiser, F. R. 11 Cleaning Sinter Plant Gas with Venturi

Scrubber. 11 J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ,.!£(2) :46-49, Feb 1965.

Hemon, W. C. L. (ed.) (Tech. Committee TI-6) 11 Air Pollution Problems of

the Steel Industry." Informative Report TI-6, Technical Committee, J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., l..Q.(3):208-218, 253, Jm1e 1960.

Henschen, H. C. 11Wet Vs Dry Gas Cleaning in the Steel Industry. 11 J. Air

Pollution Control Assoc., 18(5) :338-342, May 1968. (Presented at the 60th
Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16,
1967, Paper 67-149.)

Herrick, R. A. , Olsen, J. W. , and Ray, F. A. "Oxygen- Lanced Open Hearth

Furnace Fume Cleaning with a Glass Fabric Baghouse." J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 16(1):7-11, Jan. 1966.

Hoff, H. and Maatsch, J. 11 Converter Waste Gas Cleaning by the 'Minimum

Gas' Method at Fried-Krupp." In: Fnnrn Arrestment, Special Report 83,
W. Lea and Co., London, 1964, pp. 104-108.

Holland, M. and Whitwam, K. B. 11 Direct Fume Extraction for Large Arc

Furnaces." In: Fume Arrestment, Special Report 83, William Lea and Co.,
London, 1964, pp. 150-159.

Hoy, D. "Dust Control in the Foundry." Foundry Trade J. (London), 122

(2631) :545-548, May 11, 1967.

Jackson, A. 11 Flll11e Cleaning in Ajax Furnaces." In: Fume Arrestment,

Special Report 83, William Lea and Co., London, 1964, pp. 61-64.

11
Johnson, J. E. "Wet Washing of Open Hearth Gases. Iron Steel Eng.,
.11(2) :96-98, Feb. 1967.

Kapitulskiil, v. B. and Kogan L. A. "A Comparison of the Hygiene Character-

istics of the Smokeless and Ordinary Methods of Charging Coke Ovens. 11 Coke
Chem. (USSR), No. 8, pp. 29-31, 1966.

8-29
Krikau, F. G. "Effective Solids Removal for Basic Oxygen Furnace Flue Dust
Pollution Control." (Presented at the 28th Annual Meeting, American Power
Conference, April 26-28, 1966.)

Lemke, E. E., Hammond, w. F., and Thomas, G. "Air Pollution Control

Measures for Hot Dip Galvanizing Kettles. " J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. ,
.!Q.(1) :70-77, Feb. 1960.

Lloyd, H. B. and Bacon, N. P. "Operating Experience with Oxygen-Assisted

Open-Hearth Furnaces." In: Fume Arrestment, Special Report 83, William
Lea and Co., London, 1964, pp. 65-70.

Loszek, W. "The Problem of Maintaining Clean Air in a Zone Polluted by

Waste Gases from Metallurgical Works." In: Part I, Proceedings of the
International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper IV /10, pp. 105-111.

Mitchell, R. T. "Dry Electrostatic Precipitators and Waagner-Biro Wet

Washing Systems." In: Fume Arrestment, Special Report 83, William Lea
and Co. , London, 1964, pp. 80-85.

Namy, G., Dumont-Fillon, J., and Young, P. A. "Gas Recovery Without

Combustion from Oxygen Converters: The IRSID-CAFL Pressure Regulation
Process. 11 In: Fume Arrestment, Special Report 83, William Lea and Co.,
London, 1964, pp. 98-103.

Ochs, H. J. "Purification of Air in Rolling Mills. 11 [Umluftreinigung in Walz-

Betrieben.] Metall. (Germany), 19(4) :348-351, April 1965.

Pa ~linger,
1 J. 11 A New Wet Method for Separation of Very Fine Dust. Staub
11

(Dusseldorf), 22(7) :270-275, 1962.

Parker, C. M. "BOP Air Cleaning Experiences. 11

J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 1.§.(8) :446-448, Aug. 1966.

Pottinger, J. F. 11 The Collection of Difficult Materials by Electrostatic

Precipitation." Australian Chem. Process Eng. (Sidney), 20(2) :17-23,
Feb. 1967. -

Punch, G. "LD and Kaldo Fume Cleaning - CONSETT Developments. 11 Iron

and Steel (London), ~(2) :75-80, 86, Feb. 1965.

Rabel, G., Neuhaus, H., and Vettebrodt, K. "The Wetting of Dusts and Fine
Ores for the Purpose of Reducing Dust Formation. 11 Staub (English transla-
tion), 25(6) :4-8, June 1965.

8-30
"Restr·ic t·mg Emission of Dust, Tar Mist and Gas when Charging Coke Oven"
[Auswurfb egrenzung fur11 11
Staub, Teernebel und Gase beim Fullen 11
von Koksofen;
Kokereien und Gaswerke. ] VDI (V erein Deutscher Ingenieure), Kommission
Reinhaltung der Luft, nUsseldorf, VDI 2302, June 1962, 26 pp.

Sem, M. 0. and Collins, F. C. "Fume Problems in Electric Smelting and

Contributions to their Solution." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., ~(3) :157-158,
187, Nov. 1955.

Schneider, R. L. "Engineering, Operation and Maintenance of Electrostatic

Precipitators in Open Hearth Furnaces." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
.!.2.(8) :348-353, Aug. 1963.

Schueneman, J. J. , High, M. D. and Bye, W. E. "Air Pollution Aspects of

the Iron and Steel Industry." U. S. Dept. Health, Education and Welfare, Div.
of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-1, June 1963, 129 pp.

Smith, J. H. "Air Pollution Control in Oxygen Steelmaking." J. of Metals,

13(9) :632-634, Sept. 1961.

Smith, W. M. and Coy, D. W. "Fume Collection in a Steel Plant." Chem.

Eng. Progr. , 62(7) :119-123, July 1966.

Spenceley, G. D. and Williams, D. I. T. "Fumeless Refining with Oxy-Fuel

Burners." Steel Times (London), 193(5115):150-158, July29, 1966.

Storch, 0. "Experiences with the Application of Wet Collectors in the Iron and
Steel Industry. 11 [Erfahrungen mit der Anwendung von Nassabscheidern in Eisen
and Stahlhutten-Werken. ] In: Part I, Proceedings of the International Clean
Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper V /2, pp. 119-122.

Storch, O. "A New Venturi Scrubber to Separate Dust Particles less than
1 Micron, Especially of Brown Smoke." Staub (English translation), ~(11) :32-34,
Nov. 1966.

Sullivan, J. L. and Murphy, R. P. "The Control of Fume from a Hot Blast

Cupola by High Energy Scrubbing without Appreciable Thermal Buoyancy Loss. "
In: Part I, Proceedings of the International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966,
Paper V /10, pp. 144-146.

Thom, G. w. and Schuldt, A. F. "The Collection of Open Hearth Dust and its
Reclamation Using the SL/RN Process." Can. Mining and Met. Bull., 59
(654) :1229-1233, Oct. 1966.

8-31
Tulcinsky, S. and Lemaire, A. "Cooling and Scrubbing of Smoke Emitted by
LD Steel Converters in Sidmar Ironworks. " Rev. de Metallurgie (France),
63(9) :659-665, Sept. 1966.

Underwood, G. "Removal of Sub-Micron Particles from Industrial Gases,

Particularly in the Steel and Electricity Industries." International J. of Air &
Water Pollution, Vol. 6, pp. 229-263, 1962.

Wheeler, D. H. "Fume Control in L-D Plant." Preprint. (Presented at the

60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Cleveland, Ohio,
June 11-16, 1967, Paper 67-96.)

Wheeler, D. H. and Pearse, D. J. "Fume Control Instrumentation in Steel-

making Processes." Blast Furnace Steel Plant, 53(12) :1125-1130, Dec. 1965.

Willett, H. P. "Cutting Air Pollution Control Costs." Chem. Eng. Progr.,

63(3) :80-83, March 1967.

Yokomiyo, K. "Air Pollution Prevention Equipment Installed in Muroran Steel

and Iron Works, Ltd." Clean Air Heat Management (Tokyo), 15(7-8) :19-28,
Aug. 1966.

LEAD

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Snowball, A. F. "Development of an Air Pollution Control Program at

Cominco' s Kimberley Operation." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. , 16(2) :59-62,
Feb. 1966. -

"Restricting Dust and Sulfur-Dioxide Emission from Lead Smelters."

[Auswurfbegrenzung Bleihutten. ] VDJ (V erein Deutscher Ingenieure),
Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, (English translation), VDI
2285, Sept. 1961.

ZINC

Allen, G. L., Viets, F. H., and McCabe, L. C. "Control of Metallurgical and

Mineral Dusts and Fumes in Los Angeles County, Calif. 11 Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D. C., Information Circular 7527, April 1952, 79 pp.

8-32
Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of
Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

"Restricting Emission of Dust and Sulfur-Dioxide in Zinc Smelters."

[Auswurfbegrenzung ZinkhUtten.] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure), Kommis-
sion Reinhalhmg der Luft, Duesseldorf, VDI 2284, Sept. 1961, 27 pp.

CHEMICAL PROCESS SOURCES

MINERAL ACIDS

Nitric Acid

"Atmospheric Emission from Nitric Acid Manufacturing Processes." U. S.

Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-27, 1966, 89 pp.

"Nitric Acid Manufacture - Informative Report No. 5." J. Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc. , 14(3) :91-93, March 1964.

Toyama, T. "Air Pollution and Health Impediment." Japan J. Ind. Health

(Tokyo), ~(3) :45-48, March 1966.

Zanon, D. and Sordelli, D. "Practical Solutions of Air Pollution Problems

from Chemical Processes. " [Realizzazioni nel cam po della prevenzione
dell'inquinamento atmosferico di origine industriale.] Chim. Ind. (Milan),
(English translation), 48(2) :251-261, March 1966.

Phosphoric Acid

Brink, J. A., Jr., Burggrabe, W. F., and Greenwell, L. E .. "Mist Removal

from Compressed Gases. 11 Chem. Eng. Prog. , 62(4) :60-65, April 1966.

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati , Ohio ' PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Sulfuric Acid

Arkhipov, A . s. and Boystsov, A. N. "Toxic Air Pollution from Sulfuric Acid

Production. " Gigiena Sanit. (English translation), Vol. 31, pp. 12-17
Sept. 1962.

8-33
"Atmospheric Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes.,, U. S.
Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio
PHS-Pub-999-AP-13, 1965, 127 pp.

"Blocks Air Pollution. Snares 1700 lb. of H SO per Day." Chemical Proc.,
2 4
Feb. 1962.

Brink, J. A., Jr., Burggrabe, W. F., and Rauscher, J. A. "Fiber Mist

Eliminators for Higher Velocities. " Chem. Eng. Prog. , .§.Q,(11): 68-73,
Nov. 1964.

Brink, J. A. , Jr. "Air Pollution Control with Fibre Mist Eliminators. "
Canadian J. of Chem. Eng., Vol. 41, pp. 134-138, June 1963.

Brink, J. A., Jr., Burggrabe, W. F., and Greenwell, L. E. "Mist Removal

from Compressed Gases." Chem. Eng. Prog., 62(4) :60-65, April 1966.

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Meinhold, T. F. "Three-Way Payout for H so Gas Cleaner." Chem. Proc.,

2 4
29(3) :63-64, March 1966.

Stastny, E. P. "Electrostatic Precipitation." Chem. Prog., 62(4) :47-50,

April 1966.

Stopperka, K. "Electroprecipitation of Sulfuric Acid Mists from the Waste

Gas of a Sulfuric Acid Production Plant. " Staub (English translation), 25 (11):
70-74, Nov. 1965. -

"Teflon Monofilament Cleans Up Acid Stack Gases.,, Chem. Eng., 72(22) :112-
114, Oct. 25, 1965.

Toyama, T. "Air Pollution and Health Impediment." Japan J. Ind. Health

(Tokyo), ~(3) :45-48, March 1966.

Willett, H. P. "Cutting Air Pollution Control Costs." Chem. E ng. P rog.,

63(3) :80-83, March 1967.

Zanon, D. and Sordelli, D. "Practical Solutions of Air Pollution Problems

from Chemical Processes." [Realizzazioni nel campo della prevenzione dell'
inquinamento atmosferico di origine industriale.] Chim. Ind. (Milan)
(English translation), 48(2) :251-261, March 1966.

8-34
PULP AND PAPER

Blosser, R. 0. and Cooper H. B. H. "Particulate Matter Reduction Trends in

the Kr.aft Industry." National Council for Stream Improvement, Atmospheric
Pollution Technical Bulletin 32, New York, April 4, 1967, 26 pp.

Boyer, R. Q. "The Western Precipitation Recovery System." Tappi,

43(8):688-698, Aug. 1960.

Collins, T. T. , Jr. "The Venturi Scrubber on Lime Kiln Stack Gases. "
Tappi, 42(1):9-13, Jan. 1959.

Cooper, S. R. and Haskell, C. F. "Cutting Chemical Ash Losses in a Kraft

Recovery System." Paper Trade J., 151(13):58, March 27, 1967.

Gehm, H. W. Statement Presented at the Hearings before Subcommittee on

Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works, U. S. Senate,
90th Congress, 1st session on S. 780, May 15-18, 1967, Part IV, pp. 2361-
2382.

Harding, C. I. and Landry, J. E. "Future Trends in Air Pollution Control in

the Kraft Pulping Industry. " Tappi, 49 (8): 61A-67 A, Aug. 1966.

Landry, J. E. and Longwell, D. H. "Advances in Air Pollution Control in the

Pulp and Paper Industry." Tappi, 48(6): 66A-70A, June 1965.

Owens, V. P. "Considerations for Future Recovery Units in Mexican and Latin

American Alkaline Pulping Mills." Combustion, ~(5):38-44, Nov. 1966.

Saha, I. S. "New Flue-Gas Scrubbing System Reduces Air Pollution." Chem.

Eng., 24(7):84-86, March 27, 1967.

Stuart, H. H. and Bailey, R. E. 11 Performance Study of Lime Kiln and

Scrubber Installation." Tappi, 48(5):104A-108A, May 1965.

Walker, A. B. 11 Enhanced Scrubbing of Black Liquor Boiler Fume by

Electrostatic Pre-agglomeration: A Pilot Plant Study." J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc. , 13(12): 622-627, 1963.

8-35
OIL REFINERIES

"Atmospheric Emissions from Petroleum Refineries - A Guide for Measurement

and Control." U. S. Public Health Service, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1960, 64 pp.

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Gammelgard, P. N. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Refinery Air

Pollution Control. " Proc. of the National Conference on Air Pollution,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 13, 1966, pp. 260-263.

Harrison, A. F., Louden, W. L., and Jones, G. "The Disposal of Chemical

Effluents from Refineries Utilizing Acid Treatment Processes." [Die
U • , II
Aufbereitung von Raffinerieabwassern aus der Saure-Raffmat10n.] Erdol Kohle
(Hamburg), _!Q(8): 587-591, Aug. 1966.

Hess, K. and Stickel, R. nsoot-Free Combustion of Petrochemical Waste

Gases. 11 [Zur russfreien Verbrennung petrochemischer Abgase.] Chem. Ing.
Tech. (Weinheim), ~(5-6):334-340, March 20, 1967.

Kropp, E. P. and Simonsen, R. N. "Scrubbing Devices for Air Pollution

Control." Paint Oil Chem. Rev., 115(14):11, 12, 16, July 3, 1952.

London, D. E. "Requirements for Safe Discharge of Hydrocarbons to Atmo-

sphere." In: Proceedings of Midyear Meeting, American Petroleum Institute,
Div. of Refining, Philadelphia, Pa., May 15, 1963, Section III. 43, 1963, pp.
418, 433.

Miller, P. D., Jr., Hibshman, H. J., and Connel, J. R. "The Design of

Smokeless Nonluminous Flares." In: Proceedings of the 23rd Midyear Meeting,
American Petroleum Institute, Div. of Refining, Los Angeles, Calif. ,
May 14, 1958, Section III, pp. 276-281.

"The Petroleum Refining Industry - Air Pollution Problems and Control

Methods, Informative Report No. 1." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
14(1):30-33, Jan. 1964.

Rose, A. H. , Jr., Black, H. H. , and Wanta, R. C. "Air and Water Pollution

Studies Related to Proposed Petroleum Refinery for Sand Island - Oahu,
Territory of Hawaii (Report to Board of Health, Territory of Hawaii). 11 Public
Health Service, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, Dec. 1965, 60 pp.

8-36
Termeulen, M. A. "Air Pollution Control by Oil Refineries." In: Part I,
Proceedings of International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper IV/5,
pp. 92-95.

Wilson, J. G. and Miller, D. W. "The Removal of Particulate Matter from

Fluid Bed Catalytic Cracking Unit Stack Gases. " J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 12.(10):682-685, Oct. 1967.

PAINT AND VARNISH

Boulde, M. J., Severs, R. K., and Brewer, G. L. "Test Procedures for

Evaluation of Industrial Fume Converters (Sampling and Analytical Techniques
Reviewed for)." Air Eng. , £(2) :20-23, Feb. 1966.

Danielson, J. A. ''Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and \Velfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Morash, N. , Krouse, M. , and Vos seller, W. P. "Removing Solid and Mist

Particles from Exhaust Gases." Chem. Eng. Progr., 63(3):70-74,
March 1967.

Stenburg, R. L. "Control of Atmospheric Emissions from Paint and Varnish

Manufacturing Operations." Public Health Service, Div. of Air Pollution,
Cincinnati, Ohio, Technical Report A58-4, June 1958, 30 pp.

PLASTICS AND RESINS

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

First, M. W. "Control of Haze and Odours from Curing of Plastics." In:

Part I, Proceedings of International Clean Air Congress, London, 1966,
Paper VI/11, pp. 188-191.

Kenagy, J. A. "Designing a 'Clean Room' for Plastic Processing." Mod.

Plastics, 44(3):98-99, Nov. 1966.

Parker, c. H. "Plastics and Air Pollution. " Soc. Plastics Engrs. J. ,

23(12):26-30, Dec. 1967.

8-37
331-716 0 - 69 - 33
OTHER CHEMICALS

Ammonia

Kaylor, F. B. "Air Pollution Abatement Program of a Chemical Processing

Industry. 11 J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!2_(2):65-67, Feb. 1965.

Fertilizer

Grant, H. O. "Pollution Control in a Phosphoric Acid Plant." Chem. Engr.

Prog., 60(1):53-55, 1964.

Sa c hsel ' G . F . ' Yocum ' J . E. a nd Retzke, R. A. "Fume Control in a

'
Fertilizer Plant - A Case History." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
.§.(4):214-218, Feb. 1957.

Sauchelli, V. "Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers." ACS Monograph

148, Reinhold, 1960.

Miscellaneous Chemicals

"Air Pollution Control in Connection with DDT Production - Informative

Report No. 6." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(3):94-95, March 1964.

Boldue, M. ,J., Severes, R. K., and Brewer, G. L. "Test Procedures for

Evaluation of Industrial Fume Converters (Sampling and Analytical Techniques
Reviewed For)." Air Eng., ~(2):20-23, Feb. 1966.

Kaylor, F. B. "Air Pollution Abatement Program of a Chemical Processing

Industry." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., .!2_(2):65-67, Feb. 1965.

Massiello, F. "Air Pollution Control at Drew Chemical Corporation. 11

In: Proceedings of Technical Conference, Mid-Atlantic States Section, Air
Pollution Control Association, Newark, N. J., 1962, pp. 8-12.

Sandomirsky. A. G., Benforado, D. M., Grames, L. D., and Pauletta, C. E

1
'Fume Control in Rubber Processing by Direct-Flame Incineration." J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 16(12):673-676, Dec. 1966.

Storch, H. C. "Product Losses Cut with a Centrifugal Gas Scrubber." Chem. , ,

Engr. Prog., 62(4):51-54, 1966.

8-38
 MINERAL PROCESS SOURCES

BITUMINOUS CONCRETE MANUFACTURING

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health' Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-.J:O, 19G7, 892 pp.

Gallaer, C. A. "Fine Aggregate Recovery and Dust Collection." Roads and

Streets, pp. 112-117, Oct. 195G.

Hankin, lVI. , Jr. "Is Dust the Stone Industry's Next Major Problem?" Rock
Prod., 2.Q.(4):80-8.J:, 110, April 19G7.

Hayes, S. C., l\IcGrane, N. l\I. , and Perl is, D. B. "Visual Clarity in Kiln
Discharge Gases." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 5(3):171-172, 18G,
Nov. 1955. (Presented at the Annual l\Ieeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Detroit, l\Iich., May 22-2G, 1955, Paper 55-33.)

"Low Dust Despite Heavy Fines, High Production." Roads and Streets,
Aug. 19GO.

Lundberg, G. R. "Summary of Dust Collection Systems in Asphalt Plants."

(Presented at the 10th Annual Convention of the National Bituminous Concrete
Association, Miami Beach, Fla., Feb. 3, 19G5, 14 pp.)

McKin, W. A. "Dust Control Check on an Urban Asphalt Plant." Roads and

Streets, pp. 173-175, Aug. 1959.

Mitchell, R. D. "Primary Dust Collectors.'' (Presented at the 10th Annual

Convention of the National Bituminous Concrete Association, Miami Beach,
Fla., Feb. 1965, 8 pp.)

Mundy, L. W. "Multiple Tube Dust Collectors as Applied to Asphalt Plant

Operation. " (Presented at the 10th Annual Convention of the National
Bituminous Concrete Association, Miami Beach, Fla., Feb. 19G5, 4 pp.)

Von Lehmden, D. J., Hangebrauck, R. P., and Meeker, J. E. "Polynuclear

Hydrocarbon Emissions from Selected Industrial Processes." J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., .!J2.(7):30G-312, ,July 19G5.

8-39
Walter, E. "The Dust Situation at Mixing Plants Used in Bituminous Road
Construction in Western Germany. " Staub (English translation), 26(11): 34-40,
Nov. 1966.

Weatherly, D. "Controlling Dust from Road Building Material Plants." In:

Proceedings of the Technical Conference, Mid-Atlantic States Section, Air
Pollution Control Association, Newark, N. J., 1962, pp. 13-18.

Wiemer. "Dust Removal from the Waste Gases of Preparation Plants for
Bituminous Road-Building Materials." Staub (English translation), 27 (7):9-22,
July 1967.

CALCIUM CARBIDE

Sem, M. 0. and Collins, F. C. "Fume Problems in Electric Smelting and

Contributions to Their Solution. " J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
Q.(3):157-158, 187, Nov. 1955.

CEMENT

Aleksynowa, K. "Chemical Characteristics of Waste Cement Dust on Their

Value for Agriculture." [Charakterystyka chemicza cemetowych pytow
odotowuch i ich wastose dla solnict.] Cement, Wopno, Gips, 11/20(3): 62-64,
1955.

Kreichelt, T. E., Kemnitz, D. A. , and Cuffe, S. T. "Atmospheric Emission

from the Manufacture of Portland Cement." U. S. Dept. of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio,
PHS-Pub-999-AP-l 7, 1967, 47 pp.

Chamberlin, R. L. and Moodie, G. "What Price Industrial Gas Cleaning?"

In: Part I, Proceedings of the International Clean Air Congress, London,
1966, Paper No. V/7, pp. 133-135.

"Control at Santee Cement." Southern Eng., pp. 50-51,March 1967.

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Doherty, R. E. "Current Status and Future Prospects - Cement Mill Air

Pollution Control. " In: Proceedings of 3rd National Conference on Air
Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1966, pp. 242-249.

8-40
"Dust p
revention - Cement Industry. " [Staubauswurfbegrenzung Zement-
Industrie ·] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Kommission Reinhaltung der
Luft, Duesseldorf, VDI 2094, June 1961, 51 pp.

Kohler' W · "Method for the Abatement of Air Pollution Caused by Cement

Plants." [Verfahren zur Verminderung der durch die Zementindustrie
verursachten Luftverunreinigungen.] In: Part I, Proceedings of the Inter-
national Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper IV /12, pp. 114-116.

Ray her, W. and .Middleton, J. T. "The Case for Clean Air. " (Federal
Government Plans for Nationwide Control.) Mill Factory, ~(4):41-56,
April 1967.

Tomaider, lVI. "Dust Collection in the Cement Industry. " In: Part I, Pro-
ceedings of the Clean Air Congress, London, 1966, Paper V /4, pp. 125-128.

CONCRETE BATCH PLANTS

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and \Velfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Hankin, M., Jr. "Is Dust the Stone Industry's Next Major Problem?" Rock
Prod., 70(4):80-84, 110, April 1967.

CERAMIC, CLAY, AND REFRACTORIES

Aizenshtadt, B. M. "Extensive Introduction of Advanced Experience with Dust

Extraction in the Refractories Industry." Refractories, No. 10, pp. 425-426,
Oct. 1965.

Luxon, S. G. "Atmospheric Fluoride Contamination in the Pottery Industry. "

Ann. Occupational Hyg. (London), .§_(3):127-130, July 1963.

Mori, H. "Hanshin Wet Type Dust Collectors." Clean Air and Heat Manage-
ment (Tokyo), .!.!2.(5):5-11, May 1966.

Rut man, Z . M . "Puri·f1·cation of Waste Gases from Heat Units in Refractory

Factories." Refractories, No. 10, pp. 429-432, Oct. 1966.

GLASS AND FRIT

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

8-41
Elliott, J. H., Kayne, N., and LeDuc, M. F "Experimental Program for the
Control of Organic Emissions from Protective Coating Operations." Los
Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Calif., Interim Report 7, Jan.
1961, 23 pp.

GYPSUM

Hankin, M., Jr. "Is Dust the Stone Industry's Next Major Problem?" Rock
Prod., 70(4):80-84, 110, April 1967.

LIME

Kaylor, F. B. "Air Pollution Abatern~ent Program of a Chemical Processing

Industry." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., £(2):65-67, Feb. 1965.

Pottinger, J. F. "The Collection of Difficult Mate rials by Electrostatic

Precipitation." Australian Chem. Process Eng. (Sidney), 20(2):17-23,
Feb. 1967.

PITS AND QUARRIES

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Davydov, S. A., Aksel'rod, M. B., Mar'Yash, L. R., and Klimenko, E. I.

"Contamination of the Atmospheric Air with the Waste of Ore-Concentrating
Works." [Zagryaznenie atmosfernogo vozdukha vybrosami gornoobogatitel 'nykh
kombinatov.] Hyg. and Sanit., 29(2):115-118, Feb. 1965.

Hankin, M., Jr. "Is Dust the Stone Industry's Next Major Problem?" Rock
Prod., 70(4):80-84, llO, April 1967.

Renninger, F. A. "A Monitoring System for the Detection and Control of

Airborne Dust." Dust Topics Mag. , 1(4): 6-8, Oct. 1966.

Schrauf, R. E. "Dust Suppression at St. Mary's Quarry." Mining Minerals

Eng. (London), ~(1):32-33,Jan. 1967.

Walter, E. "Dust Control in Quarrying and Rock Processing by Means of

Suction Devices." Staub (English translation), 25(6):1-4, June 1965.

8-42
OTHER

Gabinova, Zh. L., Vasil 'eva, A. A., Sklyarskaya, N. Kh., and Manita, IVI. D.
Gigiena i Sanit. (English translation), 28(6):65-69, June 1963.

Mori, H. "Hanshin Wet Type Dust Collectors." Cle~m Air and Heat Management
(Toh.'Yo), 15(5):5-11, l\Iay 19G6.

AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS

"Wastes in Relation to Agriculture and Forestry. 11

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Miscellaneous Pub. 1065, "'.\Iarch 19GS, 112 pp.

Pathark, V. K. and Pady, S. "'.\I. ":-\umbers and Viability of Certain Airborne

Fungus Spores. 11 l\Iycologia, Vol. 57, pp. 301-310, March-April 1965.

Hewson, E. \V. "Air Pollution by Ragweed Pollen, 1. Ragweed Pollen as Air

Pollution.'' J . ...\ir Pollution Control Assoc., 17(10):651-652, Oct. 1967.

Went, F. \\'. "Formation of Aerosol Particulates Derived from Natural

Occurring Hydrocarbons Produced by Plants." J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
p. 579, 1967.

Went, F. W. "Blue Hazes." Xature, 187(4738):G41-643, 1960.

"Soil Erosion by Wind, and Measures for its Control on Agricultural Lands. 11

Food and Agriculture Organization, 19 GO.

"Shelterbelt Influence on Great Plains Fields, Environment, and Crops. 11

U. S.
Forest Service, Production Research Report 62, Oct. 1962.

"How to Control Soil Blowing. 11

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers Bulletin
2169, 1961.

''Soil Conditions Influence \Vind Erosion." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Technical

Bulletin 1185, .June 1958.

"Suggested Guide for Use of Insecticides to Control Insects Affecting Crops,

Livestock, Households, Stored Products, Forests, and Forest Products. 11
Agriculture Handbook 331, 1968.

8-43
COFFEE ROASTING

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Partee, F. "Air Pollution in the Coffee Roasting Industry." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio,
PHS-Pub-999-AP-9, 1964, 15 pp.

Sullivan, J. L. , Kafka, F. L., and Ferrari, L. M. "An Evaluation of Catalytic

and Direct Fired Afterburners for Coffee and Chicory Roasting Odors." J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., .!§_(12):583-586, Dec. 1965.

COTTON GINNING

"Airborne Particulate En1issions from Cotton Ginning Operations." U. S. Dept.

of Health, Education, and Welfare, Div. of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio,
Technical Report A60-5, 1960, 20 pp.

"Control and Disposal of Cotton Ginning Wastes." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 103 pp.

Paganini, 0. "Control of Cotton Gin Waste in Texas." Preprint. (Presented

at the 57th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Houston,
Tex., June 24, 1964, Paper 64-94.)

"What We Know About Air Pollution Control." Texas Cotton Ginners' Association
(Dallas), Special Bulletin 1, March 1965, 43 pp.

FEED AND GRAIN

Barfield, S. "Harbor Bulk-Loading Grain Terminals." J. Environ. Health,

28(2): 151-155, Sept. -Oct. 1965.

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual. " U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

"Proceedings of the National Symposium on Air Pollution." Grain and Feed

Dealers National Association, Jan. 11-12, 1967, 103 pp.

8-44
McLouth, M. E. and Paulus, H. J. "Air Pollution from the Grain Industry."
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Q.(7):313-317, July 1961.

FISH MEAL PROCESSING

Danielson, J. A. (ed.) "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of

Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Mandell, L. C. "Air Pollution Control for the Fish Dehydration Industry. "
(Presented at the 54th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
New York, June 11-15, 1961.)

OTHER

Danielson, J. A. "Air Pollution Engineering Manual." U. S. Dept. of Health,

Education, and \Velfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati,
Ohio, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, 1967, 892 pp.

Storch, H. L. "Product Losses Cut with a Centrifugal Gas Scrubber." Chem.

Eng. Prog., 62(4):51-54, April 1966.

8-45
 AUTHOR INDEX
Ackley, c. 4-113
Adams, R. L. 4-149, 4-150, 4-151, 4-153, 4-171,
4-177' 8-27
Adrian, R. C. 4-190, 4-196, 4-217
Aizenshtadt, B. M 8-41
Aksel 'rod, l\'I. B. 8-42

Albinus, G. 8-21
Aleksynowa, K. 8-40

Allen, G. L. 8-32

Alliot, L. 8-15

Alpiser, F. :\!. 3-71

Archbold, l\I. J. 4-101

Archer, A. 8-27

Arkhipov, A. S. 8-33

Arnold, 0. :'.I.I. 4-Gl

Aslander, A. 8-6

Auclair, M. ,S-15

Axtman, \V. H. .S-15

Bacon, N. P. 4-111, 8-30

Bailey, J. M. 4-217

Bailey, R. E, 8-35

Ballard, W. E. 7-3

Banner, A. P. 4-217

Barber, J. C. 8-10

Barenstein, M. 8-26

Barfield, S. 8-44
8-8, 8-15, 8-17
Barker, K.

A-1
Barr, J. 4-204

Basse, B. 8-27

Ba.xter, W. A. 4-109

Beckman, E. w. 8-3

Beiser, F. R. 8-29

Belyea, H. A. 8-15

Bender, R. J. 8-19

Benforado, D. M. 4-196, 4-200, 4-217, 8-38

Bennett, K. w. 3-72

Beorse, B. 8-19

Berly, E. 4-66

Betz, L. D. 4-86
Betz, W. H. 4-86
Bigelow, C. G. 4-61
Billings, C. 4-31
Bins, R. V. 8-8
Black, H. H. 8-36
Black, R. J. 3-61, 3-63, 3-64, 3-65, 3-66, 3-74,
3-76, 3-83, 3-84, 3-86
Blasewitz, A. G. 4-69
Blecher, K. J. 8-14
Bloomfield, B. D. 8-27
Blosser, R. 0. 4-74, 8-35
Boabel, R. w. 8-19, 8-23
Bogue, M. D. 3-85
Boldue, M. J. 8-37, 8-38
Borg\\Tardt, R. H. 4-135, 7-2, 8-8
Bovier, R. F. 8-8
Bowerman, F. R. 8-24

A-2
Boyer, R. B
Jr. 3-85, 8-19
'
Boyer, R. Q.
8-35
Boystsov, A. N
8-33
Brandt, A. D.
3-34, 3-35, 3-48, 4-111, 8-27
Braubacher, M. L. 8-6
Brems er, L. W. 3-65
Brewer, G. L. 8-37' 8-38
Brief, R. S. 8-16
Brink, J. A . , Jr. 4-69, 8-33, 8-34
Brogan, T. R. 3-27
Broman, C. 8-27
Brooke, M. 4-86
Brooks, A. F. 4-59
Brooks, R. M. 4-86
Brown, R. S. 8-24
Browning, J. A. 4-190, 4-196
Bugher, R. D. 8-24
Bull, W. C. 8-11
Bump, R. L. 8-19
Burckle, J. 0. 3-76, 7-2
Burggrabe, W. F. 4-69, 8-33, 8-34
Burke, S. A. 8-9
Burson, J. H. 7-3
Burst, J. F. 4-211, 4-213
Busch, A. W. 4-85
Busey, H. 8-18
Bush, A. F. 8-3, 8-19

Bye, W. E. 3-32, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-37, 8-31

A-3
Cafiero, A. S. 8-21
Cahill, W. J., Jr. 8-9
Calaceto, R. R. 8-19, 8-22
Calcote, H. F. 4-190, 4-196
Calonge, A. B. 8-5
Calvert, S. 7-3
Campbell, W. W. 4-140, 4-141, 8-27
Caplan, K. J. 4-170, 4-181, 4-202, 4-203, 4-217
Cederholm, C. 8-19
Challis, J. A. 8-22
Chamberlin, R. L. 8-9, 8-27, 8-40
Chase, F. R. 4-174
Chass, R. L. 3-78, 8-10, 8-17' 8-24
Chilton, C. H. 4-23, 4-76, 4-198, 4-200, 4-213, 4-217
Chipman, R. D. 8-19
Chittawadgi, B. S. 8-6, 8-15
Clarke, S. M. 8-20
Clement, R. L. 4-140, 4-142, 4-143, 4-144, 4-145,
4-183
Collins, F. c. 8-31, 8-40
Collins, K. E. 8-9
Collins, T. T.' Jr. 8-35
Connel, J. R. 8-36
Conners, E. 4-31
Conway, R. A. 4-83
Cooper, G. 4-217
Cooper, H. B. H. 8-35
Cooper, H. B. H.' Jr. 4-74
Cooper, R. L. 8-27

A-4
Cooper, S. R. 8-35
Copp, W. R. 3-61
Corey, R. C. 8-19
Cosby, W. T. 8-28
Cote, W. A. 3-78, 4-179
Coy, D. W. 4-111, 8-31
Cuffe, S. T. 3-32, 4-111, 4-175, 4-176, 8-9, 8-10,
8-40
Culhane, F. R. 4-150, 4-151, 4-153, 4-155, 4-156,
4-157, 4-165, 4-166, 4-167, 4-169,
4-170, 4-174, 4-181
Danielson, J. A. 3-43, 4-16, 4-19, 4-23, 4-114, 4-122,
4-189, 4-195, 4-202, 4-204, 4-207,
4-217' 6-4, 6-26, 8-9, 8-15, 8-17'
8-32, 8-33, 8-34, 8-36, 8-37' 8-39,
8-40, 8-41, 8-42, 8-44, 8-45
Dave, N. R. 8-6
Davies, E. 8-28
Davis, A. L. 3-4
Davydov, S. A. 8-42
Dealy, J. 0. 8-23
Debrun, G. 8-9
Decker, L. D. 4-188, 4-217, 6-26
DeHaas, G. G. 4-202, 4-203
Dennis, R. 4-31, 4-49
Derndinger, H. 0. 8-3
Dickerson, B. W. 4-86
Doherty, R. E. 3-41, 3-42, 8-40

Dorsey, J. A. 3-76, 7-2

Douglas, I. H. 8-28

Doyle, H. 4-59

A-5
Dragoumis, P. 3-27
Drake, R. M., Jr. 4-189, 4-193
Drinker, P. 4-31
Drogin, I. 3-33, 3-53, 4-179
Dubinskaya, F. E. 8-28
Duffy' R. 4-188
Dumont-Fillon, J. 8-30
Dunn, C. W. 4-111
Duprey, R. L. 3-4, 3-83, 4-5, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
5-7' 5-8, 5-9, 5-10
Durham, J. F. 4-135
Dyer, J. 8-3

Ebersole, G. D. 8-3
Eckenfelder, W. W. 6-57
Eckert, E. R. G. 4-189, 4-193
Eckert, J. S. 4-55, 4-78, 4-81
Edwards, V. H. 4-83
Ekberg, G. 8-6
Eldib, I. A. 8-3
Elliott, A. C. 4-111, 8-28
Elliott, J. H. 8-42
Ellison, W. 8-28
Elson, R. J. 8-28
Engelberg, F. 8-28
Engelbrecht, H. L. 8-9
Engels, L. H. 8-14, 8-28
Etoc, P. 8-15
Ettinger, H. J. 8-18

A-6
Fagley, W. S. 8-3
Fauth, u. 8-15
Fawell, H. D. 8-G
Felgar, D. N.
Fenforado, D. 1\I. G-'.rn

Fernandes, J. H. 8-~1, 8-19, 8-22

Ferrari, L. M. 4-227, 4-253, 8-44
Feuss, J. V. 3-82
Fiala, E. 8-3
Field, M. A. 4-191, 4-192, 4-196
Fife, J. A. 3-85, 8-19, 8-22
Fin.fer, E. Z. 8-15
First, M. W. 4-31, 4-66, 8-37
Fischer, G. I. 4-31
Flodin, C. R. 8-10
Flood, L. P. 8-19, 8-22
Flory, F. 8-5
Flower, F. B. 3-82
Foote, E. H. 4-78, 4-81
Four, R. 8-14, 8-15
Fournier, M. 8-10
Frame, C. P. 4-111, 8-28

Frederick, E. R. 4-132, 4-159

French, R. C. 4-158, 4-lGO, 4-171, 4-172

Friedlander, S. K. 4-31

Friedrick, H. E. 4-127, 4-158, 4-171, 4-172, 4-180

Frieling, G. 3-17, 3-18, 8-12

Fullerton, R. W. 4-73, 4-140, 4-141, 8-27, 8-29

A-7
331-716 0 - 69 - 34
Gabinova, Zh. L. 8-43

Gallaer, c. A. 8-39

Gamble, B. L. 4-196, 4-217

Gambs, G. c. 6-59

Gammelgard, P. N. 8-36

Gardner, J. w. 8-3
Gartrell, F. E. 8-10

Gehm, H. W. 8-35

George, R. E. 8-10, 8-17

Gerstle, R. w. 8-9, 8-10
Gilbert, N. 4-32, 4-33
Gill, D. W. 4-191, 4-192, 4-196
Glasgow, J. A. L1-lll

Glater, R. A. 8-3
Glensy, N. 8-10
Glover, I. 8-6
Godsave, G. A. E. 4-190, 4-195, 4-196
Goldberger, W. M. 8-10
Golothan, D. W. 8-6
Golueke, c. G. 3-69, 8-25
Goodel, P. H. 4-200, 4-202
Gosselin, A. E.' Jr. 8-10
Gould, R. H. 8-20
Gourdine, M. c. 3-27
Graines, L. D. 4-196, ':i:-21 7' 6-26, 8-38
Grant, E. p 8-4, 8-6
Grant, H. 0. 8-38
Greaves, M. J. 8-29

A-8
Greco, J. 3-19, 4-109
Greeley, S. A. 8-20
Greenburg, L. 4-134, 4-135, 4-136
Greenwell, L. E. 8-33
Gregory, C. A. , Jr. 4-190, 4-196
Griffiths, J. C. 4-188, 4-191, 4-204, 4-211

Griswold, S. S. 8-10, 8-15, 8-17

Groebler, H. 8-6

Gruber, C. W. 8-14

Gudmundsen, A. 4-190, 4-196

Gusman, I. J. 4-161

Haaland, H. H. 8-10

Haedike, E. W. 8-22

Hagan, J. E. 4-163, 4-164

Hagiwara, I. 8-16

Hales, J. M. 3-33, 4-112

Ha lit sky, J. 3-66

Hall, M. C. 8-24

Hall, R. M. 4-46, 7-3

Hamming, W. J. 4-31

Hammond, W. F. 4-196, 8-30

Hangebrauck, R. P. 7-2, 8-11, 8-16, 8-17, 8-21, 8-39

Hankin, M., Jr. 8-39, 8-41, 8-42

Hansen, G. A. 4-202, 4-203

Hanson, V. W. 4-61

Harding, C . I. 3-4, 8-25' 8-35

Harrington, R. E. 4-135, 7-2, 8-8

Harris, E. R. 8-29

A-9
Harris, L. s. 4-49
Harrison, A. F. 8-36

Harrison, B. P.' Jr. 4-175

Haskell, c. F. 8-35

Hatch, T. 4-134, 4-135, 4-136

Hatchard, R. E. 8-26

Hattori, I. 8-16

Haug, L. 8-25

Hausberg, G. 8-26

Hawksley, P G. W. 4-191, 4-192, 4-196

Hayes, S. C. 8-39
Hazzard, N. D. 4-196, 4-200
Hedlund, F. 8-6
Hein, G. M. 6-26
Heinen, C. M. 8-4
Hemon, W. C. L. 8-29
Henderson, J. J. 3-4
Henschen, H. C. 8-29
Herrick, R. A. 4-137, 4-177, 4-178, 8-29
Hersey, H. J., Jr. 4-149
Hess, K. 8-36
Hewson, E. W. 8-43
Hibshman, H. J. 8-36
Hickman, H. L. 3-67' 3-68, 3-85
Hickman, H. L., Jr. 3-61, 3-63, 3-64, 3-65, 3-66, 3-74,
3-76, 3-83, 3-84, 3-86
High, M. D. 3-32, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-37' 8-31
Hirao, 0. 8-4
Hoff, H. 8-29

A-10
Hofmann, H. 8-5
Holden, F. R. 4-113
Holland, M. 8-29
Holland, W. J. 8-15
Horton, R. C. 4-161
Hottel, H. C. 4-187, 4-190, 4-196
Houghton, H. G. 4-74
Houry, E. 8-22
Howell, G. A. 4-111
Howells, H. E. 8-7
Hoy, D. 8-29
Hughson, R. V. 4-23
Hunigen, E. 8-4
Huntington, R. L. 4-78, 4-81

Iehle, F. 8-14, 8-15

Ilgenfritz, E. M. 4-217
Ingels, R. M. 3-43, 4-190, 4-202, 4-211, 4-217
Innes, W. B. 4-188
Intelmann, W. 4-16, 4-22

Jackson, A. 8-29
Jackson, J. 4-76
Jackson, M. w. 8-4
Jackson, N. H. 8-26
Jackson, R. 4-14, 4-86
Jackson, W. E. 8-4
Jacobs, H. L. 4-86

Jacobs, M. B. 3-66

Jacquinot, P. 8-10

A-11
331-716 0 - 69 - 35
Jamison, R. M. 4-61
Jares, J. 4-217
Jaskulla, N. 8-4
Jens, W. 8-20
Jensen, D. A. 8-4, 8-6
Johnson, G. A. 4-31
Johnson, J. E. 8-29
Johnson, K. R. 8-7
Johnson, R. K. 8-27
Jonakin, J. 8-12
Jones, A. H. 4-175
Jones, G. 8-36
Judson, B. F. 4-69
Junker, E. 8-26

Kafka, F. L. 8-44

Kaiser, E. R. 3-66, 3-7 5, 8-20, 8-22

Kapitulskii, V. B. 8-29
Katz, J. 3-19, 8-11
Kaylor, F. B. 8-38, 8-42
Kayne, N. 8-42
Keller, J. D. 4-189, 4-207
Kemnitz, D. A. 3-32, 4-111 ' 4-175' 4-176, 8-40
Kenagy, J. A. 8-37
Keng, E. Y. H. 7-3
Kenline, P. A. 3-33, 4-112
King, D. T. 8-11
Kirkpatrick, S. D. 4-23, 4-76, 4-198, 4-200, 4-213, 4-217

A-12
Kirov, N. Y. 8-11, 8-16, 8-20
Kirsh, J. B. 3-68
Kitani, S. 8-18
Klee, A. J. 3-61, 3-63, 3-64, 3-65, 3-66, 3-74,
3-76, 3-83, 3-84, 3-86
Klee berg, U. 8-26
Klimenko, E. I. 8-42
Kloepper, D. L. 8-11
Knudson, J. C. 3-78
Kobayashi, K. 4-187, 4-190, 4-196
Kogan, L. A. 8-29
Kohler, W. 8-41
Koin, H. W. 8-22
Kopa, R. D. 8-4
Kowalczyk, J. F. 3-78
Kran, W. G. 4-190, 4-196
Kreichelt, T. E. 3-32, 3-77, 4-111, 4-175, 4-176,
8-20, 8-40
Krenz, W. B. 4-190, 4-217
Krikau, F. G. 8-30
Kristal, E. 4-49
Krochtitzky, O. W. 8-25
Kropp, E. P. 8-36
Krouse, M. 4-66, 8-37
Kunii, D. 4-190, 4-196

Kurtz, P. 8-19

Labardin, A. 8-16

Lafreniere, A. J. 4-111, 8-28

Lair, J. C. 8-5

A-13
Lambert, W. H. 8-8

Landry, J. E. 8-35
Lapple, C. E. 4-10, 4-11, 4-14, 4-15

Laroche, M. 8-11

Larsen, R. I. 8-4
Larson, G. P. 4-31
Lawson, S. 0. 3-7
Leavitt, J. M. 8-11

LeDuc, M. F. 8-42
Lee, G. W. 8-27
Lemaire, A. 8-32
Lemke, E. E. 8-30
Lemon, L. W. 8-10
Lenehan, J. W. 8-20
Lepisto, P. 8-7
Licht, W. 4-130, 4-160, 4-173, 4-181, 4-183
4-184
Lieb, H. 8-22
Lieberman, C. 3-71
Lloyd, H. B. 4-111, 8-30
Lock, A. E. 8-11, 8-16
Lohner, K. 8-4
London, D. E. 8-36
Longwell, D. H. 8-35
Loquercio, P. A. 3-66
Loszek, W. 8-30
Louden, W. L. 8-36
Ludwig, J. H. 8-5, 8-7
Lundberg, G. R. 8-39
Luxon, S. G. 8-41

A-14
Maatsch, J. 8-29
MacFarlane, W. A. 8-8, 8-15, 8-17
MacKnight, R. J. 3-78, 8-21, 8-23, 8-24
Magill, P. L. 4-113
Magnus, M. N. 8-12
Mandell, L. c. 8-45
Manito, M. D. 8-43
Martin, R. 8-12
Mar'Yash, L. R. 8-42
Masciello, F. 8-38
Massey, 0. D. 4-76
Mauss, F. 8-14, 8-16
Mawhinney, M. H. 4-196, 4-207, 4-211, 4-213
Mayer, M. 3-66, 3-73, 3-78
McCabe, L. C. 3-66, 8-32
McConnell, G. 8-7
McGannon, H. E. 3-35
McGaughey, P. H. 3-69, 8-25
McGrane, N. M. 8-39
McKee, H. E. 3-5
McKenzie, D. 4-217
McKim, W. A. 8-39
McLouth, M. E. 8-45
McMahon, W. A. , Jr. 3-5
McReynolds, L. A. 8-3

Meeker, J. E. 8-11, 8-16, 8-39

Meinhold, T. F. 8-34

Meissner, H. G. 8-20

Meland, B. R. 8-18

A-15
Meurer, S. 8-5
Meyer, W. E. 8-7
Meyers, F. D. 4-196, 4-217
Middleton, J. T. 8-41
Miller, D. W. 8-37
Miller, M. R. 4-190
Miller, P. D., Jr. 8-36
Mills, J. L. 4-196
Mitchell, R. D. 8-39
Mitchell, R. T. 4-111, 8-30
Mizushima, J. 8-19
Monroe, E. S., Jr. 3-76
Montross, C. F. 4-43
Moodie, G. 8-9, 8-27' 8-40
Moody, R. A. 4-217
Moore, J. F. 3-7
Moore, W.W. 3-14, 3-17, 8-12
Morash, N. 4-66, 8-37
Morgan, B. B. 4-191, 4-192, 4-196
Morgenthaler, A. C. 8-18
Mori, H. 8-41, 8-43
Morris, J. P. 8-5
Mortstedt, S. E. 8-6
Moschella, R. 4-31, 4-66
Moser, E. 8-26
Moss, W. D. 8-18
Mowbray, K. D. 8-22
Muhich, A. T. 3-61, 3-63, 3-64, 3-65, 3-66, 3-74,
3-76, 3-83, 3-84, 3-86

A-16
Mukai, M. 8-14
Mukhlenov, I. P. 4-76
Muller, H. 8-4
Mundy, L. W. 8-39
Murphy, R. P. 8-31

Namy, G. 8-30
Netzley, A. B. 8-24
Neuhaus, H. 8-30
Nishiwaki, N. 4-187, 4-190, 4-196
Nissen, W. E. 8-4, 8-6
Noland, R. 4-180
Norman, G. R. 3-8
Northcraft, M. 8-23

Ochs, H. J. 8-30
0' Conner, C. 3-75, 8-20
Oiestad, A. 8-16
Olsen, J. W. 4-178, 8-29
0 1 Mara, R. F. 4-111
Orning, A. A. 4-187, 4-196, 8-9, 8-10
Orr, C. 7-3
ott, R. R. 8-26
Owens, V. P. 8-35
Ozolins, G. 3-4

Pady, S. M. 8-43
Paganini, o. 8-44
Pallinger, J. 4-49, 8-30

Papovich, M. 8-23

Parker, A. s. 4-190, 4-196

A-17
Parker, C. H. 8-37
Parker, C. M. 8-30
Partee, F. 8-44
Pascual, S. J. 8-20
Pathak, V. K. 8-43
Pauletta, C. E. 4-196, 4-200, 4-217, 6-26, 8-38
Paulus, H. J. 8-45
Pearse, D. J. 8-32
Penney, G. W. 7-3
Perlis, D. B. 8-39
Perry, J. H. 4-32
Perry, R. H. 4-23, 4-76, 4-198, 4-200, 4-213,
4-217
Pesterfield, C. H. 8-16
Peterson, D. G. 8-9
Pieratti, A. 8-20
Plumley, A. L. 8-12
Pollock, W. A. 3-17, 3-18, 8-12
Poppele, E. W. 4-73
Pottinger, J. F. 8-12, 8-30, 8-42
Powers, E. D. 4-76
Pozin, M. E. 4-76
Prindle, R. A . 3-61
Pring, R. T. 4-173
Punch, G. 4-111, 8-30
Pursglove, J., Jr. 8-12

Quack, R. 8-12

A-18
Rabel, G. 8-30
Radford, W. H. 4-74
R.adier, H. H. 4-203
R.ammler, E. 4-16, 4-22
Ramsdell, R. G., Jr. 4-101
Rao, T. V. L. 8-7
Rather, J. B. , Jr. 3-7
Rauscher, J. A. 4-69, 8-34
Ray, F. A. 4-178, 8-29
Rayher, W. 8-41
Reed, L. E. 8-7
Reed, R. J. 4-217
Reese, J. T. 3-19, 4-109
Rehm, F. R. 8-20
Reichenbach, G. S., Jr. 4-31
Reminiczky, K. 8-16
Renninger, F. A. 8-42
Retzke, R. A. 8-38
Rice, 0. R. 4-61
Richards, G. 8-3
Rickles, R. N. 4-85
Ridgway, S. L. 8-5
Ridker, R. G. 6-5
Riley, B. T. 3-76, 7-2
Rispler, L. 8-5, 8-7
Robinson, M. 7-3

Rodebush, W. H. 4-130

Rogers, T. F. 8-11

Rogus, C. A. 8-21

A-19
Rose, A. H. 8-5, 8-7
Rose, A. H.' Jr. 4-129, 4-176, 4-178, 8-21, 8-36
Rosin, P. 4-16, 4-22
Ross, C. R. 8-5, 8-7
Rossano, A. T. 4-31
Rothman, s. c. 8-26
Ruff, R. J. 4-202, 4-203
Russell, R. R. 8-24
Rutman, z. M. 8-41

Sableski, J. J. 3-78
Sableski, J. J., Jr. 8-23, 8-24
Sachsel, G. F. 8-38
Saha, I. S. 8-35
Sandomirsky. A. G. 4-196, 4-217, 6-27, 8-38
Sarto, J. 0. 8-3
Sauchelli, V. 8-38
Scheldhammer, A. 4-77
Schenk, R. 8-5
Schneider, R. L. 8-31
Schnitt, H. 8-26
Schrauf, R. E. 8-42
Schueller, H. M. 3-62
Schueneman, J. J. 3-32, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-37, 8-13
8-17, 8-18, 8-31
Schuldt, A. F. 8-31
Schule, W. 8-15
Schwartz, A. J. 7-2, 8-17
Schwartz, C. H. 8-9, 8-10
Schwarz, K. 8-13

A-20
Schwendiman, L. c. 8-18
Scope, s. 8-4
Sedeler, C. G. 4-202
Seely, R. J. 3-66, 8-25
Sem, M. O. 8-31, 8-40
Semrau, K. T. 4-34, 4-35, 6-24
Senecal, J. E. 4-78, 4-80
Sensenbaugh, J. D. 8-9
Severs, R. K. 8-37' 8-38
Shaffer, N. R. 3-43
Shale, C. C. 7-2
Sheehy, J. P. 3-4
Sheppard, S. V. 4-54
Sherman, R. A. 4-189
Shutko, F. W. 8-12
Sibel, J. T. 3-69
Silverman, L. 4-31, 4-49, 4-66, 4-127, 4-132,
4-133, 8-18
Simon, H. 4-131, 4-134, 4-138, 4-150, 4-153,
4-162, 4-163, 4-165, 4-170, 4-180, 4-181,
4-182, 4-183
Simonsen, R. N. 8-36
Simpson, H. c. 4-187, 4-190, 4-196
Sklyarskaya, N. K. 8-43
Smith, D. F. 4-190, 4-196
Smith, J. H. 7-3, 8-31
Smith, R. I. 7-3
Smith, s. 8-23

Smith, W. M. 4-111, 8-31

Smith, W. s. 8-14, 8-17

A-21
Snowball, A. F. 8-32
Sommerlad, R. E. 3-17, 4-171, 4-172
Sordelli, D. 8-33, 8-34
Sorg, T. J. 3-67' 3-68
Spaite, P. W. 4-129, 4-135, 4-163, 4-164, 4-176.
4-178, 7-2, 8-8
Spaulding, D. B. 4-187, 4-190, 4-196
Spenceley, G. D. 8-31
Spencer, J. D. 8-14
Spieckerman, J. A. 4-211, 4-213
Springer, K. J. 8-7' 8-8
Stahenow, G. 8-21
Stairmand, C. J. 4-4, 4-5, 4-39, 4-40, 4-43, 4-44
Starkman, E. S. 8-5
Stastny, E. P. 8-34
Stenburg, R. L. 8-21, 8-23, 8-37
Stephan, D. G. 4-3, 4-129, 4-135, 4-137, 4-160,
4-163, 4-165, 4-176, 4-178
Stephens on, J. W. 8-21
Sterling, M. 3-38, 8-21
Stern, A. C. 4-29, 4-30
Stickel, R. 8-36
Stoker, R. L. 4-28
Stopperka, K. 8-34
Storch, H. L. 4-76, 8-38, 8-45
Storch, 0. 8-31
Strauss, W. 4-10, 4-15, 4-37, 4-134
Strewe, W. 8-14
Stuart, H. H. 8-35

A-22
Sullivan, J. L. 4-217, 8-31, 8-44
Swinehart, G. 3-75, 8-20
Syrovatka, Z. 8-21

Taheri, M. 7-3
Talens, P. G. 8-24
Tarat, E. Y. 4-76
Tate, R. W. 4-78
Tebbens, B. D. 8-14
Teller, A. J. 4-36, 4-37, 4-54, 8-26
Termeulen, M. A. 8-37
Theodore, L. 7-3
Thieme, W. 8-14
Thom, G. W. 8-31
Thomas, G. 8-30
Thomas, J. F. 8-14
Thomas, N. J. 4-185
Thomburgh, G. E. 8-23
Thompson, C. W. 4-188, 4-191
Thring, M. W. 4-189, 4-196, 4-207, 4-217
Tigges, A. J. 8-8
Todd, W. F. 4-163, 4-164
Tolciss, J. 8-22
Tomaides, M. 8-41
Tomany, J. P. 3-17, 3-18, 8-12
Topper, L. 4-189
Toyama, T. 8-33, 8-34

Treat, R. 8-4

Trenck, H. M. 8-14

A-23
Tribus, M. 8-4
Trinks, W. 4-189, 4-196, 4-207, 4-211, 4-213
Truitt, S. M. 4-217
Tulcinsky, S. 8-32
Tyler, T. L. 4-190, 4-196

Underwood, G. 8-32

Vandaveer, F. E. 4-202
Van Doornum, G. A. W. 8-14
Varchavski, I. L. 8-5
Vasil 1 eva, A. A. 8-43
Vasseller, W. P. 4-66
Vaughn, R. D. 3-61, 3-63, 3-64, 3-65, 3-66, 3-74,
3-76, 3-83, 3-84, 3-86
Venezia, R. 3-4
Verrochi, W. A. 8-8
V ettebrodt, K. 8-30
Vickerson, G. L. 8-23
Viets, F. H. 8-32
Voelker, E. M. 3-79, 8-24
Vogely, W. A. 8-25
Voinov, A. N. 8-15
V ollheim, G. 4-190, 4-195, 4-217
VonBergen, J. M. 3-32
VonLehmden, D. J. 8-11, 8-16, 8-21, 8-39
Vosseller, W. P. 8-37

Wagner, K. 8-26
Waitkus, J. 4-196, 4-217
Walker, A. B. 4-46, 7-3, 8-21, 8-35

A-24
Wallach, A. 4-217
Wallin, S. c. 8-7
Walsh, G. W. 4-135, 4-137
Walter, E. 8-40, 8-42
Walters, D. F. 8-24
Wanta, R. C. 8-36
Waple, E. R. 4-86
Warner, D. L. 4-86
Wasser, J. H. 7-2, 8-17
Watson, K. S. 8-14
Weatherley, D. 8-40
Weaver, L. 8-25
Weber, E. J. 4-188, 4-191
Weber, E. V. 4-204, 4-211
Wechselblatt, P. M. 8-28
Wegman, L. S. 8-21
Weil, S. A. 4-203, 4-204
Wene, A. W. 8-24
Went, F. W. 8-43
Wentink, G. 8-17
Weston, R. F. 3-66, 8-25
Wettig, K. 8-4
Weyers, W. 8-14
Wheeler, D. H. 8-32
Whiddon, 0. D. 8-12

White, H. J. 4-90, 4-101, 4-102

Whitwam, K. B. 8-29

Wiemer, P. 8-40

Wiley, J. S. 8-25

A-25
Wilhoyte, H. J. 4-190
Willett, H. P. 8-32, 8-34
Williams, C. E. 4-134, 4-135, 4-136
Williams, D. I. T. 8-31
Williams, G. C. 4-187, 4-190, 4-196
Williams, R. E. 8-24
Williamson, J. E. 8-21, 8-23, 8-24
Williamson, J. T. 3-78
Wilson, E. L. 4-1, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-35, 4-112,
6-4
Wilson, J. G. 8-37
Wood, C. 8-7
Woodland, R. G. 8-24
Woodruff, P. H. 8-24
Wright, C. H. 8-11

Yagi, S. 4-190, 4-196

Yamaki, N. 8-6
Yocum, J. E. 8-38
Y okomiyo, K. 8-32
York, 0. H. 4-73
Young, P. A. 4-111, 8-30

Zaitsev, M. M. 8-28
Zanon, D. 8-33, 8-34
Zavodny, S. 8-22
Zender, W. 8-4
Zeschmann, E. G. 8-3
Zhevnovatyi, A. N. 4-85
Zhigalina, I. s. 8-28

A-26
 CONTROL TECHNOLOGY FOR PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS
SUBJECT INDEX

A
Acid manufacturing (see specific acid)
Aerosol
definition of 2-1
Afterburners
discussion of 4-184-4-213
typical applications of 4-213, 4-217
Aircraft
particulate emission sources 2-4-2-5
Apartment house incinerators
general discussion of 3-81-3-83

Asphalt batch plants

emissions from 3-43-3-44

control device used in 3-43-3-44

Automobile disposal 3-70-3-72

Automobiles
emission sources 2-4, 3-3-3-7
Automotive emission control systems 3-3-3-7

Baffles (impingement) 4-73-4-74

Baghouse filters (see Fabric filtration)

Blast furnaces
control devices used in 3-34-3-35

A-27
 c
Carbon black manufacturing
emissions from 3-53

control devices used in 3-53

Cement manufacturing
emissions from 3-41-3-42, 4-175

control devices used in 3-41-3-42, 4-111, 4-175-4-176

Centrifugal collectors (dry)

discussion of 3-16-3-18, 4-15-4-29
applications of 4-29
Cleaning of fabric filters 4-164-4-170
Coffee processing
emissions from 3-54-3-56
control devices used in 3-55-3-56
Coke manufacturing
emissions from 3-45-3-48
control devices used in 3-46-3-48
Collection efficiency of control equipment 4-10, 4-19-4-24, 4-34-4-35,
4-107-4-109, 6-4
Combustion sources 2-3-2-4
Commercial and industrial incinerators
description of 3-77-3-80
Composting
description of 3-69-3-70
Contaminant (see Pollutant)
Costs of control equipment
general 6-1-6-64
maintenance and operating 6-15, 6-18, 6-19
gravitational collectors 6-22

A-28
 centrifugal collectors (dry) 6-22
wet collectors 6-23
electrostatic precipitators 6-25
filtration 6-25-6-26
afterburners 6-26-6-27
Cotton ginning
emissions from 3-56
control methods in 3-56
Cyclone collectors (see Centrifugal
collectors)

Demolition of masonry
emissions from 3-58

Design of combustion systems 3-3-3-9

Diesel-powered vehicles
emissions of 3-7-3-9

Disposal of collected particulate

material 6-54-6-64

Domestic incinerators 3-77

Dust
definition of 2-1

Electrostatic precipitators
(high voltage)
discussion of 3-19, 4-87-4-112

applications of 4-7-4-9, 4-109

Electrostatic precipitators (low voltage)

3-19, 4-113-4-126
discussion of
4-122, 4-123
applications of

A-29
Emission factors
general 5-1-5-11

coal combustion 5-2

process industries 5-11

Energy conservation 3-25, 3-27

Energy source fuels 3-11

Energy substitution 3-20-3-25

Fabric filtration
discussion of 3-19, 4-127-4-184
application of 4-127-4-128, 4-175-4-180
Fabrics (filter) 4-146-4-148, 4-158-4-164
Federal assistance for solid waste
programs 3-86-3-87
Filters (irrigated wet) 4-66
Flue fed incinerators (see Apartment
house incinerators)
Fly ash
definition of 2-2
Fog
definition of 2-2
Foundries (gray iron)
emissions from 3-37-3-38, 4-176
control devices used in 3-38, 4-176
Fume
definition of 2-2

A-30
 G
Gas cleaning devices 3-16-3-19, 4-1-4-3
Gasoline-fueled vehicles
emissions of 2-4, 3-3-3-7
Glass manufacturing
emissions from 3-51-3-53
process description of 3-51-3-53
Gypsum processing
emissions from 3-53-3-54
control devices used in 3-53-3-54

I
Incineration of solid wastes 3-73-3-85

Incinerator control equipment

efficiency of 3-73-3-85
Incinerators (see specific type)
Industrial sources of particulates 2-4

Iron and steel mills

emissions from 3-34-3-37

control devices used in 3-34-3-37

K
Kraft pulp mills
emissions from 3-42-3-43

control devices used in 3-42-3-43, 4-112

Landfills
general description of 3-65-3-67

A-31
 M
Mist
definition of 2-2

Mist eliminators 4-66-4-76

Motor vehicles
emission sources 2-4, 3-3-3-7

Municipal incinerators
general discussion of 3-83-3-85

control devices for 3-83-3-85

Open burning 3-58, 3-74

Open top incinerators 3-76

Particle
definition of 2-2
Particulate matter
definition of 2-1
Petroleum refineries
emissions from 3-39-3-40
control devices used in 3-39-3-40
Phosphoric acid manufacturing
emissions from 3-45
control device used in 3-45
Pollutant
definition of 2-1

R
Research (current) in control methods 7-1-7-3
Road dust
control of 3-59

A-32
 Road grading
dust generation from 3-59

s
Sandblasting

control of particulates from 3-59-3-60

Scrubbers
centrifugal spray 4-40-4-43
dis integrator 4-61
impingement plate 4-43-4-45
in-line wet 4-63, 4-65
mechanically induced spray 4-59-4-60, 4-62
packed bed 4-51, 4-53-4-56
performance of 3-18-3-19, 4-32-4-65
self-induced spray 4-59, 4-60
venturi 4-44, 4-46-4-51
Settling chambers
discussion of 3-16, 4-10-4-14
applications of 4-13-4-14
Shutdown of emission sources 3-30
Sintering plants
control devices used in 3-34

Smelters
emissions from 3-32, 3-49-3-50

Smoke
definition of 2-2

Soap and detergent manufacturing

emissions from 3-50-3-51

control devices used in 3-50-3-51

A-33
Solid waste
definition of 3-62-3-63

quantity produced 3-63-3-65

Soot
definition of 2-2

Source relocation 3-20

Sources of particulate matter 2-3

Spray chambers 4-35-4-38

Spray nozzles
types of 4-78-4-81, 4-83

Sprays
definitions of 2-2

Spray towers 4-39-4-41

Stationary combustion sources 3-10-3-15

Steel furnaces
control devices used in 3-35-3-36
emissions from 3-35-3-36
Sulfuric acid manufacturing
emissions from 3-44
control devices used in 3-44, 4-112

w
Wet collectors
discussion of 4-32-4-86
Wood waste incinerators
emissions from 3-76-3-77

A-34
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1869 0 - 331-716