Installation All Final PDF

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ILLUMINATION
1.1. LIGHTING
Light is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which produces the visual sensation upon
the human eye. The sensation of color is due to the difference in wavelength of the light
radiations. Whi te light, such as given by the sun, is composed of different color each having
different wavelengths. These are:
0.300 – 0.436 micrometer----------Violet

0.436 - 0.495 >> ---------------------Blue
0.495 - 0.566 >> ---------------------Green
0.566 - 0.589 >> --------------------Yellow
0.589 - 0.627 >> --------------------Orange
0.627 - 0.780 >> --------------------Red
In general, light is an electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, x -rays etc. We can classify
electromagnetic waves as visible and invisible waves.
* Visible waves: daylight, radiations from candles and lamps.

* Invisible waves: x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves.
v = fλ
Where:
v is speed of light,
f is frequency and,
λ is wave length
-8 -10
Angstrom unit (Ǻ): 1Ǻ=10 cm=10 m
λ of red light = 7500 Ǻ
λ of violet light = 4000 Ǻ
λ of blue light =5000 Ǻ
λ of yellow light =6500 Ǻ
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 Those colours of white light having wa ve lengths of less than 0.3 micro meter belongs to the
ultra violet range and those with wave lengths greater than 0.8 micro meter belong to the
infrared range. The visible spectrum ranges is from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers.
 Human eye is most sensitive to lig ht having wavelengths of about 0.555 micrometer in the
green portion of the spectrum.
 Maximum power of light is radiated when the wavelength is about 0.5 micrometer, which is
approximately the wavelength at which the human eye is most sensitive.
Illumination refers to the provision of sufficient lighting either by natural means (e.g. sun
light) or artificial light sources (e.g. electric lamps).
Terms used in Illumination
Luminous Flux: It is the total quantity of light energy radiated/ pro duced per second from a
luminous body in the form of light waves. It is measured in lumens. It is represented by symbol
φ. Approximate relation b/n lumen & electric unit of power i.e. watt is given as 1 lumen=0.0016
watt (approx.)
2. Luminous Intensity (I) : It is the amount of luminous flux emi tted by a source per unit solid
angle. It is measured in candela or lumens per steradian. i.e. I =φ / ω,
1 Candela = 1 Lumen / steradian
Where the solid angle is measured in Steradians (ω). It is the angle generated by the surface
passing through the light point in space and periphery of the area. It was denoted by ω. Solid
angle was given by the ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the distance between the
2 2
area and the point. i.e. A / r . Since the surface of a sphere has an area equal to 4πr ;
2 2
∴ Total angle, ω=4πr / r = 4π steradians
3. Illumination (intensity of illumination) (E) - it is the luminous flux received by a surface per
unit area of surface. Its unit depends upon the units in which area is measured. It is measured
in lumens per square meter or lux or meter candle. Mathematically, E=φ/A
4. Luminous effic iency (k): a measure of unit lumens per watt (lm/W). It can be thought of as
the ‘efficiency’ of the light source.
5. Luminance, L : The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the apparent area of the source of light
(or illuminated areas).
2
2
L = I/A [cd/m ]
6. Coefficient of utilization:
This is a factor showing the ratio of the lumens reaching on the working plane to the total
lumens generated by the source. It depends on the dimension of the room to be illuminated,
the reflectance of the walls, ceilings, and floors, the lamp out put of reflectors and diffusers
used and the position of the lamp.
7. Maintenance Factor: The light obtained from a light source may be affected by variables due
to dire, ageing of the lamp, e.t.c. The MF takes in to account such effects.
Illumination Laws
▪ Inverse square law:
The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the distance between so urce & surface,
provided that the distance between the surface & the source is sufficiently large so that source
can be regarded as a point source. This is known as Inverse square Law.
Let, E1 be the illumination on surface A1,
E2 be the illumination on surface A2,
Since exactly the same luminous flux falls on A1 & A2 we can have the relation,
ф= E1A1= E2A2
E2 = E1A1/A2
2
= E1 (d1/d2)
2
i.e. E ~ 1/d Where d is the perpendicular distance from the light source.
3
2
E = IcosӨ/h Or cosӨ = d/h, h = d/cosӨ
Q
3 2
E =Icos Ө/d this is known as Lambert Cosine Law
Q
Thus the illumination depends not only on the perpendicular distance from the light source but
also on the angle that the light falls on the area to be illuminated.
Examples:
1. A 250W sodium -vapour street lamp emits a light of 22,500 cd and is situated 5m above the
road. Calculate the luminance
a) directly below the lamp and
b) at a horizontal distance along the road of 6m
2. Two light sources each having a uniform intensity of 64,000 cd is mounted 8m high. If the
illumination midway between the lamps on ground level is same as the illuminat ion level
produced by one of the lamp vertically below it, calculate the distance between the poles.
1.2. LIGHT SOURCE AND APPLICATION

Light is a form of energy, which is radiated or sent out from a source in a waveform. It is part of
a whole family of electromagnetic wave. Light sources can either be natural (sun) or artificial
(e.g. electric lamps).
Generally, electric lamps can be classified in to:
a) Incandescent lamps
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b) Discharge lamps.
When an electric current passes through a fine metallic wi re, heat is produced and the
temperature of the wire increases. At low temperature the wire radiates heat energy. As the
temperature of the wire increases due to heating, it radiates heat as well as light energy.
Incandescent lamps
The incandescent la mp consists of a glass globe completely evacuated or gas filled and a fine
wire known as filament, which is heated to white heat by the passage of electric current. The
filament of modern lamps are normally made of tungsten since this material has a very h igh
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melting point (3400 c) and can be manufactured in the form of a suitably thin wire. The bulbs of
smaller lamps are evacuated to prevent oxidization of the filament. But, in many lamps, an inert
gas such as argon is introduced. This enables the filament to operate at a higher temperature
without undue deterioration due to the evaporation, which tends to take place in a vacuum.
The materials, which can be used for the filament, are: carbon, osmium, tantalum and tungsten.
These metals are selected due to their high melting points.
The main advantages of incandescent lamp are:
a) The filament has a more compact formation.
b) Heat losses due to conviction currents in the gas are reduced, thus giving a higher efficiency.
There are two types of incandescent lamps:
1. Vacuum lamps
- air is evacuated from the glass bulb.
0
- operates only up to around 2000 c.
2. Gas-filled
- the glass bulb is filled with inert gases(Ne or Ar)
0
- operates up to around 2500 c.
- in gas-filled lamps, the bulb is so bright that it is given an opaque coating internally.
The light out put of incandescent lamps is about 10 to 15 lm/W. Thus:
- a 25W IL produces about 250 to 375 lm.
The average lifetime of incandescent lamps is about 2 000 hours when operating at rated
voltage.
An incandescent lamp gives out light at all frequencies including DC.
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Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages
- low efficiency and
- coloured light.
To overcome these drawbacks, the gaseous discharge lamp has been developed.
Discharge Lamps
When an electric current is passed through certain gases visible light is produced. Gases are
normally pure conductors especially at atmospheric pressure, but applications of suitable voltage
called, ignition voltage, across the two electrodes can result in a discharge through the gas, which
is accompanied by electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength of the radiation depends up on the
gas, its pressure, and the metal vapour used in the lamp. Although the current is small, a fairly
high voltage is required to maintain the discharge. For most discharge lamps the striking voltage
required is higher than the running voltage. So some means of limiting the running current is
required. Argon gas and sodium vapou r are commonly employed in the manufacture of gaseous
discharge lamps.
● Colours of Discharge Lamps
The colour of the light emitted depends upon the type of gas used. The colour obtained from
some of the gases and vapours commonly employed are listed in the table below
Electric discharge lamps can in general be classified as cold-cathode and hot-cathode
Gas or vapour Colour of Light

Neon Red
Hydrogen Pink
Nitrogen Ivory
Mercury (low pressure) Buff
Mercury (high pressure) Blue together with strong ultra-violet emission
Sodium Bluish white with less ultra-violet emission Yellow
 Cold-cathode:
In some type of discharge lamp the electrodes are not heated. These types are therefore known as
cold cathode lamps, an example of this being the ordinary neon tube.
Uses a high voltage (3.5KV) for its operation.
They are familiar as fluorescent tubes with 25mm in diameter, either straight, curved, or bent
to take a certain form for general lighting purpose.
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The electrodes of these lamps are not preheated. e.g. Neon lamps.
● Hot-cathode:
In other type of discharge lamp the electrodes are heated, as this reduces the voltage required to
strike and maintain the discharge. Lamps using heated electrodes are known as hot cathode
lamps. A typical ex ample is the ordinary fluorescent lamp. The hot cathodes are usually in the
form of short filament which may be heated either by passing a heating current through it or by
the discharge current itself.
Are commonly called fluorescent lamps.
Are more commonly used type of discharge lamps.
Available in tube lengths of 2.5m, 1.7m 1.3m or 30cm.
Electrodes are heated and operating voltage is low or medium.
To assist starting the mercury vapour is mixed with argon gas.
Hot cathode lamps are p roduced as sodium vapour lamps, high -pressure mercury vapour lamps,
and fluorescent lamps.
● High pressure mercury vapour lamps:
It consists of a quartz tube containing mercury at high pressure and a little argon gas to assist
starting. There are two mai n electrodes and auxiliary electrode connected through a high
resistance. The auxiliary electrode is used to start the discharge. A choke is provided to limit a
current to a safe value.
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F
ig.1.1 typical high -pressure mercury vapour lamps: (a) basic cir cuit (b) modern mercury vapour
lamp.
A capacitor is connected in parallel to the lamp to improve its power factor. The initial discharge
takes place in the argon gas between the auxiliary (starting) electrode and main electrode close to
it. This causes th e main electrode to heat up and the main discharge between the main electrodes
takes place.
The high pressure mercury vapour lamp has an efficiency of about 40 -50lm/W they are
manufactured in 250 and 400W ratings for use on 220 -250v a.c. supply mains. The ir application
is mainly for industrial and street lighting, commercial and display lighting.
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● Sodium vapour lamps:
Is a double glass container, the inner glass tube filled with Neon and Argon gas and some sodium
drops. When the supply is switched on, the lamp would not start as the supply voltage is too low
to start the discharge. The leak trans former is connected across the mains produces a starting
voltage of about 400v. Then the Neon Argon gas starts the discharge, and afterwards the sodium
vaporizes and the discharge continues.
Fig. 1.2 Sodium vapour lamps
● Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):
Certain materials, such as calcium halo phosphate, emit visible light whenever they absorb ultra -
violet light. This phenomenon is known as fluorescence and may be used to produce a very
efficient typ e of lamp. If a tube of a discharge lamp containing mercury vapour is coated
internally with an even layer of fluorescent material a considerable proportion of the ultra -violet
light caused by the discharge is converted into useful visible light. Low -pressure mercury vapour
lamps:
- consists of glass tube filled with mercury vapour at low pressure.
- is provided with two electrodes coated with electron emissive material.
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- the inner wall of the tube is coated with fluorescent powder which transforms
ultraviolet radiation in to visible radiation or light.
The light out put of fluorescent lamp is 70 lm/w and has an average life of about 7500 hrs.
The application includes lighting of shops, homes, factories, streets, ships, transport (buses and
trains), e.t.c.
Using this tubes it is quite possible to achieve high lighting intensity without excessive
temperature rise and, owing to the nature of light sources, the danger of glare is minimized.
The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumen s per watt, which is about three times the
efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp.
Fluorescent tubes are available in the following sizes:
Fluorescent lamp circuits
Fig 1.3 shows the basic switch start circuit, which operates as follows:
When the supply is switched on with the starter switch, s, closed a current flows through the
inductor, L, and through the lamp electrodes. The initial current heat the lamp electrodes in
readiness for striking the lamp. The starting switch is now opened making a sudden interruption
in the current flowing through the inductor and so causing a high voltage to be Lamp Electrode
Starter switch AC supply Inductor L C momentarily induced (Note that breakin g an inductive
circuit causes high voltage to appear across the break in contacts, and energy is released in the
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form of an arc. in this case, however, there is an easier way for the energy to dissipate - via the
gas, and the high voltage appears across the end of the tube). This voltage starts a discharge
between the two lamp electrodes and the current rapidly rises to value determined mainly by the
inductance of inductor. The starter witch is left open while the lamp is alight, the electrodes
maintaining their operating temperature as long as they continue to pass the discharge current. In
practice it is desirable that the starter switch should operate automatically, switching on when the
supply is first on then switching off to strike the lamp and remainin g of all the time that the lamp
is alight. Due to the inductor the lamp current loges the supply voltage (at approximately 0.5 p.f)
a capacitor, C, is usually connected between the lamp terminals to improve the overall power to
an acceptable value.
● Starters
Three methods are commonly available for starting the discharge in a fluorescent tube: the
thermal starter, the glow start and the quick start.
▪ Thermal type start
The thermal type starter switch has two contacts mounted on bi -metal strips, a smal l heating coil
being fitted very close to the bi-metal strips but not electrical contact between them. The contacts
arc normally closed so that the main supply is first switched on full heating current passes
through the lamp electrodes as before. The curr ent also flows through the starter heater and so
warms the bi -metal strips. After a short time the be -metal strips warms sufficiently to bend and
open the contacts thus striking the lamp. As long as the lamp remains alight current flows
through the starter heater keeping the contacts apart. a small capacitor is often connected in
parallel with the starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.
▪ Glow type start
The glow type starter switch consists of a small bulb filled with helium and containin g two
contacts, one of which is mounted on a bi -metal strip. The contacts are normally open so that
when the main supply is firs switched on full main voltage is applied to the starter contacts. This
causes a glow discharge, which warms the bi -metal strip making it bends, so closing the starter
contacts. The closing of the starter contacts allows full heating current to pass through the lamp
electrodes and also extinguish the glow discharge. After a short time the bi -metal strip cools
sufficiently to open t he circuit thus striking the lamp. As long as the lamp remains alight the
voltage applied to the starter is insufficient to initiate a glow discharge and so the starter contacts
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remain open until the next starting operation. A small capacitor is often conn ected in parallel
with the starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.
Fig.1.4 Stages in striking of a fluorescent tube, using glow-type starter switch

(a) Contacts snap open, causing arc to strike between electrodes
(b) Glow discharge between bimetal contacts
(c) Bimetal heated; contacts close, bimetal then cools
▪ Quick type start or Instant type start
In the case of the quick start or instant start, starting is achieved by the use of autotransformer
and an earthed metal strip in close proximity to the tube.
When the supply is switched on, mains voltage appears across the end of the tube, and the small
part of the winding at each end of the transformer energizes the filaments, which heat up. The
difference in potential between the elec trodes and the earthed strip causes ionisation, which
spreads along the tube.
● Stroboscopic Effect
A disadvantage of fluorescent lamp is that as the alternating discharge current passes through
zero twice every cycle the light produced tend to flicker at twice of main frequency. Although
this effect is not noticeable to the eye, m achinery rotating at certain speed may appear to be
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stationary or moving more slowly than it really is. This is known as the stroboscopic effect and is
obviously a cause of danger in situations such as workshops where rotating machinery is in use.
a) If a three-phase supply is available the stroboscopic effect can be minimized by connecting
lamps to alternate phases. As the lamps in the circuit attains their maximum and
minimum values, the light output in sequence of overall illumination is kept practicall y
constant thereby keeping the stroboscopic effect to a minimum.
c) If only a single -phase supply is available then the ‘lead lag ’ circuit shown in figure below
may be used. In this circuit lamp A, is supplied via and inductor and so has a lagging
current, both an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series with lamp B. The
inductor is required to supply the initial starting surge. But, when the lamp is a light, the
effect of the capacitor predominates so that the lamp takes a leading current . It follows
that when one lamp is producing its minimum light output the other is producing its
maximum and so, by using this circuit the stroboscopic effect is greatly reduced.
1.3. PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES
A good lighting system should produce:
 Uniform illumination of not less than the required value.
 It should be free from glare and hard shadows.
In fact and endeavour should be made to have quality of light as close to day light as possible.
The interior lighting schemes may be classified as: -

i. Direct light
ii. Semi- direct lighting
iii. Semi-indirect lighting
iv. Indirect lighting and
v. General lighting
1. Direct light : - the most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this scheme more than
90% of total light flux is made to fall directly on the working plane with the help of deep
reflectors. Though it is more efficient but causes hard shadows and glare. It is mainly used for
industrial and general out-door lighting.
2. Semi-direct lighting : - in this lighting scheme 60 -90% of the total ligh t flux is made to fall
down wards directly with the help of semi -direct reflectors. The remaining light is used to
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illuminate the ceiling and walls. Such a lighting scheme is best suited to rooms with high
ceiling where there is a high level of uniformity of illumination is desired.
Besides this scheme avoids glare, it also improves the efficiency of the system with reference
to the working plane.
3. Semi indirect lighting : -in this scheme 60 -90% of total light flux is thrown up wards to the
ceiling for r eflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly except for some
absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme has soft shadows and is glare free. It is mainly
used for indoor decoration purpose.
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Fig 1 a) Type of reflectors b) Lighting fittings, types and performance
4. Indirect lighting scheme: - in this scheme more than 90% of total light flux is thrown upwards
the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflector. In this scheme the glare is
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reduce to minimum. The resulting illumination is soft and more diffused. The shadows are less
prominent and the appearance of the room is much improved. It is used for decoration purpose
in cinemas, theatres and hotels etc. and in areas where troublesom e shadows are produced if
direct light in lighting is employed.
5. General lighting: - in this scheme lamps made of diffusing glass are used, which gives nearly
equal illumination in all directions.
All fittings may be reduced to five basic types accordi ng to their light distribution as shown in
fig.1
Design of lighting schemes
The lighting scheme should be such that it may,
I. provide adequate illumination
II. Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible
III. Provide light of suitable colour.
IV. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible
1. Illumination level: - In order to see the details of the things that surround us the source has to
illuminate them very well in order the objects take the necessary brigh tness. For each type of
work there is a range of brightness most favourable to output in terms of quality and quantity.
Degree of illumination, to give necessary brightness to objects, depends upon:
I. the size of the object and distance of the observer.
II. Contrast between the object and background. Greater the contrast greater will be the
illumination required to distinguish the object properly.
III. speed of object - Speedy object require more illumination.
IV. duration of gazing - Object seen for long duration of time require more illumination.
2. Uniformity of Illumination: - It has been found that visual performance is best if the range of
brightness within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1, which can be achieved by
employing general lighting in addition to localised lighting. Otherwise due to the frequent
accommodation of pupil or iris of the eye, fatigue is caused and it creates psychological felling
of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.
3. Colour of light : - The appearance of the body colour entirely depends upon the colour of the
incident light. In general the composition of the light should be such that the colour appears
natural.
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4. Shadows: - In lighting installation, formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue and are
undesirable. However a certain amount of shadow is desired as it helps to give shapes to solid
objects and make them easily recognized. But there is one exception to this i.e. in drawing
offices, where we are to see flat surfaces. Hard and long shadow can be avoided by: a)
Rising a large number of luminaries mounted at a height not less than 2.5m.
b) By using wide surface of light - using globes or indirect lighting system.
5. Glare: - Glare is generally produced by very bright sources of light, which emit light directly
or at very low angle towards the viewer. This causes the person to neglect the other
surrounding objects, as they appear darker and is a major cause of road accidents. The glare is
also caused by highly polished surfaces when the angles are incorrect. This also tends to
damage retina of the eye. Glare may be direct or indirect. Motorcar headlights produces direct
glare.
In other words glare may be defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a
character a s to cause annoyance, discomfort interference with the vision or eye fatigue.
Therefore, glare is to be avoided at any cost. For this purpose very bright point sources of light
should be avoided. Highly reflective surfaces should be replaced by Mat surface s, which cause
diffusion. The angle of light should be such that it does not dazzle the person. A surface, which is
almost free from mirror reflection, is called a mat surface. The factories act discusses the matter
and lays down regulations to prevent it. If a glare is produced by a lighting point, such as
incandescent lamp, it can be avoided by the use of globes or making the light source at such a
height that to place them above the ordinary range of vision.
In fulfilling the above requirements, in designing a good lighting scheme, we have to consider
i. The intensity of illumination required
ii. The selection of the required lamps and fittings
iii. The size of the room
iv. The conditions under which the illumination is used etc
The recommended illu mination level for various occupancies is shown in Tables given on page
40 and subsequent.
The choice of lamps for different type of occupancies differs. Tubular fluorescent and tungsten
filament lamps can be used when lighting is to be done in small prem ises. But in large premises,
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the lighting can be carried out by using high intensity sources such as mercury or sodium
discharge lamps.
The following are some of the conditions that should be considered when the illuminations are
used:
► Utilization Factor (η whole light radiated by the lamps doesn’t reach the working plane.
B) the
the ratio of lumens reaching the working plane to the total light given out by the lamp or lamps,
when the installation is new, is known as utilization factor or coefficient of utilization. the value
of utilization factor depends upon:
i) the mounting height of lamps
ii) area to be illuminated
iii) type of lighting scheme
iv) colour of the surrounding, etc.
► Spacing Luminaries: - correct spacing is of grea t importance to provide uniform illumination
over the whole area. The ratio of the horizontal spacing between rows to the height of the
luminaries above the working plane, called space to height ratio, depends quite on luminous
output, type of lighting sch eme and on the extent of candlepower distribution curve of the
luminare. Mounting height is largely governed by the type of the building and type of lighting
scheme employed.
The term “general lighting” implies that the illumination at the working level s hould
not vary substantially throughout the room. Therefore it is apparent that the fitting
for general lighting should not be so placed that the illumination received from each
fitting overlaps and builds up that of its neighbours. That means the distance lights
source from the wall should be equal to one half of the distance between two
adjacent light sources. Also distance between lighting fittings should not exceed 1.5
times the mounting height.
In the case of direct and semi -direct luminaries, it is g enerally advisable to mount them high
considering a normal ceiling height and average size floor area. With fluorescent luminaries it is
3
good practice to aim at a value of unity for this ratio and to set on upper limit of / . In the case of
4
indirect and semi-indirect luminaries, it is a good practice to aim at a horizontal spacing between
rows approximately equal to the height of the ceiling above the working plane, and in no case
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1
should the horizontal spacing exceed 1 / times this height. In case of dire ct and semi -direct
3
lighting scheme.
► Colour of Surrounding Walls : - the illumination in a room depends upon the light reflected
from walls and ceilings. White walls and ceilings reflect more light as compared to collared ones.
► Maintenance Factor - as we are to continue to use the installation, the illumination produced
considerably decreases due to ageing of the lamps and accumulation of dusts on the lamps,
reflectors, ceiling and walls. Its value is more if there is much as the ageing problem increase s,
etc. The value is mostly ranges between 0.8 and 1. The other term used is depreciation factor ,
which is merely the inverse of the maintenance factor. Its value is more than unity.
Methods of lightning calculation
In order to estimate the number and the type of light fittings required to suit a particular
environment, it is necessary to know what level of luminance is required, the area to be
illuminated, the maintenance factor a nd the coefficient of utilization, and the efficiency of the
lamps to be used. A number of methods have been employed for lighting calculations among
which may be mentioned:
A. Watts per square metre method

B. Lumen or Light flux method
► Watts per Squa re Meter method : - applicable for rough calculations. It consists in making
an allowance of watts per square meter of area to be illuminated accordingly to the illumination
desired on the assumption of the average figure of an overall efficiency of the sys tem. According
2
to NEC 220-3(d) this figure is about 3 watt per ft .
Example: - A house has an external dimension of 30ft by 50ft. If an 80w fluorescent lamps, and
220V supply is used, determine the size of the service wire and the number of lamps required.
Solution:
A = 30ft X 50ft = 1500ft
Total wattage required = 1500 X 3w = 4500w ⇒ 4.5Kw
No of lamps required = 4.5Kw/80w = 56.1 ⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w
Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V = 20.5A
Therefore, the size of the cable will be conductor if there is no any correction factor.
► Lumen or Light flux or efficiency method : - it is the most advisable method to be used. Lumens' rea
calculated as:
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1. A road 300 m long is required to be illuminated by providing 40W fluorescent lamps. The width of the
lighting scheme for obtaining minimum level of illumination of 0.6 lux assuming a mounting height o
utilization. (In designing you have to determine the distance between the poles and find out the numbe
given distance.)
2. A light assembly shop, 15m long, 9m wide and 3m up to trusses, is to be illuminated to a le vel o
maintenance factors are respectively 0.9 and 0.8. Make a scale drawing of the plan of the shop and set
points, assuming the use of tungsten lamps and dispersive metallic reflectors. You may assu me a lam
spacing height ratio of unity.
2
2. A hall 30m X 15m height is to be provided with a general illumination of 120 lm/m taking a co
depreciation factor 1.4 and appropriate space -height ratio, determine the no. of fluorescent tubes requ
height and total wattage. Take luminous efficiency of fluorescent tubes as 40lm/W for 80-watt tube.
 Inverse square law method
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This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more sources of light is required, th
in the particular direction under consideration being known. If we were to illuminate a surface by means of a
above it, measure the illumin ation at the surface, and then move the lamp twice as far away, the illumination
times less. If it were moved away three times the original distance the illumination would be nine times less
Fig. 1.6
Hence it will be seen that the illuminance on a surface is governed by the square of the vertical distance of th
1.6).
Example
A light source of 900 candelas is situated 3 m above a working surface. (a)
Calculate the illuminance directly below the source. (b) What would be the
Illuminance if the lamp were moved to a position 4 m from the surface?
Cosine rule
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From Fig. 10.16 it will be seen that point X is further from the source than is
Point Y. The illuminance at this point is therefore less. In fact the illuminance
at X depends on the cosine of the angle . Hence,
Fig. 1.7.
Example
A 250 W sodium vapor street lamp emits a light of 22 500 cd and is situated 5 m above the road . Calcula
below the lamp and (b) At a horizontal distance along the road of 6 m. (Fig. 1.8).
Fig. 1.8
From Fig. 1.8, it can be seen that the illuminance at A is given by
122,500
A 2
Elx 900
d 25
The illuminance at B is calculated as follows. Since the angle _ is not known, it can be found most simply by
AB 6
 
tan1.2
d 5
22
From tangent tables, ϴ=50.20 and from cosine tables,
Cos 50.20=0.64

32
Ixcos22,5000.64
Therefore, Elx
B  2
236
d 25
Allowable Illumination Levels To Various Locations & Rooms Of (Roads, Offices, Schools And Factories
ROADS
Classification of Type of Road Average level of
Lighting Installation illumination on road
surface
Group A Important traffic route carrying 30
1
fast traffic
Group A Other main roads carrying a 15
2
mixed traffic
Group B Secondary roads with 8
1
considerable traffic
Group B Secondary road with light 4
2
traffic
Note- Excellent illumination is considered when the distance apart is not more than 8 times the height
of the luminaries. Normal spacing for standard lamps is 50 metres with a mounting height of 8 metres.
Offices
Level of Illumination Place
(lux)
1500 - 750 Offices, design and drawing rooms
750 - 300 Offices, conference rooms, computer rooms
300 - 100 Kitchens, ordinary work rooms, corridors,
stairways and toilets
Schools
1500 - 300 Precision drawing or drafting, laboratory rooms
750 - 200 Class rooms, library reading rooms, experiment
demonstration rooms, staff rooms and gymnasium
300 - 75 Lecture halls, assembly rooms, locker rooms,
23
corridors, stairways and toilets
Factories
Level of Illumination Place
(lux)
3000 - 1500 Where such work as inspecting, testing, selecting
and specially as machine tool operation is carried
out
1500 - 750 Inspecting, testing, selecting, welding and machine
shops
750 - 300 Inspecting, testing, selecting, welding and
machining and wrapping.
300 - 150 Wrapping and crating, welding and machining.
Data On Commonly Used Light Sources

Wattage Nominal Nominal Luminous Flux
Without With A.C. Current Without With Base
Ballast Voltage Luminescent material
in watt in watt In voltage in amp in lumen in lumen
With yttrium vanadate luminescent material
50 59 220 0.6 --- 2000 E 27
80 89 220 0.8 --- 3800 E 27
125 137 220 1.15 --- 6300 E 27
250 266 220 2.15 --- 13500 E 40
400 425 220 3.25 --- 23000 E 40
700 735 220 5.4 --- 40000 E 40
1000 1045 220 7.5 --- 55000 E 40
Metal halide lamps (with dysprosium iodide)
250 275 220 3.0 21000 17000 E 40
360 385 220 3.5 28000 26000 E 40
1000 1040 220 9.5 80000 80000 E 40
24
2000 2070 380 8.8 190000 80000 E 40
3500 3650 380 18.0 300000 --- E 40
High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps
Wattage Nominal Luminous Flux
Without With a.c. Nominal Without With Base
Ballast Voltage Current Diffusing glass
in watt in watt in voltage in amp in lumen in lumen in watt
70 83 220 1.0 --- 5800 E 27
150 170 220 1.8 14500 14000 E 40
210 232 220 2.25 --- 18000 E 40
250 275 220 3.0 25500 25000 E 40
350 385 220 3.45 --- 34000 E 40
400 450 220 4.4 48000 47000 E 40
1000 1090 220 10.3 130000 120000 E 40
General-purpose lamps (220V-230V)

Wattage Luminous Flux Base Wattage Luminous Base
at 225V Voltage Flux at 225V
W lm W
40 430 E 27 300 5000 E 40
60 730 E 27 500 8400 E 40
100 1380 E 27 1000 18800 E 40
200 3150 E 27 75 1190 E 40
15 125 E 27 150 2880 E 40
25 235 E 27 750 17040 E 40
Fluorescent lamps
wattage Nominal Length Luminous flux,

Current of lamp acc. to type of lamp
and light colour
Without With out With mm
Ballast
25
W W A lm
Standard Construction
15-2 19.5 0.33 438 500 to 720
18 23 0.37 590 1300 to 1450
20 25 0.37 590 700 to 1250
30-2 39 0.365 895 1150 to 1800
36 45 0.43 1200 3100 to 3450
38 48 0.43 1047 3200 to 3400
40 49 0.43 1200 1600 to 3200
42 52 0.535 1047 2000 to 2500
58 69 0.67 1500 5050 to 5400
65 76 0.67 1500 2600 to 5200
Indium amalgam type, for higher ambient temperature
40 49 0.44 1200 2000 to 2500
65 76 0.7 1500 3300 to 4000
Utilisation Factors
Types of Lighting η Types of Lighting η

B B
Direct 0.6 to 0.45 Semi-indirect 0.45 to 0.3

Semi-direct 0.55 to 0.45 Indirect 0.35 to 0.25
General diffuse 0.5 to 0.35 Indirect ceiling lighting
RECOMMENDED ILLUMINATION LEVELS
SERVICE ILLUMINATION LEVEL (Lux )
Building Areas
- Circulation areas, corridors 100
- Stairways, Escalators 150
26
- Cloak rooms, Toilets 150
Assembly Shops
- Rough work: Heavy machinery assembly 300
- Medium work: Engine, Vehicle body assembly 500
- Fine work: Electronic and Office machinery 750
assembly
Offices
- General offices, Typing, Computer rooms 500
- Deep-Plan general offices 750
- Drawing offices 750
Schools
- Class rooms, Lecture theatres 300
- Laboratories, Libraries, Reading rooms and Art 300
rooms
Shops, Stores and Exhibition Areas
- Conventional Shops 300
- Self-service Shops 500
- Supermarkets 750
Museums and Art galleries
- Light - Sensitive exhibit 150
- Exhibits insensitive to light 300
Public Buildings
- Cinemas 50
- Auditoriums 150
Theatres and Concert Halls
- Auditorium 100
- Foyer 200
Dwelling Houses
- Bed rooms: -
- General 50
- Bed-Head 200
27
Nursery 150
Chapter 2
Electrical installation in consumer premises
2.1. Electrical regulations and Standards
28
General information on wiring regulations
Regulations and standards are two different things: regulations are the law and must be complied
with; standards on the other hand are advisory. They are closely linked together.
A standard is a document specifying nationally or interna tionally agreed properties for

manufactured goods and equipment. As part of this process the manufacturer must show how the
risks and hazards that the equipment will present have been overcome or protected against. This
information is placed in the Technic al Document of the equipment so that it can be inspected
should there be a query by the authorities regarding the equipment’s safety or performance. The
best way to show compliance with a regulation is to use recognized standards in the design and
construction of the product, thereby fulfilling the requirements of the regulation. The British
Standards Institute (BSI), as well as other European and international bodies, publish standards
which give recommendations and guidance on – amongst other things – the selection and use of
various electrical components and cables.
Electrical safety and wiring regulations are here to help to make the electrical systems and
installations safe. They give the basic safety needs, define which kind of circuits to use, materia l
to use and generally specify wiring colors . This standardization makes easier for electrical
installers to make wiring right, make them safe and for somebody else to fix them later safely if
that is needed.
Electrical code is a compromise between saf ety and cost. Most of the world considers 220 V
(220-240V) to be safe enough for standard residential outlets and lighting, and they can wire a
house with about one -half the copper compared to countries that use 120 V. Those countries
which use 120V considered that 220V to be too dangerous for most residential uses.
Some other wiring practices have their good and bad sides. Using a common neutral, saves
copper (or aluminum), but carries some risk, that if done improperly, an overloaded or open
neutral situati on may occur. Using aluminum in wiring saves costs in wiring material, but if
connections done to aluminum wiring are not done carefully they can become loose and cause
fire danger (nowadays aluminum is not generally used in residential installations, usua lly only on
large power feed cables going to distribution board power input).
29
USA/Canada wiring regulations
The National Electrical Code (NEC) is a set of regulations which specify the wiring and safety
practices in use in USA. The NEC speaks to a nominal line voltage of 120 volts with a +/ - 5%
tolerance for a low of 114 volts and a high of 126 volts. Most appliances and electronic
equipment, etc. is designed to work within that voltage range without problems. At higher and
lower voltages, risk of damage i ncreases although most modern appliances are remarkably
tolerant.
The mains power frequency used nowadays in USA is 60 Hz. Many frequencies were used in the
19th Century for various applications, with the most prevalent being the 60 Hz supplied by
Westinghouse-designed central stations for incandescent lamps. The development of a
synchronous converter which operated best at 60 cycles encouraged convergence toward that
standard. Around 1900, the introduction of the high -speed turbine led to settlement on tw o
standards: 25 cycles for transmission and for large motors (this had been a compromise decision
at Niagara Falls), and 60 cycles for general purpose systems.
In USA homes get two-phase 120v. In a typical home in the states you have 3 cables coming into
your panel from the service. Basically, there's a center -tapped step -down (few kV distribution
voltage to 120V+120V AC) transformer on the electrical line pole, with the tap earthed (at least
in theory) and each socket connected across one side of the tran sformer. Larger devices (electric
stoves, central air conditioning units, electric dryers, etc.) are wired across the entire transformer,
receiving 240v.
The power distribution in typical residential house in USA is implemented so that locally (near
the house) a single phase transformer provides a 240 volts center tapped output. This center tap is
grounded at the transformer and called the neutral wire, and then the three wires are run into each
house along the street. The two live (hot) wires each separat ely provide 120 volts relative to the
neutral wire and go to wall outlets to run low power devices (lights, TVs etc.). Power hungry
devices like electric stoves and water heaters which require 240 volts are connected across the
two live or hot wires. These two 120V hot lines with 240V between them wiring system is
sometimes called "two phase power".
30
Each house also has a good local ground which is connected to input mains power neutral wire.
For example typical small house could use system such as an 8 ft ground rod or a cold water pipe
which also goes to each power outlet as the ground pin.
The typical wall outlet in home in USA outputs 120 volts AC. The maximum current that should
be allowed to be drawn from a normal outlet is 15 amps. That means that no thing over 1800
watts should be plugged into that circuit. The 1800 watts is the total for all devices on that same
circuit fed by one breaker in the supply panel. There are grounded and ungrounded power outlets.
In grounded outlets the National Electric C ode (NEC) requires the ground pin to be first -make,
last-break. That's why they're longer in mains connectors than the other contacts, and I doubt
you'd disconnect a ground pin without disconnecting the blades. This connector in the wall is
wired in the following way: The ground pin should be at the bottom, the "hot" blade should be on
the right and the neutral blade (the wider one) should be on the left. The ungrounded outlet is
wired in the same way, just without the ground pin.
For special uses there ar e sometimes higher current outlets available. Sometimes you can see a
20A 120V AC outlet (a little different AC connector than normal 15A). Some very high power
loads like air conditioners usually use 240V two phase outlets (15A or 20A). 3 -phase power is
not typically available in homes in the US. 3 -phase power is it is common in commercial and
industrial installations.
Most household circuits are 15 amp (15 amp receptacles, 14 gauge wire, 15 amp breaker or fuse) .
Today's code requires 20 amp (12 gauge wir e and 20 amp receptacles) in kitchens and dining
rooms, and 12 gauge wire to bathroom outlets, although these are usually 15 amp outlets so one
should not exceed 15 amps. Breakers are designed to trip not so much at the amperage rating (15,
20 etc) but when they get hot - pulling too much current through a wire heat it up, too hot and the
breaker will trip. I f the wire is over 100 feet from the panel to the point of use, the amperage
rating is dropped down one, or else the wire is upped to next thicker wire thickness. It is typical
that electrical panel manufacturers also make the circuit breakers that go into their panels. Circuit
breakers are not interchangeable in other manufacturers' electrical panels.
Circuits are designed so that under normal conditio ns (whatever those are) that the load will not
be more than 80% of the rating - so a 15 amp circuit (120volts x 15 amps = 1800 watts x 80% =
1440 watts) should not regularly exceed 1440 watts. That is why today each bathroom outlet gets
31
its own 20 amp circ uit; a kitchen should have at least 2 small appliance circuits (for outlets) the
disposal, dishwasher, fridge and microwave should each be on their own individual 20 amp
circuit.
Electrical work must be done so that it meets the local and national codes. For most works it
means that you must be a licensed persons and the work may need to be inspected before it is
taken to use.
The National Electrical Code says that electrical equipment be "suitable" for use, and says that
"suitability of equipment MAY be evidenced by listing or labeling". However many localities by
local authorities DO require appropriate listing. Most of all local and national building codes
require that eligible equipment be "safe", and that one of the ways demonstrate safety is for the
product to have earned a safety certification from a Nati onally Recognized Testing Lab ( like
UL). In practice this usually requires that all equipment must be listed, if listed equipment is
rd
available. Listing is done by 3 party safety testing agencies, t wo of which are Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) and Electrical Testing Laboratories (ETL). These agencies list a product if it
has successfully passed the required testing. Standards for testing and listing are established by
the agencies. Standards are not available for all products. UL listing on electrical equipment is
required for code compliance in most areas. UR listing is usually acceptable if the component is
being used in a UL approved panel or piece of equipment.
General
 Aluminum Wiring: Do I Have It And What Should I Do? - Certain properties of aluminum
can cause deterioration of connections, possibly presenting a fire hazard after years of
service. The problem is most marked in homes built in US A during the mid - to late-1960's.
Usage of aluminum in wiring varies between countries.
 Ampacity Ratings for Feeder Cable - as used in USA
 Cable Amperage Guide - ratings used in USA
 Common Electrical Wiring Problems Found in Older Homes
 Construction Electrician
 Construction Electrician Basic - This is a full book on-line.
 Electrical Symbols
32
 Energy Star Programs - meant to reduce the standby power used by equipments
 Do-it-yourselfer shocked by city's electrical code - Generally a permit is needed to "install,
change or repair any hard -wired electrical system. ” But there are local exceptions to those
rules, so you need to be careful what you are allowed to do and what you are not allowed to
do.
 In home electrical safety check - applies to households in USA
 Ground-Fault Protection on Construction Sites - With the wide use of portable tools on
construction sites, the use of flexible cords often becomes necessary. Hazards are created
when cords, cord connectors, receptacles and cord - and plug -connected equipment are
improperly used and maintained. Generally, flexible cords are more vulnerable to damage
than is fixed wiring. GFCIs can be used successfully to reduce electrical hazards on
construction sites.
 Incandescent Dimmer Installation - example manual how to install light dimmer to wall
wiring (instructions for USA).
 National Electrical Code Internet Connection Free Stuff - lots of information
 Ten Tips on becoming familiar with the National Electrical Code
 The National Electrical Code - slide set tells what is it all about
 Underwriters Laboratories Changes Color Coding of Conductor R equirements for Power
Cords in UL 1950 and UL 2601 - For years, the colors of individual conductors in non -
detachable power cords for use in North America have traditionally been black for line,
white for neutral, and green for earth (ground). Now, two ma jor equipment standards, UL
1950, Information Technology Equipment, and UL 2601, Medical and Dental Equipment,
are beginning to require the more traditional European conductor color coding: brown for
line, light blue for neutral, and a combination of green and yellow for ground. Now, UL and
CSA have harmonized with these IEC standards to ensure standardization of these products
around the world.
 Why is that some appliances have a 3-prong outlet while others have only 2 prongs?
Safety
Safety is of utmost importance when working with electricity. Develop safe work habits and stick
to them. Be very careful with electricity. It may be invisible, but it can be dangerous if not
33
understood and respected . The electrical installations should be properly designed, properly
installed and use the necessary safety devices needed on this type of application.
Fuses and circuit breaker are devices which protect wiring and devices against short circuits and
overloads. Circuit breaker is a protective device for each circuit, which automatically cuts off
power from the main breaker in the event of an overload or short. Only a regulated amount of
current can pass through the breaker before it will "trip" . The fuses and circuit breakers generally
connect to the live wires (the ungrounded phase conductor). Where circuit breakers are used to
protect sub -fused circuits, the circuit breakers will almost always trip before the fuses blow.
Circuit breakers also make accidental short circuits less violent.
Ground fault circuit breakers offer protection against more than just overloads, G round fault
protection devices (Residual Current Device/ RCD/, Ground Fault Interrupter/GFI/, Ground Fault
Circuit Interrupters/GFCI/) are good protection devices to give extra protection against accidents.
GFCI's are most often used for protection from hazards associated with "portable" appliances in
wet damp areas. This kind of devices are generally used in dangerous environments like places
near water (electrical outlets outside, bathroom outlets, kitchen outlets), in construction sites and
in work shops for example. As far as the RCD's / GFI 's go, they are not infallible. It is still
possible to pass enough current to kill without reaching th e tripping current, and it's also still
possible to get a live to neutral shock which will look like a normal load to the breaker. These
things should also be tested quite regularly since they can fail. For personal protection 30 mA
offers a high degree of protection and will operate by cutting off the earth fault current well
within the time specified in the IEC Publication 1008/1009. IEC Standard 1008/1009 of 30 mA
sensitivity for domestic and personal protection with the tolerance of 30 mA plus zero and minus
50%, that is, a range from 15 mA to 30 mA.
 Aluminum Wiring in Residential Properties: Hazards & Remedies

 Electrical OSHA training material - Examination, Installation, and Use of Equipment,
Identification of Disconnecting Means and Circuits, Working Space About Electrical
Equipment, Guarding of Live Parts, Identification of Conductors, Polarity of Connections,
Grounding, Grounding Path, Grounding of Equipment Connected by Cord and Plug, Ground
Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI's), Cabinets, Boxes, and Fittings, Flexible Cords and Cables
 Electrical Safety and Health - article collection
34
 Electrical Wiring: Updating for the 21st. Century! - Information on common problems found
in older homes and how to solve them.
 Enclosure Classifications - Industry Standards Enclosure Types for All Locations, Natio nal
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA Standard 250), NEMA/EEC to IEC
 GFCIs
 G.F.C.I. by Sam Goldwasser - good description of GFCI operation
 GFCI Testing
 Ground-Fault Protection on Construction Sites - Insulation and grounding are two recognized
means of preventing injury during electrical equipment operation.
 Hazardous (Classified) Locations - The National Electrical Code (NEC) defines hazardous
locations as those areas "where fire or explosion hazards may exist du e to flammable gases or
vapors, flammable liquids, combustible dust, or ignitable fibers or flyings."
 Hazardous Location Classifications - according NEC
 Lightning Protection
 Making Electrical Connections - Making electrical connections is a fairly common procedure
but needs to be done correctly and carefully. If you don't make tight connections, heat can
build up between the conductors and cause a fire.
 Multi-wire Branch Circuit Wiring P recautions when using Stand -Alone 120 VAC Inverters
or Generators - document describes conventional home wiring and multi -wire branch circuit
wiring
 NFPA's Home Page - latest information about the National Fire Protec tion Association
(NFPA) and it's standards like National Electric Code
 Understanding Industrial Wiring: 3-Phase Electric
There are three types of standards that are important to us:

 British Standards (BS),
 European Harmonized Standards (EN or BS EN),
 International Standards (IEC)
These are of course mainly the concern of the designer but it is as well to be aware that they
exist, as it may explain why one com ponent is used instead of another and why only those
components designated in the parts list must be used.
35
Standards of most importance to us includes the BS EN 60204 (Safety of Machinery Electrical
Equipment of Machines) and BS EN 60947 (IEC947) (Low Volt age Switchgear and Control
gear).
 BS EN 60204 covers the way in which the electrical equipment should be constructed and
includes everything from the selection of components, through the sizes, types and colour of the
wiring, to the electrical tests that should be done on the finished equipment. Within BS EN
60204 there are references to other standards, including BS EN 60947 that will give more detail
on individual parts or components.
 BS EN 60947 and the international standard IEC 947 are in seven part s, giving the specification
and other requirements of the individual components we will use in the equipment.
Part 1 : General Requirements : - defines the rules of a general nature to obtain uniformity in
requirements and tests. Each of the following parts deals mainly with the characteristics,
conditions for operation, methods for testing and marking requirements of the various electrical
components.
Part 2: Circuit-breakers.
Part 3: Switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and fuse combination units.
Part 4: Contactors and motor starters including short circuit and overload protection devices.
Part 5: Control circuit devices and switching elements.
Part 6 : Multiple functions equipment such as that used for automatic emergency power
switching.
Part 7: Ancillary equipment such as terminal blocks used to connect copper conductors.
Basically our control equipment panels should be built to conform to the requirements of BS EN
60204 using components manufactured to conform to the requirements of BS EN 60947 a nd
other related component standards and approvals. An approved component is one whose
manufacture and performance has been checked and proven to meet the specifications set by the
standards authority of an individual country. For example, a part approved in the UK would be
‘BS approved’. These approvals may be important if the equipment is to be exported.
Some other standards authorities are:

 USA ANSI – approvals are made by the Underwriters Laboratory and marked UL.
 Canada, CSA.
36
 Denmark, DEMKO.
 Italy, CEI.
 Norway, NEMKO.
 Germany, DIN/VDE.
 France, NF/UTE.
 Europe, CENELEC.
Some other BSI documents
 PD 2754: Parts 1 and 2.
Part 1 deals with the classification of electrical and electronic equipment with regard to
protection against electric shock, for example whether it is earthed, double insulated or uses a
safe, low voltage supply.
Part 2 is a more detailed guide to the requirements of the various classes as defined in Part 1.
 BS 7452: Specification for transformers of the type used in control panels. Equiva lent to IEC
989: Control transformer specification.
 BS 3939: Graphical symbols. Provides comprehensive details of the symbols to be used in

electrical, electronic and telecommunication diagrams. It is published in 12 parts and is broadly
the same as EN 617 – Parts 2 to 12.
 BS EN 60073: Colors for indicator lamps, push buttons, etc. Provides a general set of rules for
the use of certain colours, shapes, positioning requirements of indicators and actuators to increase
the safety and operational efficiency of equipment.
 BS EN 60204 also provides guidelines specific to the electrical controls for machinery.
 BS EN 60529: Specification for classification of degrees of protection provided by electrical

enclosures. Also known as ‘IP Codes’, it uses a two or three d igit number to define to what
degree the enclosure is sealed to protect the contents against dust, moisture and similar damaging
substances.
37
 BS 6231: Specification for PVC -insulated cable for switchgear and control gear wiring. This
deals with the requirem ents for the wires and cables used in the wiring of control panels up to
600 V/1000V.
The IEE regulations (BS 7671)
The Institute of Electrical Engineers publishes its Regulations for Electrical Installations, which
cover the design, selection and construc tion of electrical installations in buildings generally, and
provide guidance for safety in the design and construction of electrical equipment. Although
mainly concerned with electrical systems in buildings, the information is applicable to machine
control panels because they will be connected to the building’s electrical system. These are now
published as BS 7671. In addition there are guidance notes from the Health and Safety Executive,
and Specifications and Regulations from the Department of Trade and Industry, BSI and the
Institute of Electrical Engineers. You may be interested to know that all the standards referred to
concern ‘low voltage’ equipment. Low voltages as defined by the IEE are those up to and
including 1000 volts AC or 1500 volts DC.
2.2. Electrical Installation materials, components and accessories
There are various kinds of electrical insulation materials, components and accessories use for
electrical installation. Some of them are explained in tables below
An important consideration i n selecting symbols is that they should be, as far as possible, sel f
explanatory and easy to draw.
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Wire To pass current very easily from one part of a circuit to another.
Wires joined A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are connected (joined),
‘crossroads’ should be staggered slightly to form two T -
junctions, as shown on the right.
38
Wires not joined In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw wires crossing
even though they are not connected. The 'bridge' symbol shown
on the right is preferable
Table 2.2. Symbol of wires
1. Power Supplies
Supplies electrical energy. The larger terminal (on the left) is

Cell positive (+). A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a
battery is two or more cells joined together.
Battery Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than one cell.
DC supply Supplies electrical energy. DC, always flowing in one direction.
AC supply Supplies electrical energy. AC, continually changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current flowing

Fuse
through it exceeds a specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are used to

Transformer
step up (increase) and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits this is the 0V

Earth
(zero volts) of the power supply, but for mains electricity and some
(Ground)
radio circuits it really means the earth. It is also known as ground.
Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit
Digital, Ground Serves as a zero reference or ground to digital circuits
Motor Electric motor
Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of the

Generator
generator
39
Current Source Generates constant current.
AC Voltage
AC voltage source
source
Voltage Source Generates constant voltage
Table 2.3. Symbols of Power supplies
2. Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.

Lamp (lighting)
This symbol is used for a lamp providing illumination

Lamp (indicator)
This symbol is used for a lamp which is an indicator.
Heater A transducer which converts electrical energy to heat.
A transducer which converts electrical energy to kinetic

Motor
energy (motion).
Bell A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Buzzer A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Inductor A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field when

(Coil, Solenoid) current passes through it.
Table 2.4 Symbols of output devices, lamps and heater
3. Switches
40
Push Switch A push switch allows current to flow only when the
(push-to-make) button is pressed. Used to operate a doorbell.
Push-to-Break This type of push switch is normally closed (on); it is

Switch open (off) only when the button is pressed.
SPST = Single Pol e, Single Throw.

On-Off Switch
An on-off switch allows current to flow only when it
(SPST)
is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.

A 2 -way changeover switch directs the flow of
2-way Switch
current to one of two routes according to its position.
(SPDT)
Some SPDT switches have a central off position and
are described as 'on-off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.

Dual On -Off Switch A dual on -off switch which is often used to switch
(DPST) mains electricity because it can isolate both the live
and neutral connections.
DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.

Reversing Switch This switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for
(DPDT) a motor. Some DPDT switches have a central off
position.
An electrically operated switch

Relay NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.
Solder Bridge Solder to close connection
41
SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open
SPDT Toggle
Selects between two connections
Switch
Table 2.5 symbols of different types of switches
4. Resistors
A resistor restricts the flow of current,

Resistor Some publications still use the old resistor symbol:
Variable Resistor This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts

(Rheostat) (A rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Variable Resistor This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a

(Potentiometer) potentiometer) is usually used to control voltage.
Variable Resistor This type of variable resistor (a preset) is operated

(Preset) with a small screwdriver or similar tool.
Table 2.6 Symbols of Resistors
5. Capacitors
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used

Capacitor
with a resistor in a timing circuit. AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type must be

Capacitor, polarized
connected the correct way round.
Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
Trimmer Capacitor This type of variable capacitor ( a trimmer) is
42
operated with a small screwdriver or similar tool.
Table 2.7: Symbols of Capacitors
6. Diodes
A device which only a llows current to flow in one

Diode
direction.
LED
Light Emitting Diode
A special diode which is used to maintain a fixed

Zener Diode
voltage across its terminals.
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.
Table 2.8: Symbols of Diodes
7. Audio and Radio Devices
Microphone A transducer which converts sound to electrical energy.
Earphone A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Loudspeaker A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Piezo Transducer A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.
Amplifier An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block diagram

(general symbol) symbol because it represents a circuit rather than just one
43
component.
Aerial
A device which is designed to receive or transmit radio signals.
(Antenna) OR
Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna
Table 2.9: Symbols of Audio and Radio devices
8. Meters
A voltmeter is used to measure voltag e.

Voltmeter The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but
most people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is used to

Galvanometer
measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to meas ure resistance. Most

Ohmmeter
multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of electrical

Oscilloscope signals and it can be used to measure their voltage and
time period.
Table 2.10: Symbols of Meters

9. Sensors (input devices)
LDR A transducer which converts brightness (light) to
resistance (an elec trical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
Thermistor A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to
resistance (an electrical property).
Table 1.11: Symbols of Sensors
44
2.3. Design of Residential, Commercial and industrial consumer’s Installation
Terminology and definitions:
Ampacity: current carrying capacity of electric conductors expressed in amperes.
Appliance: utilization equipment.
Branch circuit: the circuit conductor between the final over current device protecting the circuit
and the outlet(s).
Demand factor: the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the total
connected load of a system or the part of the system under consideration.
Feeder: all circuit conductors between the service equipment, or the generator switchboard of an
isolated plant, and the final branch circuit over current device.
Ground: a conductor connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electr ic circuit or

equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Lighting outlet : an outlet intended for direct connection of a lamp holder, a light fixture, or a
pendant cord terminating in a lamp holder.
Outlet: a point on the wiring system at which current is taken to the utilization equipment
Receptacle: a contact device installed at the outlet for the connection of a single attachment plug.
Service: the conductor and equipment for delivering energy from electric supp ly system to the
wiring system of the premises served.
45
Switch board: a large panel, frame or assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face or
back or both, switches, over current and other protective devices, buses, any usual instruments.
Wiring Design Criteria
Flexibility: every wiring system should incorporate sufficient flexibility of design in branch
circuitry, feeders, and panels to accommodate all portable, patterns, arrangements and locations
of electric loads. The degree of flexibility to b e incorporated depends in large measure on the
type of facility. As part of the design for flexibility, provision for expansion must be provided. It
must, however, be emphasized that over design is as bad as under design.
Reliability: the reliability of electrical power within a facility is determined by two factors:
 The utility’s service and
 The building’s electrical system.
Safety: the designer must be constantly alert to an initial safe electrical installation and such
factors as electrical hazards caus ed by misuse of equipment or by equipment failure after
installation.
Energy consideration: includes limiting voltage drops, power factor correction, use of switches
for control, etc
Economic cost: includes initial cost and operating cost
Space allocation : concerned with maintenance ease, ventilation, expandability, centrality,

limitation of access, and noise, in addition to the basic item of space adequacy.
Design procedure
The steps involved in the electrical wiring design of any facility are outlined bel ow. These may
in some instances be performed in different order, or two or more steps may be combined, but the
procedure normally used is that listed below.
46
a) Determine with the client the usage of all areas, and type and rating of all client furnished
equipments including their specific electric ratings.
b) If the designer could not get the exact electrical rating of all the equipment that are going to
be installed in the building such as plumbing, elevators, kitchen, motors etc, determine their
ratings from other consultants.
c) Make an electrical load estimate based on the above collected data, areas involved, previously
installed similar installation data and any other pertinent data.
Load Estimation: when initiating the wiring design of a building, it is import ant to be able to
estimate the total building load in order to plan such spaces as transformer rooms, chases, and
closet. This information is also required by the local power company well in advance of the
start of construction. Of course, an exact load to tal can be made after completing the design.
But such estimation can be made from the knowledge of the loads the building uses.
The electrical loads in any facility can be categorized as:

i. Lighting.
ii. Miscellaneous power, which includes convenience outlets and small motors.
iii. Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning.
iv. Plumbing or sanitary equipment: house water pump, air compressors, and vacuum
pumps etc.
v. Vertical transportation equipment: elevators, moving stairs, and dumbwaiters.
vi. Kitchen equipments.
vii. Special equipments.
d) In cooperation with the local electric utility, decide upon the point of service entrance, type of
service run, service voltage, metering location, and building utilization voltage. The above
considerations and general rules affecting service equipment are listed below:
i. A building may be supplied at one point by either a single set or parallel sets of
service conductors.
ii. All equipment used for service including cable, switches, meters, and so on, shall
be approved for that purpose.
iii. It is recommen ded that a minimum of 100 -amp, 3 -wire, 220/380V service be
provided for all individual residences.
47
iv. No service switch smaller than 60 amp or circuit breaker frame smaller than 50
amp shall be used.
v. In multiple occupancy buildings tenants must have access to their own disconnect
means.
vi. All building equipment shall be connected on the load side of the service
equipment except that service fuses, metering, fire alarm, and signal equipment
and equipment serving emergency systems may be connected ahead of the mai n
disconnect.
In computing the size of the service equipment bus, a total is taken of the various feeder
loads. Although application of a Diversity Factor to this total is permissible, good practice
dictates the use of a unity Diversity Factor in order to provide a measure of spare capacity in
the service equipment.
e) Determine the location and estimate the size of all required electric equipment spaces
including switchboard rooms, emergency equipment spaces, electric closets, and so forth.
NOTE: - Panel boards are normally located in closets but may be located in corridor walls or
elsewhere. This work is necessary at this point to enable the architect to reserve these spaces
for the electrical equipment. Once the design is accomplished in detail, the estimate d space
requirements can be checked and necessary adjustments made.
f) Design the lighting for the facility. This step is complex and involves a continued interaction
between the architect and the lighting designer.
g) On the same plan, or on a separate plan, as decided, locate all electrical apparatus including
receptacles, switches, motors, and other power consuming apparatus. Under floor duct and
ceiling track systems would be shown at this stage. If extensive, a separate plan is made.
h) On the plan, locate sign al apparatus such as phone outlets, speakers, microphones, TV
outlets, fire and smoke detectors, and so on.
i) Make drawing showing all lightings, devices, and power equipments circuit connection to the
appropriate panel board.
48
j) Prepare the panel schedule (tab le). This table shows the load distribution over the three
phases and the type of load which is connected on each circuit. At this step, include the
separate circuitry for emergency equipments and for spare circuit.
k) From the panel schedule (table) compute panel loads, and make connection rearrangement so
that you will be able to an optimum power balance over the three phases R, S and T.
l) Prepare the riser diagram. This includes design of distribution panels, switchboards, and
service equipment.
m) Compute feeder sizes and all protective equipment ratings.
n) Cheek the preceding work.
Branch Circuit Design
Guidelines for Residential
a) The NEC requires for residences sufficient circuitry to supply a load of 3W/sq ft in the
building, excluding unfinished spaces such as porches, garages, and basements.
b) The NEC requires a minimum of two 20 -amp appliance branch circuits to feed all the small
appliance outlets in the kitchen, pantry, dining room, family room etc.
Furthermore, all kitchen outlets must be fed from at least two of these circuits (Avoid placing
all the lighting in a building on a single circuit). Also receptacles should be circuited with
preferably two, but not more than four on a 20-amp circuit.
c) The NEC requires that at least one 20-amp circuit supply to be set for laundry outlets.
This requirement satisfies good practice. If electric clothes dryer is anticipated an individual
branch circuit should be supplied to serve this load, via a heavy-duty receptacle.
d) Do not combine receptacles and switches into a single o utlet except where convenience of
use dictates high mounting of receptacles.
e) Circuit the lighting and receptacles so that each room has parts of at least two circuits.
49
This includes basements and garages.
f) Supply at least one receptacle in the bathroom and one outside the house
g) Provide switch control for closet lights.
h) In bedrooms supply two duplex outlets at each side of the bed location to accommodate
electric blanket, clocks, radios, lamps, and other such appliances.
i) Since receptacles are counted as part of general lighting and no additional load is included for
them, no limit is placed on the number of receptacle outlets that may be wired to a circuit.
But for good practice they should be limited to 6 on a 15 -amp circuit and 8 on a 20 -amp
circuit.
j) Kitchens should have a duplex appliance outlet every 36 in. of counter space, but no less than
two in addition to the normal wall outlets.
k) A disconnecting means, readily accessible, must be provided for electric ranges, cook tops,
and ovens. It is better practice to utilize a small kitchen panel recessed into a corner wall to
control the large kitchen appliances and to provide completely safe, accessible disconnecting
means. Such an arrangement can also be cheaper if the length of run between the main panel
and the kitchen is appreciable.
Guidelines for Non-Residential
a) Schools.
Since schools comprise an assembly of varied use spaces, including lecture hall, laboratory, shop,
assembly, office, gymnasium, plus special areas such as swimming pools, photographic labs, and
so on, it is not possible to generalize on branch circuit design considerations except for the
following:
i. To accommodate the opaque and film projectors frequently used in the classroom, 20-
amp outlets wired two receptacles on a circuit are placed at t he front and back of each
such room. A similar receptacle, wired 6 or 8 to a circuit is placed on each remaining
wall.
50
ii. Light switching should provide:
1. High-low levels for energy conservation and to permit low -level lighting for film
viewing. With fluoresce nt lighting this can be accomplished by alternate ballast
wiring and switching, thus avoiding the high cost of dimming equipment.
2. Separate switching of the lights on the window side of the room, which is often
lighted sufficiently by daylight.
iii. Provide appropriate outlets for all special equipment in labs, shops, cooking rooms, and
the like.
iv. Use heavy -duty devices and key operated switches for public area lighting (corridors,
etc.), plastic instead of glass in fixtures, and vandal -proof equipment wherever po ssible.
All panels must be locked and should be in locked closets.
v. The NEC requires sufficient branch circuitry to provide a minimum of 3 W/sq ft for
general lighting in schools. Refer to the NEC Article No. 220. Unlike residential
occupancy this figure do es not include receptacles. Receptacles are calculated separately
at 180 W each for ordinary convenience outlets.
vi. Keep lighting and receptacles completely separate when circuiting.
b) Office Space
i. In small office spaces (less than 400 sq ft) provide either on e outlet for every 40 sq ft, or
one outlet for every 10 linear ft of wall space, whichever is greater. In larger office
spaces, provide one outlet every 100 to 125 sq ft beyond the initial 400 sq ft (10 outlets).
These should comprise wall outlets spaced a s above plus floor outlets sufficient to make
up the required total. In view of the increasingly heavy loads of office machines, these
receptacles should be circuited at no more than 6 to a 20 -amp branch circuit, and less if
the equipment to be fed so dictates.
ii. Corridors should have a 20 -amp, 220-V outlet every 50 ft, to supply cleaning and waxing
machines.
iii. As with all non-residential buildings, convenience receptacles are figured at 180W each.
51
c) Stores. In stores, good practice requires at least one convenie nce outlet receptacle for every
300 sq ft in addition to outlets required for loads such as lamps, show windows, and
demonstration appliances.
► Load Tabulation
While circuiting the loads, a panel schedule is drawn up which lists:
The circuit numbers
Load description (the type of the load)
Wattage (actually in volt-amperes)
The current ratings
Number of poles of the circuit-protective device feeding each circuit and the like.
Spare circuits are included to the extent that the designer considers them necessary and consonant
with economy, but normally no less than 20% of the number of active circuits.
Finally, spaces are left for futu re circuit breakers, in approximately the same quantity as the
number of spare circuits, but always to round off the total number of circuits. A typical panel
schedule is shown on the next page as an example.
In calculating panel loads, the following rules apply:
(a) Each specific appliance, device, lighting fixture, or other load is taken at its nameplate rating,
except certain kitchen and laundry appliances for which the NEC allows a demand factor. (See
NEC Article 220.)
(b) Each convenience outlet, in other than residential spaces, is counted as1.5 amp (180 W).
(c) Spare circuits are figured at approximately the same load as the average active circuits.
(d) Free spaces are not added into the load.
(e) Loads for special areas and devices such as show wind ow lighting, heavy-duty lamp holders,
and multi outlet assemblies, are taken at the figures given in NEC Article 220.
52
Schedule for lighting panel
Note: 1) In calculating total panel load, no demand factors may be applied excep t specifically
stated in the NEC. This is because feeders are calculated for maximum load to be carried, i.e.
100% demand factor is used.
2) The phase loads have to be approximately equally distributed over the three phases (if a three -
phase supply is utilized in an installation). It is the responsibility of the designer (or contractor) to
circuit the loads so that the phases are as closely balanced in load as possible. If this is not done,
one phase will carry considerably more current than the others. Sin ce the panel feeder must be
53
sized for the maximum phase current, this may lead to an over sized feeder and therefore a waste
of money.
Having tabulated and balanced the loads and totaled them by phase, the maximum current is
calculated. A portion of the sp are capacity available in branch circuit is added to the above total,
as the basis for the calculation of the feeder load.
► Feeder Capacity
The electric line (cable) that is running from the main distribution line to each sub distribution
board is known as Feeder. To achieve economy, the panel feeder must accommodate the initial
load plus some portion of the future load. One or more of the following procedures provides
spare capacity in feeders:
(a) Provide feeder for initial plus spare, with properly siz ed conduit. This method is generally
most economical.
(b) Provide feeder for initial plus spare, with conduit oversized by one size. Some additional cost
is entailed here. This is only used where large load expansion is anticipated.
(c) Provide for initial load plus spare, with an empty conduit for future. This method is expensive
because of high conduit cost, and it is infrequently advisable.
EXAMPLE Assume a single floor of an office building 100 ft X 200 ft. Assume also 15% of the
area is corridor and storage. Calculate the required number of panels, circuits, and feeder size.
Solution
Office space = 85% of 20,000 sq ft = 17,000 sq ft
Corridor and storage=15% of 20,000 sq ft=3000 sq ft
With respect to minimum loads, NEC specifies that the power supply ca n be increased by 25% if
loads are continuous (3 or more hours). This requirement allows for breakers to heat up in panels
while carrying continuous load, and is waived for circuit breaker which are ambient
compensated, that is, are rated to carry 100% loa d. Since we have established 80% of the breaker
rating as maximum load, we have already accounted for this factor in cir cuitry, but must keep it
in mind in feeder calculation.
Office load
17,000 sq ft @ 5 w/sq ft = 85kw
Storage
54
3000 sq ft @ 0.5 w/sq ft = 1.5kw
TOTAL LOAD = 86.5kw
Minimum feeder capacity 1.25 X 86.5 = 108kw. The 25% additional capacity is for continuous
load. Since this building is of good grade office construction, let us anticipate 40 to 80%
expansion, and utilize an initial branch circuit loading of 1300 W per ckt, Assuming that each
lightening branch circuit is 1300 W rated.
86.5 *1000
Number of branch circuit for lightening will be = = 66.54 ~ 67 ckt.
1300
Because of the size of the building, three panels are required to keep branch circuits below 100 ft
in length. Also we need to have additional circuits that are provided for receptacles and spares.
Receptacles:
For the first 400 sq ft 10 receptacles, and for the next 16,600ft2, taking 1 receptacle per 110sqft,
there will be 151 receptacles. This will give a total of 161 receptacles in the building.
If each branch circuit carries 20A, supplying for 6 receptacles,
161
No. of receptacle circuits will be = = 27 ckts
6
The total no of circuits for lighting plus receptacles is 67 + 27 = 94 ckts
Spares is = 20% of total circuits
94*20% = 94*0.2 = 18.8 ~ 19
Total 0f 113 ckts.
Each panel would then have 113/3 or 38 circuits plus 4 free spaces, for a maximum of 42 poles.
Thus, with initially three panel locations w e proceed to circuit the lighting and receptacles
according to the actual tenant requirements.
NOTE. In calculating the panel load for feeder sizing, the actual load as determined by adding
the lighting and other loads on the panel. This load is compared to the load by square foot
calculation. And the larger figure is used in determining the required panel feeder size.
Thus in the above case, the actual load would be compared to 108 kW and the larger used. If the
actual number of circuits is less than 67, then 67 ckt must be provided; but if greater, the actual
number required must be used. In either case, 20% spare should be used.
Assuming even distribution of load, and actual load greater than the minimum 67 ckt, panel load
would be 38 ckts each rated @ 1 300 W = 49.5 KW, and if 25% future expansion is anticipated
that is 12.5 KW (note: it is for this power that the four free spaces are left).
So feeder load would become 62 KW
55
The feeder current is calculated in terms of the panel 3-phase kVA thus:
Kilo Volt
I Or
Power Factor * Mains Voltage * Efficiency
Kilo Watt
I
3 * Mains Voltage * Efficiency
If mains voltage is 380, PF 0.8, 100% efficiency
62Kw

IAmp 94.2
3 * 380 * 1
Thus, the above feeder current is 94.2 amp.
► Riser Diagrams
When all devices are circuited and panels are located and scheduled, we are ready to prepare a
riser diagram. A typical diagram, shown in figure below, represents a block version of a single -
line diagram, as the name implies, vertical rela tionships are shown. All panels, feeders, switches,
switchboards, and major components are shown up to, but not including, branch circuiting. This
diagram is an electrical version of a vertical section taken through the building.
56
Fig.2.1. Typical power riser diagram.
Ordinarily the main switchboard would be shown as a large rectangle with the feeder emanating
from it, and a switch board schedule would detail the contents. Here, because of the unusual bus
arrangement, we have shown the main switch board as it would appear on a single-line diagram.
The main switchboard shown in the above figure constitutes a combination of service equipment
and feeder switchboard. The service equipment portion of the board comprises the metering and
the 4 main switches feedi ng risers, motor control center (MCC), roof, machine room, and
elevators
*NEC: - National Electrification Code.
*EBCS: - Ethiopian Building Code Standard.
► Choosing Cable Size
● Cable Size Design procedure
57
The correct choice of cable size for any installation is dependent upon fundamental aspects of
(a) Environmental conditions and characteristics of protection,
(b) Current-carrying capacity of the cable and
(c) Voltage drops of the cable.
When current flows through a conductor, the resistance offered by the conductor produces heat.
The increase in heat is proportional to the cable resistance, which in turn depends upon the cross -
sectional area of the cable. Since overheating damages the insulation, the conductor size must be
of adequate size to prevent this from occurring.
The requirements of IEE Regulations make it clear that circuits must be designed and the design
data made readily available. How then can we begin to design? Clearly, plunging into
calculations of cable size is of little value unless the type of cable and its method of installation is
known. This in turn will depend on the installation’s environment. At the same time, we would
need to know whether the supply was single or three phases, the type of earthing arrangements,
and so on. Here then is our starring point.
Having ascertained all the necessary details, we can decide on an installation method, the type of
cable, and how we will protect against electric shock and over currents. We would now be ready
to begin the calculation part of the design procedure.
Basically, there are eight stages in such a procedure. These are the same whatever the type of
installation, be it a lightening circuit, cooker circuit or a sub main cable feeding a distribution
board in a factory. Here then are the eight basic steps in a simplified form:
1. Determine the design current Ib.
2. Select the rating of the protection In
3. Select the relevant correction factors (CFs).
4. Divide In by the relevant CFs to give cable current-carrying capacity
5. Choose a cable size to suit Iz
6. Check the voltage drop
7. Cheek for shock risk constraints
8. Cheek for thermal constraints.
Let us now examine each stage in detail.
Design current
58
In many instances the design current Ib is quoted by the manufacturer, but there are times when it
has been calculated. In this case there are two formulae involved, one for single phase and one
for three phase:
Single phase:
Three phase:
Ib=P/ (√3 V)
If an item of equipment has a power factor and/or has efficiency (eff) will have been taken into
account. Hence: Single phase:
Ib = (Px1000)/ (V*PF*eff)
Three phase:
Ib = (Px1000)/ (√3*VL*PF*eff)
Nominal setting of protection
Having determined I b we must now select the nominal setting of the protection In such that
In>Ib. this value may be taken from IEE regulations.
Correction factors
When a cable carries its full load current, it can become warm. This is not problem unless its
temperature rises fu rther due to other influences, in which case the insulation could be damaged
by over heating. These other influences are:
High ambient temperature
Cable grouped together closely
Uncleared over currents and
Contact with thermal insulation.
For each of these conditions there is a correction factor (CF) which will respectively called Ca,
Cg, Cf and Ci, & w/c derates cable current carrying capacity or conversely increases cable size.
Ambient temperature Ca
The cable rating in the IEE regulations are on an ambient temperature of 300C, and hence it is
only above this temperature that an adverse correction improvement is needed.
Grouping Cg
When cables are grouped together they impart heat to each other. Therefore the more cables there
are the more heat they will generate, thus increasing the temperature of each cable.
IEE regulation also gives factors for such groupings of the same cable sizes.
59
Protection by BS 3036 fuse Cf
Because of the high fusing factor of BS 3036 fuses, the rating of the fuse In, should be less than
or equal to 0.725 Iz Hence 0.725 is the correction factor to be used when BS 3036 fuses are used.
Thermal Insulation Ci
With the modern trend, towards energy saving and the installation of thermal insulation, there
may be a need to derate cables to account for heat retention. IEE Regulation gives these factors
for situations when thermal insulation touches one side of a cable. However, if a cable is totally
surrounded by thermal insulation for more than 0.5 m, a factor of 0.5 must be applied to the
tabulated clipped direct ratings. For less than 0.5 m, derating factors Table __ should be applied.
Refer to the table on pages __.
Application of correction factors
Some or all of the onerous conditions just outlined may affect a cable along its whole length or
parts of it, but not all may affect it at the same time. If all conditions are to appear at the same
time consider all correction factors, otherwise take the worst.
Having chosen the relevant correction factors, we now apply them to the nominal rating of the
protection. In as divisors in order to calculate the current carrying capacity Iz of the cable.
Current carrying capacity
The required formula for current carrying capacity Iz is
Iz= In/ (relevant CFs)
Choice of cable size
Having established the current carrying capacity Iz of the cable to be used, it now remains to
choose a cable to suit that value. The IEE regulation also lists all the cable sizes, current carrying
capacity and voltage drops of varies types of cables.(These data is given from page _to page __ ).
Voltage drop
The resistance of a conductor increases as the length increases and/or the cross -sectional area
decreases. Associated with an increased resistance is a drop in voltage, which means that a load
at the end of a long thin cable will not have the full supply voltage available. The IEE regulation
requires that the voltage drop Vd should no t be so excessive that equipment does not function
safely. They further indicate that a drop of no more than 4% of the nominal voltage at the origin
of the circuit will satisfy. The voltage drop will be calculated using a formula (adopted by IEE
regulation):
Vd = mV * Ib * L where mV- voltage drop in mV obtained from IEE table
60
L- Total length of the cable in consideration.
● Fundamental 3-phase Voltage-drop Calculations
These are all based on the basic formula
R =ρ l/A where ρ (rho) stands for resistivity.
ρ = 1.72x10-8 – for copper conductor
ρ = 2.83x10-8 – for Aluminum conductor
If resistance of a conductor at any temperature different from room temperature is required it can
be calculated using
RT= RO (1+ αΔT). Where RT- resistance at the required temperature
RO = ρ l/A resistance at room temperature
α -Expansion coefficient = 0.00393 - for copper
= 0.0039 - for Aluminum
ΔT- Change in temperature
Resistivity is defined as the resistance between two opposite faces of a unit cube of the conductor
material. Many voltage-drop problems involve the determination of resistan ce by this means and
then multiplying by the current to obtain the IR drop. The weakness of this method, as against
that adopted by use of the I.E.E. Tables, is that the Tables are much more realistic since they take
into account the actual type of cable and conditions of service.
● Diversity Factor
The diversity factor has an important place in the design of an installation and its final costing.
IEE regulation 311-01 deals with this subject. Diversity factor is a factor which is applied to sub
main and main cables and their associated gears to reduce:
a) The cross sectional area if the cable conductor, and
b) The capacity of the switch gears.
The factor is based on the assumption that the whole of the connected load will not be turned on
at the same time. For example, the total lig hting load in a dwelling house is rarely switched on at
a time. Thus, it can be taken that if the total lighting load is 1000W during the life of the
installation, only 66% of the load (660W) will be switched on at any one time. The factor in this
instance is 0.66. A factor for diversity shall not be allowed for calculating the size of circuit
conductor and switchgears of final sub circuits, other than specified circuits such as cooker
circuits. It is noted that the provision of an allowance for diversity i s a matter of calling for a
special knowledge and experience. Indeed, the application of the diversity should be decided by
61
the engineer responsible for designing each particular installation. The amount by which they are
increased or decreased for each installation is a matter for the installation engineer to decide.
There are ten types of final circuit fed from wiring to which diversity applies:
Lighting
Heating
Cooking appliances which are permanently connected
Motors (other than lifting motors)
instantaneous-type water heater
thermostatically controlled water heater
floor-warming installation
thermal-storage space-heating installation
13A fused socket outlets and appliance fed there from and
other socket outlets such as 15A sockets.
The general groups of installation premises are also recognized:
1) Individual domestic installation, including individual flats of a block.
2) Hotels, boarding house, lodging houses etc.
3) Shops, stores, offices and business premises
In the case of lighting for each type of installation, it will be noticed that the more the total
lighting load is likely to switched on over definite periods, the smaller is the allowance made for
diversity. In a domestic installation, it is estimated that some two - thirds (0.66) of the lighting
load will be on at any one time. In a hotel, the figure is 75% (0.75), and in a shop, where virtually
all the lights are on for most of the time when the shop is open, the figure is 90% (0.90). It should
be noted that no diversity is allowable in the relevant wiring supplying certain types of load.
Example 1
From EBCS-10. Table B.1, select cables of suitable current -carrying capacity for the following
loads and conditions (p.v.c. cables to BS 6004 into screwed conduit).
(a) 240 V single-phase sub-mains of lighting load totaling 10.5 kW.
Length of run 10 m. Average ambient temperature 25'C, diversity 66%
(b) 400 V balanced 3 -phase power circuit. Load 18.65 kW, efficiency, 80%, power factor 0.69.
Average temperature 30'C. Length of runs 100 m.
Solution of (a)
Power10.5*1000
Current taken by load, IA 43.75
Voltage240
62
66
43.75*28.88
AA 
100
Allowing for diversity, maximum current through cables
If BS 88 32 -A circuit breaker is chosen for protection, 32 A rated circuit breaker can be select ed
from table 9.1.
→ In = 32 Amp
The correction factor for ambient temperature from Table A.4 for250C is 1.06.
Therefore the required cable rating:
→
From Table B.1, choose a 4 mm2 conductor which carries 32A.
Testing for Voltage drop = (mV/Am) * I * l
→ From table B.2 voltage drop for 4mm2 conductor size = 11mv/Am
→ Voltage drop on cable = 11 mv/Am * 28.8 A * 10 m = 3.168 V
→ Maximum allowable voltage drop = 2.5% of 240 V = 6V.
Since the actual voltage drop is less than from the allowable maximu m voltage drop, selected
size is 4 mm2
If BS 3036 fuse is chosen for protection, this fuse type requires a correction factor of 0.725.
→ In = 32 Amp
Therefore the load current will be :
→ Iz = In/CF CF- Correction Factors.
Ca= 1.06, Cf = 0.725
Required cable rating
From Table B.1, a 6mm2 conductor carries 41 A. And a 10mm2 conductor carries 57 A. Take
10mm2 diameter conductor.
Testing for Voltage drop = (mV/Am) * I * l
→ From table B.2 voltage drop for 6mm2 conductor size = 7.3mv/Am
→ Voltage drop on cable = 4.4 mv/Am * 28.8 A * 10 m = 1.27 V
→ Maximum allowable voltage drop = 2.5% of 240 V = 6V.
63
Since the actual voltage drop is less than from the allowable maximum voltage drop, selected
size is 10 mm2.
Comment: you can easily observ e that the conductor size deference in using Circuit breaker and
fuses.
Solution of (b)
Output*10008018.65*1000
KW
Efficiency=  48.77 A
VII 
Input100 3*cos3*400**0.69
From table 9.1, 50 A circuit-breaker of type BS 3871 can used for protection.
→ In = 50 Amp
Load current will be :
→ Iz = In/CF CF- Correction Factors.
CF = 1 because Ca = 1.
→ Iz = 50 A
Choose 16 mm2 cable which is capable of carrying 52 A.
Testing for Voltage drop:
Maximum voltage drop = 2.5% of 400 V = 10V.
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l = 2.3 * 48.77 * 100 = 11.22 V this is beyond the
allowable voltage drop. So, choose the next cable size, which is 25mm2.
Voltage drop for 25 mm2 = 1.7 * 43.77 * 100 = 8.29 V
Therefore selected size is 25 mm2.
Comment. This is one of the situations where the voltage d rop becomes the main determining
factor of the conductor size.
From table 9.1, 50 A BS 3036 fuse can used for protection.
→ In = 50 A
→ Correction factor for the fuse is Cf = 0.725
→ Load current Iz = In / CF = In / Cf
→ Iz = 50 A / 0.725 = 68.966 A
From table B.3 select 25mm2 cable which carries 97 A
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l = 2.3 * 48.77 * 100= 13.17 V this is beyond the
allowable voltage drop. So, choose the next cable size, which is 25mm2.
Voltage drop for 25 mm2 = 1.7 x 48.77 x 100 = 8.29 V
Therefore selected size is 25 mm2.
64
Example 2
A 30 m run of twin and earth p.v.c. non -armored four touching copper cables are situated in an
ambient temperature of 350C. Determine the minimum size of cable to suppl y a 220-V 10-kW
load. Protection given by:
(a) Miniature circuit-breaker (m.c.b.)
(b) Rewirable fuse.
Solution of (a)
From table A.1, Correction factor for cables group together is 0.75
→ Cg = 0.75
Required cable current rating Iz = 50 = 70.9 A
0.94 x 0.75
→ Iz = 70.9 A
From Table B.3 (for multi core cable) 16mm2 cable carries 69A.
Maximum voltage drop = 2.5% of 220 V = 5.5V
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l = (2.8 mV/A m) * 41.67 A * 30m = 3.50 V this is
with in the allowable voltage drop.
So, choose cable size of 16mm2.
Solution of (b)
Ib = 41.67 A.
Assume that a rewirable fuse type that requires a correction factor of 0.725 is
used. So Cf = 0.725
→ In = 50 A.
Required cable rating
From Table B.3 (for multi core cable) 35 mm2 cable carries 111 Amp.
65
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l = ( mV/A m) * 41.67 A * 30m = V < 5.5V
So, choose cable size of 35mm2.
Comment. The example exhibits once again the considerable economic savings which can be
gained by fitting an m.c.b. or correct cartridge fuse in place of the rewirable type.
Example 3
A load of 300 kW at 0.78 power-factor is to be supplied at 415 V, 3-phase, through a 3-core
copper cable 260 m long. The cross -sectional area of each cable core is 400 mm2. Calculate the
voltage drop in the cable. Ignore voltage drop due to reactance. (Resistivity of copper may be
taken as 0.017 μΩ-m).
Three-phase power, p= 3 VICOS 
P300*1000 W
By transposition IA 535.2

3*cos3*415*0.78
VI
6
mm
0.017*260*10
Resistance per core, R =ρ l/A= 62

0.01105 m
10*400 m
Therefore Voltage drop in the cable= 3 *I*R= *535.2*0.01105=10.24V
Comments. The important point to note is the voltage drop in a 3 -core cable, when carrying the
current in to a balanced 3-phase load, is given by √3*I* R. The cable conductors are presumed to
act as a pure resistance without any reactive effects.
Problems
An apartment having 15 individual rooms each 3.5mX2.5m (see figure below) is to be installed
with the following loads: Ventilator (500W), Fridge (1kW), Stove (2kW), six 60W lamps, and
five socket outlets.
a) Locate the approximate area of location of each lamps and sockets.
b) Calculate the sub -feeder cable size for this room if the average ambient temperature of the
local area is taken as 35oC and five groups of circuits are running together in a conduit with it.
The length of run is 15m and protection is by MCB.
c) Choose the rating of the MCB and the branch circuits breakers.
66
Fig.2.2 Floor Plan for problem no. 6
Data for Electrical Installation
67
68
69
70
2.5. Installation Design and Design Drawing
A typical electrical drawing consists of solid or dashed lines representing wiring or cables and
symbols for luminaires, receptacles, switches, auxiliary systems, and other electrical devices and
their locations on a scaled architectural floor p lan of a home or building. The drawings also
include title blocks to identify the project, the designers or engineers, and the owner, and change
blocks to record any changes that have been made since the drawing was first issued.
Drawing for an electrical project serves three distinct functions.

1. Describes the electrical project in sufficient detail to allow electrical contractors to use the
drawings in estimating the cost of materials, labor, and services when preparing a contract
bid.
2. Instructs and guides electricians in performing the required wiring and equipment installation
while also warning them of potential hazards such as existing wiring, gas pipes, or plumbing
systems.
3. Provides the owner with an “as -built” record of the installed electrical wir ing and equipment
for the purposes or maintenance or planning future expansion.
71
The owner then becomes responsible for recording all wiring and equipment changes. In any
given set of electrical drawing there are also specialized drawings such as one -line, elevation or
riser, and electrical equipment installation drawings. There might be no drawing requirements for
relatively simple electrical projects such as updating the amperage capacity of a home or
extending branch wiring into a basement, lattice, or e xtension. In these situations, all information
needed can be included in a written proposal or other contractual agreement.
For commercial projects or new home construction, formal drawings are required to gain
approvals from building inspectors and the l ocal electric utility. A typical set will include several
24 x 36 in. architectural floor plans marked with the appropriate electrical graphic symbols. The
set might also include drawings for telephone and multi -media structured wiring, outdoor wiring,
or a security system.
By contrast, major large -scale construction projects such as shopping centers, higher rise office
buildings, factories, hospitals, and scientific laboratories might require dozens of 24 x 36 in. (or
larger) sheets depending on the size and complexity of the project. These might include one -line
drawings and manufacturer -furnished wiring diagrams for installing equipment. For complex
projects, special instructions and installation schedules will also be included.
ELECTRICAL PLAN
The electrical information and layouts in construction drawings, just as the mechanical plan, are
generally superimposed on the building plan and the plot plan.
As an EA3, the electrical layout for both light and power is your main concern. You will be
required t o draw electrical drawings and layouts from notes, sketches, and specifications
provided by the designing engineer. Although you are not required to design the electrical wiring
system, you must be familiar with the methods, the symbols, and the nomenclatu re, as well as the
basic functions of the components associated with the electrical systems, its transmission and
distribution, and the circuits hookup. In addition, you must also be familiar with the codes (both
NEC ® and local) and standards and specifications, and be able to apply that knowledge in
Codes
Code requirements and installation procedures offer protection for the consumer against un -
skilled electrical labor. Among other functions, the NEC ® serves as a basis for limiting the type
and wiring to be used, the circuit size, the outlet spacing, the conduit requirements, and the like.
72
In addition, local codes are also used when separate electrical sections are applicable to the locale
in which the building will be built. Be certain that you always h ave a copy of the latest edition of
the NEC ® available for your use.
Similarly, all of the types of electrical devices and fixtures included in the materials list prepared
for electrical plans are to meet certain specifications and minimum requirements. A n independent
organization called Underwriters
73
Figure 9-23.-Common types of electrical symbols.
Laboratories (UL) tests various electrical fixtures and devices to determine if they meet
minimum specification and safety requirements as set up by UL. Thos e fixtures and devices that
are approved may then bear UL labels.
Permit
In the SEABEEs, utility drawings (both mechanical and electrical) are thoroughly reviewed
before an excavation (or digging) permit is granted and issued to the project subcontractor. Such
action minimizes the hazards to personnel and underground structures during the construction
process. All of the minor design changes and field adjustments must be noted and reflected on as -
built and working drawings. Therefore, close coordination and cooperation must develop within
and among all of the parties involved in the project to maintain periodic checks on red -lined
prints so that information can be compared and verified as up to date.
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
The conventions used on the electrical plan are SYMBOLS that indicate the general layout, units,
related equipment, fixtures and fittings, and routing and interconnection of various electrical
wiring. The most common types of symbols used in electrical drawings are shown in figure 9 -23.
To see additional or special symbols, refer to the appendix section of this book and/or to ANSI
Y32.9.
To draw in electrical symbols in an electrical drawing, as in drawing a mechanical plan, it is best
to use templates. For example, a wiring symbol is generally drawn as a single line but with
slanting "tick marks" to indicate the number of wires in an electrical circuit.
EXTERIOR ELECTRICAL LAYOUT (PLAN)
Exterior distribution lines (or network) deliver electrical power from the source (generating
station or trans mission substation) to various points of use. Figure 9 -24 shows a typical layout,
extracted from NAVFAC P -437, area with facilities and the location of the electrical component
system. Included in the electrical plan is a list of facilities (upper right -hand corner of fig. 9 -24)
that describes the corresponding item symbol, facility number, and quantity. An electrical load
data table is also included in the drawing.
As an EA, you will be called upon to trace, modify, revise, and even review the workability of
the drawing. It is therefore to your advantage not only to study and become familiar with the
electrical plans, but also to gain a working knowledge of how the system works. NAVFAC P -437
74
offers a wide variety of plans, drawings, and applications for the Advanced Base Functional
Component (ABFC) System for use in SEABEE construction.
INTERIOR ELECTRICAL LAYOUT (PLAN)
As we mentioned earlier, the electrical information on exterior electrical distribution is generally
shown in the regular site or plot plan. The INTERIOR ELECTRICAL LAYOUT, however, is,
for small buildings, drawn into a print made from the floor plan. On larger projects, additional
separate drawing sheets are necessary to accommodate detailed information needed to meet
construction requirements.
Figure 9-25 shows an electrical layout of a typical public works shop. Once again, note that the
electrical information is superimposed on an outline taken from an architectural floor plan. In
addition to the list of assemblies and electrical load table , a wiring diagram and panel schedule of
a 225-A, three-phase circuit breaker is drawn. The underground service entrance (item 10 on the
list of assemblies) delivers a four -wire, 120/208-V power into the building. Lighting circuits use
a three-wire, No. 12 AWG (TW).
The following basic steps are suggested to guide you in the development of an interior electrical
plan:
1. Show the location of the service panel and its rating in amps.
2. Show all of the wall and ceiling outlets.
3. Show all of the special -purpose outlets, such as telephones, communications, doorbells, and so
forth.
4. Show all of the switches and their outlet connections.
5. Show convenience outlets.
6. If required, complete a schedule of electrical fixtures, symbols, legends, and notes necess ary to
clarify any special requirements in the drawing that are not stipulated in the specifications.
The steps suggested above can be put to practice in the next chapter following mastery of civil
and architectural drawings.
75
3. Grounding System and Testing Electrical Installation
Earthing means connection of the neutral point of a supply system or the non -current carrying
parts of electrical apparatus such as metallic frame work, metallic covering of cables, metal
covers of switches, metal casing of portable apparatus, frame of every generator and motor etc. to
the general mass of earth in such a manner that at all times an immediate discharge of electrical
energy takes place without danger.
Earth Electrodes Resistance

If we were to place an electrode in the earth and then measure the resistance between the
electrode and points at increasing larger distance from it, we would notice that the resistance
increased with distance until a point w as reached (usually around 2.5m) beyond which no
increase in resistance was seen.
Fig.2.3
The value of this electrode resistance will depend on the length and cross -sectional area of the
electrode and the type of the soil.
Typical Value of Soil Resistivity in Ohms
Earth-fault-loop path
Fig. 2 shows the path taken by an earth -fault current. This system has a direct connection of the
supply transformer to earth and a direct connection of the installation metalwork to earth.
76
The total sum impedance of the individ ual parts of the path is known as the loop impedance, Zs.
This is made up of:
Ze which is the impedance external to the consumer’s intake terminals and include the
supply transformer secondary winding, the phase conductor and the metallic return p ath (general
mass of earth) back to the supply transformer earthing arrangement.
The value of Zb depends on the type of supply system.

R1. Which is the resistance of the phase conductor from the supply intake position to the final
circuit load.
R2. Which is the resistance of the circuit protective conductor (CPC).
The total earth-loop impedance is thus:
Zs = Ze + (R1 + R2) Ohms and
If = Vs / ZS
Where If is the fault current and VS is the nominal voltage to earth (usually 220 V).
The loop impedance Ze exter nal to the installation may be measured in existing installations
using a phase -to-earth loop impedance tester. However, when a building is only at the drawing
board stage, we have three methods available to assess the value of Ze:
(I) determine it from de tails (if available) of the supply transformer, the main distribution cable
and the proposed service cable: or
(II) Measure it from the supply intake position of an adjacent building having service cable of
similar size and length to that proposed; or
77
(III) Use maximum likely values issued by the supply authority. Having established ZS, the
resistance of the phase conductor (R1) plus the resistance of the CPC (R2), i.e. R1+R2 calculated
for the type of conductor used (normally copper or aluminum).
Earth-leakage protection may be afforded by means of fuses or excess -current circuit breakers
provided that the earth fault current available to operate the protective device and to make the
faulty circuit dead exceeds;
(I) 3 times the current rating of any semi -enclosed fuse or cartridge fuse used to protect the
circuit or
(II) 1.5 times the tripping current of any excess current circuit breaker used to protect the circuit.
Testing of Installation
The tests to be performed before a new installation or an addition t o an existing installation is
connected to the supply mains are as follows:
1. Insulation Resistance
The insulation resistance between the wiring and earth with all fuses (breakers) and lamps in
and all switches ‘ON’
The insulation resistance between the conductors with all lamps out and all switches ‘ON’
2. Testing of polarity of non-linked single pole switches.
3. Testing of earth continuity path.
4. Testing of earth-electrode resistance.
1. Insulation Resistance
The aim of this test is to know whe ther the wires or cables used in the wiring are sufficiently
insulated to avoid leakage current. Test is performed by a DC source not less than twice of
working voltage but not exceeding 500 V. A 500 V tester, known as ‘Megger’ is used for this
purpose.
Since installation circuits are wired in parallel, one can see that for a very large
Installations an insulation resistance test at the intake position may show a low value, which isn’t
actually due to bad insulation. In order to overcome this problem, EELPA regulation (SECTION
E-2) permits such installation to be broken down into smaller units of not less than 50 outlets.
• Testing of Insulation Resistance between the Wiring and the Earth.
The resistance offered to leakage from conductors to earth is known a s insulation resistance test
between the wiring and earth. Before making an insulation test ensure that:
a) Supply is isolated, i.e. the main switch, breaker or fuse is in OFF position.
78
b) All protective devices are in place.
c) All the switches are in ON position.
d) All the lamps are in their positions or the holders are short-circuited.
e) Link all the poles of the supply together i.e. line and neutral terminals are shorted on the
installation side.
Fig.2.4. Insulation Resistance to Earth

The line terminal of the megger (marked as L) is connected to the point where the conductors
have been shorted at the main switch and the E terminal is connected to the earth. Now the
handle of the tester is turned so that it begins to slip and the reading on the dial gives the
insulation resistance between the wiring and earth.
The insulation resistance to earth measured should not be less than 1 Mega ohm. Very small
leakage current IL=220/1MΩ
•Testing of Insulation Resistance between Conductors
The objective of this test is to ensure that the insulation is sound between the conductors so that
there may not be an appreciable leakage between them.
In this test the circuit d iagram remains the same as in Fig.1 except that all the lamps and all
metallic connections between the two wires of the installation are removed from the holders.
With the supply isolated, all protective devices in place, and all single pole switches in ‘O N’
position; the terminals of the megger are connected between poles (i.e. R to S, R to T, S to T, and
each pole in turn to N). The reading should not be less than 1 Mega ohm.
79
Fig. 2 Between Poles Test.
2 Testing of polarity of Single Pole Switches

Section E -2 of EELPA’s regulation states that “A verification of polarity shall be made and it
shall be ensured that all fuses and all single pole control devices are connected in the live
conductor only, that the outer contacts of center -contact bayonet and Edison -type lamp holders
are connected to the neutral or earthed conductor, and that wiring has been correctly connected to
plugs and socket outlets”.
A convenient and quicker method of performing this test is by means of a small neon tube tester.
1 See EELPA’s regulation SECTION E-2
An alternative method is by means of a test lamp. In this method one end of the test lamp is
connected to earth and the other end is tapped to each contact of the switch in turn. If the test
lamp is in the live wire i.e. gives light, otherwise the installation is wrong (see fig 3)
3 Testing of Earth Continuity Path
For safely all metal pieces or covering such as conduits, metal covers of switches, metal casing of
portable apparatus, frame of every generator and motor, etc, must be solidly connected to earth
otherwise on the damage of insulation, the leakage current will start giving severe shock to the
person touching it. In case of conduit wiring there is a poss ibility of the conduit joints to become
loose to be separated resulting in high resistance in the earth path.
80
The test shall be made when the normal supply is disconnected from the final sub -circuit under
test. One end of the earth-continuity conductor shall be connected to a cable of known resistance.
An AC voltage not exceeding 40 V at approximately the frequency of supply shall then be
applied between the other end of the earth conductor and the other end of the cable. Subject to the
requirement for the total earth loop impedance, it is satisfactory if, after allowance has been made
for the return conductor, value not exceeding 0.5 ohm for the ratio voltage/current is obtained
where steel conduit or pipe form part or whole of the earth -continuity conductor, or a value of 1
ohm where the earth -continuity conductor is composed entirely of copper, copper alloy or
aluminum.
2.5. Lightning Arrestors
Surge arresters are devices to protect equipment from surge line voltages. They absorb some of
the surges, but are also capable of stopping the flow of the surge current by absorbing it, and they
maintain their capability of repeating such functions.
These surge arresters break down at voltages higher than the supply voltage, allowing the higher
voltage and accompan ying currents to flow to ground, thus protecting the equipment on the
system.
After the surge passes to ground, the arrester heals itself, shutting off flow current from the
supply system.
A case in point: There was a 71 ⁄2-horsepower irrigation-pump motor out in a field under a large
tree. Because of lightning, motor rewinds were required on an a verage of once every two years.
Special permission was granted to install surge arresters and surge capacitors to the service.
Approximately 30 years later, there has not been a motor burnout due to lightning.
Number Required
When using surge arresters, they shall be connected to each ungrounded circuit conductor.
Surge arresters are available in single units to connect to only one ungrounded circuit conductor;
here one would be required for each ungrounded conductor. They also are available with three
units in one enclosure, which would thus take care of a three -phase supply. If there are other
supply conductors, such as supplied from a farm service pole, as illust rated in Figure 225 -1, one
set of surge arresters would be sufficient. But in Figure 225 -1 there are a number of service
drops, and so surge arresters should be installed at the load-end of each service drop.
Surge Arrester Selection
81
(A) On Circuits of Less Than 1000 Volts. On circuits of less than 1000 volts, it is required that
the voltage rating of the surge arresters be equal to or greater than the maximum voltage of the
phase-to-ground voltage available. Thus a service of 480 volt s to ground (RMS) would be 0.707
of the maximum voltage to ground; so maximum voltage would be 480 divided by 0.707, or 679
volts. By the same token, a service of 20 volts to ground (RMS) would be 170 volts maximum.
(B) On Circuits of 1 kV and Over. This requires that the surge arrester have a rating of not less
than 125 percent of the maximum phase -to-ground voltage. Again, don’t confuse RMS voltage
and maximum voltage. Use the examples in (A) above.
Note
See ANSI Standard C62.2for further information. Arresters are usually metal oxide. See the NEC
for this fine-print note.
II. Installation
Location
Surge protection of surge arresters may be located in the system either indoors or outdoors, but
shouldn’t be accessible to unqualified persons. In deciding whe ther to place surge arresters
indoors or outdoors, take into consideration that some have exploded. Although this is not a Code
requirement, I would suggest that if they are placed indoors, they should be kept away from
combustible items.
Exception
There are some surge arresters that are listed to be located in accessible places
Routing of Surge Arrester Connections
The connections from the supply system to the surge arresters should be as short as possible.
Also, there should be as few bends in the leads and grounding as possible. Lightning takes a
direct path to the ground.
III. Connecting Surge Arresters
Installed at Services of Less Than 1000 Volts
Conductors used to connect surge arrestors can’t be smaller than No. 14 copper or No. 12
aluminum. The conductor that is used to ground the arrestor must be connected to the grounded
service conductor, the grounding electrode conductor, the grounding electrode, or the equipment -
grounding terminal of the service panel.
Installation on the Load Side of Services of Less Than 1000 Volts
82
This section tells us that line and grounding conductors shouldn’t be smaller than No. 14 copper
or No. 12 aluminum. Some judgment must be used here, and, if possible, check with the
authority that has jurisdiction as to the size of conductors to use.
Surge arresters may be connected to any two ungrounded conductors, grounded conductors, or
grounding conductors. The grounded conductors and the grounding conductors should be
interconnected only during normal operation of the surge arrester when a surge occurs.
The shortest method of getting the surge to ground is always the best method. Avoid bends as
much as possible.
Circuits of 1 kV and Over—Surge Arrester Conductors
Here we are limited to No. 6 copper or aluminum for conductors connecting the surge arrester to
both the ungrounded conductors and the ground.
Circuits of 1 kV and Over—Interconnection
Where circuits are supplied by 1 kV and over, the grounding conductor from surge arresters that
protect a transformer supplying a secondary distribution system must be interconnected as
follows.
(A) Metallic Interconnection. An interconnection to the secondary neutral may be made if the
direct grounding is made to the surge arrester, provided that both o f the following conditions are
met:
(1) If the secondary has the grounded conductor connected elsewhere to a continuous metal
underground water -piping system. If in urban areas there is a minimum of four water pipe
grounding connections in a distance of one mile, the direct ground from the surge arrester may be
eliminated and the secondary neutral used as the grounding for the surge arrester.
(2) In many instances the primary is four -wire wye, with the neutral grounded periodically. In
these cases the secondary neutral is usually interconnected with the primary neutral.
If the primary neutral is grounded in a minimum of four places in each mile, plus the secondary
service ground, the surge arrester ground may be interconnected with the primary and secondary
grounds in addition to the surge arrester grounding electrode.
(B) Through Spark Gap. If the surge arrestor is not connected in accordance with part (A) of this
section, or if it is not grounded as in part (A), but is grounded according to Section 250.83, a
connection may be made through a spark-gap device, but only according to the following rules:
83
(1) In ungrounded or ungrounded systems, the spark -gap arrestor must have a breakdown voltage
of more than two times the circuit’s normal operating voltage, but not necessarily more than
10,000 volts. There must also be at least
two grounding electrodes, placed no more than 20 feet (6.1 m) apart.
(2) In multi -grounded neutral primary systems, the spark -gap arrestor must have a breakdown
voltage of no more than 30 00 volts, and there must be at least two grounding electrodes, placed
no more than 20 feet (6.01 m) apart.
(C) By Special Permission. The authority that has jurisdiction may grant special permission for
an interconnection of the surge arrester ground and t he secondary neutral other than permitted in
(A) and (B) of this section.
Lightning is not attracted to radio antennas unless the antenna is one of the highest points around.
Unfortunately, that's where antennas work best: up high. Because of this problem, it is necessary
to provide some protection against lightning strikes.
Get one thing straight right away: a direct hit on your antenna will destroy the antenna and the
radio equipment connected to it. It might also set fire to your house. No amount of protection will
guarantee that no damage will occur, but you can mitigate the damage by taking certain steps.
Also, a lightning bolt need not strike the antenna to damage radio equipment. A lightning bolt
that strikes the ground nearby, or strikes between two clouds overhead, will produce a high
enough electrical field to put very high voltage spikes into the receiver front -end. Older vacuum
tube equipment was relatively immune to such transient voltages, but modern solid -state
equipment is sensitive.
All antenna installations should have a lightning arrestor either in the feedline or at the base of
the antenna in the case of verticals. Your radio dealer can sell you approved types. The lightning
arrestor should be installed outside of the house, and be well grounded.
Note: In many cases your homeowners insurance may not pay off in the case of lightning damage
if you failed to use an approved lightning arrestor properly installed. Some companies also
require that the installation be inspected by the local government electrical inspector.
If you follow the principles discussed in this paper, you should achieve a good ground, with the
expected improvement in the performance of receivers, transmitters and antennas.
84
3. Contracting Electrical Construction
3.1. Electrical installation contracting
The law relating to contracts is extremely complicated and involved, and hence only the most
basic concepts will be considered. In simple terms, for any job there is a main contractor, which
can be an electrical installation fi rm, building firm or a decorating firm, etc., depending on the
work to be done. This main contractor is responsible to the client (i.e. the person ordering the
work to be done), either directly or via an agent such as an architect.
Should the main contract or employ the services of another firm, this firm is called the
subcontractor and is responsible to the main contractor. A typical sequence of events is as
follows:
1. The client approaches an architect with a view to having, say, a hotel designed and built.
2. The architect designs the building and the design is approved by the client.
3. A specification and a bill of quantities are prepared.
4. The work is put out to tender, and eventually one is selected – not necessarily the lowest
priced.
5. The architect may nominate the sub contractors that is, painters, electricians, plumbers, etc., or
leave it to the main contractor. In any event the subcontracts will go to tender. This is where the
ability to read and interpret drawings, bills of quantities and specifications is so important.
3.2. Cost Estimation

Introduction
Estimating is an art by which we can get an approximation of the material, investment involved,
and the time to be taken for the completion of Electrification project we are planning to do.
By estimating the material coast and the time required for completion of the project we can set
help in making right and firm decision while making a contract with any firm but in itself the
report prepared on estimating and costing does not establish any t ender or contract. The job of an
estimator is inter connected with different aspects of estimating a program in such away that it
can not be demarcated separately very easily. Normally ,it can be analyzed under the following
headings.
Estimating the quantity of material and the cost involved.
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1-Analysis of cost or selling price.
2-Maintaining proper accounts.
3-Provision of selling aids.
Purpose of Estimating and Costing
It is necessary to know the necessary material and the cost to be incurred on it before starting
anew program. Hence it is necessary to make a complete project report for the program be cause
this project acts as a guide in the successful implementation of our program.
Estimating is also necessary because it gives us certainty about the am ount of money required,
availability of material etc.
In the absence of pre -project and the work started without estimating and costing, the work
cannot be completed in uninterruptedly because; it becomes difficult to continue the work due to
instantaneous shortage of money or unavailability of material.
For purchasing the material according to estimating and costing, market survey is necessary. The
estimating and costing have the following aims.
-To ensure that the list of material is completed before st arting the job so that there are very sleek
chances of shortage of any necessary material after staring the work.
-To ensure that the money is not misused in the projects under implementation.
-The time is saved i.e. the work is completed well in time as planned.
The following problems may come on the work started with out estimating and costing.
-It becomes very difficult to purchase necessary material in the absence of list of material.
-The money is misused by purchasing seller, or excess quantities o f material from market and the
shortage of money cause the work interrupted.
-Due to above mentioned difficulties, the work may take more time for completion and it can
affect the other project which is related to the existing project in hand.
Hence, for completion of project work with in time limit uninterruptedly and with out misuse of
money, it is necessary to do estimating and costing prior to starting any work on the project.
For instance , for electrification of any building, estimating and co sting is necessary. The
estimator will make complete planning of electrification including designing of wiring, location
of points and finally prepare a complete estimating and costing report.
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After purchase of material according to the estimating and cos ting report, the work should be
completed under the supervision of some qualified or permit -holder engineer (from chief -
electrical inspector), supervisor or contractor.
Essential Elements of Estimating and Costing.

The estimator should also know the follo wing aspects, which are essential elements of
estimating: -
-Specification of material
-Latest market cost of material
-Prince list and net princes
-Calculation of material and labour cost
-Knowledge of purchase system
-Labour cost.
Specification of material
The specification and cost of all necessar y material should be known at the time of preparing a
report on estimating and pricing of the project. It will be very difficult to purchase the material
from market without knowledge of specifications.
For example, it will be very difficult to choose a s pecific holder out of different holders to be
installed in an electrical installation, because there are many holders, batten holders or screw type
holders, pendant holders available in market.
In the absence of detailed specifications, the shopkeeper fee ls difficulty in providing the correct
material.
Market Survey : - The market cost of material is that cost of the material at which it can be
purchased or brought to the store at any time. The mistakes or carelessness show purchasing the
material with out any market survey will add the cost of electrical installation along with addition
of time in completion of the project. Market survey is an art in which only experienced persons
succeed.
Price List: - By market surrey, the estimator gets the price list of the material from shopkeepers
in which the shop keepers give the retail and wholesale prices according to local market rates.
This list is updated according market rate from time to time.
Hence, at the time of estimating and costing, the price list avail able at that time of the market
should be taken in to consideration.
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Net Price: - is that price, in which all the imposed taxes such as sale tax,
Central sales tax, excise duty and other local taxes are included.
Electrical Schedule: - is that list or plan of the building by which we come to known the number
of points provided in each room of the building under estimation. We need to know the ceiling
outlet, different switches, wall plugs and any other special plus etc. in any room of a building
under estimation.
Preparation of List of Material :- preparing estimation of the total material required for a
project and the total cost involved in the project is an important task of the estimator.
Table List of Material
Sr.n Name of Item with Required Rate

full Specification Qty Total Remar
Cost ks
Birr
Qty Unit Birr Per

Double, pole, iron
1 clad, main switch, 1 Num
30A rating, 250v ber
grading
Determination of Labor Cost: The total cost involved on the project is completed in two steps:
-
1. Quantity of material and cost determination
2. Determining of labor charges
To arrive at a final conclusion for determination of labor charges for wiring a particular building
is very difficult. It is because of the effect that labor charges are different at different places . It is
therefore necessary to arrive at a common conclusion on the aspects of labor charges. The labor
charges can be as under:
-As per duration and work amount
-As per unit work basis
-As per percentage of material cost
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Guide Lines for Conducting Estimates
The engineer who has been assigned for estimating for internal house /commercial/ building
wiring, he /she should be fully conversant for the general rules followed for internal wiring. The
general rules, which are to be kept in mind in executing the internal wiring, are as under.
-The pace where the service connections from nearest pole are to be received sh ould be selected
carefully. The pace should be covered to provide protection to energy meter against rain sun and
mechanical damage.
-No additional road is to be connected to an existing installation unless it has been ascertained
that the installation can carry the additional lead safely.
-The height of main board, and meter beard are to be installed so that its center is 1.6 Meters
above the floor.
-The socket outlets in house wiring in office buildings can be installed 0.3m above floor but
those to residential buildings can amount to electrical accidents by small children in the house.
-Sufficient number of socket out lets is to be provided at suitable places.
-3 pins, 5Amp socket outlets are to be used for light and fan sub. Circuits, 3 pin, 15A sock ets are
to be used in power circuits.
-In both rooms, the height of socket outlet should not be less than 1.5 meters in any case.
-For small and medium sized rooms, all light points are to be placed on walls about 2.75 to 3.0
meters above floor on horizontal run below ceiling.
-All ceiling fans are to be hung 2.75 meters above the floor, unless otherwise specified.
-Each sub-circuit, is better it not more than ten lighting, fan and fire (5Amper) socket outlets. If a
separate sub - circuit is installed f or fans only, the number of fans in that sub -circuit is not to
exceed ten.
-The fuse and switch are not to be provided on earthed conductor or earth wire.
-The metal sheaths or conduits for all wiring and metal covering of all current consuming
apparatus or appliances is to be properly earthed in order to avoid danger from electric shock due
to leakage or failure of insulation.
-In large buildings where 3 phase 4 wire supply is to be given, the load is to be distributed
equally on all the phases.
-All apparatus requiring attention are to be provided with means of access to it.
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-The height of ceiling for a normal residential building may be taken as 3.5 meters for estimation
purpose. The height of ceiling for large halls may be assumed to be 4-meters.
-While calculating the cost of wiring a house or commercial building, the rates from the local
market of standard quality goods preferably of the some company should be taken into account
as there is a variety of rates from company to company.
-The estimator must take into account each and every item i.e. from minor items to major items
required in the wiring calculations.
Sequences to carry out estimate

While calculating the material and cost of wiring a house the following sequence should be
adopted in case of conduit system of wiring.
a) Drawing Installation plan drawn in suitable scale and electrical points, switch board, location
of main board, energy meter, distribution board etc. are marked on the plan through specified
symbols.
b) Assumptions:- for instance location of main board in verandah can be assumed to be half or
one meter inside. The height of the building may also be assumed it not specified.
c) Calculations: - For length of conduit pipe. It may be calculated in three stages:-
-The conduit installed from switchboards up to horizontal run including from main switch.
-The conduit on walls running parallel to floor (Horizontal run) running below ceiling.
-The conduit installed between HR and ceiling to last point on HR.
 Them finally add the three stages and add 10% wastage.
d ) Calculations for phase & Neutral wire : - the phase wire and Neutral wire is calculated sub -
circuit wises for instance.
Sub ckt No 1 :- phase & Neutral wire
Sub ckt No 2 :- '' ''
 Then finally totalize the phase and neutral wire and add 15% wastage on each.
E) Calculate for length of Earth wire: - the earth wire for casing Capping and batten wiring is
laid on the batten along with other wires. If the conduit is metal pipe no additional earth wire
will be in the conduit, as the conduit can act as earth wire.
f) Prepare material Table: - It should be prepared with complete Specification of each item.
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3.3. Contract Document Preparation
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The preparation of an accurate and complete electrical specification is the responsibility of the
architect/engineer and is an integral part of the project contract documentation. The specification
must be coordinated with the project electrical drawings and failure to do so can result in
significant costs and lost time for making corrections.
The electrical specification for a project might refer to hundreds of products, parts, and
components as well as numerous items or equipment and systems. By agreement between the
owner and the architect/engineer, these items can be specified in different ways. They can be
approved only if they are the products of a single manufacturer and are identified by a part or
model number. Alternatively, the citation of one manufacturer and model numb ber can become
the standard for quality and specification grade hospita1. industrial, commercial, or residential) if
the phrase “or equivalent” is added. Yet another option is simply the statem ent in the
specification that a material or prod uct shall conform to a specifi c commercial, federal, or
military standard or comply with certain codes and tests.
In some specifications, especially those calling for the procurement of equipment or systems, a
summary of critical performance characteristics and perhaps outline dimensions is included to
define the desired products. This information can be obtained from the catalog data obtained
from a number of manufacturers whose products have been approved as meeting the specification
requirements. By using this approach, procurement is opened to competitive bidding from a
wider base of qualified suppliers. This can lead to more favorable prices and delivery schedules.
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TYPE ‘B’ 3 BED LINKED (Continued)
DINING ROOM
1 Ceiling light point
2 Twin socket outlet
1 Radiator
KITCHEN
1 Fluorescent ceiling light
3 – Twin 13 A socket outlets
1 Cooker control with 1 additional socket incorporated
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1 Immersion heater switch
1 – 13 A point for gas boiler
Wall-fitted gas boiler for central heating
3 Gas points
Double drainer, stainless steel sink unit, mixer taps and cupboard under
1 Large base unit
1 Broom cupboard
1 High level cupboard
HALL
CLOAKROOM: 1 Ceiling light point
1 Low-level W.C. suite
1 Corner hand basin
GARAGE: Metal up and over door
Electric and gas meters
LANDING: 1 Ceiling light point
1 Full height airing cupboard with slatted shelves
BEDROOM 1: 1 Ceiling light point
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1 Radiator
1 Radiator
1 Radiator
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4. Electrical Installation Auxiliary Systems
Communal TV system
A ‘communal TV system’ provides television signals to a nu mber of users from a single set of
aerials and/or dishes. This can be used with all types of properties, from s mall nu mbers of
detached houses where for example planning constraints restrict the use of roof mounted
aerials, to tower blocks and even entire estates of several thousand households.
The benefits of a properly designed and installed communal TV system include:
 Reliable service of high quality signals for all users;

 Added value to the building infrastructure
 Reduction or eli mination of the need for individual aerial and satellite
installations; and
 Minimization of disputes, both with and between tenants.
Indoor reception through a set top aerial may be possible for some residents but will only be
satisfactory in areas of high signal strength. Indoor reception is dependent on factors such as
the dista nce from the tran smitter, the height above ground level, and the lo ss of signal as it
passes through the building. At best, reception using the indoor aerials curre ntly available is
likely to be haphazard and may not provide residents with satisfactory signals.
There are several different systems that can be used to provide communal TV reception.
MATV System
The Basics of MATV
MATV stands for Master Antenna Television. MATV systems allow multiple receivers (TV &
FM) to receive signals from a single (Master) antenna, as opposed to individual antennas for
each receiver.
A modern MATV system can carry analogue and digital terrestrial television, both free- to-
view and subscription, FM radio and DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) but it cannot carry
satellite signals. A typical MATV system, as found in a block of 12 flats, is shown in the
diagram below:
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In a typical system:
 The aerial is a conventional UHF TV aerial, receiving both analogue and digital TV
signals from a nearby transmitter.
 Signals received by the aerial are then processed
 A distribution network then delivers all television signals to a socket outlet in each
household.
 There can be more than one outlet per household, but only one TV set can be connected
to each outlet.
 How the distribution network is configured will depend on the number of
dwellings and floors in the building.
MATV systems are separated into two portions, the ‘Head End’ and the ‘Distribution Syste m’.
When these two portions are planned and engineered using suitable MATV equipment and the
appropriate installation techniques, signals will be distributed without loss of signal quality.
The MATV Headend
The Headend of a MATV system usually consists of an antenna which receives broadcast
signals, pro cessing equipment to filter the sig nals and a distribution amplifier to amplify the
signals to co mpensate for distribution l osses. Antennas, a mplifiers, taps, filters and atten uators
are used in this portion of the system.
In weak signal areas, it is often necessary to amplify the signal before the distribution
amplifier. This will en sure a signal of sufficient strength and acceptable quality. This is
achieved using a Masterhead Amplifier.
Headend Equipment
The Headend equipment shall serve as an interface between the receiving antennas and the
premises distribution system to allow for signal reception [processing,] [and] [ modulation,]
[and] [translation to vacant channels,] [and] [co mbining signals for single cable distribution,]
[and] [amplification,] [and] [equalization].
Parts that should be included in the Headend side are:
A. Equipment Cabinet:
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 The equipment cabinet shall be a standard modular rack(s), ventilated, with
locking doors.
 The cabinet shall be floor or wall mounted with knock-out holes for cable
entrance and conduit connection, with ventilation ports
 A cooling mechanism like a thermostat controlled quiet fan with non-disposable air
filter for equipment cooling or other.
 Better if it has blank rack space, for future expansion. Use blank panels to cover any
open or unused rack space.
 Blank panels can be made of aluminum.
 Electrical circuit for the power strip shall include a rack -mounted surge protector and
power filter module. It shall be cabinet mounted and the cabinet AC power strip (two
strips MAX) may be connected to it.
B. Masthead Amplifiers
In weak signal areas, it is often necessary to amplify the signal before t he di stribution
amplifier. This will ensure a signal of sufficient strength and acceptable quality. This is
achieved using a Masterhead Amplifier. It is i mportant to choose a Masterhead A mplifier
with a low noise figure. The noise figure of the Masterhead Amplifier establishes the noise
figure of the entire system; therefore the a mplifier should always incr ease the signal more
than it increases the noise.
Masthead Amplifiers shall accept individual VHF and UHF antenna inputs with gain and/or
slope contr ols for each band. If separate VHF and UHF inputs are not available, the
individual VHF and UHF antenna inputs shall be mixed or combined and balanced to
provide equal signal level to the single amplifier input.
It is important to choose a Master head A mplifier with a low noise figure. The noise figure
of the Masterhead Amplifier establishes the noise figure of the entire system; therefore the
amplifier should always increase the signal more than it increases the noise.
C. TV combiners
Combiners are used to combine the signals of several transmitters and translators into one
antenna system.
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D. Attenuators
As there are many signals received by an antenna, there may be a wide vari ation in signal
levels. In order to ensure t he same picture quality on all chan nels, the signal levels may
require equalization to prevent the stronger signals from overriding the weaker ones.
Equalization is achieved by using attenuators, which reduce the incoming stronger signals
by a specified amount.
Attenuators can be eit her fixed or variable. They are either designed for one specific
attenuation level, or they are switchable so that the signals can be reduced in increments to
the required level. Attenuators reduce all signals that pass through by the same amount.
Therefore, frequencies that need reducing need to be separated from the rest of the
signals so that only the stronger signals are reduced
MATV Distribution
A well-designed distribution system is necessary to guarantee an adequate signal at every

receiver connected to the system. The distribution of MATV is t he role of a combination of
splitters and taps. Splitters and taps provide a pre-determined signal level and maintain the
correct impedance to each of the outputs. Calculation of losses associated wi th splitters, drop
taps and cable are required
Each outlet has a defined a mount of signal level required, and there is a recom mendation for
maximum cable runs. Splitters and taps provide the same signal quality to each outlet, as long
as design recommendations are adhered to.
If there is a poor signal received from the antenna, this same poor signal will be output to each
of the TV outlets. To guarantee a good signal at each of the TV outlets, a good quality signal
needs to be received at the antenna.
Distribution Equipment
A. Splitter/Mixer:
A signal-combining network (mixer) shall be provided to combine the [VHF] [and FM

broadcast band net work] into a single broadband signal. Co mbining network sh all be [rack]
[wall] mounted with the associated Headend equipment
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The splitter/mixer shall provide multiple isolated outputs from a single input, or conversely, a
single output from multiple isolated inputs.
B. AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers increase the strength of signals received to a level greater than the losses in the
distribution system. The amplifier gain determines the level of signal increase, which should be
high enough to provide an acceptable signal level to all televisions in the system.
Although an a mplifier’s gain is important, the output capability is ju st as important. The

amplifier’s specifications should be checked to ensure that the output level is sufficient to feed
the system and that the strength of the input signal plus the gain of the amplifier doesn’t exceed
the amplifiers rated output capability. Exceeding the output capability will result in over
loading, cross modulation distortion, and overall signal deterioration.
Any signal passing through the system components, including the cable, will be attenuated (i.e.,
have its level diminished). The level of this attenuation is important, as it will be a factor in
signal quality. Signal quality within the system is related to signal level, system noise and
headroom. The system needs to maintain a low noise level and a high signal level. However, the
signal must not be too high, as this can overdrive the equip ment. In order to si mplify MATV
design, the relationship between noise and signal levels is measured (in Decibels).
Decibels
The signal level received on a television antenna is measured in micro-volts. Calculations in

micro-volts are difficult; therefore MATV calculations are carried out in decibels. Decibels are
added and subtracted, as opposed to being multiplied and divided.
The decibel indicates how many times greater or smaller a quantity is from a pre -
established reference level. The relationship b etween dB levels is lo garithmic, not linear.
Therefore 40 dB is not twice as much as 20 dB, for example:
 10 dB = 3.2 x reference level

 20 dB = 10 x reference level
 30 db = 32 x reference level
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In the MATV industry, the zero reference level is 1,000 micro-volts measured across 75Ohms
of impedance. The reference level deter mines that a minimum signal of 1,000 micro-volts is
required to produce an accepta ble picture. The dB figure is represented as dBmV (a reference to
1 millivolt), or dBμV (a reference to 1 microvolt).
MATV amplifier gains, cable losses, insertion losses and isolation values are all
expressed in dB. To determine an amplifier output and any system losses, decibels are added and
subtracted. The minimum signal for a good quality, noise free picture is typically stated as
0dBmV although most televisions will work with signals as small as 6dBmV.
Working to the 0dBmV level will provide a tolerance to slight signal variations. The signal
level fed into a television should be kept below 20dBmV. Equipment is critical to maintain the
maximum bandwidth.
System Losses
CABLE LOSS
A certain amount of signal will be lost as it travels through coaxial cable. This loss depends on
the type of cable used and the frequency of the signal being carried. Losses are greater at
higher frequencies, the greatest loss occurring at channel 69 in UHF/VHF syste ms. The cable
loss should always be calculated at the highest frequency received or the highest frequency to be
received in the future.
SPLITTER LOSS
When a two-way splitter is inserted in-line, the signal in each leg will be approximately 3.5
dBuV less than that of the main line. If a 4-way splitter is inserted inline, the signal in each leg
is 6.5 dBuV less than that in the main line. The signal sent to each branch of the system will be
equal to the signal sent into the splitter minus the splitter loss. That is, an input of 70 dBuV into
a 2-way splitter will deliver a signal of 70 dBuV minus 3.5 dBuV splitter losses, or 66.5 dBuV
to each branch of the System.
INSERTION LOSS
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All tap-off devices inserted into the distribution system create signal loss. This type of loss
is called insertion loss, (sometimes called feed-through loss). On the line, the insertion loss of
each tap-off is subtracted from the signal carried by that line. When esti mating total system
losses, the insertion loss of each unit is added together to find the tot al insertion loss for that
system. For example, if there are 10 tap-offs on the line, and each ta p-off has an i nsertion loss
of 0.5 dB, the total insertion loss is 5 dB.
ISOLATION LOSS
Each tap-off attenuates the signal by a specified number of dB to prevent one set from
interfering with another. For example, if there is a 80 dBuV signal in the line, and a 20 dB
drop tap is inserted in the line, the signal available at the tap-off would be 60 dBuV.
The 20dB loss is called ‘Thru’ Loss. In computing the total distribution system losses,
calculate the Thru Loss of the last tap-off only. Since the system design requires a minimum of
60 dBuV to each set, the lowest tap value should be used. For most MATV tap-offs this value
is either 10 or 12dB.
“SMATV” means Satellite Master Antenna Television;
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV)
This is a means of delivering television services over a local area broadband network
using web protoc ols, mainly used c urrently in student acc ommodation. This tech nology takes
digital terrestrial and/or satellite signals and re-distributes them alongside other services such
as video on demand and broadcast local TV channels. TV services are received from satellite
or terrestrial transmitters, and are converted into a format known as Internet Protocol, which
can be carried on data networks. If a property is being built or re-wired, and is equipped with
computer network cabling (e.g. CAT -5) then there is no need to install separate coaxial cables
for TV as broadband, TV and telephony can share the same network.
In a typical IPTV system:
 A TV signal is received through a conventional aerial or satellite dish.
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 The signal is processed by an IPTV head -end. The head-end hardware is usually situated
locally within the building, although some IPTV providers stream broadcasts from an
off-site head-end.
 The IPTV signal is distributed to users through a minimum CAT-5 cable network.
 Viewers receive TV services on a TV adapted with an IP digital box on a PC or a laptop.
At present there are no commercial service applications, but the availability of IPTV is likely to
become more widespread over the next few years . However, in the meantime, IPTV can be used
for TV service distribution within a hotel, hospital, office block, for example.
Certain television services may be delivered to home users via broadband. A key point to be
aware of when weighing up the benefits and costs of an IPTV system is that an ongoing
service contract with the IPTV prov ider is required. There are ongoing costs, which could either
be paid for by residents though subscription to the IPTV service, or built into service charges
managed by the property managers.
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Fire alarm system
An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of fire by
monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion.
How a Fire Alarm System Works

Fire alarm systems are devices or series of devices that are meant to alert people and institutions
to the presence of a fire within some building or another. In the industry, these systems are
referred to as "active fire protection", which basically translates to mean that the system can
be turned on or off, that is, activated, in some way or another.
Any fire alarm system operates on a simple principle, no matter what sort of form it takes.
There are electrical devices working in the system
 That tells the occurrence of fire, so called alarm initiating devices.

 That let people who use it know there is a fire, the so called alarm notification
appliances.
 That it uses to try to prevent the spread of fire, the so called fire control units.
Then, how does a fire alarm system work? Basically, it works by having the devices looking for
fire being tripped. This can mean that a smoke alarm sniffs smoke and sends the signal to the
system, or it can mean that someone sees a fire and pulls the alarm lever to let the system know
that something is burning. At this point a sound too loud to be ignored is raised so that people
will know there is a fire and can begun to get out of the building in an orderly fashion. Some
fire alarm systems are equipped with strobe lights or the like so that people who are deaf can be
alerted as well.
Nearly every single fire alarm system has a smoke detector installed on it in some
location. This is because, as the old adage goes, where there is smoke there is fire. So one of the
best ways to spot a nascent fire is to look for sign of smoke. Smoke detectors come in two
flavors, those that use light and those that use air. The smoke detectors that use air look out the
world with a beam of light and can detect when smoke scatters the signal of the light in a
particular way. Those that use air "sniff" for smoke by analyzing the ionization of the air in t he
location where they are stored.
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In general, a fire alarm system is either classified as automatic, manually activated, or both.
Automatic fire alarm systems can be used to notify people to evacuate in the event of a fire
or other emergency, to summon emergency forces aid, and to prepare the structure a nd
associated systems to control the spread of fire and smoke.
Categories of Active Fire Protection
Fire detection
The fire is detected either by locating the smoke, flame or heat, and an alarm is sounded to
enable emergency evacuation as well as to dispatch the local fire department. Where a detection
system is activated, it can be programmed to carry out other actions. These include opening
servo-actuated vents in stairways.
Fire suppression
Fire can be controlled or extinguished, either manually (firefighting) or automatically. Manual

includes the use of a fire extinguisher or a Standpipe syste m. Auto matic means can include a
fire sprinkler system, a gaseous clean agent, or firefighting foam system. Automatic suppression
systems would usually be found in large commercial kitchens or other high-risk areas.
Sprinkler systems
Fire sprinkler systems are installed in high rise buildings, department stores, warehouses and
other similar buildings. They are usually located at ceiling level and are supplied by a central
system of water pumps and a reservoir. The sprinkler system operates usually when heat at
the site of a fire caus es a g lass co mponent in the s prinkler head to fail, thereby releasing the
water from the sprinkler head. This means that only the sprinkler head at the fire location
operate - not all the sprinklers on a floor or in a building. Sprinkler systems help to reduce
the growth of a fire.
Fundamental Parts of Fire alarm system
 Fire alarm control panel: This component is the main part of the system. It monitors
inputs and system integrity, control outputs and relays information.
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 Primary Po wer supply: Commonly the n on-switched 220 Volt Alternating Current
source supplied from a commercial power utility. In non-residential applications, a
branch circuit is dedicated to the fire alarm system and its constituents.
 Secondary (backup) Po wer supplies: This component common ly sealed, lead -acid
storage batteries or other emergency sources including generators, is used to supply
energy in the event of a primary power failure.
 Initiating Devices: This component acts as input to the fire alarm control unit and are
either manually or automatically activated.
 Notification appliances: This component uses energy supplied from the fire alarm
system or other stored energy source, to inform the proximate persons of the need to take
action, usually to evacuate.
 Building Safety Interfaces: This interface allows the fire alarm system to control
aspects of the building environment and to prepare the building for fire and to control the
spread of smoke fumes and fire by influencing air movement, lighting, process co ntrol,
human transport and exit.
Fire alarm control panel

A fire alarm control panel (FACP), or fire alarm control unit (FACU), is an electric panel that is
used for controlling component of a fire alarm syste m. The panel receives infor mation from
environmental sensors designed to detect changes associated with fire, monitors their
operational integrity and provid es for automatic control of equipment, and trans mission of
information necessary to prepare the facility for fire based on a predeter mined sequence. The
panel may also supply electrical energy to operate any associ ated sensor, control, transmitter, or
relay.
Ever since electric fire alarm system is utilized, there have been four basic types of
panels: coded panels, conventional panels, addressable panels and multiplex systems.
 A coded panel: These panels are not very common today, but can sometimes be
found in older buildings such as those on college campuses or hospitals.
 A conventional system: employs one or more initiating circuits, connected to sensors
(initiating devices) wired in parallel. These sensors are devised to decrease the circ uit’s
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resistance when the environmental influence on any sensor exceeds a predeter mined
threshold. In a conventional system the information density is limited to the number of
such circuits used.
Conventional panels have been around ever since electronics became small enough to
make them viable. They are no longer used frequently in large buildings, but are still
used on smaller sites such as small schools or apartments.
Conventional panels usually have a small number of circuits, each circ uit covering a
zone within the building. A small map of the building is often placed near the main
entrance with the defined zones drawn up, and LEDs indicating whether a particular
circuit/zone has been activated. Another common method is to have the different
zones listed in a column, with an LED to the left of each zone name.
The main drawback with conventional panels is that one cannot tell which device has
been activated within a circ uit. The fire may be in one small room, but as far as
emergency responders can tell, a fire could exist anywhere within a zone. The same
applies to coded panels, which nowadays are no longer made, but can be found in old
systems. These, if the decision is made to keep them, are "grandfathered" in under NFPA
regulations.
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Fig 1. A wiring diagram for a simple fire alarm system consisting of two input loops (one
closed, one open)
 An addressable panel: is a more modern type of panel, and has greater flexibility
than a conventional panel. An addressable panel has a nu mber of Signaling Line Circuits
(SLCs), where a number of devices are a ble to be connected, each with its own address.
Each SLC polls the devices connected, which can number from a few devices to
several hundred, depending on the manufacturer. Large systems may have multiple
SLCs, and SLCs are further divided into sub-groups through the use of fault -isolation
modules.
Addressable panels are usually much more advanced than their conventional
counterparts, with a higher degree of programming flexibility and single point detection.
 Multiplex systems: These systems were often capable of controlling more than a
building's fire alarm system (i.e. HVAC, security, electronic door locks...) without any
type of alarm or trouble condition present. While the main panel was the brains of
the system and could be used to access certain functions, fire alarm controls were
usually accessed through transponders (a piece of eq uipment that receives signals and
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0
automatically sends out a nother signal in reply ). These were smaller conventional
panels programmed to 'communicate' the status of part of the system to the main panel
and also could be used to access basic fire alarm control functions.
Initiating devices
• Manually activated devices: Manual pull stations are constructed to be readily
located (near the exits), identified, and operated.
• Automatically activated devices: can take many forms of action intended to

respond to any number of detectable physical changes associated with fire:
Physical Chang Detector
Convicted Thermal Energy Heat Detector
Products Of Combustion Smoke Detector
Radiant Energy Flame Detector
Combustion Gasses Carbon Monoxide Detector
Release Of Extinguishing Agents Water-Flow Detector

The newest innovations can use cameras a nd computer algorithms to analyze the visible effects
of fire and movement in applications inappropriate for or hostile to other detection methods.
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Fire alarm notification appliances
A fire alarm notification appliance is an active fire protection component. A
notification appliance may use audible, visible, or other stimuli to alert the occupants of a fire or
other e mergency cond ition requiring action. Audible appliances have been in use longer than
any other method of notification. Most of today's appliances produce sound pressure levels
between 45 and 120 decibels at ten feet.
Audible textual appliances are e mployed as part of a fire alarm

system that includes Emergency Voice Alarm Communications
(EVAC) capabilities. High reliability speakers are used to notify
the occupants of the need for action in connection with a fire or
other emergency. These speakers are e mployed in large facilities
where general undirected evacuation is con sidered impracticable
or undesirable.
Fig 2. An electronic fire alarm horn and strobe.
The signals from the speakers are used to direct the occupant's response. The system may be
controlled from one or more locations within the building known as Fire Wardens Stations, or
from a single location designated as the building Fire Command Center.
Speakers are automatically activated by the fire alarm system in a fire event, and
following a pre -alert tone, selected groups of speakers may transmit one or more prerecorded
messages directing the occupants to safety. These messages may be repeated in one or more
languages. Trained personnel activating and speak ing into a dedicated microphone can suppress
the replay of automated messages in order to initiate or relay real time voice instructions. The
audible signals are:
o usually around 3200 Hz due to component constraints

o 45dB to 120dB A weighted for human hearings.
Visual signals
Audible notification appliances would now include strobe lights (bright light that flashes rapidly
on and off) to alert the hearing impaired. The strobe gives at least 15 candelas light and has
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a flash rate of at least 60 flashes a minute. Strobe synchronization is often used to synchronize
all strobes in a uniform flash pattern. This is to prevent individuals with photosensitive
epilepsy from potentially experiencing seizures due to unsynchronized strobes. The
light signal has 15 candela to 1000 candela output.
Voice evacuation
Voice evacuation systems have become popular for high-rises, schools, hospitals, and other
large facilities. Voice-evacuation alarms typically are not as loud as horns or bells, and usually
sound an alarm tone and a voice message warning that an emergency has been reported and
to evacuate the building (often also mentioning not to use elevators).
Voice-evacuation systems can also be used by personnel to give specific infor mation and/or
instructions over the alarm system. Usually they are either tied into the building's public address
system or are outfitted with their own speakers (usually also equipped with strobe lights).
Design of Fire alarm system

After a fire protection goals are established, the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific
components, arrange ments, and interfaces necessary to acco mplish these goals. Equip ment
specifically manufactured for the se purposes are selected and standar dized installation methods
are anticipated during the design.
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Code is a well-established and widely used
installation standard.
System functions of Fire Alarm System
There are many functions on a fire alarm panel. So me of these are:

Signaling line circuit loops
Panels usually have a number of signaling line circuit loops - usually referred to as loops or SLC
loops - ranging between one and thirty. Depending on the protocol used, a loop can monitor and
control between 126 and 318 devices. These are usually split with one half being detectors, and
the other half being input/output modules. Some protocols allow a mix and match approach.
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Each device on a SLC has its own address, and so the panel knows the state of each
individual device connected to it. Common addressable input (initiating) devices include
 Smoke detectors
 Manual call points or manual pull stations
 Notification appliances
 Responders
 Fire sprinkler system inputs
 Switches
o Flow control
o Pressure
o Isolate
o Standard switches
Addressable output devices are known as relays and include
 Warning System/Bell Relays

 Door Holder Relays
 Auxiliary (Control Function) Relays
Relays are used to control a variety of functions such as
 Switching fans on or off

 Closing/opening doors
 Activating fire suppression systems
 Activating notification appliances
 Shutting down industrial equipment
Mapping
Mapping is the process of activating outputs depen ding on which inputs have been activated.
Traditionally, when an input dev ice is activated, a certain output device (or relay) is activated.
As time has progressed, more and more advanced techniques have become available, often with
large variations in style between different companies.
Zones
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Zones are usually made by dividing a building, or area into different sections, and placing each
device in the building in a different zone.
Groups
Groups contain multiple output devices such as relays. This allows a single input, such as a
smoke detector to have only one output programmed to a group, which then maps to between
two to many ou tputs or relays. This enables an installer to si mplify programming by having
many inputs map to the same outputs, and be able to change them all at once, and also allows
mapping to more outputs than the programming space for a single detector/input allows.
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Electrical Installation Handout
Private branchexchange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Overview
PBXs make connections among the internal telephones of a private organization usually a
business and also connect them to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) via trunk lines.
Because they incorporate telephon es, fax machines, modems, and more, the general term
"extension" is used to refer to any end point on the branch.
PBXs are differentiated from "key systems" in that users of key systems manually select their
own outgoing lines, while PABXs select the outgoing line automatically. Hybrid syste ms
combine features of both.
Initially, the pri mary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the
circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone service. As PBXs gained popularity,
they started offering services that were not available in the operator network, such as hunt
groups, call forwarding, and extension dialing. In the 1960s a simulated PBX known as Centrex
provided similar features from the central telephone exchange.
Two significant developments during the 1990s led to new types of PBX systems. One was the
massive grow th of data networks and increased public u nderstanding of packet switching.
Companies needed packet switched networks for data, so using them for telephone calls was
tempting, and the availabil ity of the Internet as a global delivery system made packet switched
communications even more attractive. These factors led to the development of the VoIP PBX.
(Technically, nothing was being "exchanged" any more, but the abbreviation PBX was so widely
understood that it remained in use.)
The other trend was the idea of focusing on core co mpetence. PBX services had always been
hard to arrange for smaller companies, and many companies realized that handling their own
telephony was not their core competence. These considerations gave rise to the concept of hosted
PBX. In a hosted setup, the PBX is located at and managed by the telephone service provider,
and features and calls are delivered via the Internet. The custo mer just signs up for a service,
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rather than buying and maintaining expensive hardware. This essentially removes the branch
from the private premises, moving it to a central location.
System components
A PBX will often include:
 The PBX’s internal switching network.

 Microcontroller or microcomputer for arbitrary data processing, control and logic.
 Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that
facilitate PBX operation.
 Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines.
 Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX.
 Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls.
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and
batteries.
 Interconnecting wiring.
 Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings.
Current trends
One of the latest trends in PBX development is the VoIP PBX, also known as an IP -PBX or
IPBX, which uses the Internet Protocol to carry calls. Most modern PBXs support VoIP. ISDN
PBX systems also replaced some traditional PBXs in the 1990s, as ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) offers features such as conference calling, call forwarding, and
programmable caller ID. However, recent open source projects combined with cheap modern
hardware are sharply reducing the cost of PBX ownership.
For so me users, the private branch exchange has gone full circle as a ter m. Originally having
started as an organization's manual switchboard or attendant console operated by a telephone
operator or just simply the operator, they have evolved into VoIP centers that are hosted by
the operat ors or even hardware manufacturers. These modern IP Centrex syste ms offer
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essentially the same service, but they have moved so far from the origi nal concept of the PBX
that the term hardly applies at all.
Even though VoIP gets a great deal of press, the old circuit switched network is alive and well,
and the already bought PBX's are very co mpetitive in services with modern IP Centrexes.
Currently, there are four distinct scenarios in use:
 PBX (Private and Circuit Switched)

 Hosted/Virtual PBX (Hosted and Circuit Switched) or traditional Centrex
 IP PBX (Private and Packet Switched)
 IP Centrex or Hosted/Virtual IP (Hosted and Packet Switched)
Since in reality people want to call from the IP side to the circuit switched PSTN (Public
Switched Telephone Network) the hosted sol utions usually have to maneuver in both real ms in
one way or another. The distinctions are seldom visible to the end user.
PBX functions
Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing duties:
 Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users (e.g.
mapping a dialed number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't already busy)
 Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them (i.e. channeling voice
signals between the users)
 Disconnecting those connections as per the user's requirement
 Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g. metering calls)
In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other calling features and capabilities,
with different manufacturers providing different features in an effort to differentiate their
products. Com mon capabilities include ( manufacturers may have a different n ame for each
capability):
 Auto attendant
 Auto dialing
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 Automatic call distributor

 Automated directory services (where callers can be routed to a given employee by
keying or speaking the letters of the employee's name)
 Automatic ring back
 Call accounting
 Call forwarding on busy or absence
 Call park
 Call pick-up
 Call transfer
 Call waiting
 Camp-on
 Conference call
 Custom greetings
 Customized Abbreviated dialing (Speed Dialing)
 Busy Override
 Direct Inward Dialing
 Direct Inward System Access (DISA) (the ability to access internal features from an
outside telephone line)
 Do not disturb (DND)
 Follow-me, also known as find-me: Determines the routing of incoming calls. The
exchange is configured with a list of nu mbers for a person. When a call is
received for that person, the exchange routes it to each number on the list in turn until
either the call is answered or the list is exhausted (at which point the call may be
routed to a voice mail system).
 Interactive voice response
 Music on hold
 Night service
 Shared message boxes (where a department can have a shared voicemail box)
 Voice mail
 Voice message broadcasting
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 Voice paging (PA system)

 Welcome Message
Hosted PBX systems

A hosted PBX system deliv ers PBX functionality as a service, available over the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and/or the internet. Hosted PBXs are typically provided
by the telephone co mpany, using equip ment located in the premises of the telephone company's
exchange. This means the customer organization doesn't need to buy or install PBX
equipment (generally the service is provided by a lease agreement) and the telephone
company can (in so me configurations) use the s ame switching eq uipment to servi ce multiple
PBX hosting accounts.
Instead of buying PBX equipment, users contract for PBX services from a hosted PBX service
provider, a particular type of application service pro vider (ASP). The first hosted PBX service
was very feature -rich compared to most pre mise-based systems of the ti me. In fact, some PBX
functions, such as follow-me calling, appeared in a hosted service before they became available
in hardware PBX equipment. Since that introduction, updates and new offerings from several
companies have moved feature sets in both directions. Today, it is possible to get hosted P BX
service that includes far more features than were available from the first systems of this class, or
to contract with companies that provide less functionality for simple needs.
In addition to the features available from premises-based PBX systems, hosted-PBX:
 Allows a single number to be presented for the entire company, despite its being
geographically distributed. A co mpany cou ld even choose to have no pre mises, with
workers connected from ho me using their domestic telephones but receiving the sa me
features as any PBX user.
 Allows multimodal access, where employees access the network via a variety of
telecommunications syste ms, including POTS, ISDN, cellular phones, and VOIP. This
allows one extension to ring in multiple locations (either concurrently or sequentially).
 Supports integration with custom toll plans (that allow intra company calls, even from
private premises, to be dialed at a cheaper rate) and integrated billing and accounting
Page 120
(where calls made on a private line but on the company's behalf are billed centrally to the
company).
 Eliminates the need for companies to manage or pay for on-site hardware
maintenance.
Mobile PBX
A mobile PBX is a hosted PBX service that extends fixed-line PBX functionality to mobile
devices such as cellular handsets, s mart phones and PDA phones by provisioning them as
extensions. Mobile PBX services also can include fixed-line phones. Mobile PBX systems
are different from other hosted PBX systems that simply forward data or calls to mobile phones
by allowing the mobile phone itself, through the use of buttons keys and other input dev ices,
to control PBX phone functions and to manage communications without having to call into t he
system first.
IP-PBX
An IP PBX handles voice signals under Internet protocol, bringing benefits for computer
telephony integration (CTI). An IP -PBX can exist as physical hardware, or can carry out its
functions virtually, performing the call-routing activities of the traditional PBX or key system as
a software system. The virtual version is also called a "Soft PBX".
Page 121

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CHAPTER 1

0.300 – 0.436 micrometer----------Violet

* Visible waves: daylight, radiations from candles and lamps.

1 Candela = 1 Lumen / steradian

1.2. LIGHT SOURCE AND APPLICATION

● Colours of Discharge Lamps

Electric discharge lamps can in general be classified as cold-cathode and hot-cathode

Gas or vapour Colour of Light

● High pressure mercury vapour lamps:

Fig. 1.2 Sodium vapour lamps

● Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):

Fluorescent lamp circuits

Fig.1.4 Stages in striking of a fluorescent tube, using glow-type starter switch

1.3. PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES

A good lighting system should produce:

 Uniform illumination of not less than the required value.

 It should be free from glare and hard shadows.

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as: -

i. The intensity of illumination required

ii. The selection of the required lamps and fittings

iii. The size of the room

iv. The conditions under which the illumination is used etc

A. Watts per square metre method

Data On Commonly Used Light Sources

General-purpose lamps (220V-230V)

wattage Nominal Length Luminous flux,

Types of Lighting η Types of Lighting η

Direct 0.6 to 0.45 Semi-indirect 0.45 to 0.3

A standard is a document specifying nationally or interna tionally agreed properties for

 Aluminum Wiring in Residential Properties: Hazards & Remedies

There are three types of standards that are important to us:

Some other standards authorities are:

Some other BSI documents

 PD 2754: Parts 1 and 2.

 BS 3939: Graphical symbols. Provides comprehensive details of the symbols to be used in

 BS EN 60529: Specification for classification of degrees of protection provided by electrical

The IEE regulations (BS 7671)

2.2. Electrical Installation materials, components and accessories

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Supplies electrical energy. The larger terminal (on the left) is

Battery Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than one cell.

DC supply Supplies electrical energy. DC, always flowing in one direction.

AC supply Supplies electrical energy. AC, continually changing direction.

A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current flowing

Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are used to

A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits this is the 0V

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital, Ground Serves as a zero reference or ground to digital circuits

Motor Electric motor

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of the

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Table 2.3. Symbols of Power supplies

2. Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.

Heater A transducer which converts electrical energy to heat.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to kinetic