Heat Transfer

AE7703
 Difference between Thermodynamics and Heat
Transfer
 Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the
process will take.

 A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred to realize a
specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle.

 In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per unit
time) than we are with the amount of it. For example, we can determine the amount of
heat transferred from a thermos bottle as the hot coffee inside cools from 90°C to 80°C by
a thermodynamic analysis alone. But a typical user or designer of a thermos is primarily
interested in how long it will be before the hot coffee inside cools to 80°C.

 Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the times of cooling or
heating, as well as the variation of the temperature, is the subject of heat transfer
 The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a
temperature difference.

 There can be no net heat transfer between two mediums that are at
the same temperature. The temperature difference is the driving force
for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force for
electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for
fluid flow.
 Modes of Heat Transfer

 Conduction

 Convection

 Radiation

 Best example is boiling

water in a pot.
 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

 k is the thermal conductivity of the material, which is a

measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat
 Thermal Conductivity
 The thermal conductivity k is a measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat.

 For example, k = 0.608 W/m ·°C for water and k = 80.2 W/m ·°C for iron at room
temperature, which indicates that iron conducts heat more than 100 times faster
than water can. Thus we say that water is a poor heat conductor relative to iron.

 Thus the thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.

 The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to

conduct heat. A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a
good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat
conductor or insulator
Thermal Diffusivity
 Thermal conductivity k represents how well a material conducts heat, and the heat
capacity ρCp represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume.
Therefore, the thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit volume. A material that
has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have a large
thermal diffusivity.

 The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material
and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
Rectangular Coordinates
 Consider a small rectangular element of length x, width y,
and height z, as shown in Figure Assume the density of the
body is and the specific heat is C. An energy balance on
this element during a small time interval Δt can be
expressed as
Cylindrical Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
 Consider a large plane wall of thickness L =0.2 m, thermal conductivity k =1.2
W/m ·°C, and surface area A =15 m2. The two sides of the wall are
maintained at constant temperatures of T1 =120°C and T2 =50°C,
respectively, as shown in Figure. Determine (a) the variation of temperature
within the wall and the value of temperature at x =0.1 m and (b) the rate of
heat conduction through the wall under steady conditions.
When applying a boundary condition to an equation,
 (a) the variation of temperature within the wall and the value of temperature
at x =0.1 m ,
 Consider a steam pipe of length L =20 m, inner radius r1 =6 cm, outer radius
r2 =8 cm, and thermal conductivity k =20 W/m ·°C, as shown in Figure. The
inner and outer surfaces of the pipe are maintained at average temperatures
of T1 =150°C and T2 =60°C, respectively. Obtain a general relation for the
temperature distribution inside the pipe under steady conditions, and
determine the rate of heat loss from the steam through the pipe.
The Thermal Resistance Concept

Fourier’s law of heat conduction through a plane wall can be written as,

It can be rearranged as,

Rwall is called as thermal resistance.

 For an electric current flow,

 where Re = L/e A is the electric resistance and V1-V2 is the voltage difference across
the resistance (σe is the electrical conductivity).
 Compare it with,

 Thus, the rate of heat transfer through a layer corresponds to the electric current, the
thermal resistance corresponds to electrical resistance, and the temperature
difference corresponds to voltage difference across the layer.
 Similarily, for convection,
 The above equation can be rearranged as, where,
Multilayer Plane Walls

Once Q is found using the above relation we can find the

other temperatures using the below formulae,
 Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide double-
pane window consisting of two 4-mm-thick
layers of glass (k 0.78 W/m · °C) separated by
a 10-mm-wide stagnant air space (k 0.026
W/m · °C). Determine the steady rate of heat
transfer through this double pane window and
the temperature of its inner surface for a day
during which the room is maintained at 20°C
while the temperature of the outdoors is 10°C.
Take the convection heat transfer coefficients
on the inner and outer surfaces of the window
to be h1 10 W/m2 · °C and h2 40 W/m2 · °C,
which includes the effects of radiation.
Critical Radius of Insulation
 Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1 whose outer
surface temperature T1 is maintained constant. The pipe is
now insulated with a material whose thermal conductivity is k
and outer radius is r2. Heat is lost from the pipe to the
surrounding medium at temperature T, with a convection
heat transfer coefficient h. The rate of heat transfer from
the insulated pipe to the surrounding air can be expressed as,
 The variation of Q with the outer radius of the insulation r2 is
plotted in Fig. The value of r2 at which Q reaches a
maximum is determined from the requirement that dQ/dr2 =
0 (zero slope). Performing the differentiation and solving for
r2 yields the critical radius of insulation for a cylindrical
body to be,
 A 3-mm-diameter and 5-m-long electric wire
is tightly wrapped with a 2-mm thick plastic
cover whose thermal conductivity is k =0.15
W/m ·°C. Electrical measurements indicate
that a current of 10 A passes through the
wire and there is a voltage drop of 8 V along
the wire. If the insulated wire is exposed to a
medium at T =30°C with a heat transfer
coefficient of h =12 W/m2 ·°C, determine
the temperature at the interface of the wire
and the plastic cover in steady operation.
Also determine whether doubling the
thickness of the plastic cover will increase or
decrease this interface temperature.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM FINNED SURFACES

 The rate of heat transfer from a surface at a temperature Ts to the surrounding medium
at T is given by Newton’s law of cooling as,

 where As is the heat transfer surface area and h is the convection heat transfer
coefficient.

 To increase heat transfer we can either increase h or As. Increasing h means, changing
the fluid or the flow properties which may not be possible sometimes. Thus, extended
surfaces (fins) are used to increase the surface area in order to increase the heat transfer.
Example – Car Radiator
Fin Equation
FIN Efficiency
FIN Effectiveness

Relation between fin effectiveness and fin efficiency

the effectiveness of such a long fin is determined to be

Thus for a fin to be effective,

• The thermal conductivity k of the fin material should be as high as Possible
• The ratio of the perimeter to the cross-sectional area of the fin p/Ac should be as high as possible.
• The use of fins is most effective in applications involving a low convection heat transfer coefficient.

The overall heat transfer can be defined as,

Then overall effectiveness will be,

VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Average Thermal Conductivity
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS
 In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a “lump” whose interior
temperature remains essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer process.
 The temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function of time only, T(t). Heat
transfer analysis that utilizes this idealization is known as lumped system analysis.
Criteria for Lumped System Analysis
 To carry out lumped mass analysis,
 The biot number should be lesser than or equal to 0.1
 When this criterion is satisfied, the temperatures within the body relative to the surroundings
(i.e., T -T∞) remain within 5 percent of each other.
 Thus, when Bi < 0.1, the variation of temperature with location within the body will be slight
and can reasonably be approximated as being uniform.
 Chapter II

CONVECTION
Types of Convection
 Newton’s law of cooling

 the convection heat transfer coefficient h can be defined as the rate of heat
transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit
temperature difference.
No Slip and No Temperature Jump Condition
Nusselt Number
Velocity Boundary Layer and Thermal
Boundary Layer
Prandtl Number

 As it is the ratio of molecular diffusivity of momentum to the molecular diffusivity of

heat,it shows the relative thickness of the velocity boundary layer to the thermal
boundary layer.
 if Pr>1, that means momentum diffusivity>heat diffusivity, which means for the same
distance travelled along the flow,velocity layer will be thicker than the thermal
boundary layer
 Also velocity boundary layer is thicker than the thermal boundary layer which further
means that the given fluid has the ability to transport the momentum faster through
the fluid as compared to the heat transfer by the conduction, which in a way means
convection dominates over the conduction.
Parallel flow over a flat plate
Average friction Coefficient
Nusset’s Number Formula
Flow Across Tube Banks
 Diagonal Pitch is determined by

 the Reynolds number is defined on the basis of maximum velocity as,

 Maximum velocity occurs at minimum area, thus from conservation equation of mass we can write,


 In staggered Grid Arrangement, if then,

 Nusselt’s Number
 The above correlation is applicable for 16 or more rows of tubes. For lesser
number of tubes use the following relation

 Where F is the correction factor and NL is the number of tube rows.

LAMINAR FLOW IN TUBES

Hydraulic Diameter
The Entrance Region
 Nusselt’s Number
TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES
Natural Convection
Natural Convection Over Surfaces
 Consider a 0.6-m x 0.6-m thin square plate in a room at 30°C. One
side of the plate is maintained at a temperature of 90°C, while the
other side is insulated, as shown in Figure. Determine the rate of
heat transfer from the plate by natural convection if the plate is (a)
vertical, (b) horizontal with hot surface facing up, and (c) horizontal
with hot surface facing down.
Heat Exchangers
 Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that
are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other.
 Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from
heating and air-conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power
production in large plants.
 Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and
conduction through the wall separating the two fluids.
 In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to work with an overall heat transfer
coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of all these effects on heat transfer.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
(c) One shell pass and one tube pass
THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
ANALYSIS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
THE LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE METHOD
THE EFFECTIVENESS–NTU METHOD
Using the Effectiveness–NTU Method
 Difference between LMTD Method and NTU Method
 Effectiveness NTU Method
 LMTD Method

 the LMTD method is very suitable for determining the  It is the determination of the heat transfer rate and the
size of a heat exchanger to realize prescribed outlet outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids for
temperatures when the mass flow rates and the inlet prescribed fluid mass flow rates and inlet temperatures
and outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are when the type and size of the heat exchanger are
specified. specified.

 With the LMTD method, the task is to select a heat  The heat transfer surface area A of the heat exchanger in
exchanger that will meet the prescribed heat transfer this case is known, but the outlet temperatures are not.
requirements.
 Here the task is to determine the heat transfer
performance of a specified heat exchanger or to
determine if a heat exchanger available in storage will do
the job
UNIT III Radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation
 Accelerated charges or changing electric currents give rise to electric and magnetic fields.
 These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation
 They represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
 Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves, and all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is C0 = 2.9979 x108 m/s.
Thermal Radiation
 The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to heat transfer is the
thermal radiation emitted as a result of energy transitions of molecules,
atoms, and electrons of a substance.
 Thermal radiation is also defined as the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that extends from about 0.1 to 100 m
 Thermal radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well
as a portion of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
 What we call light is simply the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that lies between 0.40 and 0.76 m.
 The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature falls into the infrared
region of the spectrum, which extends from 0.76 to 100 m.
 The ultraviolet radiation includes the low-wavelength end of the thermal
radiation spectrum and lies between the wavelengths 0.01 and 0.40 m.
Black Body Radiation
 The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface at a given
wavelength depends on the material of the body and the condition of
its surface as well as the surface temperature.
 Therefore, different bodies may emit different amounts of radiation
per unit surface area,even when they are at the same temperature.
 A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of
radiation.
 At a specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit
more energy than a blackbody. A blackbody absorbs all incident
radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
 Also, a blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions
per unit area normal to direction of emission.
Law’s of Black Body Radiation

Stefan–Boltzmann law
 The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area was
determined experimentally by Joseph Stefan in 1879 and expressed as,

 Where σ = 5.67 x 108 W/m2 · K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute
temperature of the surface in K and Eb is called the blackbody emissive power
 Planck’s Law
 The Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the total blackbody emissive power Eb, which is the sum of the radiation
emitted over all wavelengths.
 Sometimes we need to know the spectral blackbody emissive power, which is the amount of radiation
energy emitted by a blackbody at an absolute temperature T per unit time, per unit surface area, and per
unit wavelength about the wavelength .
 The relation for the spectral blackbody emissive power Eb was developed by Max Planck which is,

 Also, T is the absolute temperature of the surface, is the wavelength of the radiation emitted, and k=
1.38065 x 10-23J/K is Boltzmann’s constant. This relation is valid for a surface in a vacuum or a gas. For
other mediums, it needs to be modified by replacing C1 by C1/n2, where n is the index of refraction of the
medium.
 The emitted radiation is a continuous function of wavelength.
At any specified temperature, it increases with wavelength,
reaches a peak, and then decreases with increasing wavelength.
 At any wavelength, the amount of emitted radiation increases
with increasing temperature.
 As temperature increases, the curves shift to the left to the
shorter wavelength region. Consequently, a larger fraction of
the radiation is emitted at shorter wavelengths at higher
temperatures.
 The radiation emitted by the sun, which is considered to be a
blackbody at 5780 K (or roughly at 5800 K), reaches its peak
in the visible region of the spectrum. Therefore, the sun is in
tune with our eyes. On the other hand, surfaces at T ≤ 800 K
emit almost entirely in the infrared region and thus are not
visible to the eye unless they reflect light coming from other
sources.
 As the temperature increases, the peak of the curve shifts
toward shorter wavelengths. The wavelength at which the peak
occurs for a specified temperature is given by Wien’s
displacement law as
Solid Angle
 The area of a surface on a sphere of unit radius is equivalent in magnitude to the solid
angle it subtends (both are 4π for a sphere of radius r =1).
 The solid angle is denoted by ω , and its unit is the steradian (sr)
Intensity of Emitted Radiation
Radiosity
Emissivity
Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity
The following Points should be noted about ρ, τ, α:

 They are always positive and their values lies between 0 to 1.

 ρ = 0 represents a non reflecting surface; ρ = 1 represents a perfect reflector, i.e., it

reflects all the incident radiation and does not absorb or transmit any part of it.

 τ = 0 represents an opaque surface, τ = 1 represents a perfectly transparent surface.

 α = 0 represents a non absorbing surface( also called a white surface); α = 1 represents a

perfectly absorbing surface ( also called as black surface, if it is diffuse)

* The term diffuse means “independent of direction.”

The View Factor
 Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the
orientation of the surfaces relative to each other as well as their
radiation properties and temperatures
 To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer
between two surfaces, we define a new parameter called the view
factor, which is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of
the surface properties and temperature. It is also called the shape
factor, configuration factor, and angle factor.
 The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is defined as,
Fij = the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes surface j
directly
 Therefore, the view factor F12 represents the fraction of radiation
leaving surface 1 that strikes surface 2 directly, and F21 represents
the fraction of the radiation leaving surface 2 that strikes surface 1
directly.
Continued in PDF
4 The Symmetry Rule

• The total number of view factors that need to be evaluated directly for an N-
surface enclosure becomes,
Kirchhoff’s Law