ASCE 7-16

-WIND LOADS
26.1 PROCEDURES

26.1.1 Scope
Buildings and other structures, including the Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and Components
and cladding (C&C) thereof, shall be designed and constructed to resist the wind loads determined in
accordance with Chapters 26 through 31. The provisions of this chapter define basic wind parameters for use
with other provisions contained in this standard.

26.1.2 Permitted Procedures

The design wind loads for buildings and other structures, including the MWFRS and component and cladding
elements thereof, shall be determined using one of the procedures as specified in this section. An outline of the
overall process for the determination of the wind loads, including section references, is provided in Fig. 26.1-1.

26.1.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System.MWFRS

Wind loads for MWFRS shall be determined using one of the following procedures:
1. Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights as specified in Chapter 27 for buildings
meeting the requirements specified therein;
2. Envelope Procedure for low-rise buildings as specified in Chapter 28 for buildings meeting the
requirements specified therein;
3. Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances (rooftop structures and rooftop equipment)
and Other Structures (such as solid freestanding walls and solid freestanding signs, chimneys,
tanks, open signs, lattice frameworks, and trussed towers) as specified in Chapter 29;
4. Wind Tunnel Procedure for all buildings and all other structures as specified in Chapter 31.

26.1.2.2 Components and Cladding.

Wind loads on components and cladding on all buildings and other structures shall be designed using one of
the following procedures: 
1. Envelope Procedure in Parts 1 and 2. (Analytical procedures )
2. Directional Procedure in Parts 3, 4, and 5 (Analytical procedures)
3. Building appurtenances (roof overhangs and parapets) in Part 6 (Analytical procedures )
4. Nonbuilding structures in Part 7 (Analytical procedures )
5. Wind tunnel procedure as specified in Chapter 31.

1
26.2 DEFINITIONS
Attached Canopy:
A horizontal (maximum slope of 2%) patio cover attached to the building wall at any height; it is
different from an overhang, which is an extension of the roof surface.
Basic Wind Speed V :
Three-second gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground in Exposure C, as determined in accordance
with Section 26.5.1
Building enclosed:
A building that has the total area of openings in each wall, that receives positive external pressure, less
than or equal to 4 sq.ft (0.37 m2) or 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller. This condition is
expressed for each wall by the following equation:
Ao < 0.01Ag . or 4 sq ft (0.37 m2) whichever is smaller
Where Ao and Ag are as defined for Open Buildings.
Building, Low-Rise:
Enclosed or partially enclosed building that complies with the following conditions:
o Mean roof height h less than or equal to 60 ft (18 m).
o Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal dimension.
Building, Open:
A building that has each wall at least 80% open. This condition is expressed for each wall by the
equation : Ao ≥ 0.8Ag, where
o Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure, in ft2 (m2);
o Ag = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified, in ft2 (m2).
Building, Partially Enclosed:
A building that complies with both of the following conditions:
The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of
openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by more than 10%. Ao > 1.10Aoi
The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds 4 ft2 (0.37 m2) or 1% of the
area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope
does not exceed 20%. Ao > 4 ft2(0.37 m2) or > 0.01Ag; whichever is smaller; and Aoi ∕ Agi ≤ 0.20
o Aoi = sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and roof) not including
o Agi = sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and roof) not including Ag
Building, Partially Open:
A building that does not comply with the requirements for open, partially enclosed, or enclosed buildings.
Building, Simple Diaphragm:
A building in which both windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted by roof and vertically
spanning wall assemblies, through continuous floor and roof diaphragms, to the MWFRS.

2
Building, Torsionally Regular Underwind Load:
A building with the MWFRS about each principal axis proportioned so that the maximum displacement
at each story under Case 2, the torsional wind load case, of Fig. 27.3-8 does not exceed the maximum
displacement at the same location under Case 1 of Fig. 27.3-8, the basic wind load case.
Building Envelope:
Cladding, roofing, exterior walls, glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies, skylight assemblies, and
other components enclosing the building.
Building or other structure, flexible:
Slender buildings and other structures that have a fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz.
Building or other structure, regular shaped:
A building or other structure that has no unusual geometrical irregularity in spatial form.
Building or Other Structure, Rigid:
A building or other structure whose fundamental frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz.
Components and Cladding (C&C):
Elements of the building envelope or elements of building appurtenances and rooftop structures and
equipment that do not qualify as part of the MWFRS.
Design Force, f:
Equivalent static force to be used in the determination of wind loads for other structures.
Design Pressure, P:
Equivalent static pressure to be used in the determination of wind loads for buildings.
Diaphragm:
Roof, floor, or other membrane or bracing system acting to transfer lateral forces to the vertical MWFRS.
For analysis under wind loads, diaphragms constructed of untopped steel decks, concrete-filled steel decks,
and concrete slabs, each having a span-to-depth ratio of 2 or less, shall be permitted to be idealized as rigid.
Diaphragms constructed of wood structural panels are permitted to be idealized as flexible.
Directional Procedure:
A procedure for determining wind loads on buildings and other structures for specific wind directions, in
which the external pressure coefficients used are based on past wind tunnel testing of prototypical
building models for the corresponding direction of wind.
Effective Wind Area, A:
 The area used to determine the external pressure coefficient, (GCp) and (GCrn). For C&C elements,
the effective wind area in Figs. 30.3-1 through 30.3-7, 30.4-1, 30.5-1, and 30.7-1 through 30.7-3 is :
o the span length multiplied by an effective width that need not be less than one-third the span
length.
o For rooftop solar arrays, the effective wind area in Fig. 29.4-7 is equal to the tributary area for
the structural element being considered, except that the width of the effective wind area need
not be less than one-third its length.
o For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be greater than the area that is tributary
to an individual fastener.
3
Eave Height, he :
The distance from the ground surface adjacent to the building to the roof eave line at a particular wall.
If the height of the eave varies along the wall, the average height shall be used.
Envelope Procedure:
A procedure for determining wind load cases on buildings, in which pseudo external pressure coefficients are
derived from past wind tunnel testing of prototypical building models successively rotated through 360°,
such that the pseudopressure cases produce key structural actions (e.g., uplift, horizontal shear, and bending
moments) that envelop their maximum values among all possible wind directions.
Escarpment:
With respect to topographic effects in Section 26.8, a cliff or steep slope generally separating two levels
or gently sloping areas (see Fig. 26.8-1). Also known as a scarp.
Free Roof:
Roof with a configuration generally conforming to those shown in Figs. 27.3-4 through 27.3-6 (monoslope,
pitched, or troughed) in an open building with no enclosing walls underneath the roof surface.
Glazing:
Glass or transparent or translucent plastic sheet used in windows, doors, skylights, or curtain walls.
Glazing, Impact-Resistant:
Glazing that has been shown by testing to withstand the impact of test missiles. See Section 26.12.3.2.
Hill:
With respect to topographic effects in Section 26.8, a land surface characterized by strong relief in any
horizontal direction (see Fig. 26.8-1).
Hurricane-Prone Regions:
Areas vulnerable to hurricanes; in the United States and its territories, defined as
1. The U.S. Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico coasts where the basic wind speed for Risk
Category II buildings is greater than 115 mph (51.4 m/s); and
2. Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands, and American Samoa.
Impact-Protective System:
Construction that has been shown by testing to withstand the impact of test missiles and that is applied,
attached, or locked over exterior glazing. See Section 26.12.3.2.
Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS):
An assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide support and stability for the overall building
or other structure. The system generally receives wind loading from more than one surface.
Mean Roof Height, H:
The average of the roof eave height and the height to the highest point on the roof surface, except that, for roof
angles less than or equal to 10°, the mean roof height is permitted to be taken as the roof eave height.
Openings:
Apertures or holes in the building envelope that allow air to flow through the building envelope and that
are designed as “open” during design winds as defined by these provisions.

4
Recognized Literature:
Published research findings and technical papers that are approved.
RIDGE: With respect to topographic effects in Section 26.8, an elongated crest of a hill characterized by
strong relief in two directions (see Fig. 26.8-1).
Rooftop Solar Panel:
A device to receive solar radiation and convert it into electricity or heat energy. Typically this is a
photovoltaic module or solar thermal panel.
Solar Array:
Any number of rooftop solar panels grouped closely together.
Wind-Borne Debris Regions:
Areas within hurricane-prone regions where impact protection is required for glazed openings; see
Section 26.12.3.
Wind Tunnel Procedure:
A procedure for determining wind loads on buildings and other structures, in which pressures and/or
forces and moments are determined for each wind direction considered, from a model of the building or
other structure and its surroundings, in accordance with Chapter 31.
Live Load:
A load produced by the use and occupancy of the building or other structure that does not include construction or
environmental loads, such as wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load, flood load, or dead load.
Dead Loads:
consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building including, but not limited
to, walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built in partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarly
incorporated architectural and structural items, and fixed service equipment including the weight of cranes.
Roof Live Load:
A load on a roof produced (1) during maintenance by workers, equipment, and materials and (2) during
the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters or other similar small decorative
appurtenances that are not occupancy related.
Sign Convention:
Positive pressure acts toward the surface, and negative pressure acts away from the surface.
Critical Load Condition:
Values of external and internal pressures shall be combined algebraically to determine the most critical load.
Importance Factor, i:
A factor that accounts for the degree of hazard to human life and damage to property

5
Effective velocity pressure : q
 The equation for effective velocity pressure, adjusts:
o basic wind speed of the map for terrain surrounding the building,
o height above ground,
o direction of wind attack, and
o topography.
 It also converts wind speed into pressure.

The constant 0.00256 includes the standard density of air and dimensional conversion of miles per hour (mph) to feet per
second (fps).
The exposure velocity pressure coefficient, Kz,
 Reflects the change in wind speed due to the height above ground and surrounding terrain.

6
 Chapter 26-General Requirements: Use to determine the basic parameters for
determining wind loads on both the MWFRS and C&C. These basic parameters are

 Basic wind speed, V, see Section 26.5; Figs. 26.5-1 and 26.5-2
 Wind directionality factor, Kd, see Section 26.6
 Exposure, see Section 26.7
 Topographic factor, Kzt, see Section 26.8
 Ground elevation factor, Ke, see Section 26.9
 Velocity pressure, see Section 26.10
 Gust-effect factor, see Section 26.11
 Enclosure classification, see Section 26.12
 Internal pressure coefficient, GCpi, see Section 26.13

Wind loads on the MWFRS may Wind loads on the C&C may be
be determined by determined by

Chapter 27: Directional Procedure for

Chapter 30:
buildings of all heights
- Envelope Procedure in Parts 1 and 2, or
- Directional Procedure in Parts 3, 4, and 5
Chapter 28: Envelope Procedure for - Building appurtenances (roof overhangs
low-rise buildings and parapets) in Part 6
- Nonbuilding structures in Part 7

Chapter 29: Directional Procedure for

building appurtenances (roof overhangs
and parapets) and other structures Chapter 31: Wind Tunnel Procedure
for any building or other structure

Chapter 31: Wind Tunnel Procedure for

any building or other structure
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SYMBOLS AND NOTATION

D : Dead load
Di : weight of ice
E : Earthquake load
Fa : Flood load
L : Live load
LR : Roof live load
R : Rain load
L0 : Load Factor
T : Self-Straining Force
W : Wind load
S : Snow Load
F : Load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights

A : Effective Wind area, in2 (m2)

Af : Area of open buildings and other structures either normal to the wind direction or projected on a plane
normal to the wind direction.
Agi : Sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and roof) not including Ag, in ft2 (m2)
Ag : The gross area of that wall in which A, is identified, gross mean no deductions
An : normalized wind area for rooftop solar panels in Fig. 29.4-7
Ao : total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure, in ft2 (m2)
Aog : total area of openings in the building envelope in ft2 (m2)
Aoi : sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and roof) not including Ao, in ft2 (m2)
As : gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign, in ft2 (m2)

p = Design pressure to be used in determination of wind loads for buildings, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
PL = Wind pressure acting on leeward face in Fig. 27.3-8, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
Pnet = Net design wind pressure from Eq. (30.4-1), in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
Pnet30 = Net design wind pressure for Exposure B at h = 30 ft (9.1 m) and I = 1.0 from Fig. 30.4-1, in lb∕ft2
(N∕m2)
Pp = Combined net pressure on a parapet from Eq. (27.3-4), in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
Ps = Net design wind pressure from Eq. (28.5-1), in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
Ps30 = Simplified design wind pressure for Exposure B at h = 30 ft (9.1 m) and I = 1.0 from Fig. 28.5-1, in
lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
PW = Wind pressure acting on windward face in Fig. 27.3-8, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
V = basic wind speed obtained from Figs. 26.5-1A through 26.5-1D and 26.5-2A through 26.5-2D, in mi∕h
(m∕s). The basic wind speed corresponds to a 3-s gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground in
Exposure Category C

D = diameter of a circular structure or member ,in ft (m)

D0 = depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, in ft (m)
d1 = for rooftop solar arrays, horizontal distance orthogonal to the panel edge to an adjacent panel or the
8
 building edge, ignoring any rooftop equipment in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)
d2 = for rooftop solar arrays, horizontal distance from the edge of one panel to the nearest edge in the next row
of panels in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)
H = height of hill, ridge, or escarpment in Fig. 26.8-1,in ft (m)
h = mean roof height of a building or height of other structure, except that eave height shall be used for roof
angle θ less than or equal to 10°, in ft (m)
h1 = height of a solar panel above the roof at the lower edge of the panel, in ft (m)
h2 = height of a solar panel above the roof at the upper edge of the panel, in ft (m)
he = roof eave height at a particular wall, or the average height if the eave varies along the wall
hp = height to top of parapet in Figs. 27.5-2 and 30.6-1
hpt = mean parapet height above the adjacent roof surface for use with Eq. (29.4-5), in ft (m)
L =horizontal dimension of a building measured parallel to the wind direction, in (m)
Lb = normalized building length, for use with Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)
Lh = distance upwind of crest of hill, ridge, or escarpment in Fig. 26.8-1 to where the difference in ground
elevation is half the height of the hill, ridge, or escarpment, in ft (m)
Lp= panel chord length for use with rooftop solar panels in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)
Lr = horizontal dimension of return corner for a solid freestanding wall or solid sign from Fig. 29.3-1, in ft (m)
Lz = integral length scale of turbulence, in ft (m)
W = width of building in Figs. 30.3-3, 30.3-5A, and 30.3-5B and width of span in Figs. 30.3-4 and 30.3-6, in ft (m)
WL = width of a building on its longest side in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)
WS = width of a building on its shortest side in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)
x = distance upwind or downwind of crest in Fig. 26.8-1, in ft (m)
s = vertical dimension of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign from Fig. 29.3-1, in ft (m)
l = integral length scale factor from Table 26.11-1,ft (m)
x = distance upwind or downwind of crest in Fig. 26.8-1, in ft (m)
z = height above ground level, in ft (m)
z¯ = equivalent height of structure, in ft (m)
zg = nominal height of the atmospheric boundary layer used in this standard (values appear inTable 26.11-1)

qp : velocity pressure at top of parapet, in (N/m2)

qz : velocity pressure evaluated at height Z above ground, in (N/m2)
q : velocity pressure, in (N/m2)
qh : velocity pressure evaluated at height Z = h , in (N/m2)

Q = background response factor from Eq. (26.11-8)

q = velocity pressure, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at height z = h, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
qi = velocity pressure for internal pressure determination, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
qp = velocity pressure at top of parapet, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
9
qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in lb∕ft2 (N∕m2)
R = resonant response factor from Eq. (26.11-12)
Ri = reduction factor from Eq. (26.13-1)
RB; Rh; RL = values from Eqs. (26.11-15a) and (26.11-15b)
Rn = value from Eq. (26.11-13)
Vi = unpartitioned internal volume, in ft3 (m3)
V¯ z¯ = mean hourly wind speed at height ¯ z, in ft∕s (m∕s)

α = 3-s gust-speed power law exponent from Table 26.11-1

α^ = reciprocal of α from Table 26.11-1
α¯ = mean hourly wind-speed power law exponent in Eq. (26.11-16) from Table 26.11-1
β = damping ratio, percent critical for buildings or other structures
γc = panel chord factor for use with rooftop solar panels in Eq. (29.4-5)
γE = array edge factor for use with rooftop solar panels in Fig. 29.4-7 and Eqs. (29.4-4) and (29.4-5)
γp = parapet height factor for use with rooftop solar panels in Eq. (29.4-5)
ε = ratio of solid area to gross area for solid freestanding wall, solid sign, open sign, face of a trussed tower, or
lattice structure
ε¯ = integral length scale power law exponent in Eq. (26.11-9) from Table 26.11-1
η = value used in Eqs. (26.11-15a) and (26.11-15b) (see Section 26.11.4)
θ = angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
λ = adjustment factor for building height and exposure from Figs. 28.5-1 and 30.4-1
v = height-to-width ratio for solid sign
ω = angle that the solar panel makes with the roof surface in Fig. 29.4-7, in degrees

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 I z̆ : importance factor
K1 ,K2, K3 : multipliers in Fig. 6-4 to obtain Kzt
Kd : wind directionality factor in Table 26.6-1
Ke :Ground elevation factor
Kh: velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at height z = h
Kd : wind directionality factor in Table 6-4
Kh :velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at height z = h
Kzt : velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at height z
a = width of pressure coefficient zone, in (m)
B = horizontal dimension of building measured normal to wind direction,(m)
b́ = mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 6-14 from Table 6-2
b^ = 3-s gust speed factor from Table 6-2
Wi = wind-on-ice determined in accordance with Chapter 10
Cf = force coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for other structures.
CN = Net pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for open buildings.
Cp = External pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for buildings.
c = turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 6-5 from Table 6-2
F = design wind force for other structures.
G = gust effect factor
Gf = gust effect factor for MWFRSs of flexible buildings and other structures
GCPN = combined net pressure coefficient for a parapet
GCp = product of external pressure coefficient and gust effect factor to be used in determination of wind
loads for buildings.
GCPf = product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust-effect factor to be used in
determination of wind loads for MWFRS of low-rise buildings.
GCpi = product of internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor to be used in determination of wind
loads for buildings.

26.4 GENERAL

26.4.1 Sign Convention.

Positive pressure acts toward the surface and negative pressure acts away from the surface.
26.4.2 Critical Load Condition.
Values of external and internal pressures shall be combined algebraically to determine the most critical load.
26.4.3 Wind Pressures Acting on Opposite Faces of Each Building Surface.
In the calculation of design wind loads for the MWFRS and for C&C for buildings, the algebraic sum of the
pressures acting on opposite faces of each building surface shall be taken into account.

11
Table 1.5-1 Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures

Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Risk Category

Table 1.5-1 Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow,
Earthquake, and Ice Loads
Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Risk Category Risk Category
Buildings and other structures that represent low risk to human life in the event of failure I
All buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV II
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial risk to human life
Buildings and other structures, not included in Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial
economic impact and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure Buildings and other
structures not included in Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process,
handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste,
III
or explosives) containing toxic or explosive substances where the quantity of the material exceeds a threshold
quantity established by the Authority Having Jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if
a
released
Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial hazard to the community
Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle,
store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste)
IV
containing sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances where the quantity of the material exceeds a
threshold quantity established by the Authority Having Jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the
public if releaseda Buildings and other structures required to maintain the functionality of other Risk
Category IV structures

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26.6 WIND DIRECTIONALITY Kd
The wind directionality factor, Kd, shall be determined from Table 6-4. This factor shall only be applied when
used in conjunction with load combinations specified in Sections 2.3 and 2.4.

Table 26.6-1 Wind Directionality Factor, K d

Structural Type Directionality factor k d
Buildings
 Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85
 Components and Cladding
Arched Roofs 0.85
Circular Domes a
1.0
Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures 0.85
Square
 Hexagonal 0.9
 Octagonal 0.95
a
 Round 1.0
Solid Signs 0.85
Open Signs and Lattice Framework 0.85
Trussed Towers

 Triangular square, rectangular 0.85

 All other cross sections 0.95

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26.7 Exposure

26.7.1 Wind Directions and Sectors.

For each selected wind direction at which the wind loads are to be determined, the exposure of the building or
structure shall be determined for the two upwind sectors extending 45° on either side of the selected wind
direction. The exposure in these two sectors shall be determined in accordance with Sections:

 26.7.2 Surface Roughness Categories

 26.7.3 Exposure Categories.
The exposure the use of which would result in the highest wind loads shall be used to represent the winds from that direction

26.7.2 Surface Roughness Categories.

A ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site,
as defined in Section 26.7.3, from the categories defined in the following text, for the purpose of
assigning an exposure category as defined in Section 26.7.3.

 Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous,
closely spaced obstructions that have the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
 Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions that have heights generally less than
30 ft (9.1 m). This category includes flat, open country and grasslands.
 Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth
mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.

26.7.3 Exposure Categories.

Exposure B: For buildings or other structures with a mean roof height less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1 m),
 Exposure B shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness B,
prevails in the upwind direction for a distance greater than 1,500 ft (457 m). For buildings or other
structures with a mean roof height greater than 30 ft (9.1 m),
 Exposure B shall apply where Surface Roughness B prevails in the upwind direction for a distance
greater than 2,600 ft (792 m) or 20 times the height of the building or structure, whichever is greater.
Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all cases where Exposure B or D does not apply.

Exposure D: Exposure D shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface
Roughness D, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance greater than 5,000 ft (1,524 m) or 20 times
the building or structure height, whichever is greater.
 Exposure D shall also apply where the ground surface roughness immediately upwind of the site is B
or C, and the site is within a distance of 600 ft (183 m) or 20 times the building or structure height,
whichever is greater, from an Exposure D condition as defined in the previous sentence.

14
6.8.2 Topographic Factor. Kzt

The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the calculation of design wind loads by using the factor K
K zt =(1+ K 1 . K 2 . K 3 )2 (26.8−1)
Where K1, K2, and K3 are given in Fig. 26.8-1
If site conditions and locations of buildings and other structures do not meet all the conditions specified
in Section 26.8.1, then Kzt = 1.0.

26.9 Ground Elevation Factor Ke

The ground elevation factor to adjust for air density, Ke, shall be determined in accordance with
Table 26.9-1. It is permitted to take K e = 1 for all elevations.

Table 26.9-1 Ground Elevation Factor, K e

Ground Elevation above sea
level Ground Elevation Factor
Ke
ft m
<0 <0 See note 2
0.0 0.0 1.00
1,000 305 0,96
2,000 610 0,93
3,000 914 0,90
4,000 1,219 0,86
5,000 1,524 0,83
6,000 1,829 0,80
>6,000 >1,829 See note 2
Ke is permitted to be taken as 1.00 in all cases

15
 Topographic Multipliers for Exposure C a ,b, c
K1 Multiplier K2 Multiplier K3 Multiplier
H ∕ Lh 3D x∕Lh x∕Lh 3D
2D 2D All Other 2D
2D Ridge Axisymmetri 2D Ridge Axisymmetri
Escarpment Escarpment Cases Escarpment
cal Hill cal Hill
0.20 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
0.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
` 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

a
For values of H ∕ Lh, X ∕ Lh, and Z ∕ Lh other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
b
For H ∕ Lh > 0.5, assume that H ∕ Lh = 0.5 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh for evaluating K2 and K3.
c
Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or escarpment along the direction of maximum slope.
Notation H = Height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, in ft (m).
K1 = Factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect.
K2 = Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest.
K3 = Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain.
Lh = Distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, in ft (m).
x = Distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the site of the building or other structure, in ft (m).
z = Height above ground surface at the site of the building or other structure, in ft (m).
μ = Horizontal attenuation factor.
γ = Height attenuation factor.

Equations K zt =(1+ K 1 . K 2 . K 3 )2K1 = determined from table below

K2 = (1−| x|/μ . Lh )
K3 =e− y . z / L
h

16
Parameters for Speed-Up over Hills and Escarpments
K1/(h1/Lh)
Exposure γ μ
Hill Shape B C D Upwind ot Crest Downwind ot Crest
2D ridges (or valleys with negative H1 in KI/(H/Lh) 1.30 1.45 1.55 3.00 1.50 1.50
2D escarpments 0.75 0.85 0.95 2.50 1.50 4.00
3D axisymmetrical hill 0.95 1.05 1.15 4.00 1.50 1.50

6.10.1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. Kh & Kz

Based on the exposure category determined in Section 26.7.3, a velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz
or Kh, as applicable, shall be determined from Table 26.10-1. For a site located in a transition zone between
exposure categories that is near to a change in ground surface roughness, intermediate values of Kz or Kh,

Table 26.10-1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients,

Kh and Kz
Height above Ground
Exposure K
Level, z
ft m B C D
0—15 0—4.6 0.57 (0.70)a 0.85 1.03
20 6.1 0.62 (0.70)a 0.90 1.08
25 7.6 0.66 (0.70)a 0.94 1.12
30 9.1 0.7 0.98 1.16
40 12.2 0.76 1.04 1.22
50 15.2 0.81 1.09 1.27
60 18 0.85 1.13 1.31
70 21.3 0.89 1.17 1.34
80 24.4 0.93 1.21 1.38
90 27.4 96 1.24 1.4
100 30.5 0.99 1.26 1.43
120 36.6 1.04 1.31 1.48
140 42.7 1.09 1.36 1.52
160 48.8 1.13 1.39 1.55
180 54.9 1.17 1.43 1.58
200 61 1.2 1.46 1.61
250 76.2 1.28 1.53 1.68
300 91.4 1.35 1.59 1.73
350 106.7 1.41 1.64 1.78
400 121.9 1.47 1.69 1.82
450 137.2 1.52 1.73 1.86
500 152.4 1.56 1.77 1.89

a Use 0.70 in Chapter 28, Exposure B, when z < 30 ft (9.1 m).

Notes
1. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined from the following formula:

Z 2a
 for 15 ft 4.6 m ≤(Z )≤ Z g K z=2.01(
( ) )
Zg
Z 2a
 for Z <15 ft ( 4.6 m ) K z=2.01( )
15
2. α and Zg are tabulated in Table 26.11-1.

17
 3. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
4. Exposure categories are defined in Section 26.7

Between those shown in Table 26.10-1 are permitted provided that they are determined by a rational
analysis method defined in the recognized literature.

Table 26.11-1 Terrain Exposure Constants

Customary unites
Exposure a zg (ft) a^ b^ á b́ c L (ft) € Z min ( ft)a
B 7 1200 1/70 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 320 1/3.0 30
C 9.5 900 1/9.5 100 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 500 1/5.0 15
D 11.5 700 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 650 1/8.0 7

SI Units
Exposure a zg (ft) a^ b^ á b́ c L (ft) € Z min (ft)a
B 7 365.76 1/70 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 97.54 1/3.0 9.14
C 9.5 274.32 1/9.5 1.00 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 152.4 1/5.0 4.57
D 11.5 213.36 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 198.12 1/8.0 2.13
                     
a Z = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height Ź is the greater of 0.6h or zmin.
min

For buildings or other structures with h ≤ Z min Ź shall be taken as Z min

18
 6.10.2 Velocity Pressure. qz
Velocity pressure, q z , evaluated at height z above ground shall be calculated by the following equation:
IP min
ft [
q z =0.0256 x K z x K zt x K d x K e x V 2= 2 , V =
h ]
26−10.1

N m
q z =0.613 x K z x K zt x K d x K e x V 2=
m 2[ ]
, V , 26−10.1 si
s
 Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient, see Section 26.10.1.
 Kzt = topographic factor, see Section 26.8.2.
 Kd = wind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.
 Ke = ground elevation factor, see Section 26.9.
 V = basic wind speed, see Section 26.5.
 qz = velocity pressure at height z.
 The velocity pressure at mean roof height is computed as qh = qz evaluated from Eq. (26.10-1) using Kz
at mean roof height h.
 The basic wind speed, V, used in determination of design wind loads on rooftop structures, rooftop
equipment, and other building appurtenances shall consider the Risk Category equal to the greater of the
following:

o 1. Risk Category for the building on which the equipment or appurtenance is located or
o 2. Risk Category for any facility to which the equipment or appurtenance provides a necessary
service.

26.11 Gust Effects Factor Gf

26.11.1 Gust-Effect Factor. The gust-effect factor for a rigid building or other structure is
permitted to be taken as 0.85.

19
26.12 Enclosure Classification

26.12.1 General.
For the purpose of determining internal pressure coefficients, all buildings shall be classified as
enclosed, partially enclosed, partially open, or open as defined in Section 26.2.

26.12.2 Openings.
A determination shall be made of the amount of openings in the building envelope for use in determining the
enclosure classification. To make this determination, each building wall shall be assumed as the windward wall
for consideration of the amount of openings present with respect to the remaining building envelope.

26.12.3 Protection of Glazed Openings

Glazed openings in Risk Category II, III, or IV buildings located in hurricane-prone regions shall be protected
as specified in this section.
26.12.3.1 Wind-Borne Debris Regions.
Glazed openings shall be protected in accordance with Section 26.12.3.2 in the following locations:

1. Within 1 mi (1.6 km) of the coastal mean high water line where the basic wind speed is equal to or
greater than 130 mi∕h (58 m∕s), or

2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 140 mi∕h (63 m∕s).

For Risk Category II buildings and other structures and Risk Category III buildings and other structures,
except health-care facilities, the wind-borne debris region shall be based on Figs. 26.5-1B and 26.5-2B.

For Risk Category III health-care facilities, the wind-borne debris region shall be based on Figs. 26.5-1C and
26.5-2C.

For Risk Category IV buildings and structures, the windborne debris region shall be based on Figs. 26.5-1D
and 26.5-2D. Risk Categories shall be determined in accordance with Section 1.5.

EXCEPTION:
Glazing located more than 60 ft (18.3 m) above the ground and more than 30 ft (9.2 m) above aggregate
surfaced roofs, including roofs with gravel or stone ballast, located within 1,500 ft (458 m) of the building
shall be permitted to be unprotected.

20
26.13 Internal Pressure Coefficients GCpi

Internal pressure coefficients, (GCpi), shall be determined from Table 26.13-1 based on building enclosure
classifications determined from Section 26.12.

Table 26.13-1 Main Wind Force Resisting System and Components and Cladding (All
Heights): Internal Pressure Coefficient, (GCpi), for

Internal
Pressure
Enclosure Classification Criteria for Enclosure Classification Internal Pressure
Coefficient,
(GCpi)

Ao is less than the smaller of 0.01Ag 0.18

Enclosed buildings Moderate
or 4 sq ft (0.37 m) and Aoi∕Agi ≤ 0.2 —0.18
Ao > 1.1Aoi and Ao > the lesser of 0.01Ag 0.55
Partially enclosed buildings High
or 4 sq ft (0.37 m) and Aoi∕Agi ≤ 0.2 —0.55
A building that does not comply with 0.18
Partially open buildings Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, or Open Moderate
classifications —0.18

Open buildings Each wall is at least 80% open Negligible 0

Notes
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the internal surfaces, respectively.
2. Values of (GCpi) shall be used with qz or qh as specified.
3. Two cases shall be considered to determine the critical load requirements for the appropriate condition:
a. A positive value of (GCpi) applied to all internal surfaces, or

21
26.15 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER
REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
This section lists the consensus standards and other documents that shall be considered part of this standard to
the extent referenced in this chapter.

1. AAMA 512, Voluntary Specifications for Tornado Hazard Mitigating Fenestration Products, American
Architectural Manufacturers Association, 2011. Cited in: C26.14.4
2. ANSI A58.1, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American National Standards
Institute, 1982. Cited in: Section C26.5.2
3. ASTM E1886, Standard test method for performance of exterior windows, curtain walls, doors, and
impact protective systems impacted by missile(s) and exposed to cyclic pressure differentials, ASTM
International, 2013. Cited in: Section 26.12.3.2, C26.12, C26.14.4.
4. ASTM E1996, Standard specification for performance of exterior windows, curtain walls, doors, and
impact protective systems impacted by windborne debris in hurricanes, ASTM International, 2014.
Cited in: Section 26.12.3.2, C26.12, C26.14.4.
5. ANSI/DASMA 115, Standard Method for Testing Sectional Garage Doors: Determination of Structural
Performance under Missile Impact and Cyclic Wind Pressure, Door and Access Systems Manufacturers
Association International, 2005. Cited in: Section 26.12.3.2, C26.12.
6. ASTM E330, Standard Test Method for Structural Performance of Exterior Windows, Doors, Skylights,
and Curtain Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference, ASTM International, 2014. Cited in:
Section C26.5.1
7. CAN/CSA A123.21, Standard test method for the dynamic wind uplift resistance of membrane-roofing
systems, CSA Group, 2014. Cited in: Section C26.5.1
8. ICC 500, ICC/NSSA Standard for the Design and Construction of Storm Shelters, International Code
Council and National Storm Shelter Association, 2014. Cited in: Section C26.14.1, C26.14.3, C26.14.4

26.12.3.2 Protection Requirements for Glazed Openings.

Glazing in buildings requiring protection shall be protected with an impact-protective system or shall be
impact-resistant glazing. Impact-protective systems and impact-resistant glazing shall be subjected to missile
test and cyclic pressure differential tests in accordance with ASTM E1996 as applicable. Testing to
demonstrate compliance with ASTM E1996 shall be in accordance with ASTM E1886. Impact-resistant
glazing and impact-protective systems shall comply with the pass/fail criteria of Section 7 of ASTM
E1996 based on the missile required by Table 3 or Table 4 of ASTM E1996. Glazing in sectional garage doors
and rolling doors shall be subjected to missile tests and cyclic pressure differential tests in accordance with
ANSI/DASMA 115 as applicable.

22
 CHAPTER 30
WIND LOADS: COMPONENTS AND CLADDING
0.1 SCOPE
30.1.1 Building Types.

1. Part 1 is applicable to an enclosed or partially enclosed

• Low-rise building or

• Building with h ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m).The building has a flat roof, gable roof, multispan gable roof, hip roof,
monoslope roof, stepped roof, or sawtooth roof,

and the wind pressures are calculated from a wind pressure equation.

2. Part 2 is a simplified approach and is applicable to an enclosed

• Low-rise building , • Building with h ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m).The building has a flat roof, gable roof, or hip
roof, and the wind pressures are determined directly from a table .

3. Part 3 is applicable to an enclosed or partially enclosed

• Building with h > 60 ft (18.3 m). The building has a flat roof, pitched roof, gable roof, hip roof,
mansard roof, arched roof, or domed roof, and the wind pressures are calculated from a wind pressure
equation.

4. Part 4 is a simplified approach and is applicable to an enclosed

• Building with 60 ft < h ≤ 160 ft (18.3 m < h ≤ 48.8 m).The building has a flat roof, gable roof, hip
roof, monoslope roof, or mansard roof, and the wind pressures are determined directly from a table.

5. Part 5 is applicable to an open building

of all heights that has a pitched free roof, monoslope free roof, or troughed free roof.

6. Part 6 is applicable to building appurtenances such as roof overhangs, parapets, and rooftop equipment.

7. Part 7 is applicable to non-building structures – circular bins, silos and tanks; and rooftop solar panels.

• Circular Bins, Silos and Tanks: h ≤ 120 ft (38.6 m).

• Rooftop Solar Panels: Buildings of all heights with flat roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs with roof slopes
less than or equal to 7 degrees .

23
 30.2.2 Minimum Design Wind Pressures.
The design wind pressure for C&C of buildings shall not be less than a net pressure of 16 lb∕ft2 (0.77 kN∕m2)
acting in either direction normal to the surface

30.2.3 Tributary Areas Greater than 700 ft2 (65 m2).

C&C elements with tributary areas greater than 700 ft2 (65 m2) shall be permitted to be designed using the
provisions for main wind force resisting systems (MWFRS)

30.2.4 External Pressure Coefficients.

Combined gust-effect factor and external pressure coefficients for C&C, (GCp), are given in the figures
associated with this chapter. The pressure coefficient values and gust-effect factor shall not be separated

External pressure coefficients should be determined from the chart in this chapter

24
PART 1: LOW-RISE BUILDINGS
30.3.2 Design Wind Pressures. Design wind pressures on C&C elements of low-rise buildings and buildings
with h ≤ 60 ft (h ≤ 18.3 m) shall be determined from the following equation:
Step 01: Determine risk category , Table 1.5-1.
Step 02: Determine the basic wind speed, V, for applicable risk category ( or Project Specification )
Step 03: Exposure category B, C, or D; see Section 26.7.
Step 04: Determine Kz = Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Table 26.10.1
List between Kz and Z ( from ground level to the top roof building)
Step 05: Determine Kzt = topographic factor, Equation . Section 26.8 and Fig. 26.8-1
Step 06: Determine Kd = wind directionality factor, see Table 26.6-1.
Step 07: Determine Ke = ground elevation factor, see . Table 26.9-1
Step 08: Apply Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height (h) Equation (26.10-1).
m
[ ]
q z =0.613 . K z . K zt . K d . K e . V 2= V ,
s
Step 09: Determine GCpi :Internal Pressure Coefficient from Table 26.13-1
Step 10: Determine Zone width, ( a ) : 10 % of the least horizontal dimension, but not less than 3 ft
Step 11: Determine the effective wind area : = [ the span length ] x [1+1/3]
Step 12: Determine External Pressure Coefficient.
•
Fig. 30.3-1 (walls),
•
Figs. 30.3-2A–I (flat roofs, gable roofs and hip roofs),
•
Fig. 30.3-3 (stepped roofs),
•
Fig. 30.3-4 (multispan gable roofs),
•
Figs. 30.3-5A–B (monoslope roofs),
•
Fig. 30.3-6 (sawtooth roofs),
•
Fig. 30.3-7 (domed roofs),
•
Fig. 27.3-3, Note 4 (arched roofs);
Step 13: Apply Design wind pressure, p; Eq. (30.3-1).
N
P=qh . [ ( GC p ) ∓ ( GC pi ) ]
m2
Kz Should be Taken from ( 0 to Z) and consider qz & GCpi & GCp at each point

p = Net Design Pressures

GCpi GCpi GCp (KPa)
Compone z qz GCp
Kz
nt (M) (KPa) Typical Corner Typica
Corner Zone
Zone Zone l Zone Typical Zone Corner Zone

25
26
PART 3: BUILDINGS WITH h > 60 ft (h > 18.3 m)
30.3.2 Design Wind Pressures. Design wind pressures on C&C elements of low-rise buildings and buildings
with h ≤ 60 ft (h ≤ 18.3 m) shall be determined from the following equation:
Step 01: Determine risk category , Table 1.5-1.
Step 02: Determine the basic wind speed, V, for applicable risk category ( or Project Specification )
Step 03: Exposure category B, C, or D; see Section 26.7.
Step 04: Determine Kz = Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Table 26.10.1
List between Kz and Z ( from ground level to the top roof building)
Step 05: Determine Kzt = topographic factor, Equation . Section 26.8 and Fig. 26.8-1
Step 06: Determine Kd = wind directionality factor, see Table 26.6-1.
Step 07: Determine Ke = ground elevation factor, see . Table 26.9-1
Step 08: Apply Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height (h) Equation (26.10-1).
m
[ ]
q z =0.613 . K z . K zt . K d . K e . V 2= V ,
s
Step 09: Determine GCpi :Internal Pressure Coefficient from Table 26.13-1
EXCEPTION: In buildings with a mean roof height h greater than 60 ft (18.3 m) and less than 90 ft (27.4 m), (GCp) values from Figs. 30.3-1
through 30.3-6 shall be permitted to be used if the height-to-width ratio is 1 or less
Step 10: Determine Zone width, ( a ) : 10 % of the least horizontal dimension, but not less than 3 ft
Step 11: Determine the effective wind area : = [ the span length ] x [1+1/3]
Step 12: Determine External Pressure Coefficient (GCp).
• Fig. 30.5-1 for walls and flat roofs,
• Fig. 27.3-3, Note 4, for arched roofs,
• Fig. 30.3-7 for domed roofs,
• Note 6 of Fig. 30.5-1 for other roof angles and geometries;
Step 13: Apply Design wind pressure, p; Eq. (30.3-1).
N
P=[ q . ( GC p ) ∓qi . ( GC pi ) ]
m2
where
q = qz for windward walls calculated at height z above the ground;
q = qh for leeward walls, sidewalls, and roofs evaluated at height h;
qi = qh for windward walls, sidewalls, leeward walls, and roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative
internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings;
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings where height z is defined as the level
of the highest opening in the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For positive internal
pressure evaluation, qi may conservatively be evaluated at height h(qi = qh);

27
28
Example for cladding pressures
Example building data
 20 story building
 building category, enclosure classification,
 Dimensions: 20 story building; floor height of 11 ft
 Footprint of 120 ft x 200 ft with a cutout of 40 ft x 40 ft
 Height of 220 ft
 Flat roof
 Framing: Rigid frame in both directions (does not impact
determination of cladding pressures)
 Cladding: Mullions span 11 ft between floors; spacing of 6 ft
 Glazing panels are 6 ft wide x 5 ft 6 in high
 Location: Memphis, Tennessee
 Terrain:

Building is located on the Mississippi River bank; it is surrounded by suburban area Topography: Homogeneous

 Building Category:

The building function is office space. It is not considered an essential facility in case of a disaster and will not
have 300 or more people in one area. Building Category II is appropriate for this building,

The importance factor = 1.0.

 Basic wind speed:

Wind speed V = 90 mph

Solution :

Step 01: Determine risk category , Table 1.5-1.

Risk category : II
Step 02: Determine the basic wind speed, V, for applicable risk category ( or Project Specification )
Wind speed V = 90 mph ( 144.82 km/h)
Step 03: Exposure category B, C, or D; see Section 26.7.
Since the building is located on the Mississippi River bank, it is exposed to water on one side and
suburban area on the remaining sides. It is judged that the river is more than 5000 ft wide at the location
of the building; it will be Exposure D for the building according to Section 6.5.6.3 of the Standard. The
Exposure Category for components and cladding (C&C) Section 6.5.6.5 of the Standard ACSE 7.5 states
that, ‘components and cladding design pressures for all buildings shall be based on exposure resulting in
the highest wind loads for any direction at the site’. The reason for this requirement is that the values of
external pressure coefficients for C&C given in the Standard were obtained in a wind tunnel
independent of direction. Therefore, Exposure D is to be used in this example.
29
Step 04: Determine Kz = Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Table 26.10.1

Kz= varies with height z above ground using Exposure D; Table 26.10.1of the Standard
Table 26.10-1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients,

Height above Ground Level, Exposure

z Kz
ft m D
0—15 0—4.6 1.03
20 6.1 1.08
30 9.1 1.16
60 18 1.31
90 27.4 1.4
120 36.6 1.48
160 48.8 1.55
200 61 1.61
220 67.1 1.64
Step 05: Determine Kzt = topographic factor, Equation . Section 26.8 and Fig. 26.8-1.
Kz t is the topography factor; it is defined in Section 6.5.7 in the Standard. As indicated in the
Standard, this factor is applicable only when the site conditions and location of the building meet
several conditions, including when the hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated, the slope of the feature is
greater than 68, and the height of the feature is at least 15 ft for Exposure D. It is judged that the
location of the example building does not meet the requirements as specified; hence, the topographic
factor is not applicable, or Kz t = 1.0
Step 06: Determine Kd = wind directionality factor, see Table 26.6-1. Kd = 0.85
Step 07: Determine Ke = ground elevation factor, see . Table 26.9-1 Ke=1
Step 08: Apply Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height (h) Equation (26.10-1).
N m
q z =0.613 . K z . K zt . K d . K e . V 2=
m2 [
, V=
s ]
IP
q z =0.00256 . K z . K zt . K d . K e . V 2= 2 , [ V =mi /h ]
ft
Table 26.10-1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients,
Exposure
Height above Ground Level, z qz qz Kz
IP N
ft m ft 2 m2
D
0—15 0—4.6 18.15 868.16 1.03
20 6.1 19.04 910.31 1.08
30 9.1 20.45 977.74 1.16
60 18 23.09 1104.17 1.31
90 27.4 24.68 1180.03 1.4
120 36.6 26.09 1247.46 1.48
160 48.8 27.32 1306.46 1.55
200 61 28.38 1357.03 1.61
220 67.1 28.91 1382.32 1.64

30
 lP N
K h=28.9 2
=1382.32 2
ft m

Prior to determining design pressures for C&C, mullions, and glazing panels in the present case, three items
have to be determined:
(1) Enclosure classification of the building for internal pressure;
(2) Width of zone, a, for the pressure coefficient
(3) Effective wind area for each component and cladding.
1. Enclosure classification governs the value of the internal pressure
coefficient. There are three classifications:
1. Open building (not applicable in this case).
2. Partially enclosed building,
3. Enclosed building.
Professional judgment must be exercised to decide on the enclosure
classification. The building under consideration is covered with
glazing which, if properly designed and constructed, can resist design
wind pressures. The location of the building is not in the wind-borne
debris prone region. Also, since the building is located next to the
river, it is judged that there will not be significant wind-borne debris
that will break large numbers of glazing panels. The building is judged as an enclosed building.

If the building is classified as a partially enclosed building the internal pressures would be much higher.

Step 09: Determine GCpi :Internal Pressure Coefficient from Table 26.13-1
(GCpi) = +0.18 and – 0.18.
Step 10: Determine Zone width, ( a ) : 10 % of the least horizontal dimension, but not less than 3 ft

The overall footprint of the building is 120 ft 200 ft. The cutout in one corner of the building is 40 ft 40 ft. This
cutout is not likely to change significantly the overall pattern of wind flowing around the building. The least
horizontal dimension of 120 ft will be used to determine the zone width (a).
a= 0.1 x 120 = 12 feet = 3.65 meter
OR
a= 3 feet = 0.914 meter

Step 11: Determine the effective wind area : = [ the span length ] x [1+1/3]
31
 The effective wind area, A, governs values of the external pressure coefficients (GCp).
The definition of the effective wind area of C&C is the span length multiplied by the effective width that
need not be less than one third of the span length , Mullions are supported between the floors; hence the
span length here is 11 ft ( height of each floor) .
The glazing panels are assumed to be supported on all four sides; in this case it is reasonable to use the
wind effective area as the tributary area.
The mullions effective wind area is the larger of
o From building date we have : Cladding: Mullions span 11 ft between floors; spacing of 6 ft :
o Therefore the Effective Wind Area for Mullion Calculated as

 A = 11 x 6 = 66 ft2 , ( 20.116 m2 ) Control

Or
 A = 11 x 11/3 = 40.3 ft2 ( 12.28 m2 )

o From building date we have : Glazing panels are 6 ft wide x 5 ft 6 in high =[5.5 ft]

 A = 5.5 x 6 = 33 ft2

Step 12: Determine External Pressure Coefficient.

Two methods to determine the External Coefficient

Fist Method :
 Wall Zones 4 and 5 for positive ( GCp ):
Table 5.3 Wall external pressure
o GCp=1.1792−0.2146 log A , 20< A<500
coefficients (GCp)
 Wall Zone 4 for negative ( GCp ) Component A Zones 4 Zone 4 Zone 5
(ft2) and 5
 GCp=1.1792−0.2146 log A , 20< A<500
( +GCp ) (-GCp) (-GCp)
 Wall Zone 5 for negative ( GCp )
Mullion
66 +0.79 -0.83 -1.5
o GCp=−2.5445+0.5723 . log A ,20< A <500
Glazing
Second Method : figure Panel
33 +0.85 -0.87 -1.68

Using these equations and the effective wind areas calculated above, external pressure
coefficients (GCp) are determined for mullions and glazing panels; these values are shown in
Table 5.3.
Design pressures can be positive or negative depending on the direction of wind and location of
the wall component. The internal pressure can act toward (positive) the component surface and

32
away (negative) from the surface. The controlling design pressure will be when external and
internal pressures add to cause the maximum differential pressures. Sample calculations for
controlling design pressures are given below; the controlling design pressures for mullions and
glazing panels for the building are shown in the tables.
Controlling negative design pressure for mullions in Zone 5 of the wall:
P=[ qh . (−GC p ) −qh . ( +GC pi ) ]

P=28.9∗(−1.5 ) −28.9∗(+0.18)
P=−48.6 psf ( Negative internal PressureControls )
Controlling positive design pressure for mullions at height h = 90 ft in Zone 4:
P=[ q z . ( +GC p )−q h . (−GC pi ) ]

P=24.7∗( +0.79 )−28.9∗(−0.18)

P=24.7 psf ( Positive External Pressure Controls )

33
Step 13: Apply Design
wind pressure, p;
Eq. (30.3- 1).

The design
pressures for
C&C are obtained
by Equation 6-23
of the Standard:

N
P=[ q . ( GC p ) ∓qi . ( GC pi ) ]
m2

 q = qz for the windward wall calculated at height z to be used with (+ GCp)

 q = qh for the leeward and side walls calculated at roof height h to be used with ( – GCp)
 qi = qh for the enclosed building
 (GCp) = external pressure coefficient from Fig. 5.4
 (GCpi)= internal pressure coefficients of + 0.18 and – 0.18 as discussed above

34
FOR THE MULLION
Positive Negative Negative Zone 4 Zone 5
Internal
h qz Zones 4 and ±
q Zone 4 Zone 5 Positive Negative Positive Negative
f lP/f h 5

t t lP/ft qz .(+GCp )+qh qh .(-GCp ) qz .(+GCp )+qh . qh .(-GCp )+qh .

( +GCp ) (-GCp) (-GCp) (GCpi)
.(+GCpi ) +qh .(-GCpi ) (+GCpi ) (-GCpi )
18.1
15 28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
5 19.5 -29.2 19.5 -48.6
20.4
30 28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
5 21.4 -29.2 21.4 -48.6
23.0
60 28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
9 23.4 -29.2 23.4 -48.6
24.6
90 28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
8 24.7 -29.2 24.7 -48.6
12 26.0
28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
0 9 25.8 -29.2 25.8 -48.6
16 27.3
28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
0 2 26.8 -29.2 26.8 -48.6
20 28.3
28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
0 8 27.6 -29.2 27.6 -48.6
22 28.9
28.91 0.79 -0.83 -1.5 0.18
0 1 28.0 -29.2 28.0 -48.6

FOR GLASS

h qz qh Positive Negative Negative Internal +

Zone 4
35
 Zones 4 and 5 Zone 4 Zone 5 Positive Negative
(ft
) ( lP/ft ) ( lP/ft )
( +GCp ) (-GCp) (-GCp) (Gcpi) qz .(+GCp )+qh .(+GCpi qh .(-GCp )+qh .(-GCpi qz .(
) )
15 18.15 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 20.6 -30.4
30 20.45 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 22.6 -30.4
60 23.09 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 24.8 -30.4
90 24.68 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 26.2 -30.4
120 26.09 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 27.4 -30.4
160 27.32 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 28.4 -30.4
200 28.38 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 29.3 -30.4
220 28.91 28.91 0.85 -0.87 -1.68 0.18 29.8 -30.4

36
 WIND LOADING ANALYSIS - Wall Components and Cladding
Per ASCE 7-05 Code for Buildings of Any Height
Using Method 2: Analytical Procedure (Section 6.5)
Job Name: Subject:
Job Number: Originator: Checker:

Input Data:

Wind Speed, V = 90 mph (Wind Map, Figure 6-1)

Bldg. Classification = II (Table 1-1 Occupancy Category)
Exposure Category = D (Sect. 6.5.6) B
Ridge Height, hr = 220.00 ft. (hr >= he)
Eave Height, he = 220.00 ft. (he <= hr)
Building Width = 120.00 ft. (Normal to Building Ridge)
Building Length = 200.00 ft. (Parallel to Building Ridge) L
Roof Type = Gable (Gable or Monoslope)
Topo. Factor, Kzt = 1.00 (Sect. 6.5.7 & Figure 6-4) Plan
Direct. Factor, Kd = 0.85 (Table 6-4)
Enclosed? (Y/N) Y (Sect. 6.2 & Figure 6-5)
Hurricane Region? N qo
Component Name = Girt (Girt, Siding, Wall, or Fastener) hr
h
Effective Area, Ae = 66 ft.^2 (Area Tributary to C&C) he

Resulting Parameters and Coefficients: L

Elevation
Roof Angle, q = 0.00 deg.
Mean Roof Ht., h = 220.00 ft. (h = he, for roof angle <=10 deg.)

Wall External Pressure Coefficients, GCp:

GCp Zone 4 Pos. = 0.79 (Fig. 6-17)
GCp Zone 5 Pos. = 0.79 (Fig. 6-17)
GCp Zone 4 Neg. = -0.83 (Fig. 6-17)
GCp Zone 5 Neg. = -1.50 (Fig. 6-17)
Positive & Negative Internal Pressure Coefficients, GCpi (Figure 6-5):
+GCpi Coef. = 0.18 (positive internal pressure)
-GCpi Coef. = -0.18 (negative internal pressure)

If z <= 15 then: Kz = 2.01*(15/zg)^(2/ a ) , If z > 15 then: Kz = 2.01*(z/zg)^(2/ a) (Table 6-3, Case 1a)
a = 11.50 (Table 6-2)
zg = 700 (Table 6-2)
Kh = 1.64 (Kh = Kz evaluated at z = h)
I= 1.00 (Table 6-1) (Importance factor)
Velocity Pressure: qz = 0.00256*Kz*Kzt*Kd*V^2*I (Sect. 6.5.10, Eq. 6-15)
qh = 28.97 psf qh = 0.00256*Kh*Kzt*Kd*V^2*I (qz evaluated at z = h)

Design Net External Wind Pressures (Sect. 6.5.12.4):

For h <= 60 ft.: p = qh*((GCp) - (+/-GCpi)) (psf)
For h > 60 ft.: p = q*(GCp) - qi*(+/-GCpi) (psf)
where: q = qz for windward walls, q = qh for leeward walls and side walls
qi = qh for all walls (conservatively assumed per Sect. 6.5.12.4.2)

37
 Wind Load Tabulation for Wall Components & Cladding
Component z Kz qz p = Net Design Pressures (psf)
(ft.) (psf) Zone 4 (+) Zone 4 (-) Zone 5 (+) Zone 5 (-)
Girt 0 1.03 18.15 19.53 -29.13 19.53 -48.76
15.00 1.03 18.15 19.53 -29.13 19.53 -48.76
20.00 1.08 19.09 20.27 -29.13 20.27 -48.76
25.00 1.13 19.85 20.87 -29.13 20.87 -48.76
30.00 1.16 20.48 21.37 -29.13 21.37 -48.76
35.00 1.19 21.04 21.81 -29.13 21.81 -48.76
40.00 1.22 21.54 22.20 -29.13 22.20 -48.76
45.00 1.25 21.98 22.55 -29.13 22.55 -48.76
50.00 1.27 22.39 22.87 -29.13 22.87 -48.76
55.00 1.29 22.76 23.17 -29.13 23.17 -48.76
60.00 1.31 23.11 23.44 -29.13 23.44 -48.76
70.00 1.35 23.74 23.94 -29.13 23.94 -48.76
80.00 1.38 24.29 24.38 -29.13 24.38 -48.76
90.00 1.41 24.80 24.77 -29.13 24.77 -48.76
100.00 1.43 25.26 25.13 -29.13 25.13 -48.76
120.00 1.48 26.07 25.78 -29.13 25.78 -48.76
140.00 1.52 26.78 26.33 -29.13 26.33 -48.76
160.00 1.55 27.41 26.83 -29.13 26.83 -48.76
180.00 1.59 27.97 27.28 -29.13 27.28 -48.76
200.00 1.62 28.49 27.69 -29.13 27.69 -48.76
For z = hr: 220.00 1.64 28.97 28.06 -29.13 28.06 -48.76

For z = he: 220.00 1.64 28.97 28.06 -29.13 28.06 -48.76

For z = h: 220.00 1.64 28.97 28.06 -29.13 28.06 -48.76

Notes: 1. (+) and (-) signs signify wind pressures acting toward & away from respective surfaces.
2. Width of Zone 5 (end zones), 'a' = 12.00 ft.
3. Per Code Section 6.1.4.2, the minimum wind load for C&C shall not be less than 10 psf.
4. References : a. ASCE 7-05, "Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures".
b. "Guide to the Use of the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-05"
by: Kishor C. Mehta and William L. Coulbourne (2010).

38
For the glass
WIND LOADING ANALYSIS - Wall Components and Cladding
Per ASCE 7-05 Code for Buildings of Any Height
Using Method 2: Analytical Procedure (Section 6.5)
Job Name: Subject:
Job Number: Originator: Checker:

Input Data:

Wind Speed, V = 90 mph (Wind Map, Figure 6-1)

Bldg. Classification = II (Table 1-1 Occupancy Category)
Exposure Category = D (Sect. 6.5.6) B
Ridge Height, hr = 220.00 ft. (hr >= he)
Eave Height, he = 220.00 ft. (he <= hr)
Building Width = 120.00 ft. (Normal to Building Ridge)
Building Length = 200.00 ft. (Parallel to Building Ridge) L
Roof Type = Gable (Gable or Monoslope)
Topo. Factor, Kzt = 1.00 (Sect. 6.5.7 & Figure 6-4) Plan
Direct. Factor, Kd = 0.85 (Table 6-4)
Enclosed? (Y/N) Y (Sect. 6.2 & Figure 6-5)
Hurricane Region? N qo
Component Name = Fastener (Girt, Siding, Wall, or Fastener) hr
h
Effective Area, Ae = 33 ft.^2 (Area Tributary to C&C) he

Resulting Parameters and Coefficients: L

Elevation
Roof Angle, q = 0.00 deg.
Mean Roof Ht., h = 220.00 ft. (h = he, for roof angle <=10 deg.)

Wall External Pressure Coefficients, GCp:

GCp Zone 4 Pos. = 0.85 (Fig. 6-17)
GCp Zone 5 Pos. = 0.85 (Fig. 6-17)
GCp Zone 4 Neg. = -0.87 (Fig. 6-17)
GCp Zone 5 Neg. = -1.68 (Fig. 6-17)
Positive & Negative Internal Pressure Coefficients, GCpi (Figure 6-5):
+GCpi Coef. = 0.18 (positive internal pressure)
-GCpi Coef. = -0.18 (negative internal pressure)

If z <= 15 then: Kz = 2.01*(15/zg)^(2/ a) , If z > 15 then: Kz = 2.01*(z/zg)^(2/ a) (Table 6-3, Case 1a)
a = 11.50 (Table 6-2)
zg = 700 (Table 6-2)
Kh = 1.64 (Kh = Kz evaluated at z = h)
I= 1.00 (Table 6-1) (Importance factor)
Velocity Pressure: qz = 0.00256*Kz*Kzt*Kd*V^2*I (Sect. 6.5.10, Eq. 6-15)
qh = 28.97 psf qh = 0.00256*Kh*Kzt*Kd*V^2*I (qz evaluated at z = h)

Design Net External Wind Pressures (Sect. 6.5.12.4):

For h <= 60 ft.: p = qh*((GCp) - (+/-GCpi)) (psf)
For h > 60 ft.: p = q*(GCp) - qi*(+/-GCpi) (psf)
where: q = qz for windward walls, q = qh for leeward walls and side walls
qi = qh for all walls (conservatively assumed per Sect. 6.5.12.4.2)

39
 Wind Load Tabulation for Wall Components & Cladding
Component z Kz qz p = Net Design Pressures (psf)
(ft.) (psf) Zone 4 (+) Zone 4 (-) Zone 5 (+) Zone 5 (-)
Fastener 0 1.03 18.15 20.71 -30.38 20.71 -53.75
15.00 1.03 18.15 20.71 -30.38 20.71 -53.75
20.00 1.08 19.09 21.50 -30.38 21.50 -53.75
25.00 1.13 19.85 22.15 -30.38 22.15 -53.75
30.00 1.16 20.48 22.69 -30.38 22.69 -53.75
35.00 1.19 21.04 23.17 -30.38 23.17 -53.75
40.00 1.22 21.54 23.59 -30.38 23.59 -53.75
45.00 1.25 21.98 23.97 -30.38 23.97 -53.75
50.00 1.27 22.39 24.32 -30.38 24.32 -53.75
55.00 1.29 22.76 24.64 -30.38 24.64 -53.75
60.00 1.31 23.11 24.93 -30.38 24.93 -53.75
70.00 1.35 23.74 25.47 -30.38 25.47 -53.75
80.00 1.38 24.29 25.95 -30.38 25.95 -53.75
90.00 1.41 24.80 26.37 -30.38 26.37 -53.75
100.00 1.43 25.26 26.77 -30.38 26.77 -53.75
120.00 1.48 26.07 27.46 -30.38 27.46 -53.75
140.00 1.52 26.78 28.06 -30.38 28.06 -53.75
160.00 1.55 27.41 28.60 -30.38 28.60 -53.75
180.00 1.59 27.97 29.09 -30.38 29.09 -53.75
200.00 1.62 28.49 29.53 -30.38 29.53 -53.75
For z = hr: 220.00 1.64 28.97 29.93 -30.38 29.93 -53.75

For z = he: 220.00 1.64 28.97 29.93 -30.38 29.93 -53.75

For z = h: 220.00 1.64 28.97 29.93 -30.38 29.93 -53.75

Notes: 1. (+) and (-) signs signify wind pressures acting toward & away from respective surfaces.
2. Width of Zone 5 (end zones), 'a' = 12.00 ft.
3. Per Code Section 6.1.4.2, the minimum wind load for C&C shall not be less than 10 psf.
4. References : a. ASCE 7-05, "Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures".
b. "Guide to the Use of the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-05"
by: Kishor C. Mehta and William L. Coulbourne (2010).

40