WRITING

Contents

1st Semester
Capitalization
Punctuation

2nd Semester
Paragraph and its types
Letters & Its types

3rd Semester
Memo Writing
Essay Writing

6 Steps of Writing Process

Prewriting
Brainstorming
Drafting
Revising
Editing/Proofreading
Final Drafting

Capitalization
Capitalization (AE) (capitalization (BE)) is writing a word with its first letter as a majuscule
(upper-case letter) and the remaining letters in minuscules (lower-case letters).
The systematic use of capitalized and uncapitalized words in running text is called "mixed
case".
In the study of capitalization, we shall progress from the more familiar to the less familiar.
The rules are grouped under general headings to facilitate ready reference to them.
 
In MS Word
1. Sentence case will capitalize the first word;
2. Lowercase will change all letters in the selection to lowercase.
3. UPPERCASE changes all letters to uppercase.
4. Capitalize Each Word makes each new word within the selection start with an
uppercase letter.
5. Title Case capitalizes first letter of each important word in a title.
6. tOGGLE cASE reverses the case of each letter within the selection.

Rules for Capitalization

Rule 1. Capitalize a proper noun used anywhere in a sentence.
e.g. Ali studies at KELC.
We met Ahmad yesterday at the library.
 We went to Kabul last year.
Note: Pronoun Noun is the name of a specific person, a place, and a thing.
Rule 2: Capitalize the first word of every sentence.
e.g. Art is long; life is short.
We learn English at KELC.
 
Rule 3: Capitalize the first word in every line of poetry.
e.g. A funny thing about a chair
You hardly ever think it’s there
To know a chair is really it
You sometimes have to go and sit
 
Rule 4: Capitalize the first word of a quotation from someone. This is called a direct quotation.
e.g. Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said, “Live together, do not turn against each
other, make things easy for others and do not put obstacles in each other’s way”

Rule 5: Capitalize the first and last words (and every other important word) in a title.
For the sake of appearance in modern printing style, it is permissible to capitalize in a title
every long word – even every word of four or more letters, regardless of its function or
importance.
e.g. Beauty and the Beast.
Ineffective Reading Habits.
The Farmer and the Cobra.
Honesty and Love Versus Money.

Note: Unimportant words in a title are not capitalized.

These are Three kinds: Conjunctions (and, or, but), articles (the, a, an), and prepositions (on,
of, from etc).
An easy way to remember these exceptions is the memory device, “Don’t cap the ‘caps’.” The
word “caps” is composed of the first letter of each of the unimportant words (plus the S as
plural).
C is for Conjunctions; A for Articles P for Prepositions. (Long conjunctions or prepositions may
be capitalized.)
Rule 6: Capitalize days of the week, months of the year and other holidays.
e.g. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday etc.
January, February, March etc.
Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha,
 
Rule 7: Always capitalize the pronoun “I” and explanations “Oh”, “Bah”, “Ha” etc.
e.g. I am tired today.
Oh, my god I left my car’s keys.
 
Rule 8: Capitalize those abbreviations and acronyms which are formed from proper nouns.
e.g. N. Y. , U.S. , U.N., E.L.P. , K.F.C. , P.S.O. , U.N.H.C.R. etc.
KELC, AIDS, PELC, NUML, IELTS, TOFEL etc.
Rule 9: Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutation of a letter.
e.g. To Whom It May Concern:, Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Gentlemen etc.
 Note: In a three word salutation the word “dear” is not capitalized.
e.g. My dear Madam, My dear Sir etc.
 
Rule 10: To express formality in English letters, only capitalize the first word of complementary
closing.
e.g. Yours very truly,
Sincerely yours,
 
Rule 11: Capitalize honorary titles, civil, military and religious, when they are used with the
names of people who own them.
e.g. President Hamid Karzai
Professor Dr. Zain Yousafzai

Do not capitalize the followings:

 
Rule 1: The names of college classes.
e.g. freshman
sophomore
junior
senior
 
Rule 2: The names of sciences and college studies.
e.g. chemistry logic
physics history
biology economic
trigonometry English literature

Rule 3: Do not capitalize the names of the seasons of the year.

e.g. spring, summer, fall, winter
Rule 4: Do not capitalize the following abbreviations:
e.g. am (Latin) ante meridiem meaning before noon)
pm (Latin) post meridiem meaning after noon)
chap (chapter)
c.o.d. (collect on delivery)
e.g. (Latin) exempli gratia meaning for example)
etc. (Latin) et cetera
i.e. (Latin) (id est) meaning (that is)
fig. (figure)
pt. (pint)
qt. (quart)
vol. (volume)
wk. (week)
yd. (yard of measurement)
yr. (year)
 Note: am and pm may be capitalized.

Punctuation

Punctuation is the system of adding appropriate punctuation marks or signs to your writing
segment in order to make the meaning clear. Moreover, these written signs represent a
speaker’s way of conveying his or her meaning, and they also guide readers as to the way that
written material should be read so that they can be read fluently in order to understand the
meaning as they go along.
Punctuation Marks
These Punctuation Marks are used to indicate stops and pauses in our written sentences.
Moreover, these marks can be most often seen in our writing segments.
 
e.g.
1: Full Stop (.) 4: Question Mark (?)
2: Comma (,) 5: Colon (:)
3: Semicolon (;) 6: Exclamation Mark (!)
 
1: Full Stop (.): It is also called sometimes Full point or End Mark or Period especially in British
English. Moreover, it represents falling tone, the biggest or longest pause that comes on the
completion of a statement to mark the end of sentence. It is stronger than both Comma and
Semicolon.
 
Usages of Full Stop
 1: We use a full stop at the end of a Declarative or Assertive, Imperative and Optative
sentences.
e.g. Love is flowerlike.
Bring me a glass of water.
May you live long.
2: Always use a full stop at the end of an Indirect Statement as it is originally called Noun
Clause.
e.g. I don’t know what she meant.
She wanted to know if I could help her with her math
assignment.
3: Use a full stop to avoid the common error of combining two Main clauses with a comma.
Moreover, it is used when the thought is flowing on into the second sentence.
e.g. I always get up early. I like to work before breakfast.
I always get up early, I like to work before breakfast. Wrong
4: Use full stops more especially for clarity after those words that have been shortened or
abbreviated.
e.g. A.D. , B.C. , A. M. , P. M. , Mr. Fardin Safi
 
Note: In modern English especially British English, it is possible to write the abbreviated words
without full stops.
e.g. Dr. A. Q. Khan, AD , BC, A M , P M , Mr. Fardin Safi
5: A reliable principle is to add full stops to smaller-letter abbreviations and to those that start
with a capital letter if the last letter is not included in the abbreviation.
th
e.g. adj. , adv. , prep. , conj. , 12 -cent. , approx. , max. ,
min. , chap. , vol. , Jan. , Feb. , Mon. , Tues.
 
6: Use full stops to make the readers clear that the abbreviation is not pronounced as a word.
e.g. K.E.L.C, N.A.T.O, U.S.A, U.N.O, A.E.L.C, E.F.L, E.S.L,
E.U, V.O.A, B.B.C, C.N.N
Don’t use full stops in the following areas
 
1: Never use full stops with abbreviations that are written wholly in capital letters when they
are pronounced as if they were words. More especially they are called Acronyms.
 
Acronyms: Some abbreviations are in the form of words composed of the first one or more
letters of the words that make up the full.
e.g. AIDS (Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome),
KELC (Kabul English Language Center)
NATO (National Atlantic Treaty Organization), MADD (Mothers Against Drunk
Driving)
SADD (Students Against Drunk Driving), CAT (Chartered Accountant
Technician)

2: Never use full stops with Degrees, Qualifications, Titles, and Awards as it is increasingly
famous in British English.
e.g. MBA, BBA, BSc, MA, MSc, M Phil etc
 

3: We never use full stops with abbreviations of ordinal numbers.

e.g. 1st September, 2nd October, 3rd November, 4th December
Note: But date, in fact, is very often simply written 1 September, 2 October, 3 November and
4 December, and so on, especially in formal context.

4: We do not use full stops abbreviations of Metric Measurement and Chemical Symbols.
e.g. 21 cm, 6 km, 10 g, 5 kg, 20 dl, 30 ml
Metric Measurement/Chemical Symbols
Al (aluminum), Ca (calcium), Mg (magnesium), O (oxygen), Ra (radium)

2: Comma (,):
It is used to show the grammatical structure of a sentence. Moreover, it is makes the bigger
pauses, to show emphasis, and to clarify. It is weaker than both Semicolon and Full Stop.
Moreover, using a comma is not a matter of guesswork. If you follow some very simple rules
and use commas only when you know the rules, you will be able to use comma correctly.
 
Usages of Comma
 
1: We used comma in Compound Sentences before
Coordinating Conjunctions such as And, So, But, yet, Or, Nor, For. Moreover, this particularly
happens in two cases:
A: If the subject is repeated, or there is a new subject in the second clause.
Nazia missed the last bus, for Shazia got late to bus stop.
B: If the second clause is a longer sentence containing more than three words.
e.g. She was already running late, and she didn’t want to miss the last train.
I went to have lunch by myself, for Sarwar wasn’t in his office during lunch time.
Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one clause to the next or if the
second clause is a shorter sentence containing two to three words, using a comma before a
Co-ordinate Conjunction is not needed, but the comma is customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard so I failed.
She didn’t study nor did she pass.
Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one clause to the next or if the
second clause is a shorter sentence containing two to three words, using a comma before a
Co-ordinate Conjunction is not needed, but the comma is customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard, so I failed.
She didn’t study, nor did she pass.
Note:
1: In longer sentences, comma should be used if not used, it is still right.
e.g. She was already running late, and she didn’t want to miss the last train. Best way
She was already running late and she didn’t want to miss the last train. Still Right
2: In short sentence, comma shouldn’t be used if used, it is still right.
e.g. Sarwar wasn’t feeling well today so he went home. Best Way
Sarwar wasn’t feeling well today, so he went home. Still Right

Rule 2: Comma is most often used and is very common in Complex Sentences when the
Adverb Clause precedes the main clause as it is called a periodic way of using the Adverb
Clause.
Structure: Adverb Clause + Comma + Main Clause
e.g. When you fall in love, the loss of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest, you have to get started at the lowest.
 
Note No.1: Sometimes the thought continues from Adverb Clause to Main Clause and the
subject (topic) doesn’t change so that the speaker makes no pause then a comma is neither
necessary nor wanted.
e.g. When you fall in love the loss of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest you have to get started at the lowest.

Note No.2: If the Adverb Clause follows the Main Clause as it is called Loose usage the Adverb
Clause, comma isn’t necessary to be used.
Structure: Main Clause + No Comma + Adverb Clause
e.g. The loose of wisdom occurs first when you fall in love.
You have to get started at lowest if you want to reach the highest.
 
Note No. 3: Sometimes a comma is needed even if the Adverb Clause follows the Main Clause
because the Adverb Clause may be added as an explanation or as additional information.
e.g. Our teacher paused and looked around, as though he didn’t know what to say next.
The students must study thoroughly, because their future depends on it.
Rule 3: Comma is most often not important with a Noun Clause, but when the verb in the
Main Clause and the Noun Clause are the same, a comma is used between both verbs to avoid
confusion.
e.g. Whoever fights, fights in vain.
What it is, is none of your business.
 
Rule 4: Comma is used to set the Non-restrictive Adjective Clause or Phrase off from the rest
of the Main Clause.
Note: In Embedded Way, we use two commas both before and after the Adjective Clause and
Adjective Phrase, while in Unembedded way, only one comma is used before the Adjective
Clause or Phrase.
e.g. KELC, which is the best English Language Center, renders quality education.
KELC, the best English Language Center, renders quality education.

Rule 5: Comma is used before and after or only after an Appositive, which is made from the
reduction of an Adjective Clause. Appositive is a noun with its modifier that renames and
modifies another noun.
e.g. Shafiq, the doctor, is reckoned as one of the best doctors
in Afghanistan.
The doctor, Shafiq is reckoned as one of the best doctors in
Afghanistan.
 
Rule 6: Two commas are always used with Accompaniment or Prepositional Phrases that can
appear the subject to plural, but these phrases can’t alter the noun, subject.
With, Along with, Together with, Accompanied by, As well as, In addition to, Besides
e.g. My uncle, accompanied by his sons, daughters and wife, is coming to our house.
Shah Rukh Khan, along with Salman Khan and Fardin Khan, acts in one movie.

Rule 7: One comma and sometimes two commas are used with Transitions to set them off
from the rest of the sentence.
e.g. Some students don’t have time to study. However, they still pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They, however, still pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They still pass with good marks, however.

Rule 8: Commas are used to separate three or more items in a series when used in a parallel
structure. A series can be made up of Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, Verbs, Phrases,
Gerunds, Infinitive, Dependent Clauses and Independent Clauses.
e.g. Most Americans have hamburger, French fries, and a milk shake for lunch.
What that girl does, where she goes, and whom she meets is none of our business.
Note: Two parts to a parallel structure do not need any comma. Moreover, the comma before
conjunction is optional but is primarily used.

Rule 9: We use a comma is used after or before Repoting Speech in Direct or Quoted Speech.
e.g. Sarwar said, “Love for all is love for none.”
 “Love for all is love for none,” Sarwar said.
“Love for all is love for none,” said Sarwar.
Note: If the Reporting Speech is used before, comma is used out of Quotation Marks, and if
the Reporting Speech is used after, comma is used inside Quotation Marks.
 
 Rule 10: We use a comma after and before a noun if it is used in vocative case.
e.g. Sarwar, concentrate on your studies.
e.g. Concentrate on your studies, Sarwar.

Rule 11: We use a comma to indicate a missing word in a sentence.

e.g. To promise is so easy and to keep, so difficult.
To say is always easy and to do, always difficult.
Note: In above sentences, the Comma stands for Is.

3: Semicolon (;):
It is used between two Main Clauses that can really stand as sentences on their own. Use a
Semicolon to link them more closely or to show close relationship between two ideas.
Moreover, it is stronger than a Comma, but weaker than a Full Stop.
 
Usages of Semicolon
 
Rule 1: We use a Semicolon between two Main Clauses to show their close relationship to
each other. Moreover, it does the same job as Co-ordinate Conjunctions.
e.g. I have lost my luggage; I don’t know what to do.
I have lost my luggage, and I don’t know what to do.
She felt really ill yesterday; she feels better today.
She felt really ill yesterday, but she feels better today.
Rule 2: We use a Semicolon instead of a Comma before a Co-ordinate Conjunction to show
further proximity of two ideas in case the subjects of two clauses are different.
e.g. She failed to get better grades, yet her father isn’t sad about it.
She worked hard; so the teacher decided to award her the first prize.
She was seriously ill, so the doctor confined her to bed for 10 days.
She was seriously ill; so the doctor confined her to bed for 10 days.

Rule 3: We use Semicolon with clauses or after the first clause that contains Transitions.
e.g.
I didn’t study hard; nevertheless, I got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I, nevertheless, got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I got the highest marks on the test, nevertheless.

4: Question Mark (?):

The question mark is primarily used to indicate that a question is being asked. 
 
Usages of Question Mark
 
Rule 1: This punctuation mark is used to indicate that a direct question being asked. 
 e.g. What time does the show start?
Are you studying at KELC?
Warning: The question mark is not used at the end of an indirect question or where a Noun
Clause is used.
 e.g. He asked what time the show starts. 
 
Rule 2: When used in dialogue, the question mark is placed inside the quotation marks and
takes the place of a period or a comma.
e.g. Karen asked, “Will you be able arrange the meeting?"

Rule 3: If the question mark does not form part of the quotation, it is placed out of the
quotation marks. 
e.g. Did Jane say, “The meeting will start earlier because of the game, or end earlier because
of the game”?
 
Rule 4: We use a Question Mark at the end of a Declarative Question, which is statement but
has a question intonation and indicates surprise and has a falling intonation.
e.g. Ali won a million dollars?
 
Rule 5: Sometimes a question is broken into several small parts, so each of these parts has a
Question Mark.
e.g. Are you man? Or devil? Or spirit? Or just the figment of my own imagination?

5:Usages of Colon
 
Rule 1: We use a colon to introduce a list of items that ends a sentence.
 e.g. You will have to order several accessory components: chargers, cases, cords, cables, and
speakers.  
 
Rule 2: We use a colon to introduce an extract or quotation that follows an introductory
sentence.
 e.g. As Author, Erica Jong, stated: “If you don’t risk anything, you risk even more.” 
 
Rule 3: We use a colon in the salutation of a formal Business Letter.
  e.g. Dear Sir: Dear Madam:   To Whom It May Concern:

Rule 4: Between figures denoting hours and minutes.

  e.g. 4:30 a.m. 6:20 p.m.
 
Rule 5: We use a colon to precede an extended explanation.
  e.g. There are two conditions that must exist before we can experience true freedom: first,
each person must be entitled to act independently of the other;
second, each must agree not cross those parameters that have been set in place as protection
from harm.  
 
Rule 6: To precede a restatement of an idea.
  e.g. The play was poorly performed: it lacked both experience and characterization from the
actors.

6: Exclamation Mark (!):

Restraint should be exercised when using the exclamation punctuation mark in writing, for
when it is used liberally it will lose its impact.
 
Usages of Exclamation Mark
Rule 1: We use exclamation mark to indicate a strong and emotional response.
  e.g. We are going to hold a party to celebrate this great success! 
 
Rule 2: We use exclamation mark to emphasize a strong command.
  e.g. Call an ambulance!

Rule 3: We use exclamation mark to express a special indication of contempt or scorn.

e.g. There goes the company expert!
Note: Double exclamation marks should be avoided in business correspondence.

Paragraph

Paragraph: Is derived from a Latin word “Paragraphos,” which means a line or stroke upon
which ideas fall.
Or: The word Paragraph is made up of two words Para, which means writing and graph, which
means picture, so Paragraph means Writing of Picture.
Paragraph is a series of sentences that develops an idea. That idea is usually stated in a
general form in one sentence, called the Topic Sentence. The rest of the sentences in the
paragraph provide the reader with specific explanation or proof (evidence, support) of the
general Topic Sentence. The Supporting Sentences help the reader understand more clearly
what the writer means and show that the topic sentence is valid.
Or: Paragraph is a unit of thought that has several or many sentences in it about one topic is
called Paragraph.
 
Or: A group of related sentences that develops one main idea or topic is called Paragraph.
 
Qualities of Paragraph:
A successful paragraph should have the followings:
 
1: Completeness/ Developed:
A paragraph must include enough information to give the reader a clear picture or a full
discussion of its main idea. A paragraph without details or examples is vague and
unconvincing. A paragraph that doesn’t have enough information is called incomplete or
undeveloped.
2: Logical or Sensible Order:
All the supporting sentences should be in clear and logical order.
 
3: Unified:
A paragraph should be unified and all the sentences should relate to the topic sentence.
 
4: Coherence:
Is the way all the sentences should be clearly connected to each other. Without connecting
words, phrases, supporting ideas may be hard to follow and may even seem unrelated to the
topic sentence and to each other. A paragraph that lacks connecting words and phrases
sounds like a list.

Paragraph Writing Process: It almost has the same process as writing process. It mainly
contains the following three processes namely:
 
 1: Pre-writing 2: During Writing 3: Post-writing
A: Choosing a topic A: Topic Sentence A: Reading
B: Brainstorming/ Clustering B: Supporting Sentences B: Revising
C: Outlining C: Using Transition C: Editing
D: Organizing/order lines D: Using a Clincher D: Final Drafting

Main Parts of Paragraph: Almost all paragraphs in English have three main parts that are
interrelated in beginning, developing and concluding one idea.

1: Topic Sentence (Starter Sentence)

2: Supporting Sentences (A number of follow- up sentences)

3: Concluding Sentence (A clincher sentence)

 
1: Topic Sentence: This vital sentence commits the writer to explain or illustrate the central
main idea or simply it introduces the topic to the readers. It serves as a key to the rest of the
paragraph. An effective Topic Sentence also serves to state an idea or an attitude about the
topic. Moreover, this idea or attitude about the topic is called the Controlling Idea.
It has two parts namely:
1: A Topic: It contains a key word or phrase.
 2: A Direction or general word: It contains a conclusion, an opinion, or a statement about the
topic.
e.g. Listening to the news each day keeps people informed about current events.
 Topic Direction
 
2: Supporting Sentences: These are all the other sentences in the paragraph that relate to and
develop the controlling idea.
 
3: Concluding Sentence: This is clincher sentence or restatement that reminds not only
writers not to finish the paragraph suddenly but also the readers of the general topic.

Kinds of Paragraph: It has Four main kinds namely:

 
1: Narrative Paragraph
2: Descriptive Paragraph
3: Expository Paragraph
4: Persuasive Paragraph
 
1: Narrative Paragraph:
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to narrate or tell a fictional or non-fictional story the
readers.
 Steps of Writing:
 1: Topic sentences are less important in story paragraph than in other compositions.
2: Write sentences to get readers interested at the beginning of the story and to keep up that
interest all the way. (Once upon a time, Long long ago)
3: Let your readers know the characters, the time, and the place (Who, When, Where).
4. Make characters and actions come to alive, and try to build up suspense.
5: Finish the story quickly and the concluding sentences of a story should provide a satisfying
ending and should lead the readers to a climax, which is the most interesting part of the story.
6: Narrative paragraph presents the sequence of events in a story in a Chronological Order.
Moreover, don’t include any events that do not belong only add details to fill in any gaps in
your story.
7: The topic sentence most often comes late or at last.

2: Descriptive Paragraph:
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to present a word picture of a person, place or thing.
 
Steps of Writing Descriptive Paragraph:
 1: Be exact and specific and try to avoid vagueness.
2: Use language that makes your picture come to life.
3: Make comparisons by means of speech.
4: Appeal to all of the human senses: (1: Sight 2: Hearing 3: Smell 4: Taste 5: Touch)
(As Sadia sits down at a big family dinner, she enjoys the chattering voices, the shiny dishes
on the table, the spicy smells, and the first crisp, salty bite into a cracker.)
5: For greater effect in a short description, stress those details that build up one impression.
(For a lake at night, the mood of calmness; for a playground, the appearance of widespread
activity)
6: In describing a scene, you should look for a chance to view it from a particular position that
is fixed or moving.
(Tell how a city appears from a hill overlooking it. Describe a lunchroom as it looks to a person
coming through the door, getting in line for food, and then moving to a table.)
 
Some of the arrangements used in Descriptive Paragraph are the followings:
 
1: From top to bottom
2: From bottom to top
3: From left to right
4: From right to left
5: From far away to close up
6: From close up to far away
7: From most important to least important
8: From least important to most important

3: Expository Paragraph
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to explain information, direction, and instruction.
Moreover, sometimes it tells what happens in the steps of process or why things happen the
way they do.
 
Note: Details in an Expository Paragraph should be informative, clear, and carefully arranged
so as the readers can understand the subject.
 
Steps of Writing Expository Paragraph:
 
1. Think whether you have enough information to explain the subject or you need more
information before you write.
2. Choose the information you want to give about your topic.
3. Arrange the information in a logical order, but chronological order is the best order for
expository paragraph, for it gives step- by- step instructions.
4. State your topic clearly in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. The best
way to introduce the topic in an Expository Paragraph is to ask two or three questions
before stating the topic sentence.
5. Present the information in the way you have chosen.
6. Use transitions to connect the sentences in the paragraph.
7. Don’t let the paragraph end suddenly instead remind the readers of the general topic by
using a clincher statement or restatement at the end.

4: Persuasive Paragraph

In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to convince the readers top accept his or her opinion
or point of view.
 
Note: The opinion is supported by factual, logical reasons or details.

Steps of Writing Persuasive Paragraph:

1: Decide on your opinion whether you have enough information to explain it or you need
more information before you write.
2: State your topic clearly in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph.
3: Give two or three factual, logical reasons in support of your opinion.
4: Give your best reason last.
5: Don’t let your paragraph sound like a list; combine the sentences in the paragraph by
transitions.
6: Don’t let the paragraph end suddenly instead remind the readers of the general topic by
using a clincher sentence.

LETTER
A Letter is a written or printed message addressed to a person or company/organization,
usually sent by post or messenger.
It is an addressed document of legal, formal or informal kind for various purposes.
A Letter is complete document containing a particular message for the readers.
Do not offer misleading information.
Do not make promises which you do not have authority to keep.
Do not make untrue, damaging or allegation because a Letter is a permanent record and proof
of intention.

Types of Letter
 
1: Informal Letters. Tone and style is relaxed. It is written to relatives, friends, etc
2: Formal Letters. Tone is formal such as Business Letters
3: Semi-Formal Letters. Tone and style is formal and meant for relatives such as Invitation
Letters
 
Definition:
Informal Letters are also called Social, Friendly or Personal Letters.
Such letters really have the nature of friendly chat. They are written informally and the
language used in such letters differs from person to person and the layout may vary from
writer to writer.

Parts of Friendly or Personal Letters

 
Personal letters normally have Five Parts.
 
1. The Heading: This includes the address, line by line with the last line being the date, placed
right at the top right corner. Skip a line after the heading. The heading is indented to the
middle of the page. If using preaddressed stationery, add just the date.
Warning: Never write your name in the Heading of the letter.
Note: Friendly letters do not require an inside address and the writer’s printed name. Closing
is also informal.

2. The Greeting:
The greeting always ends with a comma. The greeting may be formal, beginning with the
word "dear" and using the person's given name or relationship, or it may be informal if
appropriate.
Formal: Dear Uncle Jim, Dear Mr. Wilkins,
Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings,
(Occasionally very personal Greetings may end with an exclamation point for emphasis.)

3. The Body:
Also known as the Main Text. This includes the message you want to write. Normally in a
friendly letter, the beginning of paragraph is indented. If not indented, be sure to skip a space
between paragraphs. Skip a line after the Greeting and before the closing.

4. The Complimentary Close:

This short expression is always a few words on a single line. It ends in a comma. It should be
indented to the same column as the Heading. Skip one to three spaces (two is usual) for the
Signature Line.
 
5. The Signature Line:
Type or print your name. The handwritten signature goes above this line and below the close.
The signature line and the handwritten signature are indented to the same column as the
Close. The signature should be written in blue or black ink. If the letter is quite informal, you
may omit the signature line as long as you sign the letter.
Postscript: If your letter contains a Postscript, begin it with P.S. and end it with your initials.
Skip a line after the signature line to begin the postscript.
 
Format for a Friendly or Personal Letter
The following pictures show what a one-page friendly or personal letter should look like.
Note: Full Block format is easy to set and by for the most formal layout or format for Business Letters.

It is less often used for Social or Friendly letters.

Commas in Letter Writing

 Use commas after the salutations (also called the Greeting) in a personal letter and after the complimentary closing in
all letters.

Salutations:

Dear Fred,
My dearest Emma,
 

Closing:

Sincerely,
Truly yours,

Capital Letters in Letters

There are two additional rules for capitalizing when writing letters.

 1. Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutations (or greetings).

Correct:
Dear Sir:
My dearest Aunt,
Greetings!
 

2. Capitalize the first word in the complimentary closing.

Correct:
Sincerely,
Truly yours,
With best wishes,

Kinds of social letters are as the followings:

1. Letter of Thanks
2. letter of Condolence
3. Letters of Invitation
4. Love Letter
5. Letter of Congratulation
6. Letters of Apology
7. Love Letter
BUSINESS LETTERS

Definition: A Business Letter has really the nature of serious chat that is written by individuals to organization and from
organization to its customers.

A Business Letter is a formal kind of letter written to talk about various business situations.

Purposes of Business Letters: A Business Letter is written to talk about the following purposes.

1: To Apply for Job

2: To Place an order

3: To make a complaint

4: To register for a class

5: To request information or service

Four C’s of Business Letters: Talks about those four qualities that begin with the letter “C”.

1: Complete
2: Clear

3: Concise

4: Courteous

Standard Parts of Business Letter: Standard parts are those parts of a letter that we must use to develop a complete
Business Letter. They are;

1: Heading/Date

2: Inside Address

3: Greetings/Salutations

4: Body/Massage

5: Complimentary Close

6: Signature and Writer’s Identification

1: The Heading (The Return Address) or Letterhead

Companies usually use printed paper where heading or letterhead is specially designed at the top of the sheet. It bears
all the necessary information about the organization’s identity. Most often business letter headings are placed at the
top left corner but they maybe place at the top right corner.

 Date - Date of writing. The month should be fully spelled out and the year written with all four digits October 12, 2011
(12 October 2005 - UK style).

2: The Inside Address

In a business or formal letter you should give the address of the recipient after your own address. Include the recipient's
name, company, address and postal code. Add job title if appropriate. Separate the recipient's name and title with a
comma. The inside address can appear through the window in the envelope.

3: The Greeting

Also called the salutation. The type of salutation depends on your relationship with the recipient. It normally begins
with the word "Dear" and always includes the person's last name. Use every resource possible to address your letter to
an actual person. If you do not know the name or the sex of your receiver’s address write Dear Madam/Sir (or Dear
Sales Manager or Dear Human Resources Director). As a general rule the greeting in a business letter ends in a colon (US
style). It is also acceptable to use a comma (UK style).

4: The Body Paragraphs

The body is where you explain why you’re writing. It’s the main part of the business letter. Make sure the receiver
knows who you are and why you are writing but try to avoid starting with "I". Use a new paragraph when you wish to
introduce a new idea or element into your letter. Depending on the letter style you choose, paragraphs may be
indented. Regardless of format, skip a line between paragraphs.

5: The Complimentary Close

This short, polite closing ends always with a comma. It is either at the left margin or its left edge is in the center,
depending on the Business Letter Style that you use. It begins at the same column the heading does.
The traditional rule of etiquette in Britain is that a formal letter starting "Dear Sir or Madam" must end "Yours
faithfully", while a letter starting "Dear” must end "Yours sincerely". (Note: the second word of the closing is NOT
capitalized)

6: Signature and Writer’s Identification

The signature is the last part of the letter. You should sign your first and last names. The signature line may include a
second line for a title, if appropriate. The signature should start directly above the first letter of the signature line in the
space between the close and the signature line. Use blue or black ink.

Optional Parts of Business Letters:

Optional parts are those parts of a letter that we use when required. They are;

1: Attention Line 2: Subject Line 3: Enclosure Notation

4: Copy Notation 5: File or Account Number 6: Mailing Notation

7: Postscript 8: Reference Section

1: Attention Line

Attention line is used to forward a letter to a particular person or title or department. When the letter is addressed to a
company, attention line is usually placed between the inside address and salutation. A blank line is left before and after
it.

 2: Subject Line

Subject line shows the main idea of your message. It is very helpful for the reader. He can understand the whole idea of
your letter from the subject line. You can use the word subject before the line or may omit it. It is usually placed on the
second line below the salutation. It can be in the center or on the left margin. The Subject Line (optional) - Its inclusion
can help the recipient in dealing successfully with the aims of your letter. Normally the subject sentence is preceded
with the word Subject: or Re: Subject line may be emphasized by underlining, using bold font, or all capital letters. It is
usually placed one line below the greeting but alternatively can be located directly after the "inside address," before the
"greeting.“

3: Enclosure Notation or Attachments

Enclosure notation shows that you have enclosed one or more documents with your letter. An enclosure can be
anything in the envelope other than the message itself. If you want to enclose more than one item, you should indicate
the number as Enclosure 4 or Enclosure 5. For attachment you should use the word attached. When enclosures are very
important, you must mention the names of the documents. Enclosure notation is placed below Reference Section.

4: Copy Notation

When you want other persons to receive a copy of the letter, the names of those persons arranged in order of
importance or in alphabetical order should be typed in a copy notation. It is placed just below the enclosure notation.
Type "cc" before the receivers' name if you are sending them a carbon copy, "pc" for photocopy and "bpc" for blind
photocopy

5: File or Account Number

Sometimes file or account number is typed above the body of the letter in a prominent place. It is very helpful for the
sender's and the reader's company. Both can easily check their record.

6: Mailing Notation

Mailing notation are the words such as Special Delivery, Certified or Registered Mail. They are placed a double space
below the date line and a double space before the inside address. They can also be placed a double space under the
reference initials.

7: Postscript

Postscript is an afterthought that you want to add in your letter. If you forget to mention a point in the body, you may
write it in the postscript. It is written at the end of the letter below everything. You can write 'ps' before the postscript
line.

8: Reference Section

Initials are to be included if someone other than the writer types the letter. If someone other than yourself typed the
letter you will include your initials in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower case in the following format;
AG/gs or AG:gs.

Letter Layout or Formats

The format (layout) is the visual organization of a business letter. You can follow many different formats when you
create business letters. Be aware that there are often differences depending upon location. The main business letter
formats are:

1: Full-Block Style

All the elements are aligned to the left margin and there are no indented lines. This is a standard block-style format
that is accepted by most businesses. Moreover, it is the most formal among all the formats especially preferred for the
Business Letters.

The following pictures show what a one-page business letter should look like. There are three accepted styles.

ESSAY

What is an Essay?

 The word “Essay” is derived from the Latin verb “Exigere”, which means to: Examine, Test, and Drive out.

 It is an organized piece of writing that focuses on a single topic or theme. Moreover, it is organized around a general
idea or thesis.

Or: Essay is a short piece of writing on a particular subject, especially one done by students as part of the work for a
course.

Why to write an Essay?

Writing an essay helps you express your ideas more clearly and effectively.

It helps you to convey much information in a small amount of space.

They can be entertaining by recounting interesting stories about ourselves and others.

A required part of almost all college courses.

 Parts of an Essay

There are Three Parts of an Essay

1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion

Introduction
Consists of one paragraph
Address the topic in the first sentence
Present three examples or ideas to support your opinion

Body
• Consists of three paragraphs
 1st paragraph details on example one
 2ndparagraph details on example two
 3rd paragraph details on example three

• Each paragraph should have three to five sentences

• Use transitional words and phrases to strengthen the organization
• Indent to show where a new paragraph begins

Conclusion
Consists of one paragraph
Restates the introduction
 

In Review

The Three Parts of an Essay will organize into five paragraphs:

 1st Introduction
o Address the topic
o Present three examples
 nd
2 Details on example one
 3rd Details on example two
 4th Details on example three
 5th Conclusion

 The following compares the elements of Paragraphs and Essays

Paragraph

• Organized around main idea

• Introductory sentence
• Developed by supporting details
• Concluding sentence
Essay

• Organized around a thesis

• Introductory paragraph
• Developed by supporting body paragraphs
• Concluding paragraph
 Types of Essays

There are the great number of types of essays used in colleges and schools today. All of them have their specific
particular purpose and reason. The most popular kinds of essays are:

 1: Evaluation Essay

In an Evaluation Essay, you make judgments about people, ideas, and possible actions. You make your evaluation based
on certain criteria that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the criteria you used to make your judgment.

2: Explanation Essay
In an Explanation Essay, you explain how or why something happens or has happened. You need to explain different
causes and effects. You should organize the essay by explaining each individual cause or effect.

 3: Choice Essay

In a Choice Essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or action that you prefer. You organize the essay by describing
each option and then giving your opinion.

4: Sequence Essay
In a Sequence Essay, you are writing to describe a series of events or a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order
is based on time. You organize the essay by writing about each step.

5: Compare and Contrast Essay

In a Compare and Contrast Essay, you write about the similarities and differences between two or more people, places,
or things. You can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and then comparing it with the second subject.

 6: Description Essay

Description Essay In a description essay, you write about what a person, place, or thing looks like. You organize the
essay by describing different parts or aspects of the main subject.

7: Classification Essay
In a Classification Essay, you separate things or ideas into specific categories and discuss each of them. You organize the
essay by defining each classification and by giving examples of each type.

8: Definition Essay
In a Definition Essay, you take a term or an idea and write about what it is. Often, definitions are combined with
classification or other forms of organization in the essay.

9: Narrative Essay:
The narrative essay tells a story. It can also be called a "short story." Generally the narrative essay is conversational in
style, and tells of a personal experience. It is most commonly written in the first person (uses I). This essay could tell of a
single, life-shaping event, or simply a mundane daily experience.