Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

Religion and Belief Systems

Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

RELIGION
According to Anthropologists, Religion is “a set of attitudes, beliefs, and
practices, pertaining to supernatural beings and forces. Such beliefs may vary within a
culture as well as among societies, and they may change over time” (Ember, Ember, &
Peregrine, 2010).
Religions are different in terms of perspectives and practices. Religion can be
found in all human societies which makes it cultural universal.
A religion is a set of beliefs and practices that is often focused on one or more
deities, or gods. All religions have a set of basic beliefs, scriptures (sacred texts) that
communicate the beliefs of a religion (Bible-Christianity; Koran-Islam; Torah-Judaism,
Code of conduct, or beliefs about right and wrong). Religions have spread by trade and
migration and also by missionaries.
Religion affects us and our way of thinking in the existing world. It serves as a
pattern for the actions we take in day-to-day existence. Religion is seen not only as a
social belief but also as a social institution that continues to develop over time.
Sociologists study religion while considering diverse societal factors such as gender,
age, race, and education, that also tap other social institutions and the concept of social
change.
EXAMPLES
Kikuyu of Kenya Vomiting is a religious practice as it eliminates all the evil in a
person’s body. But in most societies, vomiting is not considered religious, as it is
understood as a typical biological event.
Nyoro (Uganda) believe that the two worlds are not separate and that they
coexist in one space. Christians believe that there is a spiritual world (i.e. heaven/hell)
that is separated from the natural world (i.e. Earth).

RELIGION DURING THE ANCIENT PERIODS

Early societies (Egyptians, Greeks, and Sumerians used religious symbols and
practiced ritualistic ceremonies, which made religion one of the central parts of the
development of human societies.
EVIDENCES:
Cave wall carvings - Evidence of the earliest record on the existence of religion
that dates to 60 000 years ago. The Sorcerer of Les Gabillou in Dordogne, France The
Sorcerer is one name for an enigmatic cave painting found in the cavern known as 'The
Sanctuary' at the Cave of the Trois-Frères, Ariège, France, made around 13,000 BC.
The figure's significance is unknown, but it is usually interpreted as some kind of great
spirit or Master of Animals. The unusual nature of The Sanctuary's decoration may also
reflect the practice of magical ceremonies in the chamber.
Religion and mythology of Ancient Greece – gods and goddesses
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
Major Sociological Theories and Their Major Assumptions Concerning Religion

THEORETICAL MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS

PERSPECTIVE

Functionalism Emile Durkheim

Religion serves several functions for society.
1. Giving meaning and purpose to life.
2. Reinforcing social unity and stability
3. Serving as an agent of social control of behaviour.
4. Promoting physical and psychological well-being
5. Motivating people to work for positive social change

Conflict Theory Karl Marx

Religion reinforces and promotes social inequality and
social conflict. It helps convince the poor to accept their
lot in life, and it leads to hostility and violence motivated
by religious differences.
Symbolic Interactionism Max Weber
This perspective focuses on the ways in which individuals
interpret their religious experiences. It emphasizes that
beliefs and practices are not sacred unless people regard
them as such. Once they are regarded as sacred, they
take on special significance and give meaning to people’s
lives.

RELIGIOUS PATTERNS
1. ANIMISM
Belief that the natural world, as a whole or in parts, has a soul or spirit.

 As a whole = World Spirit, Mother Earth, Gaia

 In parts = rocks, trees, springs, and animals.

Natural phenomena and environmental destructions are understood as

repercussions of the interaction between humans and spirits.
In animism, Spirits can be in either good or bad form which can make
interactions and influences on humans in various ways and forms

 Bad spirits = negative energies, possessions, demonic disturbances and

cases of insanity.
 Good spirits = attributes that aid humans in acquiring their needs and
addressing their issues.
Native Americans try to gain favours through festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.

 Lakota Sioux War Dance - performed by the Lakota Sioux.

 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

2. POLYTHEISM
Belief in more than one deity which is characterized by the worship of many
deities that illustrate the ways of life including beliefs, practices and traditions.
Rooted from the words: poly, which means “many”, and theism which means
“god”. Polytheistic deities consist of variants such as: Sky god, Death deity, Mother
goddess, Love goddess, Creator deity, Trickster deity, Life- death-rebirth deity, Culture
hero
David Hume in The Natural History of Religion (1755) argued that polytheism
was the earliest form of religion among several societies. The ideas of religion are said
to be rooted in the “events of life including hopes and fears which actuate the human
mind.” (Launay, 2005)

 Polytheistic societies (Greeks, Romans, Indians, Aztecs)

Hinduism
Considered as the world's oldest religion still being practiced today. There is only
one supreme god in Hinduism, Brahma, and all other deities are his aspects and
reflections. Since Brahma is too immense a concept for the human mind to
comprehend, he presents himself in the many different versions of himself which people
recognize as deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and the many others.
Ganesh (Ganapati)

 One of the Hindu gods - an elephant-headed god.

 god of wisdom and learning, as well as the remover of obstacles, and
consequently the sign of auspiciousness.
 said to have written down the Mahabharata from the dictation of Vyasa.
He is the lord (Isa) of the Ganas or troops of inferior deities, but more well-
known as the son of Shiva and Parvati.
 in the most common representations of Ganesh, he appears as a pot-
bellied figure, usually but not always yellow in color. In his four hands, he
holds a shell, a discus, a club, and a water lily; his elephant head has only
one tusk.

3. MONOTHEISM
Belief in one god, which is accountable for all the things happening in the world
including the world’s creation and existence.
Scholars argue that as human societies affiliate with a few of the gods in the
pantheon, they have come to practice exclusive worship of several deities that was
promoted with the ascension of a singular chosen deity to supremacy.
Hume (2015) believed that the differences between polytheism and monotheism
led to the changes of the human mind, wherein rationality is more associated with
monotheism while tolerance is to polytheism.
 Christians and Muslims

INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION
Also called as Organized Religion, is religion in which belief systems and rituals
are systematically arranged and formally established.
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

Growth of neolithic societies = rise of institutionalized religions.

As the societies grow more complex, the systems of worshipping the divine
became more structured. The declaration of a country’s official religion is premier
example of how a religion is institutionalized.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION:

1. Wide-scale religious clout
The number of individuals affiliated with this religious institution is immense that it
crosses political and international borders and cuts across social status.
2. Hierarchical leadership and membership
Followers of this type of faith system are relegated to socio-political posts within
the system, which provides ranking and status. This implies that access to the
divine may not be given to every member but is a privilege of a select few. The
decisions for the welfare of the religious group are also made by those who hold
power while members are expected to follow them.
3. Codified Rituals
Processes of interacting with the divine and with fellow members are guided by
written rules and regulations that have the power of the law, such that a
member’s inability to comply results in the imposition of sanctions

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS PRACTITIONERS

Religious practices are performed by the individuals in varying capacities.
1. SHAMAN
also known as a community healer
position usually occupied by a male who has fairly high status in his
community.
also involved in other nonreligious activities in his community, making his
religious function an occasional preoccupation.
Shamanism was observed in most parts of Asia . In the Philippines, it has
been practiced in the province of Siquijor.
2. SORCERER AND WITCH
poorly regarded in their societies due to the perceived malevolence that they
inflict on individuals
have very low social and economic status and often ostracized by members
of the society.
Sorcerer uses “materials, objects and medicines to invoke supernatural
malevolence”
Witch can accomplish malevolence by means of “thoughts and emotions
alone”
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

3. MEDIUM
well favoured by the members of higher community as he/she is involved in
healing rituals while in a possessed trance.
capable of performing divination to predict future courses of action.
most mediums tend to be females who perform other roles when not in
religious practice.
4. PRIEST
tends to be a male whose sole preoccupation is to officiate religious
ceremonies and rituals.
Due to his status in religious hierarchy, he is highly regarded by community
members.

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

Humans interact with the divine in various forms.
1. MAGIC
constitutes the “manipulation of supernatural forces for the purpose of intervening
in a wide range of human activities and natural events”
deals with solving a current problem by seeking the intervention of the divine
through the performance and offering of gifts

 the Native American practice of rain dance to invoke deities to release rain
2. DIVINATION
intends to gain from the divine practical answers for any concern that may range
from war plans to marriage choices.

 I-ching - a Chinese numerical system that is believed to predict future

occurences. - highly popular during the Warring States Period of China as
military leaders utilized it to strategize campaigns.
3. SORCERY AND WITCHCRAFT
popularized by modern literature (Harry Potter novels), it have been depicted by media
as a socially accepted activity.  usually marginalized and ostracized as they perceived
to be bringers of malevolence and misfortune.
Sorcerer – inflicts harm on individuals by the use of materials such as dolls,
wands and medicines.

 Voodoo – use materials related to the victim (hair, pieces of clothing) to

cast sickness and pain to them.
Witchcraft – promotes the same effect as the sorcerer with a mere difference in
method as the witch craft only uses emotions and words of the practitioner to impact its
victim.

 Kulam sa hangin – a Filipino belief which inflicts harm on the victim

through curses uttered by a practitioner.
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

4. PRAYERS, FEASTS AND SACRIFICES

promote a direct interaction with the divine, as individuals or groups
communicate their thoughts and desires to the supernatural through uttered requests
(prayers), celebrations (feasts), and gifts (sacrifices)

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Human groups create various religious organizations depending on the political
and economic norms of their society. Anthropologists associate religious organizations
to the concept of cult. A cult is a small group of individuals who have extreme religious
beliefs and practices.
“Cult is not a group of people, rather it is an organized system associated with
cultural beliefs and practices which also make it a social structure”
– Anthony Wallace, an anthropologist

Four Types of Cults

The degree of complexity of the organizations is related to the extent by which
labor specialization is enforced in the society.
1. INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTS
Practiced in food-collecting societies where equality is central to the group’s
culture Individuals are able to access the divine without restrictions or need for an
intercessor.
Practice no role specialization further foster the capacity of individual to
communicate with the supernatural.
Not an exclusive organization as it can be merged with other form of cults.

 Crow Indian practice of vision quest – a Crow Indian male goes on a

solitary journey to gain a divine relation to his nature and identity.
2. SHAMANISTIC CULTS
Similar to the structure of individualist cults except that this type believes in
shaman or medicine man.
Present in most egalitarian societies that are based on economies focused on
foraging, horticulture, and pastoralism.
Functions of shaman includes: healing, intercession and punishment
Authority is based on the participant’s belief on the shaman’s religious
experiences.
Capacity to heal is gained through training from older shamans
Legitimacy of power is temporary depending on his perceived efficiency.
3. COMMUNAL CULTS
Similar to shamanistic cults, it allows a group direct access to the divine except
for situations that needs shaman and witch’s expertise.
Often present in societies with labor specialization wherein, group of individuals
has direct access to scarce values and resources based on their economic contribution.
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

 Pastoral Societies – favour men as they are the ones involved in animal
herding. Wherein, men are also given more access to religious activities
and rituals.
4. ECCLESIASTICAL CULTS
Have full time religious practitioners – Priests
Often present in highly stratified societies where individuals have unequal access
to values and resources.

SIX MAJOR WORLD RELIGIONS

1. Christianity
Founder: Jesus of Nazareth
Followers: 2.3 billion
Basic Beliefs: There is one God, and Jesus is the only Son of God. Jesus was crucified
but was resurrected. Followers reach salvation by following the teachings of Jesus.
2. Islam
Founder: The Prophet Muhammad
Followers: 1.6 billion
Basic Beliefs: There is one God. Followers must follow the Five Pillars of Islam in order
to achieve salvation.
3. Hinduism
Founder: Unknown
Followers: 860 million
Basic Beliefs: Souls continue to be reborn. The cycle of rebirth ends only when the soul
achieves enlightenment, or freedom from earthly desires.
4. Sikhism
Founder: Guru Nanak
Followers: 25 million
Basic Beliefs: There is one God. Souls are reborn. The goal is to achieve union with
God, which a person does by acting selflessly, meditating, and helping others.
5. Judaism
Founder: Abraham
Followers: 15 million
Basic Beliefs: There is one God. People serve God by living according to his teachings.
God handed down the Ten Commandments to guide human behavior.
6. Buddhism
Founder: Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha.
Followers: 4 million
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

Basic Beliefs: People reach enlightenment, or wisdom, by following the Eightfold Path
and understanding the Four Noble Truths.

ANCIENT TAGALOG DEITIES IN PHILIPPINE MYTHOLOGY

The stories of ancient Philippine mythology include deities, creation stories,
mythical creatures, and beliefs. Ancient Philippine mythology varies among the many
indigenous tribes of the Philippines. Some groups during the pre-Spanish conquest era
believed in a single Supreme Being who created the world and everything in it, while
others chose to worship a multitude of tree and forest deities (diwatas). Diwatas came
from the Sanskrit word devata which means “deity“, one of the several significant Hindu
influences in the Pre-Hispanic religion of the ancient Filipinos. Below are some of the
gods and goddesses among the Tagalogs of the ancient Philippines:
The Tagalog people are a major ethnic group in the Philippines. They form a
majority in Manila, Marinduque and southern Luzon, and a plurality in Central Luzon
and the islands of Mindoro, Palawan, and Romblon.

Good Tagalog Deities

The first part as shown below were the residents of Kaluwalhatian (the Ancient
Tagalog Skyworld). The list is divided into generations based on common beliefs about
the offspring of the gods.
FIRST GENERATION GODS:
 Bathala

The supreme god of being; creator of man and earth and addressed sometimes
as Bathalang Maykapal. He dwells in Kaluwalhatian together with the lesser gods and
goddesses. Aside from the lesser gods and goddesses, he sent his anitos in order to
assist the daily lives of every human. When most of the natives were converted to
Christianity during the Spanish Era, he was referred to the Christian God. [Click here to
learn more about Bathala]

 Amanikable

Originally this god was worshipped as the god of Hunters. In more modern
stories he has become associated as the ill-tempered god of the sea, replacing Aman
Sinaya among of the first-generation gods (aside from Bathala), he was never married
after his love was spurned by a beautiful mortal maiden, Maganda. In frustration, he
swore vengeance against the humans by sending turbulent waves and horrible
tempests in order to wreck boats and to drown men.

 Idiyanale

The goddess of labour and good deeds. Natives used to call for her guidance in
order to make their works successful. She married Dimangan and had two offspring.

 Dimangan

The god of good harvest. He was married to Idiyanale and had two offspring.

 Lakapati
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The goddess of fertility and the most understanding and kind of all the deities.
Also known as Ikapati, she was the giver of food and prosperity. Her best gift to
mankind was agriculture (cultivated fields). Through this, she was respected and loved
by the people. Later, she was married to Mapulon and had a daughter.

 Mapulon

The god of seasons and husband of Lakapati of whom they had a daughter.
SECOND GENERATION GODS:
 Mayari

The goddess of the moon and one of the three daughters of Bathala by a mortal
woman. She was the most charming of all the goddesses. She had two sisters, Tala
and Hanan.

 Tala

The goddess of the stars; sister of Mayari and Hanan and one of the three
daughters of Bathala by a mortal woman.

 Hanan

The goddess of morning; sister of Mayari and Tala and one of the three
daughters of Bathala by a mortal woman.

 Dumakulem

The strong, agile guardian of mountains and the son of Idiyanale and Dimangan.
His sister was Anitun Tabu. He later married Anagolay.

 Anitun Tabu

The fickle-minded goddess of wind and rain. She was the daughter of Idiyanale
and Dimangan and the sister of Dumakulem.

 Anagolay

The goddess of lost things and the only offspring of Lakapati and Mapulon. She
was married to Dumakulem.
THIRD GENERATION GODS:
 Apolaki

The god of sun and the chief patron of warriors. He was the son of Anagolay and
Dumakulem.

 Diyan Masalanta

The goddess of love, conception and childbirth and the protector of lovers. She was the
daughter of Anagolay and Dumakulem and youngest of all the deities.

Harmful Tagalog Deities

The list includes the god/goddess-like, residents of Kasamaan (Ancient Tagalog
Underworld). They were the harmful entities all opposed to Bathala and the rest of his
deities.

 Sitan
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The guardian of Kasamaan and the keeper of all souls therein, the counterpart of
Satan. He had four agents whose task was to lead man to sin and destruction.

 Manggagaway

She was the first agent of Sitan and was primarily blamed as the cause of diseases.
Sometimes, she would change herself into a human form, appearing as a false healer. If
she wished to kill someone, she employed a magic wand.

 Manisilat

The second agent of Sitan, she was tasked to destroy and break every happy
and united family that she could find.

 Mangkukulam

The only male agent of Sitan, he was to emit fire at night and when there was
bad weather. Like his fellow agents, he could change his form to that of a healer and
then induce fire at his victim’s house. If the fire were extinguished immediately, the
victim would eventually die. His name remains today as witch.

 Hukluban

The last agent of Sitan could change herself into any form she desired. She
could kill someone by simply raising her hand and could heal without any difficulty as
she wished. Her name literally means “crone” or “hag.”

SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE

The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article III Section 6 states that “The separation
of Church and state shall be inviolable”
Article III Section 5:
No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship,
without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be
required for the exercise of civil or political rights.
However, despite such provisions, the religious culture of the Filipinos has often
times empower the religious sectors to influence the political affairs of the country.
In ancient Societies, the church and state are synonymous as the leaders of the
church are also the political elite which, also referred to as Theocracy or the rule of
divine.

 Japanese society believed that their emperor was the direct descendant of
a god.
 Ancient Egyptians and Sumerians regarded their pharaohs and kings as
god-kings, as they were believed to be earthly incarnations of the divine.
As states developed into more complex political units, the church is regarded as
a separate entity from the state.
 Religion and Belief Systems | UCSP

The belief in the supernatural is a cultural universal as the need by humans to

understand their environment and self persists. Due to economic and political
differentiation, humans tend to create varying religious norms and practices. Religion is
a mirror of one’s society as it reflects the social dynamics experienced y its members.
An understanding of the variance of religion promotes tolerance and acceptance across
societies.

REFERENCES
Aguas, F. E., Pantaleon, R. C., De Leon, C. D., Del Rosario, M. D., Malabay, M. M., & Pineda,
W. D. (3 October, 2017). Religion and Belief Systems - UCSP. Retrieved from
SlideShare: https://www.slideshare.net/arbhel23/religion-and-belief-systems-ucsp?
from_action=save

Anthony, S. (3 December, 2014). 2.3.2 Religions and Belief Systems. Retrieved from
SlideShare: https://www.slideshare.net/SandyAnthony1/232-religions-and-belief-systems

Barkan, S. (n.d.). Sociological Perspectives on Religion. In Sociology: Understanding and

Changing the Social World, Comprehensive Edition.

High Banks Entertainment Ltd. (5 February, 2016). Ancient Tagalog Deities in Philippine
Mythology. Retrieved from The ASWANG Project:
https://www.aswangproject.com/ancient-tagalog-deities-in-philippine-mythology/