English Writing

ENGLISH WRITING
A HANDBOOK FOR UNIVERSITY STUDIES
НАВЧАЛЬНИЙ ПОСІБНИК З ОСНОВ АНГЛОМОВНОГО НАУКОВОГО

ПИСЬМА ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТІВ ВИЩИХ НАВЧАЛЬНИХ ЗАКЛАДІВ
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NATALIYA PUK
.]Ірпінь 2010
Contents
Part I
Unit 1. The Writing Process
Unit 2. Generating Ideas
1. Free writing
2. Brainstorming
3. Clustering
4. Making a chart
5. Arranging Ideas into a Plan or Outlook
Unit 3. Developing Effective Paragraphs
1. Defining the Paragraph and the Topic Sentence
2. Developing Sentence Variety
Unit 4. Writing Essays
1. English Essay Structure
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Body
1.3. Conclusion
2. Outlining
3. Useful Words and Phrases for Essay (Linking Words)
Unit 5. Types of Essay
1. Comparison Essay
2. Opinion Essay
3. Problem-Solution Essay
Unit 6. Revision
1. Individual Revision
2. Peer Review
Part II
Unit 7. Special Techniques in Writing
1. Summarizing
2. Paraphrasing
3. Quoting
4. Citing References
Unit 8. Writing Conference Abstract
Unit 9. Writing Titles
Unit 10. Transliteration
Grammar Troublespots
Appendix 1 Confused Words
Appendix 2 Latin expressions
Appendix 3 Irregular verbs
References
PART I
UNIT 1 THE WRITING PROCESS
… it is a fallacy to confuse the teaching of grammar with the teaching of writing.
Robert Kaplan
People have many different experience with writing. Everyone who has gone to
school has had experience writing in the language they learned as children (their
first language). In their first language, people use writing not only to improve their
ability to use the language but also to gain knowledge and skills in other subjects.
If they study another language (their second language), they usually use writing
to help them learn it. They may use writing to learn new vocabulary or grammar
rules. They may also use writing in a test to show how well they can use the new
language. During their studies, people have many experiences writing in both their
first and additional languages, and each person has experiences different from
another's.
Outside school, people also have different experiences writing. In their first
language, some write many personal letters. Some keep journals or diaries. Some
may write a lot in their work. Others may write very little. Some people enjoy
writing, while others strongly dislike writing and avoid situations that require them
to write.
Writing is not an easy activity to describe. It is a very complicated process that
involves thinking and language in which we try to put our ideas on paper, or on a
computer screen, or on some other medium. Although writing is complicated, all
writing involves certain basic operations.
[Writing usually consists of five steps:
1. Getting ideas
2. Organizing your ideas
3. Writing your first draft
4. Revising to improve content and organization
5. Editing for language errors]
First, a writer must get ideas. Then these ideas must be organized into
language-words, phrases, and sentences. This is often called inscribing or drafting.
Usually a writer decides to make changes to the written text, sometimes after a lot
of drafting, or sometimes during the drafting. This is because once an idea is
written down, it may cause the writer to think in a new way. Sometimes a new idea
causes the writer to change something that is already written. The process of
changing is called revising. Such changes often change the meaning or the effect
of the text. Another important operation in the writing process is making sure that
the forms of language are used correctly. This operation of checking spelling,
grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary is called editing. This activity does not
greatly change the effect or the meaning (Hall and Jung, 2000).
Additionally, according to research (Grabe and Kaplan, 1996), Russian,

Japanese, Czech writing is considered to be more reader-oriented, meaning that
readers need to work harder to get the meaning of the text than in writer-oriented
writing such as English where the writer will help and guide the reader by saying
in advance how the argument will be developed, and by alluding to what has been
discussed. As Mauranen, (1993) noted, “… in a cultural context which is relatively
homogeneous it is natural for writing conventions to remain relatively implicit,
whereas in contexts which are culturally much more heterogeneous, like those in
dominant English-speaking countries, it becomes imperative to develop writing
habits which are more explicit and leave less room for personal interpretation.”
If we analyze Ukrainian writing we can assume that it is also a reader-
oriented, tends to be more indirect and has different coherence conventions than
English (e.g., it is possible for writers to leave unsaid things which are considered
to be obvious, whereas English writers expect them as clarification).
FOUR IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF WRITING
Before beginning to write, a good writer must consider several elements.
TOPIC
The topic is the what of a piece of writing. What is the writing about?
PURPOSE
Purpose refers to the why. Why are you writing this text? Perhaps you want to
describe two places, to compare two things, to argue for a particular opinion.
AUDIENCE
The audience is the who, the reader. The intended audience can be the teacher (if
you are in a class), workers, senior executives, staff managers etc.
FORMAT
Finally, the how of a piece of writing refers to its format, or how the information is
presented. It could be a letter, a summary, an essay etc.
These four elements, the what, why, who, and how of writing, are necessary for
all writing activities. Even before you begin to write, you need to consider these
four elements because they will shape and guide your writing. (Hall and Jung,
2000).
Note: English writing is reader-oriented while Ukrainian writing is more writer-

oriented. Consider your reader!
CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 1)
1. What is writing?
2. When do people use writing in their first language?
3. Why do people use writing in their second language?
4. What does writing involve?
5. Which basic steps does writing usually involve?
6. Are some of these operations more important than others?
7. Do some of them happen before others?
8. Do some of these happen at the same time?
9. Are some of this operations more difficult for you than others?
10.What are the four important elements of writing?
11. What is reader-oriented/writer-oriented writing?
UNIT 2 GENERATING IDEAS
There are no stupid ideas. No idea is stupid.
What do you need to begin your writing? Ideas! There are several ways to get ideas
for writing:
1. Freewriting
2. Brainstorming
3. Clustering
4. Making a chart
1. FREEWRITING means writing whatever comes into your mind about a topic
in order to get ideas. When you freewrite, you write without stopping. You don’t
stop to correct your grammar or spelling; you let your ideas flow onto your page.
Freewriting is a wonderful way to let ideas pour onto paper without getting stuck
by worrying about correctness or “good writing”. Sometimes freewriting produces
nonsense, but often it provides interesting ideas for further thinking and writing.
Note: Don’t worry about whether the idea or word is good or not. You will decide
this later.
Exercise 1. Freewrite for five or ten minutes about ways that a student can be
successful. Think about the ways that a student can organize time, study, do
homework, prepare for tests and so on. Use your own experience to develop your
ideas. When you finish:
- read what you have written;

- underline any words or lines you like – anything that strikes you as
powerful, funny or important. If nothing strikes you, that’s okay;
- cross out the ideas that don’t fit your writing topic.
Example:
I have a hard time studying, but I think a good student needs find time to
study. Sometimes my boss calls me and asks me to work until midnight. Then
I have to go to school the next morning. I usually arrive early before class.
That gives me time to study. I can’t study at home. I can’t concentrate.
There’s always some housework to do. So I have to go to school. I study at a
desk in the study lounge, the library, or a quite hallway. I try to study every
morning. I should study about an hour or two every day for each class. It’s
also important to go to class. I try to go to class every day…
Exercise 2. Try more freewritings at home, each one ten minutes long. Later, read
your freewritings, underline any striking lines or ideas and cross out all
unnecessary information.
2. BRAINSTORMING or listing means discussing a topic with a group of

people or thinking by yourself to get as many ideas as possible onto your paper.
When you brainstorm your ideas, just write down everything that comes to mind
about a topic – words and phrases, ideas, details, examples, little stories.
Afterwards, read over your list, underlining any ideas you might want to develop.
Note: This technique, brainstorming to make an Idea Bank, is like putting money
that you don’t need now in a bank so that you can use it later when you need it.
Once you have brainstormed, think about the criteria for making the choice. A
good way to brainstorm ideas about a choice is to make a list of “pros” (reasons in
favor of something) and “cons” (reasons against something).
Example: Here’s a student’s brainstorming list (Idea Bank) on the topic Tennis:
Pros Cons
Easy to learn Must have a partner
Good exercise Must find a tennis court
Doesn’t take much time Expensive
Exercise 3. 1. Choose one of the following topics that interests you, and write it at
the top of the paper. Then brainstorm! Write anything that comes into your head
about the topic.
Make your Idea Bank!
1. Having several careers
2. Capital punishment
3. Launching a new business
5. Computers in our life
2. After you fill a page with your list, read it over, underlining the most interesting
ideas. Draw arrows to connect related ideas.
Group work
Exercise 4. 1. Choose one of the topics from the exercise 1 and brainstorm topic
ideas with a group of your classmates.
2. Now make your own lists of pros and cons that you should consider in making
your choice.
3. Compare your ideas with your classmates’ ones. Discuss your choices.
3. CLUSTERING or mapping is a graphic organizer in which you write ideas

about a topic in circles or boxes. To begin clustering, write one idea or topic –
usually one word – in the center of your paper. Then let your mind make
associations, and write these ideas down, branching out from the center, like this:
Exercise 5. Read over the clustering map. If you were giving advice to the writer,
which cluster do you think would make the most interesting paper?
Delivery
options
Save time
and Return
money policy
Selling
online
Using the Good

Internet website
Good
images and
informatio
n
Exercise 6. From the lists of topics choose one that interests you. Make a cluster
map about it. In the center circle, write the topic. Write supporting ideas in the
surrounding circles.
1. Foreign languages
2. Sports
3. The city/village where I live
4. Economy of Ukraine
5. E-commerce
Group work
Exercise 7. Find a group of your classmates who chose the same topic. Share
your cluster maps. Write down ideas on your own map that seem useful for your
topic, as in the example below. If necessary, cross out ideas on your map that are
not useful.
Exercise 8. Share your cluster map with your entire class. Present and explain
your cluster topics.
4. MAKING A CHART is another effective technique to generate ideas.

Exercise 9. 1. Make a chart of situations in which you use the following English
skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The chart below is an example:
LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING

News on radio In English class Journals E-mail to a friend
TV programs With native Instructions Resume

speakers
2. Put an E next to the situations in which using English is easy. Put D next to the
situations in which using English is difficult.
3. Think about two situations (one easy and one difficult) in which you use an
English skill, for example, writing. Make a chart of similarities and differences
between the two situations, like this:
Example:
WRITING DIFFERENCES SIMILARITIES

1. E-mail to a friend (easy) Don’t worry about Use new vocabulary
spelling, grammar
Type on the computer
Informal style
Spelling and grammar

2. Resume (difficult) must be correct
Formal and polite style
Exercise 10. Choose a different English skill. Think about two situations (one easy
and one difficult) in which you use that skill. Make another chart, like you have
before, comparing the similarities and differences between the two situations.
5. ARRANGING IDEAS INTO A PLAN OR OUTLOOK

Choose an order in which to arrange your ideas. You may arrange them by -
- time order (chronologically), by major points, logically (starting from the most
important) or just grouping together ideas that have something in common, that are
related or unlike in some way. Then decide which ideas should come first, which
second, and so on. You may also do it by numbering the ideas on the list.
Here is an example of Selling Online topic (Unit 2, Clustering) arranged
logically:
1. Saves consumers time and money (to understand what the consumer’s wants is a
key to selling online, that’s why this idea goes first).
2. Good website is needed (bright images and clear information are necessary to
attract people’s attention).
3. Provides delivery options (being clear about what the delivery options are).
Another way to organize a paragraph is to explain the major points that

support the idea. State all the points in the topic sentence. Then develop each point
into a sentence.
Example:
Topic sentence:
Being a successful student takes motivation, organization, and discipline.
Topic sentence + controlling idea
Major points:
a. First, you must be motivated to learn and do well in your studies.
b. Secondly, you have to organize your time.
c. Finally, you must be disciplined to work hard.
These sentences show the outlook of ideas for a paragraph.
Exercise 11. For each topic sentence write two supporting points to logically
develop the main idea:
Example: Students should develop the following habits that will help them
succeed at university.
a). First, students should set priorities.
b). Second, they should schedule their time carefully.

c). Finally, they should attend all lectures.
1. There are two main reasons that I want a university degree.

2. Passing a test is easy if students use these strategies.
3. Before choosing a university, student should consider two major factors.
4. Studying in a group has two important benefits.
Exercise 12. Now look back at your brainstorming notes and organize them.
1. Which techniques are used to generate ideas?
2. What is freewriting?
3. What is brainstorming?
4. What is clustering?
5. How to make a chart?
6. Which technique do you prefer? Why?
7. How to arrange ideas into a plan or outlook?

UNIT 3 DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS
1. DEFINING THE PARAGRAPH AND THE TOPIC SENTENCE
Most writing in English is organized into paragraphs. A paragraph is a small

unit of writing that contains information about one idea and may be short or long
(usually from four to twelve sentences) according to the simplicity or complexity
of the subject.
A good paragraph follows this pattern:
TOPIC SENTENCE
SUPPORTING SENTENCES
CONCLUDING SENTENCE
 Topic sentence or controlling idea introduces the topic and gives

your opinion or idea about it. The topic sentence is often the first
sentence of the paragraph.
 Supporting sentences develop the topic and contain facts, details, or
examples.
 Concluding sentence repeats key words from the topic sentence.
Example 1. Read the following paragraph and discuss the questions with the
class.
Global advertisers must also consider differences in laws and customs. For
instance, certain countries will not allow TV advertisements on Sunday, and others
will not allow TV advertisements for children’s products on any day of the week.
In some parts of the world, it is forbidden to show dogs on television or certain
types of clothing, such as jeans. The global advertiser who do not understand such
laws and customs will have problems.
1. Where is the main idea? Circle it.
2. Where are the examples? Underline them.
3. How many examples are there?
4. What is the concluding sentence?
Topic sentence: Global advertisers must also consider differences in laws and
customs.
Example 2: Certain countries will not allow TV advertisements on Sunday.
Example 3: Other countries never allow TV advertisements for children’s

products.
Example 4: In some parts of the world, dogs and jeans cannot be shown on
television.
Concluding sentence: The global advertiser who do not understand such laws and
customs will have problems.
Exercise 1. 1. Identify each sentence below as follows:
TS = Topic Sentence CS = Concluding Sentence
D1 = Detail 1 D2 = Detail 2
D3 = Detail 3
------- 1. The advertisements give the same message in different languages: “Time
with family is priceless”.
------- 2. It is trying to appeal to a new market: the everyday person who values
family.
------- 3. MasterCard knows that family values have an international appeal

because it has done market research and proved it.
------- 4. MasterCard is changing its advertising campaign for the global market.
------- 5. As a result, this campaign is working successfully around the world.
2. Now write the paragraph by putting the sentences in the correct order.
Exercise 2. Read the following sentences. Decide if each is an effective topic

sentence for a paragraph. For each effective topic sentence underline the topic
and circle the controlling idea. Rewrite the ineffective sentences to make them
good topic sentences, adding or changing words as necessary.
Example 5:
Effective topic sentence:
to prepare for a career
Many students attend university +
topic controlling idea
Ineffective topic sentence:

Many students attend university. (A simple fact, no controlling idea)
Example 6:
Ineffective topic sentence:
Two-year colleges give associate’s degrees. (No controlling idea)
Effective topic sentence:
Two-year colleges have several advantages
topic controlling idea

1. My life is very busy because of family, work, and school obligations.
2. Being a responsible student requires time, effort, and confidence.
3. Grants, loans, and scholarships are the three best ways to cut the cost of a
university education.
4. Computer networking is a degree program at my university.
5. My friend is majoring in accounting.
6. Students have greater chances to succeed if they form study groups and use
teachers and computers as resources.
7. The college computer lab has many computers with Internet access.
8. There are several advantages to having a job and taking classes at the same time.
Exercise 3. Each group of sentences below can be arranged and written as a

paragraph. Circle the letter of the sentence that would be the best topic sentence.
Example 7:
a. Speed-walking three times a week is part of my routine.
b. Staying healthy and fit is important for me.

b
.
c. Every night, I get at least seven hours of sleep.
d. I eat as many fresh fruits and vegetables as possible.
(Sentence b is more general than the other sentences; it would be the best topic
sentence.)
1. a. My father looks handsome in his old-fashioned top hat and tails.

b. My mother is seating before him wearing a lacy gown.
c. I will always treasure this wedding picture of my parents.
d. In the background is the old arched gate of my grandparents’ garden.
2. a. In 1988, three students at a Philadelphia high school for the arts were singing
in the men’s room.
b. Singing dates in Philadelphia clubs led to their first recording contracts.
c. A fourth student came by, added a bass note, and was asked to join the group,
then called Unique Attraction.
d. The group Boyz II Men rose quickly from lunch-hour vocalizing to international
fame.
e. Their first album, Coolie High Harmony, earned platinum.
f. Today the Boyz’ silky mix of doo-wop and gospel is loved all over the world.
3. a. Physical courage allows soldiers and athletes to endure bodily pain or danger.
b. Those with social courage dare to expose their deep feelings in order to build
close relationships.
c. Those rare people who stand up for their beliefs despite public pressure possess
moral courage.
d. Inventors and artists show creative courage when they break out of old ways of
seeing and doing things.
e. Psychologist Rollo May believed that four different types of courage exist.
4. a. Many old toys and household objects are now collectors’ items.
b. A Barbie or Madame Alexander doll from the 1950s can bring more than
$1,000.
c. Old baseball cards are worth money to collectors.
d. Fiesta china, made in the 1930s, has become popular again.
5. a. Horses are available for day trip.

b. There are many scenic hiking trails.
c. The Sierra Nevada mountains are a challenge to rock climbers.
d. Yosemite National Park offers a variety of activities to the visitors.
e. Those who like to fish can cast for trout in Yosemite’s lakes and rivers.
Exercise 4. The paragraph in the exercise does not have a concluding sentence.
Read the following concluding sentences and choose the best one. Make sure the
sentence restates the main idea.
a. Newspaper ads are the most effective way to advertise an Internet service like
abuzz.com.
b. The ad for abuzz.com makes me want to visit the Website to find out more about
it.
c. The new Internet service abuzz.com is very useful.
The newspaper ad for abuzz.com, a new Internet service, is very effective. It is a

big ad with interesting photographs. The ad fills two full pages in the newspaper.
Because of its size, the ad catches your attention. It is impossible to miss it when
you look through the paper. The photograph takes up the left page. It shows the
group of teenage boys standing together. The boys are wearing the latest teen
fashions and carrying skateboards. One of the boys is looking directly at the
viewer. The other two boys are looking at the first boy with respect, as if he were
the leader of the group. On the opposite page, in big letters, you read the caption
“Jared Knows”. The caption is rather mysterious. It makes you want to read the ad
to find out what Jared knows.
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….
Exercise 5. Read the paragraph about a radio advertisement for Benton’s

furniture, a furniture store. Write a topic sentence and a concluding sentence that
give the writer’s opinion about the ad. In the topic sentence, include the name of
the product, the type of ad (for example, newspaper), and the writer’s opinion of
the ad. In the concluding sentence, restate the writer’s opinion.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
The ad is very annoying for three reasons. First, it is too loud. When the ad comes
on the radio, I have to turn the volume down because it hurts my ears. In addition,
the announcer talks extremely fast. I can hardly understand what he says. I can
understand a few words, but I really have no idea what the ad is about. Finally, the
ad plays on the radio all the time. It seems as if I hear it about every ten minutes. I
am so tired of hearing the ad that I started listening to a different radio station. I
also decided that I will never stop at Benton’s Furniture because they have such
annoying ads. In conclusion, ………………………………………………………..
Exercise 6. Read the paragraph. Underline the topic sentence. Five sentences do
not support the main idea in the topic sentence. Cross out those sentences.
I recently saw very effective advertisement for Pepsi-Cola on television. First, the
ad is surprising. You see an elderly women with gray hair. She looks like
someone’s grandmother. In fact, mi friend’s grandmother looks just like the
women in the ad. But the women is running down the street as if she were
exercising. Then she jumps over a fence. She flips into the air and swings from a
fire escape. It is amazing to see an elderly person doing these things. Second, the
ad is mysterious. During most of the ad, you don’t know what the product is being
advertised. Mysterious ads are not common on TV. The first time I saw the ad, I
couldn’t understand what product is advertised. However, at the very end of the ad,
the women stops running and takes a drink of Pepsi. Then you understand the
message of the ad. Finally, the ad is not respectful for elderly people. Older people
can’t move very well, so we think it is funny to watch the elderly person flip in the
air. It is disrespectful. In conclusion, the add is effective because you keep
watching it until the end and you remember it afterwards.
Exercise 7. The sentences in the following paragraphs have been purposely placed
in the wrong order. Rearrange the sentences and do the following tasks:
1. Find the controlling idea for this paragraph.
2. Find the tree supporting points.
3. Find the details for each supporting points.
4. Put letters A-P next to the sentences to show how to reorder them into a unified,
coherent paragraph.
____ 1. For many gardeners, this activity also serves a very practical purpose.
____ 2. Since gardening is usually an outdoor activity, people can enjoy this
hobby because it gives them exercise, fresh air, and sunshine.
____ 3. Most importantly, gardening is an activity that provides a highly
variable and creative challenge.
____ 4. Even in a small apartment, fresh herbs and salad greens can be grown
all year in a window box or under a special light.
____ 5. From the first bright flowers and new leaf buds of spring to the last
brilliant red and golds of the falling autumn leaves, the beauty of the garden
evolves.
_____ 6. Obviously, people who enjoy gardening take great pleasure in the work
involved in surrounding themselves with beautiful plants and flowers.
____ 7. At the same time it beautifies their home.
____ 8.Gardening is a wonderful leisure activity.
____ 9. Window boxes and special lights take up very little space.
____ 10. In addition, growing your own food is more satisfying.
____ 11. It allows them to produce their own fruits and vegetables.
____ 12. Although indoor gardening doesn't provide the fresh air and exercise of
a large outdoor garden, indoor gardeners can still enjoy the beauty that plants
and flowers add to their lives.
____ 13. A large outdoor garden provides a never-ending sequence of change.
____ 14. As they develop, they take their place in the ever-evolving landscape.
____ 15. These are much fresher than those bought in the grocery store.
____ 16. In addition, over the years, a gardener takes pleasure in being part of the
changing garden as young trees and shrubs mature.
Exercise 8. Rearrange the sentences so that each paragraph moves smoothly and
logically from one sentence to the next.
1. (a). Nearly one third of Internet users from Ukraine use online stores or auction
portals as a place for purchasing various goods. (b). As the popularity of different
e-services continues to grow, it seems natural that more and more Internet users
decide to do the shopping online. (c). Taking into account the attitudes towards e-
commerce, this number will, most likely, increase in the nearest future.
2. (a). The State Tax Administration of Ukraine has proposed that certain
amendments be made to the Draft Tax Code, which is being considered by the
Parliament of Ukraine. (b). Existing Ukrainian legislation does not provide any
special rules for the taxation of goods and services purchased over the Internet. (c).
However, it is difficult to predict what kind of tax regime with respect to electronic
transactions might be introduced in Ukraine with the adoption of a new Tax Code.
(d). The Tax Administration maintains that a chapter dealing with electronic
transactions, including the sale of goods and provision of services over the
Internet, should be added to the code.
3. (a). As those products are generally rather expensive, it is essential for e-

shoppers that they can buy cheaper via the Internet. (b). 35% of Internet users
admitted that it takes less time than buying in traditional shops. (c). The most
popular products bought in online shops are phones and accessories (49%) and
among other things brown and white goods (27%) and computer hardware (26%).
(d). All in all, the on-line shopping is associated with saving money and time.
Exercise 9. Read this paragraph and complete the following tasks.

Students at some American colleges are learning a lot from trash by studying
"garbology." (2) Wearing rubber gloves, they might sift through the local
dump, counting and collecting treasures that they examine back at the
laboratory. (3) First, they learn to look closely and to interpret what they see,
thus reading the stories that trash tells. (4) More important, they learn the truth
about what Americans buy, what they eat, and how they live. (5) Students at
the University of Arizona, for instance, were surprised to find that low-income
families in certain areas buy more educational toys for their children than
nearby middle-income families. (6) Most important, students say that
garbology courses can motivate them to be better citizens of planet Earth. (7)
One young woman, for example, after seeing from hard evidence in her town's
landfill how many people really recycled their glass, cans, and newspapers and
how many cheated, organized an annual recycling awareness day.
1. Write the number of the topic sentence in the paragraph.

2. What kind of order does this writer use?
3. Students learn three things in garbology courses. (a) Write the numbers of
the sentences stating these. (b) Which two ideas are supported by examples?
2. DEVELOPING SENTENCE VARIETY
No two sentences start with the same word!
Exercise 10. Create a successful and interesting five-sentence paragraph with

varied sentence beginnings.
List three material things you wish for, three happenings that would make you
happy, and three places you would like to visit.
Example:
THINGS HAPPENINGS PLACES
Ferrari Peace on Earth Australia
Diamonds Energy consciousness Jamaica
Lottery More recycling Italy
Circle one favorite item from each list. The following five sentence patterns
are used.
1.) This is the opening or topic sentence.

Example: Three things that would make me happy are a Ferrari, an energy
conscious society, and a trip to Australia.
a). If I had three wishes they would include.......
b). _______, _________, and ________ are three things that would make
me happy.
c). Three sure ways to make me happy would be....
2.) The second sentence begins with an -ing word and used the thing wished
for.
Example: Racing down the freeway in my Ferrari, I would be the envy of

everyone I met.
Owning a red Ferrari would probably net me many speeding tickets.
Driving my zippy Ferrari would be sheer pleasure.
3.) The third sentence begins with "To" plus an action word and uses the
happening wished for.
Examples:
To live in an energy conscious society would make our lives healthier.
To know that everyone was energy conscious would make me feel satisfied.
To be aware of energy conservation should be of importance to all.

4.) The fourth sentence begins with a prepositional phrase and uses the
place desired to visit.
Examples:
During a visit to Australia, I would certainly see kangaroos.
For visiting Australia, I would need a new camera.
From a visit to Australia, I would learn about many different animals and plants.
5.) The last sentence is a concluding sentence beginning with a word such
as finally, certainly, surely, etc.
Examples:
Certainly my wishes are attainable.
Surely I deserve all I wish for.
Hopefully my wishes will come true before I'm 50.
Rewrite you sentences in paragraph form.
Remember: Do not begin the topic sentence with This paragraph will be
about… or I am going to write about… These extra words contribute nothing.
Instead, make your point directly. Make every word in the topic sentence count.
Exercise 11. Study the following examples.
Using simple and compound sentences makes writing more interesting to read.
There are several types of simple sentences:
1. Simple sentences with one subject (S) and one verb (V):
S V
I support capital punishment.
2. Simple sentences with a compound verb (two verbs joined with and, but, or or):
S V V
I oppose capital punishment but support life sentences.
3. Simple sentences with a compound subject (two nouns or noun phrases joined
with and, but, or or):
S S V
Murderers and other violent criminals should get the death penalty.
4. Compound sentences are formed by joining two simple sentences with and, but,
so, or or:
S V S V
I support capital punishment, but it should be used only for serious crimes.
Exercise 12. Read the following paragraph. Underline the subjects (S) and the
verbs (V). Identify each sentence as a simple or compound sentence. Write S for
simple and C for compound at the beginning of each sentence.
1. ( _____ ) Death is not the worst punishment. 2. ( ____ ) Being in prison is

worse. 3. ( ____ ) Prison is not a fun place. 4. ( ____ ) Life is hard, and criminals
can’t do what they want. 5. ( ____ ) They have to think about their crimes and
remember all the people they hurt. 6. ( ____ ) Their family and friends cannot
come to see them very much. 7. ( ____ ) For these reasons, life in prison is an
effective punishment.
Pair work
Exercise 13. The following paragraphs contain only simple sentences. In pairs,
rewrite the sentences using a variety of simple and compound sentences.
Criminals should have psychological counseling in prison. Many criminals have

psychological problems. Many criminals have drug addictions. They will not get
better alone. They will get out of prison someday. They will commit more crimes.
Criminals need help to become better people. The prison system must help them.
Counseling is the only way to help criminals get better.
1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is a structure of English paragraph?
3. What is a topic sentence?
4. What do supporting sentences contain?
5. What is the difference between a topic sentence and a concluding sentence?
6. Which techniques are used to develop sentence variety? Which one do you
prefer? Why?
7. Which types of simple/compound sentences do you know?
UNIT 4 WRITING ESSAYS
1. ENGLISH ESSAY STRUCTURE
An essay is a group of paragraphs about one subject. In many ways, an essay
is like a paragraph in longer, fuller form. Both have an introduction, a body and a
conclusion. Both explain one main idea with details, facts, and examples.
However, an essay is not just a padded paragraph. An essay is longer
because it contains more ideas. Each paragraph in an essay has a special purpose.
The structure of English essay is very strict, usually consists of several paragraphs
(introduction, body, conclusion) that are typically presented in the following way
(Figure 1):
ESSAY STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
Paragraph 2
Paragraph 3 BODY
Paragraph 4
CONCLUSION
Figure 1. The structure of English essays.

The American applied linguist Robert Kaplan analyzed the organization of
paragraphs in foreign student essays and came to the following conclusions:
. . . people may use the thinking patterns of their first language when they
were writing in a second language. He suggested this because he noticed that
essays written in English by college students with other first languages were
often not organized like essays written by students who had English as a first
language. After analyzing hundreds of such essays, Kaplan concluded that
people from different cultures have different “thought patterns.” (Figure 2)
Based on his evidence, Kaplan described English thought patterns as
organized in a very “direct” way, represented in his diagram as a straight
line progressing in one direction. Kaplan believed thought patterns of
Semitic people who use languages such as Arabic and Hebrew are organized
in “parallel’ patterns in which grammar structures are repeated. From his
analysis of English essays by East Asian students, Kaplan claimed
“Orientals” thought very indirectly, without necessarily coming to the point,
something that is considered important in many types of English writing.
Essays in English by students from Romance languages such as French and
Spanish led Kaplan to believe that people with Romance languages think in
ways that digress more often than the thinking patterns of people who have
English as a native language. Kaplan claimed that their special thought
patterns caused writers in Russian to pay a lot of attention to unimportant
detail in their writing – something that native speakers of English are taught
to avoid. This evidence from English essays written by foreign students led
Kaplan to conclude that people from these different language groups have
different patterns of thinking (Hall and Jung, 2000).
Thus, according to Robert Kaplan’s theory, an English essay has “linear” or
direct, straight structure.
English Semitic Oriental Romance Russian
Figure 2. Diagram on cross-cultural differences in paragraph organization in

Kaplan’s study.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
is the beginning of the essay, which introduces the topic and presents the
viewpoints of the writer.
 Usually consists of one paragraph that introduces the topic, presents

the writer’s viewpoint
 Try to catch the reader’s interest, use a hook.
 Introduction contains thesis statement - one sentence that states the
main idea of whole text.
The THESIS STATEMENT communicates the main idea of an essay and tells
the reader what the author is going to show or prove. The thesis statement tells
the topic of each paragraph in the body of the essay.
Example: "Three passions, simple but overwhe1mingly strong, have governed
my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for
the suffering of mankind.”
Compare these thesis statements:
Examples:
Too General On Target

The creation of the European Higher The creation of the European Higher
Education Area by 2010 sets Education Area by 2010 sets
challenging tasks challenging tasks in terms of greater
mobility for students, more effective
international communication and better
access to information

“The Economist” is an interesting “The Economist” is an interesting
journal journal because it is focusing on
international politics and business news
and opinion

A flat tax helps tax accountants A flat tax would benefit the government,
business, and consumers
Note: It is not necessary to start writing the essay with the introduction because
this is the beginning of the text. Sometimes you may be confused about what to
write next. One way to avoid this problem is to write the body first. Then, the body
of the essay has been developed, the introduction is easier to write.
1.2 BODY
Consists of a number of paragraphs that develop the viewpoint presented in the

introduction. Each paragraph is about only one aspect of the topic. The body may
be many paragraphs long, depending on the writer’s purposes and the complexity
of the topic. Most essays usually involve two, three or four body paragraphs.
 Support the writer’s viewpoint

 Contains one, two, three or more paragraphs
 Each paragraph presents one and ONLY ONE aspect of the topic
There are various ways in which the body of the paragraph might develop the
main idea which is expressed in the key sentence. Some of these are:
1) By giving examples:
The whirlwind destroyed everything in its path. Large trees were uprooted and
hurled into the river. Shop windows were smashed. Houses toppled and fell like
children's toys. The bridge across the river was ripped up and waved in the wind
like a huge tarmac ribbon. No one had foreseen such devastation.
2) By making an analogy - an extended comparison:
The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its gigs.
Inviting outsiders to a college gig is like inviting outsiders to a family dinner.
3) By using an anecdote:
The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its parties. Last
year, a gang of students from the estate began a large brawl at the Halloween party.
Several people were hurt and there was some property damage to the gym.
4) By stating reasons/suggesting possible consequences:
The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its gigs.
Having students from other colleges at the gigs might encourage fighting among
students, especially if they are from rival colleges.
5) By quoting statistics:
The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its parties and
gigs. Popular magazines state that 45% of gigs which admit outsiders end in some
form of violent conflict.
6). By using a rhetorical question:
Is that true ….
Have you ever had an opinion that was different from everybody else’s opinion?
7). By addressing the reader directly:
If you …
8). By including a quotation - a sentence or phrase taken from a book, play etc.
When we use a quotation, it is necessary to mention the name of the person who
said /write it:
As Paul Coelho wrote, “It is the possibility of having a dream come true that
makes life interesting“.
Of course, you may use more than one technique in a paragraph.
1.3 CONCLUSION
pulls the elements of the essay together and intensifies the writer’s viewpoint.
 Brings the elements of the essay together

 Includes summary of points, restatements of thesis, final comments
 Might be a sentence or a paragraph long
2. OUTLINING
An outline is a plan for how you will write an essay. Use outlines to organize your
thesis, main ideas, and supporting details.
I. Introductory Paragraph
Thesis statement
II. Body Paragraph 1
Main idea
1. Supporting detail
III. Body Paragraph 2
Main idea
IV. Body Paragraph 3
Main idea
V. Concluding Paragraph
Conclusion
Here is an essay example:
What I Have Lived For
Introductory Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly Thesis
strong, have governed my life: the longing for Statement
Paragraph
love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable
pity for the suffering of mankind.
Body I have sought love, first, because it brings

Topic
Paragraph 1 ecstasy - ecstasy so great that I would often have
Sentence
sacrificed all the rest of life for a few hours of this
(Love)
joy. I have sought it, next, because it relieves
loneliness. I have sought it, finally, because in the
union of love, I have seen the vision of the heaven
Concluding
that saints and poets have imagined. That is what I
Sentence
have sought, and though it may seem too good for
human life, this is what at last I have found.
Body With equal passion, I have sought knowledge. I

Topic
have wished to understand the hearts of men. I
Paragraph 2 Sentence
have wished to know why the stars shine. And I
(Knowledge) have tried to understand the Pythagorean power
by which numbers hold sway above the flux. A

little of this, but not much, I have achieved. Concluding
Sentence
Body
Love and knowledge, so far as they were
Paragraph 3 possible, led upward toward the heavens. Topic
But always pity brought me back to earth. Echoes Sentence
(Pity)
of cries of pain reverberate in my heart. Children
in famine, victims tortured by oppressors, helpless
old people a hated burden to their sons, and the
whole world of loneliness, poverty, and pain make
a mockery of what human life should be. I long to
alleviate the evil, but I cannot, and I too suffer.
Concluding
Concluding
Paragraph This has been my life. I have found it worth
Sentence
living, and would gladly live it again if the chance
were offered me.
This is an outlining plan of the essay “What I Have Lived For”
I. Introductory Paragraph
Thesis statement
Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life:

the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the
suffering of mankind.
II. Body Paragraph
Main idea Love
Topic sentence I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy

1. Supporting detail it brings ecstasy
2. Supporting detail relieves loneliness
3. Supporting detail the vision of the heaven
Concluding sentence That is what I have sought, and though it may

seem too good for human life, this is what at last I have found.
III. Body Paragraph
Main idea Knowledge
Topic sentence With equal passion, I have sought knowledge
1. Supporting detail to understand the hearts of men
2. Supporting detail to know why the stars shine
3. Supporting detail to understand the Pythagorean power
Concluding sentence A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.
IV. Body Paragraph
Main idea Pity
Topic sentence But always pity brought me back to earth.
1. Supporting detail cries of pain
2. Supporting detail children in famine
3. Supporting detail helpless old people
Concluding sentence I long to alleviate the evil, but I cannot, and I

too suffer.
IV. Concluding Paragraph

Conclusion
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1. How does the first paragraph show that the three topics of the body of this essay
will be love, knowledge, and pity?
2. Why does this essay have five paragraphs?
3. How can you define the organizational structure of the essay?
3. What did you like best about the essay? What would you change?
Exercise 2. Read the following thesis statements. What should the topics of the
body paragraphs be? How many paragraphs should each essay have?
Example:
Without a doubt, his key to a happy life was having a challenging job and good
friends to enjoy his leisure time with.
Number of paragraphs in the essay: 4(introduction, 2 body paragraphs, conclusion)
Topic(s) of the body paragraph(s): job, friends
1. His father’s philosophy focused on the joys of family life, the importance of
being self-confident, and the benefits of a good education.
Number of paragraphs in the essay:
Topic(s) of the body paragraph(s):
2. Parents should teach their children to respect the elders, be honest, and work
hard.
3. Learning another language is an enjoyable and challenging experience.
Exercise 3. Choose one essay topic from exercise 6 (Unit 2) and write an
outlining plan for it.
Exercise 4. Define which of the following thesis statements are appropriate and
which of them should be improved:
1. The highest mountain in the world is Everest.
2. Mountain climbing is an exciting but dangerous sport.
3. Canada became a country approximately one century after the United States was
formed.
4. The beaver is one of the symbols of Canada.
5. Political science is an interesting field of study.
6. The United Nations should be less involved in the political affairs of individual
countries.
7. Capital punishment is an effective deterrent to serious crimes such as murder.
8. Capital punishment exists in some states in the United States.
Exercise 5. Read the four topic sentences below and match each with the
corresponding paragraph.
a). Furthermore, people who move to a foreign country may be regarded

with suspicion and treated unfairly.
b). In the other hand, living abroad can be a way to escape a variety of problems
presented in one's country of birth.
c). One argument in favour of staying in one’s native country is that the problems
of adapting to a new way of life cannot always be overcome.
d). Finally, it may be said that by living in a foreign country, people are able to
establish a greater understanding between nations.
1. The fact of the matter is that, even in cases where the language is the same, there
are other changes, such as cultural differences, which an outsider might find
difficult to adjust to. Even the weather can force some people to return to their
country of origin. For example, take an Inuit
And Amazonian Indian. They would almost certainly find it impossible to adapt to
the extreme climates of each other's native homes.
2. In countries with a large number of immigrants there are often social problems,
and immigrants stand out as being "different" and even inferior. As a consequence,
the host country may react in a variety of ways, from open hostility and racism to
depriving the immigrants of the right to equal pay.
3. For example, war, political or religious intolerance, and natural catastrophes are
among the reasons for people seeking a new home in a foreign land. In such cases,
people are often able to start a new life abroad with greater freedom and a higher
standard of living.
4. That is to say, by working and living among foreigners, some of the barriers
between countries can be broken down, helping to create a more peaceful world.
Needless to say, better diplomatic relations would be of benefit to all.
Exercise 6. Match the following beginnings and endings.
BEGINNINGS
1. You may live in a comfortable house in a clean neighbourhood with all the
amenities. You would probably not be so lucky in one of the cities where urban
growth has been allowed to get completely out of control. This problem is
virtually destroying a number of large cities, particularly in developing countries,
and a solution must be found before it is too late.
2. "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" is the biblical phrase we use to refer to
capital punishment, the killing of criminals in order to punish them for their
crimes. But whether the neat balance suggested by the phrase is reflected by the
actual practice is a moot point, and whether one human has the right to kill
another in any circumstances remains a much-debated question.
3. While most people agree that a woman has the right to work as a heavy-machine
operator and a man to become a midwife, is this supposed open-mindedness
being put into practice? There is plenty of evidence to suggest that workers are
still being judged by their gender and not by their skills, and this is a situation
which needs to be dealt with.
ENDINGS
A. On the whole, I believe that those cities suffering as a result of urban growth
could solve their problems, given financial support. Sadly, however, the chances of
this happening are slight, especially in developing countries. Should we not,
therefore, be thinking about encouraging people to return to rural areas in order to
shift the balance populations?
B. To sum up, gender should not be an issue in any workplace, since a powerfully
built female is just as capable of hard manual labour as a kind and gentle male is of
childcare. The only obstacles are those which exist in our own minds; as the
American therapist Dr F.S. Perls once said, “We have to lose our minds to come to
our sense.”
C. All in all, it is easy to understand the reasons behind the continued existence of
capital punishment in a number of countries. In spite of this, however, I cannot
personally condone it, since to my mind the act itself is simply legalized murder,
the ultimate crime.
Exercise 7. Read the essay and answer the questions.
Public Transportation or Private Car

Many people own private cars for their transportation, convenience, or as a
status symbol. However, in our daily lives, it's much better to take public
transportation because it's cheaper, more convenient, and safer.
Taking public transportation is much cheaper than owning a private car. The
fare for public transportation, which is officially approved, is reasonable.
Therefore, the passengers don't have to worry about unexpected expenses. Instead,
the fare includes the passengers' rights to ask for compensation for any damage or
loss which is caused by the company. On the other hand, owning a private car is
very costly. At first, the owner has to buy a car which is one of the consumer
durables, and has to pay for insurance, fuel, parking, and so on. Moreover,
maintaining a car costs a lot unless the owner spends time and energy to do them,
such maintenance, washing, cleaning, and so on.
Taking public transportation is also more convenient because it's simple. A
passenger can get on and off at anytime and any place at the stops. By the way,
it's obvious that the passenger doesn't need to drive it. Instead, the passengers can
do anything they wish as long as a passenger is not bothering anybody. It
doesn't even matter if one is drunk. On the other hand, owning a private car
and driving it oneself can be a lot of trouble, because the driver has to drive
it, look for parking, take care of the car, and so on. Moreover, it involves
strict and complex traffic laws. Unfortunately, a driver who is involved in a
traffic accident can face big trouble with unexpected responsibility which
could last the driver's whole life.
Taking public transportation is much cheaper and more convenient.
Furthermore, it's much safer than a private car. First of all, commercial drivers
must satisfy strict commercial driving tests, and they have a lot of safety
information and experience. In addition, they are very serious about safety,
because once a commercial driver has a traffic accident, one might lose the job.
Moreover, commercial vehicles are usually much larger and well designed for
safety. Furthermore, they are controlled by strict rules for their maintenance to
keep safe. On the other hand many private car drivers have less driving experience
and have passed less strict driving tests than commercial drivers. Furthermore, the
vehicles are much smaller, and some old cars don't even have seat belts. In
addition, the cars are taken care of by the owners mostly, so they might be unsafe.
Therefore, it's obvious that taking public transportation is much cheaper, more
convenient, and safer. Taking public transportation really saves money, time, and
energy.
1. How many parts does the essay consist of?
2. What is its purpose?
3. Can you define introduction, body, conclusion?
4. Is introduction catchy? Which technique is used to grab the audience’s

attention?
5. What is the thesis statement?
6. How many paragraphs does the body contain? Underline the topic sentence of
each body paragraph of the essay.
7. Does the conclusion restate the topic or express the writer’s opinion?
8. Complete an outline plan for the essay.
Exercise 8. Compare the following essays and answer the questions:
1. Which essay is a good example of the formal English essay?
2. Which essay should be improved?
3. How can you define the organizational structure of the essays?
Essay 1
On a more practical level, the computer features may be very useful for
those who do literary research or some other productive work.
Computers can replace “old-fashioned” printed books. In the past decade,
hundreds of reference books have appeared in electronic form. A computer brings
a great many benefits not offered by ordinary reference books; the option of
enlarging the type to reduce eyestrain or the ability to copy passages onto a
“notebook” page and so on. But when it comes to literature, the electronic-
publishing movement has run into resistance from both readers and publishers. It is
hard to imagine sitting down to read Dostoyevsky or Dickens on a computer.
Nothing can compare to the glossy sheen, smooth feel, and smell of a new
book. The physical qualities of a book pull you into its pages.
Essay 2
It goes without saying that cigarette smoke is harmful to one’s health. Many
smokers are aware of this fact and yet continue smoking. That is their own
problem. It is not fair, however, that non-smokers should be forced to breath
second-hand smoke. In fact, there are several strong arguments to support the
position that smoking should be banned in all public places.
Smokers might claim that on the one hand, they have a right to smoke if they
so wish, and nobody has right to stop them. The argument does not hold water. The
right to freedom of action is forfeited is the activity brings harm to others.
The ban on smoking in public places might also be supported by the fact that
the inconvenience it causes smokers is very small. Those who feel the argue to
light up can always step outside for a few minutes or smoke in a special area
designated for smoking.
In the end, restricting the place where smoking is permitted is only have
positive results. The air in public places will always be clean fresh. When smokers
find that they are forbidden to smoke in many places, they might begin smoking
less and less and may even be encouraged to quit for good. Perhaps one day, the
entire world will even be smoke free.
3. USEFUL WORDS AND PHRASES FOR AN ESSAY

(LINKING WORDS)
Using the right linking words helps you to organize what you have to say
about a text. It also helps you introduce and develop the essential ideas that will
form the basis of your essay in a tightly connected structure and as short a space as
possible. Linking words and other connecting devices help you carry over from
one sentence to another, from one paragraph to another, in a way that allows the
reader to better understand your ideas. Since your reader does not see the world
exactly as you see it and does not necessarily make the same mental connections
you make, linking words also help you to articulate your ideas and communicate
them to other people in a way that supports a clear and persuasive argument.
Linking words and phrases can be divided into the following categories:
1. To organize points chronologically (to introduce a series of reasons, ideas,
remarks etc.):
First(ly)/first of all; second(ly); third(ly); lastly/last of all/finally.
In the first/second/third place; to start/to begin with.
2. To indicate the addition of a new point or introduce a related topic:
In addition; what is more; furthermore (formal); moreover (formal); another thing
is that…; above all; as well as; alongside; besides/apart from;
similarly/equally/likewise; a word must be said about…; it is important to know….
3. To compare things, make them clear or explain a given point in greater detail:
In other words; that is (Latin – i.e.); indeed; particularly/especially; the main point
here is that…; on a (more) personal/practical level; for example/for instance (Latin
– e.g.).r
4. To contrast things:
Although; and yet; but; despite; different from; however; in contrast with; in spite
of; nevertheless; on the contrary; on the one hand/on the other hand; though;
unlike; whereas; while.
5. To indicate a logical conclusion:
Therefore/consequently; thus/so; as a result; it appears that…; evidently/it is
evident that…; clearly/undoubtedly/unquestionably/beyond any doubt.
Exercise 9. Match linking words with the type of information they introduce.
Linking Words Type of Information
1. For example a) another idea

2. In addition b) the same idea stated differently
3. As a result c) negative idea
4. Unfortunately d) example
5. In other words e) contrasting idea
6. However f)conclusion
Exercise 10. Fill in the gaps using words/phrases from the list. Some
words/phrases can be used more than once.
Up to a point, especially, indeed, this means, needless to say, in general, in
fact, the fact that, obviously, example.
1. ……….. , people have mixed feelings about the effects tourism has on a
country.
2. Most people believe that computers always make life easier, but ……….. , the
opposite is sometimes true since they often cause problems when they break
down .
3. ................. testing products on animals is cruel, but it is difficult to find a
suitable alternative.
4. A typical ................. of the benefits of country life is the fact that there is very
little pollution from traffic.
5. ................... more and more zoos are closing down shows that fewer people
agree with keeping animals in captivity and, therefore, do not want to visit them
any longer.
6. Using public transport can be a nuisance, ……….. when buses and trains are
late during rush hour periods.
7. Advances in medical science mean that cures have been found for many
diseases. ………. people live longer nowadays.
8. .................... , most people agree that more effort should be made where the
recycling of materials is concerned.
9. More and more women are going back to work after the birth of children and
……….. they have to find someone to look after the children during the day.
Exercise 11. Join the sentences using the linking words in the list below.
Due to, in addition to, on the grounds that, therefore, with the intention of
1. The government has launched a campaign to promote new businesses in rural

areas. They hope to draw people away from the large urban centres.
2. Television is a highly entertaining medium. It can also be an excellent
educational tool.
3. Freedom of expression is one of man' basic, inalienable rights. People should be
allowed to publish books containing all their beliefs and ideas.
4. Consumerism is becoming more and more a part of modern societies. This is
because of advertising and the mass media.
5. Many people object to smoking. This is because passive smoking can be
extremely harmful to one’s health.
Exercise 12. Fill in the gaps with appropriate linking words. Remember that the
topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph
and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph.
How pottery is made
After Leave The whole process The next stage Finally Start Next
................ by preparing the clay to remove any air bubbles. Clay needs preparing
before you use it to make sure its texture is even and that it is free from air
bubbles. Air trapped in clay expands when heated in the kiln, causing it to explode.
................ make the thing you want. There are four basic methods to use. Firstly,
pinch pots, made by squeezing clay with your fingers. Secondly, slab pots, made
by joining flat sheets of clay, thirdly coil pots, made with sausages of clay and
finally, pots made on the wheel ( thrown pots).
................ the clay to dry for about a day until it becomes ”leather hard”, like
firm cheese. At this stage, you can finis fine details or decorate the clay.
………….. a week or so, when the clay is complete dry, you bake, or fire, the
pot to about 80C to make it hard. This is called “biscuit firing”. It also makes
the clay porous for the next stage.
………… is to cover the pot with a special kind of powdered glass called
glaze. The powder is mixed with water, and applied to the pot by dipping,
pouring, brushing or spraying .
............... the pot is fired again: to a higher temperature this time (between
l000C and 1400C depending on the clay). This is called glaze or “ghost” firing.
It makes the glaze melt and gives the pot an even, glass-like coating.
…………. from start to finish, takes about two weeks.
Exercise 13. Using a variety of linking words and the following sentences, write
a coherent paragraph. Do not change the order of the sentences.
1. Operating a small manufacturing business can be successful.
2. Often a small business is operated by a family.
3. Expenses can be reduced.
4. Less money is paid out in salaries.
5. Money can be saved.
6. Money saved can be reinvested in the business.
7. The business can expand.
8. Family members usually care more about the business than other employees
do.
9. They may work harder.
10. If the company uses high-quality materials, the quality of the product will be
good.
11. The company will develop a good reputation.
12. A good reputation will make the company’s products more attractive.
13. A company should produce on time.
14. The product should be delivered quickly, efficiently, and in good condition.
15. A small business can enjoy rapid success.
Exercise 14. Choose a newspaper or magazine article, underline all linking words
there and analyze them. Would you suggest any improvements?
1. What is an essay?
2. How many parts does an essay usually consist of?
3. How many ideas might an essay contain?
4. How long is an essay?
5. What is its purpose?
3. What is a purpose of introduction?
4. What is the role of thesis statement?
5. Is it necessary to start writing essay with introduction? Why?
6. What do body paragraphs involve?
7. Which techniques are used in body paragraphs to get reader’s attention?
8. How long is a concluding sentence of an essay?
9. What is a purpose of outlining?
10. Why do we use linking words in essays?
8. Are English essays different from Ukrainian ones? In which way?
UNIT 5 TYPES OF ESSAY
There are many different types of English essays. The most common are
comparison/contrast (for and against) essays, opinion essays and essays suggesting
solutions to problems.
Look at the essay plans below and say what features the plans have in common and
how each plan differs from the others.
Comparison/Contrast Opinion Essays Problem-Solution

Essays Essays
Introduction Introduction Introduction
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 1 Paragraph 1

State topic (without State the topic and your State the problem and its
stating your opinion) opinion cause(s)/effect(s)
Main Body Main Body Main Body
Paragraphs 2-3 Paragraphs 2-4 Paragraphs 2-5

Arguments for and Viewpoints and examples Suggestions and results
examples or reasons or reasons
Paragraphs 4-5 Paragraphs 5

Arguments against and Opposing viewpoints and
examples or reasons examples or reasons
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion
Final Paragraph Final Paragraph Final Paragraph

Balanced consideration or Summarize/restate your Summarize opinion
opinion opinion
1. THE COMPARISON/CONTRAST ESSAY
A comparison or contrast essay is an essay in which you either compare

something or contrast something. A comparison essay is an essay in which you
emphasize the similarities, and a contrast essay is an essay in which you emphasize
the differences. We use comparison and contrast thinking when deciding which
university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or an
airplane to a vacation site. Writing a comparison/contrast paper involves
comparing and contrasting two subjects. A comparison shows how two things are
alike. A contrast shows how two things are different.
When you choose a topic, be sure not to choose two totally unrelated
subjects. You must start with subjects that have some basic similarities. For
instance, you could choose to compare/contrast two movies, two authors, two
modes of transportation, or two sports figures, but you would not want to try to
compare train travel and Babe Ruth!
The first thing you want to do is brainstorm everything you know about each
subject and then go back and look for connections that show similarities and
differences (Berven, 1997).
While comparing and contrasting two ideas, most writers structure their
essays one of four ways:
1. First compare, then contrast (or vice versa).
2. First do one idea, then do the other.
3. Write only about the comparable and contrastable elements of each idea.
4. Only compare or only contrast.
The examples will be provided for the first two ways:
1. First compare, then contrast (or vice versa)
Writers using a comparison/contrast structure might begin by discussing the ways
in which things are similar, then they move to a description of the ways in which
the two ideas are different. This method is probably the one used most commonly.
I. Introduction
II. Ideas are similar.

III. Ideas are different.
IV. Conclusion
Clearly, the sequence is important. If you begin with the comparison, then the
contrast will get emphasis - the logical movement is from thinking about
similarities to thinking about differences. If you begin by contrasting the ideas (and
then move toward a comparison), the similarities get emphasis. Below are two
paragraphs (the same paragraph written twice with slightly different comparison
patterns development) about car ownership. The first is organized by listing the
pros first and the cons second. The second paragraph presents the pros and cons
side by side in succession. Both work.
Example 1. To be able to drive is undoubtedly a useful accomplishment, and the

ownership of a car is for many a fact of life that reaches beyond convenience to
sheer necessity. Furthermore, the owner has the privilege of travelling in door-to-
door comfort, the freedom of deciding when he will travel, the value of time saved,
and (if he cares for such things) the pride and joy of property. On the other hand,
all possessions are a burden, and a car may rank among the heaviest. It is
expensive to maintain; it makes the owner a prey to vandals, thieves, and friends
who need rides. Finally, cars expose their owners to the risk of accident.
2. First do one idea, then do the other

Writers might compare and contrast ideas by treating one idea thoroughly before
taking up the second one.
Introduction
Similarities (or differences)
Differences (or similarities)

Conclusion
A structure like this one seems more focused on the ideas being compared and
contrasted than on the comparison and contrast itself. The similarities and
differences between the ideas do not begin to emerge until the writer gets to the
second idea.
Example 2. To be able to drive is undoubtedly a useful accomplishment, and the

ownership of a car is for many a fact of life that reaches beyond convenience to
sheer necessity. On the other hand, all possessions are a burden, and a car may
rank among the heaviest. It is expensive to maintain; it makes the owner a prey to
vandals, thieves, and friends who need rides. Cars expose their owners to the risk
of accident. Against these considerations, the owner has to weigh the privilege of
travelling in door-to-door comfort, the freedom of deciding when he will travel, the
value of time saved, and (if he cares for such things) the pride and joy of property
(Cogdill, 1997).
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.
1. What is a comparison/contrast essay?
2. What should you consider while choosing a topic for comparison/contrast

essays?
3. Which four ways are used for comparing and contrasting two ideas?
4. What are the differences between the first and the second ways?
5. Which way do you prefer? Why?
THE STRUCTURE OF COMPARISON ESSAY
INTRODUCTION
Paragraph 1
present topic (without stating your opinion)
MAIN BODY
Paragraph 2
arguments for, with examples
Paragraph 3
arguments against, with examples
CONCLUSION
Final paragraph
your opinion/balanced summary
LINKING WORDS/PHRASES FOR COMPARISON ESSAY

 To introduce points/arguments for or against:
One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of …/ against …
It could be argued that …
It is (often/ widely/ generally) claimed/ suggested/ argued/ believed that …
Some/ many/ most people/ experts/ scientists/ critics
 To list points:
First(ly)/ First of all; Second(ly); Third(ly); Last(ly)/Last of all/Finally
First and foremost
In the first/second/third place; To start/to begin with; For one thing… for another
thing
Note: firstly, secondly … is more formal than first, second…
 To list advantages:
One/Another/An additional advantage of …is …
The main/greatest/first advantage of … is …
 To list disadvantages:
One/Another/An additional disadvantage of … is …
The main/greatest/most serious disadvantage of … is …
Another negative aspect of …

 To add a new point or introduce a related topic:
In addition, what is more, moreover, another thing is that…, besides/apart from,

alongside, as well as, also, not only … but also, similarly/equally/likewise
A word must be said about …
It is important to note that …
 To make contrasting points:
While, although, though, even though, however, but, nonetheless, in contrast/by

contrast/on the contrary, despite/in spite of (the fact that), regardless of the fact that
…, on the one hand … on the other hand, contrary to popular belief
The most common argument against this is that …
Opponents of … argue/believe/claim that …
While/Although …, it cannot be denied that …
While it is true to say that …, in fact …
 To introduce examples:
For example, for instance, such as, like, especially
This is illustrated/shown by the fact that …
One/A clear/typical example of …
The fact that … shows/illustrates that …
 To show cause:
Due to (the fact that), owing to, because, as, since
 To show effect:
As a result, consequently, therefore, thus, so, for this reason, the effect/result
would be …
 To conclude/summarize opinion:
In conclusion, to conclude, to bring/jump to (a) conclusion, to come to the

conclusion
To sum up, in sum, all in all, finally/lastly, by all indications, in the end, ultimately
Taking everything into account/consideration, I therefore conclude/feel/believe

(that) …
There is no absolute answer to the question of …,
In the light of this evidence, it is clear/obvious that …
Exercise 1. Match each of the following viewpoints with the corresponding

opposing argument.
VIEWPOINTS
1. From a political point of view, space exploration enables superpowers to

demonstrate their level of technical advancement.
2. From a scientific standpoint, space exploration has been responsible for rapid
developments in materials and processes which have also been of benefit to
people on earth.
3. From an economic standpoint, the investment of time and money in space
exploration could, in future, repay humanity many times over. The discovery of
resources in outer space could be of great benefit to our planet.
4. Regarding the social implications of space exploration, there are those who
argue that the potential that other planets hold for colonization could prove to be
the salvation of the human race.
OPPOSING ARGUMENTS
A. However, it can be argued that the money would be better spent on
alleviating the problems of developing countries.
B. Nevertheless, many sociologists argue that colonies in space would create
more social problems than they would solve.
C. On the other hand, some political analysts claim that the Space Race has
led to unnecessary competition between nations and a consequent failure to
cooperate and collaborate on international issues.
D. Opponents argue that space technology is of limited use to society and
that the research could be used more profitably to try to solve some of the
more pressing problems which we face.
Exercise 2. Which of the following are arguments in favour and which are
arguments against the topic: “School plays a more important role than the family
in shaping one’s personality”. Suggest examples for each argument. Finally, write
the essay in about 350 words.
1. Moreover, so much of the school days is devoted to competition and preparation
for examinations that there is little time left for personality development.
2. On the other hand, most children have a closer relationship with their parents
than with their teacher.
3. An additional argument in support of school is that young people are exposed to
a wide variety of subjects.
4. One point in favour of the role of schools is that it is at school where children
first learn to socialize.
5. Furthermore, children usually spend five years of their lives at home before
they even go to school.
6. What is more, the average child spends as many as eight hours a day in school.
Exercise 3. a). Read the article and label the paragraphs with the correct headings.
 Arguments against
 Arguments for
 Opinion
 Present topic
Introduction
Paragraph 1 _______________________________________________________
Did you know the boat was one of the first forms of transport? A hundred
years ago, the only way to make a journey across the sea was by boat. Nowadays,
however, when it is possible to fly from one continent to another in the space of a
few hours, is there any reason to travel by boat?
Main Body
Paragraph 2 _______________________________________________________
Although the boat is a rather old-fashioned way of travelling, it has certain
advantages. To begin with, boats are usually more comfortable than planes or cars.
Instead of staying in your seat for the whole journey, you can go for a walk on the
deck, eat in a restaurant or even go shopping having more space to move around
makes a long journey much more pleasant. Furthermore, boats are often are often
cheaper than other forms of travel. For example, a boat ticket usually costs less
than a plane ticket. Finally, boats are a safe alternative to cars and planes. There
are fewer accidents at sea than in the air or on the roads.
Paragraph 3 _______________________________________________________
However, travelling by boat does have its disadvantages. It usually takes
much longer than other forms of travel. As a result, it can be more tiring. In
addition, boat trips can be very unpleasant when the weather is bad or the sea ir
rough, making journeys uncomfortable or even frightening.
Conclusion
Paragraph 4 _______________________________________________________
All things considered, although there are some disadvantages to travelling by
boat, I believe it is a very enjoyable experience. Journeys may take longer, but if
you have time to spare, you can take advantage of many facilities which boats have
to offer and enjoy a pleasant voyage.
b). Read the essay again and fill in the blanks below.
FOR
Arguments Examples
1). More comfortable than other forms 1).Go for a walk, eat in a restaurant, go
of travel shopping, have more space to move around
2)…………………………………… 2)………………………………………….
3). ………………………………….. 3). …………………………………………
AGAINST
Arguments Examples
1). …………………………………… 1). ……………………………………
2). …………………………………… 2). ……………………………………
Exercise 4. a). Underline the correct linking word/phrase.
1. Besides/Despite, television affects the way we think.
2. Many people are against/argue that we need advertisement in order to keep up

to date with the latest products on the market.
3. One point of view against/in favour of travelling is that it allows you to meet
people from different countries.
4. Even though/Nevertheless most people nowadays use a computer at work, it

will be a while before we stop putting our ideas down on paper.
5. For instance/Still, people who know how to play a musical instrument are
usually popular and make friends more easily than others.
b). Read the paragraph below and underline the correct linking word/phrase.
There are many advantages to having children at an early age. 1) To begin

with/In addition to this, when you are young, you have a lot of energy. This
means you can cope quite easily with children’s demands for constant care and
attention. 2) To conclude/Secondly, young parents can relate to their children and
3) therefore/nevertheless understand them better. 4) Yet/Finally, when you
become a parent at an early age, you are still young enough to enjoy life when your
child becomes independent.
Exercise 5. Read the extract below and choose the correct topic sentence.
1. There are many advantages to using the Internet.
2. However, there are many arguments against using the Internet.
3. Computers have become the most important means of communication.
First of all, you spend hours and hours sitting in front of a computer screen.
This can lead to severe backache and problems with your eyesight. Moreover,
using the Internet can be very expensive, because the membership fees and phone
bills are often high. Finally, using the Internet requires a lot of patience. Getting
onto the Internet is not always easy this means you sometimes have to wait a long
time to get access.
Exercise 6. Read the topic sentences and write appropriate supporting ones. Join
the sentences with appropriate linking words/phrases in order to write a complete
paragraph.
1. There are many arguments against the command type of economy.

a). Lack of incentives that encourage people to work hard
b). Requires a large decision-making bureaucracy
c).
2. Watching television has certainly got its advantages.
a). Keep up to date with current news
b).
c).
3. There is no doubt that joining Ukraine the EU has its advantages.
a).
b).
c).
4. There are certain disadvantages to owning a car.
a).
b).
c).
Exercise 7. Choose any topic you like and write your own comparison/contrast
essay.
1. Pacifism or violence: the best way to resolve the world problems.
2. The best and the worst inventions of the 20th century.
3. Should wealthy nations be required to share their wealth among poorer nations
by providing such things as food and education? Or it is the responsibility of the
governments of poorer nations to look after their citizens themselves?
4.The political system of UK and the US.
5. Dependence on computers: is it a good thing or should we be more suspicious of

their benefits?
Note: Proofreading questions for your essay:
- Are my main idea and thesis statement clear?

- Have I supported my idea in a rich and convincing way?
- Does each paragraph in the body clearly explain the main idea?
- Does my essay cohere?
- Are there any parts that don’t belong or don’t make sense?
2. OPINION ESSAY
An opinion essay is a composition that presents the writer's individual ideas
about a certain subject and then attempts to explain or defend those ideas against
those who have differing opinions. Opinion essays therefore have two purposes: to
inform the reader about the writer's opinion, and to persuade the reader of the
validity or even the superiority of that opinion. Though much of an opinion essay
will be focused on informing the reader, the real purpose of presenting an opinion
in an essay is to persuade the reader of why that opinion is a good one, or even
why that opinion is a better one than another opinion.
Because opinions are personal and subjective, one of the primary tasks of an
opinion essay writer is to make the writer's opinion seem grounded in more than
just subjectivity. This will lend both the writer and the opinion credibility. For
instance, if the opinion essay is on the writer's belief that home schooling is
inferior to regular schooling, the writer would need to give reasons for his opinion
other than his personal beliefs or anecdotal experience. Perhaps the writer was
home schooled, and had a negative experience. This personal information would be
good to include, because it would suggest the writer's intimate knowledge of the
advantages and disadvantages of home schooling, but it would not be enough to
persuade readers who believe home schooling is better than regular schooling.
Those readers have their own strong opinions. The writer would need to persuade
those readers by including authoritative information from outside sources, such as
education researchers. This way, the opinion essay would be more than a personal
rant, and would engage with the outside world.
Opinion essays should always indicate why the writer of the essay has the
opinion he or she does. This is part of the credibility process. If the reader does not
know why the writer of the home schooling essay has such a strong opinion about
home schooling, the reader may assume that the writer owns a school and is trying
to persuade parents that would have home schooled their children that instead they
should enroll their children in a school like the one the writer owns. Therefore,
though the opinion essay should never focus exclusively on the writer's own
experiences and ideas without incorporating the ideas of others, the opinion must
always be contextualized in the writer's life so that the reader understands the
reasons for the writer's opinion.
Opinion essays should also always strive to address opinions that are
contrary to the ones they express. This should be done in a gracious but firm
manner. Acknowledging the reasons why others hold their own opinions
demonstrates that the writer understands the broader picture and is aware that
others disagree with him and, more importantly, is aware why.
(From www.essaytown.com.)

1. What is an opinion essay?
2. What are the purposes of opinion essays?
3. What is a primary task of an opinion essay writer?
4. What does credibility mean?
5. In which ways opinion essays are different from comparison/contrast ones?
THE STRUCTURE OF OPINION ESSAY
INTRODUCTION
Paragraph 1
introduce the topic and your opinion
MAIN BODY
Paragraph 2
First viewpoint and reasons/examples
Paragraph 3
Second viewpoint and reasons/examples
CONCLUSION
Final paragraph
Restate your opinion, using different words
LINKING WORDS/PHRASES FOR OPINION ESSAY

 To present opinions
To my mind/To my way of thinking/For my part
It is my belief/opinion/view/conviction that …
I believe …
I definitely/completely (do not) agree that/with …
I am not convinced that …
My opinion is that …
It seems/appears to me …
As far as I am concerned, …
Exercise 1. Read the essay and complete the outline plan below. Identify the topic
of each paragraph. Has the opposing viewpoint been included, and if so, in which
paragraph? Then, replace the linking words or phrases in bold type with other
synonymous ones.
Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and
the majority of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work
than ever before, and it is accepted in Western culture that many women now have
careers. Nonetheless, in my opinion there is still a great deal of sexual
discrimination against women within society, and the belief that sexual equality
has been achieved is not altogether accurate.
To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after
having children. The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions
made for childcare in the workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find
someone to look after the children while they are at work. Obviously, this can
prove to be a time-consuming and expensive process, yet it must be done if
mothers are to be able to resume their careers.
Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are
so deeply ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the
view that women should stay at home and look after their family still widely held,
but it is reinforced through images seen on television programmes and
advertisements. An example of this is that few men are ever seen doing housework
on television, since this is traditionally thought of as "a woman's job".
Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good
standard of living, a woman find herself doing jobs: one at home and one at the
office. So, it could be said that a woman’s position has, in fact, deteriorated rather
than improved, with the result that women carry the burdens of equality but get
none of the benefits.
In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual
discrimination no longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal
rights intended to protect them from discrimination. In addition, a few women are
now beginning to reach top positions as judges, business leaders and politicians,
while a number of other previously all-male professions are opening their ranks to
women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm and discrimination is still
very much with us.
Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of
women has improved only slightly. While rules and laws have changed, it is the
deep-rooted opinions of people within society which are taking a longer time to
evolve. Needless to say, until these attitudes have changed, sexual discrimination
will remain a problem which we all need to face and fight against.
1. Introduction
Paragraph 1 (stating the topic and expressing the opinion) …………………..
2. Main Body
Paragraph 2 (viewpoint and example) ………………………………………..
Paragraph 3 …………………………………………………………………...
Paragraph 4 …………………………………………………………………...
Paragraph 5 …………………………………………………………………...
3. Conclusion
Paragraph 6 (summarizing opinion) ………………………………………….
Exercise 2. Look at the following beginnings and endings for the essay
“Traditional values are irrelevant to modern society”, and say which have been
taken from an opinion essay and which from a comparison essay. In what ways
do they differ?
Beginnings …
1. Has modern society changed so much that the values of the past no longer have
any place? In my view, society will always need values, and the society we live in
today would function better if traditional values were retained.
2. Imagine you were given the chance to step back in time. You would probably be
struck by the difference in values between then and now. On the one hand it could
be said that those values belong to a bygone age. There are those, however, who
feel that society today would benefit from the application of some of those values.
Endings …
a).To conclude, traditional values are clearly necessary for the proper functioning
of society. However, It cannot be denied that society is evolving, and values should
also change with the times. If this were to happen, perhaps people would no longer
look back nostalgically to the past and talk about the “Good old days”.
b).To sum up, I strongly believe that, whatever changes may occur in society, we
must fight to maintain our tradition sense of right and wrong. As Pope Paul VI
said: "We must see to it that enthusiasm for the future does not give rise to
contempt for the past.
Exercise 3. Match the following viewpoints with the reasons. Give your own
opinion with reasons.
Cars enslave us rather than liberate us
Viewpoints…
1. In the first place, you must work much harder in order to afford a car.
2. Also, people who own cars are always worried about their cars being stolen or
damaged.
3. I’m also of the opinion that the quality of life in our cities is made worse
because of cars.
4. Cars enable you to go to places and do things that you couldn’t otherwise.
Reasons …
a). For example, there are traffic jams all the time which cause a lot of
inconvenience, and the pollution gets worse every day, so the city is becoming a
worse and worse place to live.
b). To be exact, you can take off for the coast, or any other place, at a moment’s
notice and if there is no public transport to a place it doesn’t matter.
c). That is to say cars are not only expensive to buy but cost a lot to run, too. So,
you have to work more hours if you want to have a car and still be able to live a
decent life.
d). In order to cope with this worry they have to install expensive alarm systems
and, to make matters worse, car-owners have to avoid areas of the city where cars
get broken into or stolen.
Exercise 4. Read the essay about tourism. Then answer the questions below.
1. Last summer, my family and I took a wonderful vacation to cape Cape Cod. We
had fun, and saw many ways that tourism helps the area. From this experience, I
believe that tourism is good for Cape Cod.
2. Tourism helps the economy and environment of Cape Cod in many ways. First,
the people of Cape Cod earn a lot of money from tourists. There are many rental
houses, hotels, restaurants, and souvenir shops. Tourism is the biggest business in
the area. Without tourists, the economy would be hurt. In addition, money from
tourists helps protect the environment. There are many rules about where you can
go on the beach and what you can do there. You have to pay to go onto some
beaches. The money helps keep the beaches clean and protected.
3. I hope we can go back to Cape Cod next year. It is a fun place to visit. I also
know that the money I spend will help the people and environment of Cape Cod.
1. Introductory Paragraph
a. Underline the thesis statement that gives the main idea of the essay (the
writer's opinion).
b. What place is the writer discussing?
c. What is the writer's opinion about tourism in that place?
2. Body Paragraph
a. Underline the topic sentence of the paragraph.
b. What reasons does the writer give to support the main idea of the essay?
3. Concluding Paragraph
a. Underline the sentence that restate the thesis statement.
Exercise 5. Underline the correct word/phrase in the following sentences.

1. It is argued/One reason that testing new drugs on animals is necessary before
giving them to humans.
2. In my view, we can all do something to protect the environment. For
example/In addition, we can recycle newspapers and magazines.
3. Taking holidays abroad is usually no more expensive than taking them in your
own country. What is more/However, it gives you the opportunity to experience
other countries.
4. Secondly/Especially, regular exercise helps you to stay in good health.
5. On the other hand, it can be argued that what individuals do to protect the
environment makes very little difference, in particular/since it is factories and
power stations which create the most pollution.
Exercise 6. Read the sentences below. Then, use appropriate words/expressions to

give your opinion, as in the example.
1.Governments should spend more money on improving public transportation.
I completely agree that governments should spend more money on improving
public transportation.
2. The system of having students evaluate their teachers is an effective means of
ensuring that a high standard of education is maintained.
3. Boxing is an extremely violent sport and should be banned.
4. Computers can replace “old-fashioned” printed books.
5. People have to pay a price for the benefits of their industrial society.
6. Professional sports affects health in a negative way.
Exercise 7. Read the extract below and say which are beginnings and which are
endings. Which writing techniques have been used in each?
A. addressing the reader
B. asking a rhetorical question
C. using direct speech/ a quotation
____ 1. Every day we hear more and more violence at sports events because fans
become enraged when their team losses. Don’t you think that the most effective
way to control such incidents would be to teach people how to handle defeat?
____ 2. To sum up, competition has a negative effect on children, as the only thing
that really matters is winning. Imagine how you would feel if you were always
expected to be the best.
____ 3. In conclusion, I strongly believe that taking part in sports is more
important than victory itself. After all, as our coach always says, winning is just “
the icing on the cake”.
____ 4. Has the importance placed on winning increased in recent years? For many
people, this seems to be the main aim of sport. However, I believe that simply
taking part is far more important than winning.
Exercise 8. Complete the parts of the essay below.

Some people need to earn a very large sum of money in order to feel
satisfied with themselves, while others require less. However, I personally
believe……………......................................................................................................
To begin with, ……………………………………………………………………….
In addition, …………………………………………………………………………..
On the other hand, …………………………………………………………………..
To conclude, ………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9. Choose any topic you like and write your own opinion essay.
1. Shall we integrate from Marketing to E-Marketing?

2. English is an important international language.
3. How to be successful in the career?
4. Does the United Nations have any influence in the world nowadays?
5. Advertising: Information or Manipulation?
3. PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAYS
Problem-Solution essays (or, as they may also be referred to, Proposing
Solutions or Proposal essays) serve an important role. These essays inform readers
about problems and suggest actions that could be taken to remedy these problems.
People write proposals every day in business, government, education, and other
professions. Proposals are a basic ingredient of the world's work.
Problem-solution essays analyze a subject and take a definite stand on it;
seek to convince readers to share the position by giving reasons and evidence and
by acknowledging readers' likely objections or questions. Proposals urge readers
to support a particular policy or take specific action. They argue for a proposed
solution to a problem, succeeding or failing by how well they argue for the
solution.
To most disciplines and professions, problem solving is a basic way of
thinking. For example, scientists use the scientific method, a systematic form of
problem solving; political scientists and sociologists propose solutions to troubling
political and social problems; engineers regularly employ problem-solving
techniques to build bridges, automobiles, or computers; attorneys find legal
precedents to solve their clients' problems; teachers continually make decisions
about how to help students with specific learning problems; counselors devote
themselves to helping clients solve personal problems; business owners or
managers define themselves as problem-solvers. Problem solving depends on a
questioning attitude, what is called critical thinking. In addition, it demands
imagination and creativity. To solve a problem, you need to see it anew, to look at
it from new angles and in new contexts.
Since a proposal tries to convince readers that its way of defining and
solving the problem makes sense, proposal writers must be sensitive to readers'
needs and expectations. As you plan and draft a proposal, you will want to
determine whether your readers are aware of the problem and whether they
recognize its seriousness. In addition, you will want to consider what they might
think of any other solutions. Knowing what your readers know, what their
assumptions and biases are, what kinds of arguments will be appealing to them is a
central part of proposal writing, indeed of all good argumentative writing.
A Well-Defined Problem
A proposal is written to offer a solution to a problem. Before presenting the
solution, a proposal writer must be sure that readers know what the problem is.
The writer may also have to establish that the problem indeed exists and is serious
enough to need solving. Sometimes a writer can assume that readers will
recognize the problem. At other times readers may not be aware of the problem.
A Proposed Solution
Once the problem is established, the writer must present and argue for a particular
solution. Be sure that your topic is narrow and that your solutions are reasonable.
A Convincing Argument
The main purpose of a proposal is to convince readers that the writer's solution is
the best way of solving the problem. Proposals argue for their solutions by trying
to demonstrate:
 that the proposed solution will solve the problem
 that it is a feasible way of solving the problem
 that it stands up against anticipated objections or reservations
 that it is better than other ways of solving the problem
A Reasonable Tone
Regardless of the proposal or the argument made on its behalf, problem-solution
writers must adopt a reasonable tone. The objective is to advance an argument
without "having" an argument. The aim is to bridge any gap that may exist
between writer and readers, not widen it.
Writers can build such a bridge of shared concerns by showing respect for
their readers and treating their concerns seriously. They discuss anticipated
objections and reservations as an attempt to lay to rest any doubts readers may
have. They consider alternative solutions as a way of showing they have explored
every possibility in order to find the best possible solution.
Most important, they do not attack those raising objections or offering other
solutions by questioning their intelligence or goodwill (Axelrod and Cooper,
1993).
1. What is the main aim of problem-solution essays?
2. Which professional fields require writing proposals?
3. What is a central part of proposal writing?
4. Which important features should proposals demonstrate?
5. What does a reasonable tone mean?
6. In which ways problem-solution essays are different from comparison/contrast
and opinion ones?
THE STRUCTURE OF PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAY
INTRODUCTION
Paragraph 1
State the problem and its consequences
MAIN BODY
Paragraph 2
Suggestion 1 and result
Paragraph 3
Paragraph 4
CONCLUSION
Final paragraph
Summarize your opinion
LINKING WORDS/PHRASES FOR PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAY

 To show effect:
Therefore, thus, so, as a result, consequently, for this reason
 To show cause:
Because of, due to the fact that …, since, as
 To show purpose:
So that …, in order to …, with the purpose of/intention of (-ing)
 To show possibility/probability:
It can/could/may/might …, it is possible/probable/(un)likely/certain that …
The likelihood/possibility/probability of (-ing/noun) is …
The situation could be improved if …/It would be a good idea if …
 To show suggestion:
Measures should/must/could be taken in order to solve/overcome/combat/deal
with/ eradicate…
Serious attempts/steps to halt/prevent/solve … must be made.
One (possible)/alternative/another way to solve/overcome/deal with this problem
would be/is …
People/governments should focus their attention on ways to solve the problem of
…/to improve the situation of …/to reduce the impact of …on society …
Exercise 2. Read the essay and complete the outline plan below. Then, replace the
linking words or phrases with other synonymous ones. Answer the questions after
the essay.
Green Building
1.The world’s energy needs are increasing while the supply of natural resources
is diminishing. Governments, businesses, and individuals have made some effort to
reduce their energy usage, but we must do more. Since buildings have a
tremendous impact on energy and the environment, one solution to the energy
crisis is to use green building. Green building means designing, constructing, and
using homes and buildings in energy-efficient ways. The principles of green
building call for a safer environment, intelligent use of materials, and energy
conservation.
2. First, buildings and homes should create a safe environment for people and
nature. Surprisingly, many homes and buildings today use synthetics materials that
may cause illness. Green building requires the use of safe materials, For example,
green builders use cellulose insulation in place of fiberglass insulation because
fiberglass may create toxic dust. Green building also demands that paints and
carpets contain no lead or dangerous dyes, Green building construction seeks to
minimize damage to the environment. For example, in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,
the state Department of Environmental Protection built its headquarters on top of a
former landfill. This site was chosen because it would not harm plants or animals.
3. Next, green buildings should use recycled and recyclable materials. The
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection offices have interior walls
made of agricultural waste and recycled paper and floor tiles made of recycled
glass. The partitions, walls that separate office spaces inside the building, are made
from recycled soda bottles. Similarly, steel is a recommended product in green
building because it contains 70 percent recycled material and can be reused.
Considering that 90 percent of the products consumed by Americans becomes
waste in less than a year, reusing materials is essential in building construction,
according to U.S. government studies.
4. Most important, buildings must conserve energy and water. Green
building practices help builders conserve nonrenewable energy and use
more renewable energy. For example, in Alameda County, California,
officials instruct homeowners on how to install solar panels on roofs to
collect the sun’s energy. The energy is stored in batteries to meet nighttime energy
needs or collected by the public utility, which gives homeowners reduced utility
bills. Alameda County’s Green Building Guidelines also urge new residents to use
solar water-heating systems. Using south-facing windows alone can store enough
solar heat to reduce heating requirements by 30 to 50 percent. Green building
guidelines also require builders to seal leaks, increase insulation, and utilize
energy-saving lighting, appliances, and furnaces. “Gray water,” or reused water, is
recycled for watering gardens. Low-flush toilets and low-flow showers and faucets
are also used. All these practices are designed to conserve energy and water.
5. In sum, green building seeks to make the construction of homes and
buildings part of the solution to energy shortages and environmental issues, rather
than part of the problem. If we use green building, our environment will be safer
and natural resources will last longer, giving scientists and engineers time to
develop alternative energy sources such as wind power, water power, and solar
energy.
1. Introduction
Paragraph 1 (stating the problem, reasons and consequences) ……………..
2. Main Body
Paragraph 2 (suggestion 1 and result) ………………………………………..
Paragraph 3 …………………………………………………………………...
Paragraph 4 …………………………………………………………………...
3. Conclusion
Paragraph 5 (summarizing opinion) ………………………………………….
1. What is the thesis statement?

2. What problem or problems are presented in the first paragraph?
3. What is the topic of each paragraph?
4. What are the solutions to the problems?
5. Does green building seem like an effective strategy for solving the energy
shortage problem? Why?
6. Does green building seem like an effective way to protect the environment?
Why?
7. What other ideas do you have for making a home or building more energy
efficient and environmentally safe? Explain.
Exercise 3. Look at the topic below. Read the suggested solutions (1-4) and match
each with its corresponding result (a-d).
1. One way to combat crime would be to provide more job opportunities for the
poor and unemployed. The result …………………………………………………...
2. Furthermore, if the prison sentences received foe certain crimes were made
longer, the outcome …………………………………………………………………
3. It would certainly be a good idea if police patrols were increased in high crime
areas, especially at night. This would improve ……………………………………..
4. One final suggestion which would help to solve the problem of increased crime
might be to establish recreational facilities, such as sports centers. If this …………
a). keep idle youths off streets and away from crime
b). eradication of poverty which is a major cause of crime
c). discouraging criminals with immediate police presence
d). make criminals afraid of consequences of being caught
Exercise 4. Read the following essay and fill the gaps with the appropriate topic
phrases.
Smoking is on the increase among young people. Discuss the problem and suggest
what might be done about it.
While smoking is on the decline among adults, the latest US Surgeon-
General’s report indicated that increasing numbers of youngsters are taking up the
habit. Perhaps the main reason for this alarming fact is the seductive advertising
campaigns aimed ad young people by the tobacco companies. Other contributing
factors include the lack of awareness on the part of school children of the danger of
smoking, and the widespread availability of cigarettes. Furthermore, smoking
retains an image of sophisticated maturity among young people, making the habit a
magnet for those still in the process of moulding themselves into what they want to
be.
Firstly, one way to combat this problem would be for the government to
(1)…………………………………………………………………………………….
This ban could also prohibit smoking on television and in films. As a result, young
people would no longer be constantly exposed to seductive images of cigarettes.
Secondly, by introducing a “negative image” advertising campaign,
governments could (2) ………………………………………………………………
Not only would such a campaign deter young people from wanting to start
smoking, but others might also be encouraged to give up.
Another way to overcome this problem would be to (3) ……………………..
Consequently, smoking would become far too costly a habit for most young people
to take up or maintain.
If measures were taken at school to (4) ………………………………………
Teachers could tell their students what will happen to them if they smoke and teach
them about the wide variety of ailments that smoking produces. In this way,
children will never want to start smoking, thanks to their knowledge of what it
could do to their bodies.
One final suggestion which would help, would be to (5) …………………….
If it is were possible for young people to buy cigarettes before they are eighteen, it
would, therefore, be impossible for them to smoke.
All in all, I think that it would be quite easy to reduce the number of young
people that smoke or even to eliminate smoking altogether, were it not for the
lackadaisical attitudes to those who have the power to do something about it. Until
they find the motivation to act, however, it seems likely that the problem will
simply get worse.
Topic phrases
A. … expose the truth – that smoking is a dangerous habit which kills thousands of
people every year.
B. … warn children more effectively about the dangerous of smoking, the situation
might improve.
C. … ban all cigarette advertising in order to reverse this disturbing trend.
D. … place a ban on the sale of cigarettes to under-eighteens, and ensure that this
ban is strictly enforced.
E. … impose heavier taxes on cigarettes, thus making them even more expensive
than they already are.
Exercise 5. a). Study the two paragraphs that follow. In each paragraph
underline the topic sentence, major points, and concluding sentences.
Saving Paper
One solution to the shortage of paper is to reuse it. First, newspapers have
many uses after they are read. They can be used to line the floor when painting or
cleaning. In addition, leftover computer paper also many uses. Scraps of pages
make good notepaper or shopping lists. Paper bags from the grocery store can also
be reused. For example, they can be used for groceries again, and they can also
carry lunches or line wastebaskets. Reusing paper before it's thrown away is a
simple way to conserve paper.
Saving Paper
One solution to the shortage of paper is to reuse it. First, newspapers
have many uses after they are read. Old newspaper sheets can be used to
pack dishes or fill a box when mailing things. They can also be used to line
the floor when painting or cleaning a room. In addition, leftover computer
paper has many uses. The most obvious use is to print things out on both
sides of the paper. Scraps of pages also make good notepaper or shopping
lists. Paper bags can also be reused. Many grocery stores will give you a
credit for reusing the bags. Students can cut the bags up and use them to
cover books. They can also carry lunches or line wastebaskets. Reusing
paper before it's thrown away is a simple way to conserve paper.
Group work
b). Discuss these questions in a group.
1. How are the two paragraphs different?
2. Which one do you prefer? Why?
Exercise 6. a). Read and analyze the paragraph. Identify the following
elements: the topic sentence, major points, supporting ideas for each major
point, and the concluding sentences.
Conserving Electricity at Home

Using electricity wisely in the home can help conserve energy. First of
all, people should not leave lights on when they are not needed. In addition,
appliances and machines should be turned off throughout the house when they
are not in use. It's not good to leave the television or radio playing while you
are sleeping. People should pay attention to how much electricity they use in
their homes.
Pair work
b). With a partner, revise the paragraph. As you revise, think about these
questions:
1. Is the paragraph fully developed?

2. Does it need more supporting facts, details, or examples?
3. Add more supporting sentences where they are needed.
Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with appropriate linking word/words.

Hybrid Automobiles
"Hybrid" cars are getting attention from carmakers and some consumers. (1)
……., a growing number of automobile manufacturers are showing interest in
selling these half-electric, half-gasoline powered automobiles. Toyota and Honda
produced hybrid cars in 2002. (2) ……, General Motors and Ford Motor
Corporation planned to introduce hybrids. (3) ……, celebrities drive them. (4)
…..., actor Leonardo di Caprio has two hybrids, and actress Cameron Diaz has one.
Recently di Caprio bought three more hybrid cars for family members. Several
U.S. congressional representatives have also purchased hybrids. The increase in
availability and popularity may, (5) ……, mean that drivers will be seeing more
hybrid automobiles on the road in coming years.
Exercise 8. Choose any topic you like and write your own problem-solution essay.
1. The quality of education.
2. Increasing use of motor vehicles.
3. Environmental problems in Ukraine.
4. Violence in our society.
5. Alternative energy sources.
CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNITS 5)
1. What is an essay?
2. How is an essay different from other kinds of writing?
3. Are there different kinds of essay? What are the differences between them?
4. What is the purpose of comparison/contrast, opinion, and problem-solution

essays?
5. Which linking words are used for each type of essays?

UNIT 6 REVISION
Writers are readers as they read their own texts.

Readers are writers as they make their responses on a written text.
Raimes
Revision is a vital part of the writing process. Many people revise sections
as they write, but finishing a complete draft is particularly useful because it gives
you, the author, a chance to step back and look at your essay as a whole. With a
finished draft it is clearer whether or not the thesis is successful or the organization
is logical. You may revise your paper individually or as part of a peer review team.
1. INDIVIDUAL REVIEW
Below is an example of a checklist for individual revision as well as for peer
review:
Organization
 Is there a clear introduction, body, and conclusion?
 Does the introduction provide sufficient background for the reader? Are the
"who," "where," "why," "what," and "how" questions addressed?
 Is there a thesis sentence? Is the purpose of the essay clear?
 Does the essay move from general to specific?
 Are there sufficient transitions between related ideas?
 Is the overall organization murky or clean? In other words, does the writer
avoid introducing new material in the conclusion or switching subjects in the
middle of a paragraph in the body?
 Does every paragraph address the subject matter of the thesis in some way?
Content and Style

 Does the essay show that the writer has a knowledge of the audience?
 Is the length appropriate and adequate?
 Has the writer used sufficient examples and detail to make his or her points
clearly?
 Has the assignment been addressed?
 Is the tone of the essay appropriate?
 Has the writer avoided insulting the reader?
 Is the tone of the essay professional and appropriate?
 Is the language convincing, clear, and concise?
 Has the writer used fresh language and a creative approach?
Research and Sources

 Are all sources credible?
 Is the research accurate, unbiased, and complete?
 Has the writer fully interpreted the findings?
 Has the writer commented on each source used?
 Is the analysis based on hard evidence?
 Is the analysis free of faulty reasoning?
 Is the documentation in the Works Cited page and body of the essay correct?
 Have all quotations been checked against the original?
 Are all quotations introduced? Is the flow of the essay seamless?
 If material was paraphrased, are the sources still mentioned?
 If necessary, are limitations clearly spelled out?
 If included, are recommendations based on accurate interpretations?
 Have all facts been checked for accuracy?
 Have any potentially libelous statements been eliminated?
Proofreading
 Has the writer checked grammar and punctuation?
 Has the writer spell checked the essay?
 Has the writer checked for his or her particular pattern of error?
 Are the page numbers correct?
 Is the title capitalized correctly?
 Has the writer used the correct margin and font?
( Jordan-Henley, 1998)
2. PEER REVIEW
Peer review is the evaluation of creative work or performance by other
people in the same field in order to maintain or enhance the quality of the work or
performance in that field. The word peer is often define as a person of equal
standing. However, in the context of peer review it is generally used in a border
sense to refer to people in the same profession who are of the same or higher
ranking. Peer review is used extensively in a variety of professional fields,
including academic and scientific research, medicine, law, accounting and
computer software development. Even trial by jury is a form of peer review. Peer
review is legislatively mandated in some situations, particularly in law and
medicine. In others it is required by traditions and/or by administrative rules, such
as in academia. In some fields, such as software development, it occurs naturally
without any formal structure or requirements (From www.linfo.org).
The goals of peer review are 1) to help improve your classmate's paper by
pointing out strengths and weaknesses that may not be apparent to the author, and
2) to help improve editing skills.
When you give feedback, try to be as honest and specific as possible;
saying a paper is “good”, “nice”, or “bad” doesn’t really help the writer. When
you receive feedback, think over your classmate’s responses; do they sound
true? In order to give effective commentary in peer review, the following
points may be used:
GUIDELINES FOR PEER REVIEW
 Before you even make your first comment, read the document all
the way through.
 If you are provided with a feedback form to fill out and
something is unclear, do not ignore the item but ask the instructor
for clarification.
 Point out the strengths as well as the weaknesses of the document.
 Offer suggestions, not commands.
 Editorial comments should be appropriate and constructive. There
is no need to be rude. Be respectful and considerate of the writer's
feelings.
 Be sure that your comments are clear and text-specific so that
your peer will know what you are referring to (for example, terms
such as "unclear" or "vague" are too general to be helpful).
 As a reader, raise questions that cross your mind, points that may
have not occurred to your peer author.
 Try not to overwhelm your peer with too much commentary.
Follow the feedback form and the issues you are supposed to
address.
 Be careful not to let your own opinions bias your review (for
example, don't suggest that your peer completely rewrite the
paper just because you don't agree with his/her point of view).
 Reread your comments before passing them on to your peer.
Make sure all your comments make sense and are easy to follow.
 Avoid turning your peer's paper into your paper.
(From www.serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/peerreview/what.html)
PEER-REVIEW FEEDBACK FORMS

Example 1. Hall and Jung (2000) suggest the following feedback form for
evaluating an essay:
In the space to the left of each question, write a 1 if your answer is strong No.
Write a 5 if the answer is strong Yes. Write 2,3,or 4if your answer is between.
Part A: Evaluating Content and Development/Organization
In the introduction
____ 1. Is there a general statement that “locates” the topic for the reader?
____ 2. Is there background information that interests the reader?
____ 3. Is there a thesis statement that interprets the topic and controls the entire
essay?
____ 4. Is there an organizer that gives the plan of the essay body? (Remember,
this feature is not always necessary.)
In each body paragraph
If the essay has more that three body paragraphs, make additional columns at left.
P1 P2 P3
____ ____ ____ 5. Is there an opening transitions that shows the ordering
system (e.g., time, degree of importance, familiarity)?
_____ ____ ____ 6. Is there a controlling idea that controls the paragraph
and support the thesis?
_____ ____ ____ 7. Are there enough supporting points?
_____ ____ ____ 8. Is there sufficient detail?
_____ ____ ____ 9. Are the supporting points ordered (e.g., by time, degree
of importance, familiarity)?
_____ ____ ____ 10. Are signals used between various points within
paragraph?
In the conclusion
____ 11. Is it connected to the final body paragraph (by a key word or idea or by a
transition)?
____ 12. Does it refer to the thesis statement?
____ 13. Is there a summary related to the various body paragraphs?
____ 14. Is there statement of belief that advises, suggests, recommends, predicts,
or offers a solution?
Remember: Not all English essays demonstrate all of the features listed above.
(Indeed many good English essays do not satisfy such a formula.) As a writer, you
may decide when features such as those listed are important and when your
message might be improved by being less direct. This list is provided to help you
as a learning writer.
Part B: Evaluating Language Use
_____ 15. Are the sentence forms generally correct? Does each subject noun have
a verb, and are clauses joined by connecting words?
_____ 16. Do parallel structures use the same grammar forms for their content
units?
____ 17. Do sentence topics (subject nouns) relate to topics or comments of earlier
sentences?
____ 18. Are prepositions followed by nouns or noun phrases?
____ 19. Is a comma used when an adverb phrase comes before the sentence base?
____ 20. Is a comma used to separate a relative clause that describes from the
sentence base?
____ 21. Are verbs in the correct forms?
____ 22. Do nouns agree in number with their verbs? Do singular third-person
present tense verbs end in S?
____ 23. Do nouns that require articles have them?
____ 24. Is spelling generally correct?
Example 2. “Response questions” (Raimes, 1992) format is also used as a

feedback form.
The reader should answer the following questions:
1. What is the main idea that the writer is trying to express in his daft?
2. Can you find any part that do not relate to the main idea? Underline them.
3. Which part of the piece of writing do you like best? Find two or three places
where you would like more explanations, examples, or details. Write questions
about them.
4. Did you at any point lose the flow of the writing or find places where the writer
seemed to jump too suddenly from one idea to another? Were there any places that
seemed unclear to you as a reader?
5. Did the beginning capture your attention and make you want to read on? Why or
why not?
6. Can you summarize in one sentence the main idea of each paragraph? For each
paragraph, complete the following statement:
Paragraph 1 says that …
Paragraph 2 says that …
Proceed in the same way for the remaining paragraphs.
Exercise 1. Evaluate the following text using the feedback form (example 1 or 2).
Love is a rare phenomenon in our society. There are all kinds of
relationships which are called love. There are the dominating themes that appear
in the romantic songs and in the movies of sentimental impulses. No word is
used with more meanings than this term, most of the meanings being dishonest
in that they cover up the real motives in the relationship. But there are many
other sound and honest relationships called love such as parental care for
children, sexual passion, or the sharing of loneliness. The reality often
discovered in when one looks underneath the surface of the individual in our
lonely and conformist society, is how little love is actually involved in these
relationships.
Our society is, as we have seen, thriving with competitive individualism,
with power over others as a dominant motivation. Our particular generation is full
of isolation and personal emptiness, which is not a good preparation for learning
how to love. The capacity to love presupposes self-awareness, because love
requires the ability to appreciate the potentialities of the other person. Love also
presupposes freedom; because love which is not freely giver is not love. To love
someone because you are not free to love someone else is not love.
The error so common in our society is resorting to hypocrisy in trying to
persuade himself that all of the emotions he feels are love. Learning to love will
procede if we stop trying to persuade ourselves that to love is easy. And if we give
up the disguises for love in a society which is always talking about love but has so
little of it.
Exercise 2. Using the feedback form as your guide, evaluate your classmate’s
writing.
Pair work
Exercise 3. With a classmate, use the feedback forms to evaluate the essay of a
third classmate. You and your partner should agree on the grade you give. Explain
to the writer why you gave the grades that you did.
PART II
UNIT 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN WRITING
There are different ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own
writing which differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source
writing.
Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them
to:
 Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing
 Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
 Give examples of several points of view on a subject
 Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with
 Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by
quoting the original
 Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue
readers that the words are not your own
 Expand the breadth or depth of your writing
1. Summarizing
A summary, also called a synopsis, is an abridgement or condensation of its
original. A summary is not an explanation or a substitute for the original. Rather,
its purpose is to refresh the writer’s memory about what the original said or to give
others enough information about the original to let them decide whether they want
to read the original (Millward, 1980).
The goal of summarizing

The goal of summarizing material is to pass along the ideas belonging to another.
You should do this with fewer words than the original. You are also expected to
maintain the integrity of the original document: not distorting the original views,
ideas, attitudes, or their importance in the original as well as not adding your own.
The summary, therefore, becomes a tool for understanding what you read; it
forces you to read critically, differentiating between main and minor points.
Summary writing also forces you to write clearly because you cannot waste any
words.
Characteristics of a summary
Since summary is a shortening of a text of written work, you are to describe as
accurately and briefly as possible main ideas contained in a text. Summary
 begins by citing the author of a summarized text, its title and the main idea.
 does not change the meaning of the original text (objectivity).
 should be quite short: six to eight sentences or one third/one fourth of the
original (brevity). The length of a summary depends on
1. The assignment
2. The length and complexity of the article
 presents all the main ideas and major points – not all the details – in the
original text (completeness).
 does or does not use concrete examples, or details, or quotes from the original;
if does not use quotes, then everything is put into your own words.
 does not make any conclusions about the original, its audience, or anything
relating to the text.
The process of summary writing
Step 1. Reading and underlining
1. Read the article carefully, making no notes or marks and looking only for what
the writer is saying. Answer the following questions:
a). What is the topic of the passage?
b). What is the author's purpose in writing? Does the author describe something,
analyze a problem, give information, review a book or movie, try to persuade the
reader to adopt his point of view or take some action, state a personal opinion etc?
2. After you're finished reading, look for the writer's thesis and underline it .
3. Highlight or circle the major points supporting the thesis; these could be key
sentences, phrases, or words. In addition, underline key transitional elements
which show how parts are connected. Omit unnecessary details, examples,
description, and explanations.
Step 2: Summary organizing
Introduction
The introduction should contain the title of the source (essay or article) and the
name of the author of the source. It also includes thesis statement which is not
your main point; it is the main point of the source. You have to write this one-
sentence statement rather than quote it from the source text. The introduction
should not offer your own opinions or evaluation of the text you are summarizing.
Body
The body should build on and directly support the thesis. Present the main ideas as
they occur in the essay and demonstrate how that material supports the argument
of the thesis. Include one or more of the author’s examples or illustrations (these
will bring your summary to life) but do not include your own ideas, illustrations,
metaphors, or interpretations. Omit nothing important and strive for overall
coherence through appropriate transitions.
Conclusion
There is customarily no conclusion to a summary essay. When you have
summarized the source text, your summary essay is finished.
Before you begin your own summary, you may make a concept map, or
graphic organizer of the summarized text that shows the main ideas. You can write
a summary just by looking at a concept map.
Exercise 1. Study the concept map of the text “Prying Eyes” that follows.
Prying Eyes
In the effort to make schools safe and drug-free, are authorities ignoring
students’ rights?
Thirty-two years ago, in a famous opinion defending the rights of students to
protest the Vietnam War, United States Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas wrote
that young people do not leave “their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gate”.
That’s still true.
But these days, depending on where you go to school, before you can enjoy
those rights you may well have to make your way through a metal detector at the
gate, encounter drug-sniffing German shepherds in the hallways, let school
officials search your locker, smile for the security cameras, and be ready to urinate
into a cup on demand to be tested for drugs. As to free speech, say what you want,
but if you mention acts of violence you may be in trouble.
In most schools, of course, the picture is not that bad. But according to civil
liberties groups the rights of students are under attack as never before. Across the
country, many school districts have adopted harsh “zero-tolerance” policies in
which even thinking about violating the rules can be reason for punishment. And in
the process, civil liberties groups say, basic constitutional rights sometimes get
ignored.
School officials are in a tough position. They are directed not only to
educate their students but also to ensure their safety and maintain an atmosphere
where learning can take place. Incidents like the 1999 Columbine shootings have
reminded them all too well that the failure to act against that rare student who gives
warning signs and then actually does commit an act of serious violence could be
deadly.
When the rights of students collide with the will of school officials, it’s up
to the courts to decide where to draw the line. Their decisions in these cases
could help determine where the line is drawn in your school.
Eric Nagourney, The New York Times
Title and “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nogourney

author
Main idea Schools may be ignoring students’ rights.

Background information: 32 years ago, the Supreme Court
said students do not “leave their constitutional rights at the
schoolhouse gate”.
Major point Many types of security measures are used in schools now.
Supporting Metal detectors, drug-sniffing dogs, drug tests, security

cameras, locker searchers, less freedom of speech
details
Student rights “are under siege”. Many schools adopt “zero-

Major point tolerance” policies.
Major point School officials are directed to educate students and ensure
their safety.
Major point
Courts decide when student rights collide with the will of school
officials.
Exercise 2. Choose the best one-sentence summary statement for “Prying Eyes”.
Discuss your answers with the rest of the class.
1. The essay “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney states that the US Supreme Court
protects students’ rights at school.
2. The essay “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney states that student rights may be
under attack because of security measures used at schools.
3. The essay “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney states that school officials
sometimes search students and their lockers for drugs.
Exercise 3. Read the two sample summaries of the text “Prying Eyes”. Choose
which summary you think best represents the main ideas of the reading. Why?
Evaluate the summaries according to the “Characteristics of a summary”
(Exercise 1).
Summary 1
The article "Prying Eyes" by Eric Nagourney states that student rights may
be under attack because of security measures used at schools. The article in
The New York Times describes many security methods currently being used -
metal detectors, drug-sniffing dogs, locker searches, security cameras, and
drug tests. However, according to the writer, a U.S. Supreme Court decision
during the Vietnam War era gave students constitutional rights even at school.
Civil liberties groups fear that the strict security policies now in force may
violate students' rights, Nagourney says. Many schools have "zero-tolerance"
policies that call for strict punishment of security violations. The problem is
that school officials face a challenge because they must not only educate
students but also keep schools safe, he writes. The article suggests that in the
future, courts must decide when student rights conflict with school rules.
Summary 2
The newspaper article “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney tells us about the
types of security devices that are being used in schools today. Nowadays,
students must enter schools through metal detectors, have their lockers
searched, and undergo drug tests, among other things. These policies take away
student rights. Students have rights under the U.S. Constitution, even while
they are in school. Even though schools need to keep their buildings safe, they
should not make the schools feel like prisons. Courts will need to help students
keep their rights, or schools will continue to create more rules and policies that
will trample on people's rights. Nobody wants violence in schools, but we also
do not want students to be treated like criminals.
Pair work
Exercise 4. Read the text “Inflation and the Transition to a Market Economy”.
Work with a partner to mark the main idea in the reading. Make a concept map of
the reading.
Inflation and the Transition to a Market Economy
One of the most intractable problems confronting societies in transition from

centralized to free market economies is that of inflation. It is, however, a challenge
that such societies must meet if they are to enjoy the material benefits that a market
economy can provide.
What exactly is inflation? It is an increase in the average price level of the

goods and services produced and sold in an economy. Inflation typically occurs in
a market economy for one of two reasons: either people increase their spending
faster than producers are able to increase the supply of the goods and services; or
there is a decrease in the supply of goods and services to consumers and/ or
producers, which drives up prices. Inflation has sometimes been described as an
increasing amount of money chasing a shrinking number of goods.
Inflation hits economies in transition hard because price liberalization - the

removal of government price controls - is an essential step toward a market
economy. The initial result of such price liberalization is predictable - a wave of
price increases for goods that were in chronic short supply. Why? Because the
government held their prices artificially low, so demand perennially outstripped
supply, or because of other economic distortions and inefficiencies created by
government decision-makers. In addition, if people are holding large amounts of
money at the time of this transition (since there was little of value to buy), the
pressure of inflation can be even greater.
Nevertheless, the rewards of enduring the inevitable bout of inflation during
this transitional period are substantial. Unfettered by government, the market
mechanisms of supply and demand can begin to function. High prices signal strong
demand and the market, albeit slowly and haltingly at first, responds with
increased production. Peoples' money may have lost value, but what money they
have is now real and consumers can buy the goods that are beginning to appear in
stores. With supplies increasing, prices stabilize and queues begin to disappear as
consumers realize that more and varied products will continue to be available for
sale.
Entrepreneurs and investors respond to the new economic freedom by
starting new businesses and competing to provide goods and services, thereby
creating jobs, expanding supply and causing prices to moderate further.
The key element in this transition is for the government to relinquish its role in
setting prices and permit the market forces of supply and demand to establish
prices for virtually all goods and services. When such a free market is established,
inflation may persist. but it is a far more manageable and less threatening problem
than in the early, hard days of economic transition.
Michael Watts, What is a Market Economy?
Group work
Exercise 5. Read the text “Living with Cell Phones” and discuss the questions in
a group.
Living with Cell Phones
In today’s technology-driven world, the cell phone has emerged as a great

success. If you have any doubt about the popularity of “cells”, just look around
you. In buildings, parking lots, stores, vehicles, and on the streets, nearly everyone
is carrying a cell. However, the popularity of cell phones is also the problem with
cell phones.
Of course, no one can deny that cell phones are very useful. Parents and
children carry them around so that they can keep track of each other. Friends use
cell phones to chat with each other on the spur of the moment. In emergencies,
people use cell phones to call tow trucks, taxis, or ambulances or notify others that
they are running late. Users soon discover that their cell phones are so useful that
they cannot go anywhere without them.
The fact that cell phones are in everyone’s pocket, purse, and hand means
that the noise of ringing phones and conversation has invaded public spaces. Cell
phones ring in restaurants, cinemas, and libraries. In stores, shoppers talk long and
loudly, asking their family members what size or color clothing they want. People
even carry on long conversations about personal topics with friends and lovers
where everyone around them can hear. Recently I was sitting in chemistry class,
listening closely to the professor's lecture, and "ring" went my classmate's cell
phone. All this noise is disrupting the peace.
However, the most significant disadvantage of cell phones is that so many
people drive and talk simultaneously. Increasingly, drivers take to the roads and
pull out their phones - on highways and on busy streets. It stands to reason that
drivers are distracted when they drive and talk. In fact, in 1997, the New England
Journal of Medicine reported that motorists who use cell phones are four times
more likely to crash. A three-year study in Oklahoma found that accidents
connected with cell phone use were nine times more likely to result in deaths.
Japan, Australia, and numerous other countries have banned the use of hand-
held cell phones while driving.
Clearly, cell phones are helpful devices. Still, as long as people use
them irresponsibly, they will cause problems, particularly when their users
don't think about others around them. In public, cell phone users often disturb
other people with the noise they make; on the road, they put pedestrians and
other drivers in danger. People shouldn't throw away their cell phones, but
they should get into the habit of using them more considerately and carefully.
1. What is the writer's opinion about cell phones? Underline the thesis
statement.
2. What advantage of cell phones does the writer present? Underline the
sentence that introduces this major point.
3. What disadvantages of cell phones does the writer present? Underline the
sentences that introduce these major points.
4. What examples, facts, or details does the writer include to tell more about
each major point?
5. What kind of information does the writer include in the conclusion?
Pair work
Exercise 6. Read the following brief summaries of the text “Living with Cell
Phones”. Work with your partner. Discuss which is the best summary.
1. The essay “Living with Cell Phones” says that there are many benefits to
using cell phones. People can call others anytime or any place. They can talk
to them when there is an emergency. People even use cell phones in libraries.
However, cell phones make noise.
2. The essay "Living with Cell Phones" says that cell phones are useful, but
they can cause some problems. One problem is the noise. People talk on the
phones and disturb others. Another problem is using cell phones while
driving. The writer believes it may be dangerous. According to the writer,
people should use cell phones responsibly.
3. The essay "Living with Cell Phones" says that using cell phones while
driving can distract drivers. They may have accidents. I agree with the author.
I believe people should pull over and stop driving if they want to talk on their
cell phones.
SUMMARY PHRASES
Exercise 7. Study the following useful summary phrases.
1. The First Sentence in a Summary.
Most summaries begin with a sentence containing two elements: the source and the
main idea.
For example:
In Wieslawa Kaczaj’s article “My Career Dilemma”, (main idea).
According to Wieslawa Kaczaj in her article “My Career Dilemma”, (main idea).
Smith and Shelton’s 2003 paper on investment activity discusses (main topic).
Marcia Barinaga, in her article “Is there a Female Style in Science?” states (argues,
maintains, suggests, claims) that (main idea).
2. Reporting Verbs: objective or evaluative.
Although, in theory, summaries are supposed to be objective, this is not entirely

true. A wide range of reporting verbs can be used in summary writing, many of
which reveal the summary writer’s personal attitude toward the source material.
For example:
Marcia Barinaga in her article “Is there a Female Style in Science?” alleges that
men and women exhibit differences in the way they pursue science.
Marcia Barinaga in her article “Is there a Female Style in Science?” assumes that
men and women exhibit differences in the way they pursue science.
Exercise 8. Some reporting verbs are less objective than others. Can you identify
which verbs in the table seem to be objective and which verbs tend to be
evaluative? Translate them.
Objectivity of Reporting Verbs
Objective Evaluative
Describe X
Discuss
State
Present
Explain
Maintain
Examine
Affirm
Argue
Reveal
Presume
Assume
Assert
Contend
Allege
Claim
Imply
3. Summary Reminder Phrases.
a). In a longer summary, you may want to remind that you are summarizing.
For example:
The author goes on to say that ….
The article further states that …..
(Author’s surname here) also states /maintains/argues that ….

(Author’s surname here) also believes that….
(Author’s surname here) concludes that ….
In the second half of the paper, (Author’s surname here) presents …
b). In a longer summary, you may mention the source author’s name at three
points – the beginning, the middle, and the end. When you mention the author in
the middle or end of the summary, be sure to use the surname only.
For example:
Goodman goes on to say …
Suzuki also believes that …
c). Some of the following linking words and phrases may be useful in introducing
additional information.
Additionally In addition to
Also Furthermore
Further Moreover
For example:
The author further argues that ….
Exercise 9. Write a summary of the following passages. Follow all steps in the
summarizing process.
1. Every marketer’s dream is to launch a new brand that will some day rank
alongside the Coca-Colas and Marlboros of the world. But established brands
wouldn’t be so highly valued if creating them were easy. Every year manufacturers
try, and fail, to win consumer acceptance for new products. The biggest marketers
typically spend at least $20 million to introduce a new branded product. With the
odds saying that only one in ten new brands will survive, manufacturers are
understandably cautious when embarking on the long, tortuous road to the
marketplace.
Michael Hiestand, Marketing Made Easy
2. If you could magically transport a finance minister from, say, Sweden in 1890 to
Sweden in 1990 and introduce him to the tax system found in his country today, he
would be lost. The major taxes he knew and understood have either been totally
abolished or are insignificant part of the modern tax system. New taxes that the
centenarian finance minister could not have imagined when he was the head of the
national budget – including progressive income taxes, social security taxes,
corporate profits taxes, and VATs – now make up approximately 80 percent of
total government revenue. Government revenue would also far exceed our finance
minister’s wildest imaginings. In 1900, total government revenue constituted only
10 percent of a much smaller GNP [Gross National Product] in Sweden; totally it
is over 50 percent of GNP.
Sven Stienmo, Taxation and Democracy
3. Most companies are looking for people with senior management potential. In
their view, MBA graduates have an above-average chance of fulfilling this need,
but they are careful not to raise expectations too high. They also want people who
can be effective quite rapidly. Employers’ recruitment operations are becoming
much more short term in response to fast-changing markets and technologies.
Companies frequently look for specific mixes of skills, and the mix can change
rapidly. In the mid-1990s, for example, there was a strong demand for German-
speaking MBA graduates because companies wanted to introduce a more
international culture and to expand into east European countries, where German is
widely spoken. Irene Barrall, Intelligent Business
4. Tesco’s unusually low-profile US expansion strategy is about to take it to

Las Vegas, one of the fastest growing cities in the US, in addition to its plans
to open stores in the Los Angeles and Phoenix areas next year. The company
would invest £250m ($476m) a year to fund its US expansion, a budget that should
enable it to open as many as 200 stores a year. Las Vegas, with 1.7m people, is in
Nevada, the fastest-growing state in the US. There is intense competition there for
new customers between its existing traditional supermarkets - dominated by
Kroger and Safeway - and Wal-Mart, the largest US retailer, which now has
about 20 per cent of the overall US grocery market.
Irene Barrall, Intelligent Business
Important Notes for Summary Writing

 Find important facts, statements and ideas.
 Leave all statistics, dates and names, quotations, details and comparisons,
examples, opinions, and decorating expressions unless they are important for
the understanding of the text.
 Cut the original text to one third.
 Identify the source being summarized.
 Write a summary in your own words. Do not include your opinion!
 The summary is usually written in the present tense.
 But past events may be reported in the past, future events may be reported in
the future.
 Statements or questions which were made in the past may be reported in the
past tense or the past perfect.
 Statements and questions which were made in the past but concern the future
may be reported in the conditional.
2. PARAPHRASING
Another important technique in summary writing is paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing is an important technique in summary writing. Paraphrasing is
restating or rewriting in your own words the essential ideas of another writer.
Because the paraphrase does not quote the source word by word, quotation marks
are not necessary. Furthermore, it is not enough just to change a few words.
Neither it is not enough to rearrange a few sentences. Both practices can result in
plagiarism (Rozakis, 2007).
Study the following examples:
Example 1
Original Source
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was the most important literary figure
in his time. In addition to championing many American writers such as Edith
Wharton and Emily Dickinson, Howells promoted Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy,
Henrik Ibsen, Emile Zola, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. (Goldsmith 98)
Plagiarism
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was the top literary person in his time.
In addition to advancing the career of American writers like Edith Wharton and
Emily Dickinson, Howells championed the writing of non-Americans such as
Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Emile Zola, George Eliot, and
Thomas Hardy.
Paraphrase
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was the single most significant editor
of his day. Howells helped the careers of Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Henrik
Ibsen, Emile Zola, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy as well as those of Edith
Wharton and Emily Dickinson. (Goldsmith 98)
Example 2
(1) Original text
When the rights of students collide with the will of school officials, it’s up to the
courts to decide where to draw the line.
Paraphrased version
Courts must decide cases where students rights conflict with school policies.
(2) Original text
The problem, he says, has been 98 percent solved by the cameras, all placed on the
outside of the school and facing outwards.
Paraphrased version
Outside cameras almost completely fixed the problem, he says.
RULES FOR PARAPHRASING:

 Simplify vocabulary.
Use synonyms whenever possible.
Don't change technological or scientific words, names of geographical places,
parts of government, fields of study, or other types of specific or technical
words.
 Change the grammar or sentence structure to make sentences easier
to understand.
Change word forms such as a noun form to an adjective form.
Make verbs simpler, for example, is done to do.
Change transition words and sentence connectors such as on the other
hand to but.
Change voice: Active –Passive, Passive - Active
 Use appropriate punctuation and source identification.
Do not overuse quotation marks. Enclose the exact words of a source in quotes
only if the words are special or memorable.
Instead, put the author's ideas into your own words.
Add phrases that identify the source, such as the author said, each time you
present a new idea from the text.
Exercise 1. Paraphrase the following sentences from the text “Prying Eyes”.
1. … according to civil liberties groups the rights of students are under attack as
never before.
2. School officials are in a tough position. They are directed not only to educate
their students but also to ensure their safety and maintain an atmosphere where
learning can take place.
Exercise 2. Evaluate the summarized passages according to the described above

rules. What would you improve?
1. Original Passage: “They desire, for example, virtue and the absence of vice, no
less really than pleasure and the absence of pain.”
Source: Mill, John Stuart. “Utilitarianism.” On Liberty and Other Essays. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Quote is from page 169.
Paraphrase: People want morality just as much as they want happiness.
2. Original Passage: “To the young American architects who made the
pilgrimage, the most dazzling figure of all was Walter Gropius, founder of the
Bauhaus School. Gropius opened the Bauhaus in Weimar, the German capital, in
1919. It was more than a school; it was a commune, a spiritual movement, a radical
approach to art in all its forms, a philosophical center comparable to the Garden of
Epicurus.”
Source: Wolfe, Tom. From Bauhaus to Our House. New York: Farrar Straus
Giroux, 1981. Quote is from page 10.
Paraphrase: As Tom Wolfe notes, to young American architects who went to
Germany, the most dazzling figure was Walter Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus
School (10). Gropius opened the Bauhaus in the German capital of Weimar in
1919. It was, however, more than a school; it was a commune, a spiritual
movement, a philosophical center like the Garden of Epicurus.
3. Original Passage: “The Republican Convention of 1860, which adopted planks

calling for a tariff, internal improvements, a Pacific railroad and a homestead law,
is sometimes seen as a symbol of Whig triumph within the party. A closer look,
however, indicates that the Whig’s triumph within the party was of a very tentative
nature.”
Source: Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the
Republican Party Before the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.
Quote is from page 175.
Paraphrase: Contrary to many historians, Eric Foner argues that the Republican
platform of 1860 should not be understood as an indication of Whig dominance of
the party (175).
(From http://www.utexas.edu/depts/dos/sjs/academicintegrity.html)
Exercise 3. Paraphrase the sentences using the Rules for Paraphrasing

techniques.
1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the
source of our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques]
Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to
mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the
surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now
threatened by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990).
2. "The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law
was a bad joke because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had.
They were the years when organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed
powerless to do anything against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz
spread throughout the land, and men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and
Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper was born in the twenties,
and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than
anyone or anything else, America's break with the past." From Kathleen Yancey,
English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989).
3. "Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by
head injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded
that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an
accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head." From "Bike
Helmets: Unused Lifesavers," Consumer Reports (May 1990).
4. "Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most
realistic of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a
landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate"
depicts the well-known gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of
the city near the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose
delicately fenced by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse gets the
essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the
sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate." From Peter Plagens,
"Bright Lights." Newsweek (26 March 1990).
5. "While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper

engineering so far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the
quest for the world's tallest building. The question is: Just how high can a building
go? Structural engineer William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly
one-half mile high, twice as tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel
claims that existing technology could produce a 500-story building." From Ron
Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990).
(From http://owl.english.purdue.edu)
Important Notes for Paraphrasing

How does a Paraphrase Differ from a Summary?
 A summary is an abridged version of the original text.

 A paraphrase can be shorter or longer than the original text.
 A summary eliminates details, examples, and supporting points.
 A paraphrase describes the original text in different words. It does not omit
details.
3. QUOTING
Citing sources is very important in academic writing because it helps
readers by telling them where to find additional information about the topic. It is
also important because using the ideas of other writers without acknowledging
them is a crime known as plagiarism. Acknowledging other authors whose words
or ideas were used is required by law. The work of other authors is used in two
ways: these may be in the form of a paraphrase or a direct quotation.
Whenever possible, you should paraphrase rather than directly quote from
your sources. The number of quotations in you essay should be limited so that the
writing has your voice and not the many voices of the authors whom you quote.
A writer presents the words or sentences exactly as they originally appeared
in the published source. You quote other authors directly for several reasons:
1. If the other author’s words would add emphasis to your own writing, you
may decide to quote the words or phrases directly rather than paraphrase them.
2. If you feel that paraphrasing another author’s words would greatly change
the effect of the words, then you may choose to quote.
3. You quote directly if the word of phrase is a special term or one that you
adopt as a special term in your text (Hall and Jung, 2000).
There are several ways of using direct quotations:

1. An author’s words are enclosed in quotation marks and separate from the
rest of the sentence by a comma or colon. This is usually common for short
quotations, e.g.:
The lawyer assumed, “The numbers of persons seeking asylum in Ukraine
are still relatively small, but on the rise”.
“The numbers of persons seeking asylum in Ukraine are still relatively
small, but on the rise”, the lawyer assumed.
2. When a quotation is longer, it can be divided into two parts, and quotation
marks are used around each part of the quotation, e.g.:
“On international level”, he stated, “local know-how will become more
important for attracting international clients”.
3. Sometimes it is not necessary to quote full sentences from a source. You
can integrate a phrase from a source into your own sentence structure, e.g.:
As the general manager points out, attracting young legal talent is a “key
competitive element for law firms”.
4. In order to keep quoted material to a minimum, you may delete or omit a
part of quotation by using the ellipsis mark (three periods, with spaces between),
e.g.:
Michael Watts, a director of the Center for Economic Education, explains
that “market economies have been periodically afflicted by periods of rapidly
rising price levels [. . . ] or by periods with both high rates of inflation and
unemployment”.
5. When it is necessary to insert a comment within quoted material, use
brackets, e.g.:
“ The industry is an integrated system that serves an extensive [geographic]
area, with divisions existing as islands within the larger system’s sphere of
influence”.
6. Quotations which consist of more than four lines is usually set off from
the body of the text (block quotation). Quotation marks are often omitted, e.g.:
Having analyzed the tendency in the food market, analysts came to the
conclusion that companies which meet consumer needs in healthy foods are getting
profit.
Growing demand for healthier kinds of foods and drinks is not a
fashion, but a long-term trend that increasingly affects corporate
profits. Companies which benefit are those that already produce
the kinds of products consumers want, or companies that are taking
steps to adapt existing products.
VERBS AND PHRASES USED TO INTRODUCE THE QUOTATIONS

Familiarize yourself with the various verbs commonly used to introduce
quotations. Here is a partial list:
argues writes points out concludes comments notes
maintains suggests insists observes counters asserts
states claims demonstrates says explains reveals
Each verb has its own nuance. Make sure that the nuance matches your specific
aims in introducing the quotation.
There are other ways to begin quotations. Here are three common phrasings:
In the words of X, . . .
According to X, . . .
In X's view, . . .
As X noted, . . .
Vary the way you introduce quotations to avoid sounding monotonous. But never
sacrifice precision of phrasing for the sake of variety.
Note: Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the
source. They must match the source document word for word and must be
attributed to the original author.
Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own
words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased
material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader
segment of the source and condensing it slightly.
Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including
only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to
the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a
broad overview of the source material.
4. CITING REFERENCES
While it is important for a writer to cite sources in the text, it is also
important to list the references cited at the end of an essay or larger paper that has
referred to other writers [usually entitled “References” or “Works cited”]. A list of
references is necessary so that a reader who may be interested in further
information about the subject can look up the citations at the end of the paper.
(Hall and Jung, 2000)
There are several common styles used to list references.
1. Reference is made to a book:
Last name, First name. Year. The Title of the Journal or Books in Italics or
Underlined. The City of Publication: Publisher’s Name.
Hall, E., Jung, C. 2000. Reflecting on Writing. Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Press.
2. Reference is made to a journal article or a chapter in an edited book:
Last name, Initials. Year. The title of the article or chapter. Name of the
journal. Volume number (issue number), page numbers.
Peleg, I. 1993. “Trends of Censorship and Freedom of Expression.” In
Patterns of Censorship Around the World. 8(2), 205-14.
3. Reference is made to Internet sources:
Author. “Document Title”. Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date
of access.
Rosenberg, Owen. “Selling Organs for Transplant”. Health Issues Update. Winter
2005. 10 March 2007 <http//:www.organdebate.org/Winter2005.html>
THE VERBS USED TO SIGNAL QUOTATIONS
 argues
 agrees
 asserts
 claims
 comments
 compares
 declares
 demonstrates
 disputes
 disagrees
 emphasizes
 illustrates
 implies
 notes
 observes
 responds
 states
Exercise 1. Rewrite these quotations, punctuating them correctly.

1. Life sentences are an effective punishment he said.
2. He yelled answer the phone!
3. My spouse should have a sense of humor she added.
4. Examining the inside cover Bob said this book was printed in 1879.
5. Don’t drive so fast he begged I get nervous.
6. Although my new phone looks terrific he said it has a funny ring.
7. Do you know the difference between direct and indirect taxes she asked.
8. Benjamin Franklin said there never was a good war or a bad peace.
9. According to Hall and Jung citing references is necessary so that a reader who
may be interested in further information about the subject can look up the citations
at the end of the paper.
10. As the manager noted 40 per cent of work-related ill health is due to stress and
mental illness.
Exercise 2. Proofread the text “Secrets of the Maverick Cobbler” for direct and
indirect quotations. Punctuate the quotations correctly, and make other necessary
changes.
Secrets of the Maverick Cobbler
Fifteen years ago, Mr Timpson bought out his partners in the shoe-repair
business that bears his family name. In 1995, he bought Automagic, the shoe-
repair and key-cutting chain. Since then. Timpson has turned to key cutting,
watch and jewellery repairs and engraving, acquired two big high-street rivals
and broken through £100m in annual sales. Still only Mr Timpson owns
shares.
We are committed to being independent. I'm not interested in a deal that
involves equity being given to anybody says Mr Timpson, who is company
chairman, while his son James is managing director. To some, the company
style might seem rather old-fashioned Mr Timpson smiles with holiday
homes for staff and training schemes.
Tight control of the business ensures the company's commitment to what
Mr Timpson calls upside-down management: giving power to those a long way
from head office in Manchester. Mr Timpson believes that the most important staff
are those who cut customers' keys and reheel their shoes. He affirms everyone else,
from area managers to the boardroom, is there to serve the shop staff, who are
given plenty of freedom as long as they prioritize customers' needs.
It would be difficult for some professional manager to come in and
do it our way. I don't expect other people to come up with the ideas. That is
my job or James's job he admits. But I can't then tell them what is going to happen.
I have got to persuade them. My form of management is a lot of communication
says Mr Timpson and it won't work unless they approve of it.
Exercise 3. Write the reference citation for the following texts.

1. The bestseller “Talking God” written by the famous American writer Tony
Hillerman was published in New York in 2001. It was the eighteenth Hillerman’s
book with the famous New York publishing company An Imprint Of
HarperCollinsPublisher.
2. An article titled “Legal Business: Trends and Insights” was written by the
Ukrainian attorney-at-law Denys Sytnyk. It was published in 2009 on pages 16 to
18 of a journal called The Ukrainian Journal of Business Law, which is published
by Yuridicheskaya Practika Publishing, based in Kyiv, Ukraine.
3. An article “Stop Saying Innovation” written by Scott Berkun was posted on the
official site of The Economist (http://ideas.economist.com) on 3 March 2010 under
the rubric Innovation.
Exercise 4. Complete the following steps using the text “Bonds That Keep
Workers Happy”.
Step 1. Paraphrase a section of the text that shows diverging points of view.
Step 2. Choose a quotation from the article and note it.
Step 3. Summarize the article, incorporating your quotation and paraphrase.
Pair Work
Step 4. Exchange your summary with a partner and compare:
- How are your summarize different? Alike?
- Does your partner compare ideas effectively?
- Do you have any suggestions for your partner?
- Did you learn anything from reading your partner’s summary?
- Look at your partner’s quotation. Do you think your partner’s quotation is a good
one? Why?
Bonds That Keep Workers Happy
Many people would laugh at the idea that the workplace can be a
relaxing place. With their mobiles, laptops and BlackBerries, they would be
more likely to complain about the way their work takes over their private
lives.
The employees of Europe's best workplaces take a very different view,
however. One noticeable theme to emerge from this year’s survey is the
strong attraction that many employees feel to their work and the personal
bonds they have with their colleagues and managers.
At Confinimmo, a small Belgian property investment company in this
year's European top 10, employees go on a paid team-building trip each time
a new person joins their department. Celebrations and informal lunches are
another way of bringing employees and managers together. “Although the
company has seen strong growth, it keeps its feeling of a small, familiar team,'”
says one employee.
At Boehringer Ingelheim, a family-owned Danish drug company that has been
in the top 100 since the survey began four years ago, there are social events and
celebrations all year, often attended by employees' children. Champagne and
chocolate are brought out to mark achievements. “Our managing director
knows everyone by his first name,” says one member of the 132-strong workforce.
It is, of course, easier to create a family feeling in a small business. But
bonding is also a feature of the smaller European offices of Microsoft, which is in
this year's top 10. The employees of the software giant in Norway, for example, go
mountain-hiking together and recently climbed seven of the highest mountains in
southern Norway to symbolize their seven business goals.
Bill Mascull, Market Leader
Exercise 5. Practice inserting citations into the text.

Step 1. Imagine that you are writing a paper that includes a discussion about the
importance of organizing space. Here is an excerpt from that paper:
Organizing your home and work space can be one of life’s greatest problems for
some people. Having your spaces organized can make the difference between a
peaceful existence and misery! To conquer this problem, you must first analyze
your own organizational level. We each have a different way of organizing and
also a different concept of what organized means in terms of our own homes and
work spaces. Do you consider yourself “organized”? Are your drawers and closets
as neat as you would like them? Or, are your rooms a mess, but you know exactly
where to find any item that is missing? The first step to becoming organized is to
define what the term means to you and to decide what degree of organization
would bring peace to your life.
Step 2. Incorporate into the above paragraph three direct quotations or three sen-
tences of paraphrased content from the following excerpts from a book titled A
New Way of Looking at Organizing, by Judy Morgenstern. The material is all from
page 1 of the text, published in 1999 by Anchor Books in New York. You may insert
the three sentences (quotations or paraphrased text) anywhere you wish in the
paragraph.
Following is the text from Judy Morgenstern’s book to be incorporated into and
cited in your paper:
If I asked you to describe an organized space, what would you say? From
most people, I hear things like “neat and tidy”, “spare”, “minimalist”, and
“boring”. But an organized space has nothing to do with these traits. There are
people whose homes and offices appear neat as a pin on the surface. Yet, inside
their desk drawers and kitchen cabinets, there is no real system, and things are
terribly out of control. By contrast, there are many people who live or work in a
physical mess, yet feel very comfortable in this environment and can always put
their hands on whatever they need in a second. Could they be considered
organized? Absolutely.
Being organized has less to do with the way an environment looks than how
effectively it functions. If a person can find what she needs when she needs it, feels
unencumbered in achieving her goals, and is happy in her space, then that person is
well organized.
I’d like to propose a new definition of organization: Organizing is the process
by which we create environments that enable us to live, work, and relax exactly as
we want to. When we are organized, our homes, offices, and schedules reflect and
encourage who we are, what we want, and where we are going.
Misconceptions affect the way you think about any process, poisoning your
attitude toward it and eroding even your best efforts to succeed by convincing
you before you start that you're bound to fail. Following is one of the most
common beliefs about organizing, and the debunking facts that will change your
thinking.
Misconception: Organizing is a mysterious talent. Some lucky people are
born with it, while others, like you, are left to suffer.
Fact: Organizing is a skill. In fact, it’s a remarkably simple skill that enyone
can learn.
Step 3. Create a reference citation for this text.
Important Notes For Citing

Sources need to be cited for several types of information:
 Information that has been paraphrased
 Information that has been quoted
 Information such as statistical data, including charts, tables, etc.
 Information that the writer did not have or know before researching the topic

1. What is a summary?
2. What is the purpose of a summary?
3. What is the length of a summary?
4. Should any statements unsupported by the text appear in the summary?
5. Which information should the introduction/body/conclusion include?
6. What is a paraphrase? What is the difference between a paraphrase and a
summary?
7. What is a direct quotation?
8.Which ways of using direct quotations do you know?
9. How to cite references?
UNIT 8 WRITING CONFERENCE ABSTRACT
A conference abstract is a short account of an oral presentation proposed to
the organizers of a conference. It is a widespread and important genre that plays a
significant role in promoting new knowledge within scientific communities, both
national and international.
Nowadays, Ukrainian scholars often try to submit abstracts to international
conferences. For many of our academics, the conference abstract is a kind of a
“pass” to the world research communities that provides, if accepted, various
opportunities for professional contacts and communication.
The abstracts submitted for international and major national conferences are
usually reviewed (sometimes blind-reviewed, i.e. considered without seeing the
names of the authors) by conference committees. A certain number of abstracts
are, as a rule, rejected. Conference abstracts, therefore, participate in the
competition for acceptance and need to impress reviewing committees; that is why
they may be written in a somewhat promotional, self-advertising manner. As
Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995) indicate, a dominant rhetorical feature of
conference abstracts is "interestingness" created by the novelty of a topic and its
presentation in an interesting for the potential audience way.
As conferences in Western countries are usually planned considerably in
advance (abstract deadlines may sometimes be one year before the actual
conference), abstracts may propose uncompleted research , which is planned to be
finalized before the beginning of the conference. Due to such circumstances,
English conference abstracts may provide only some outlines of the investigation
rather than fully report it.
Conference abstracts have certain textual characteristics. They are usually one-
page length (200-300 words) and consist of three paragraphs on average. Some
conferences require in addition a shorter version of an abstract for inclusion in the
conference program. Such versions do not normally exceed 50 words.
As one study of conference abstracts has shown (Yakhontova, 2002), the
conference abstract tends to have five basic rhetorical moves [parts] (although
certain deviations from this structure are quite possible). These moves, which may
be realized by certain rhetorical strategies, are as follows:
1. Outlining the research field (by reference to established knowledge/ importance
claim/previous research).
2. Justifying a particular research/study (by indicating a gap in the previous
research/by counter-claiming/by question-posing/by continuing a tradition).
3. Introducing the paper to be presented at the conference.
4. Summarizing the paper (by giving its brief overview).
5. Highlighting its outcome/results (by indicating the most important results or
their possible applications and/or implications).
Most typically, the first and the second moves are realized in the initial
paragraph of a text, while the following paragraph introduces and summarizes the
paper, and the concluding one highlights the outcome.
Conference abstracts from various research areas may be somewhat different
due to the influence of disciplinary factors. For example, abstracts in hard sciences
tend to be more specific about their findings. They may also provide a brief
description of the research framework in the summarizing the paper move.
Furthermore, the abstracts in this fields generally favour the use of the personal
pronoun we for representing a single author, in contrast to their counterparts in
humanities. Notwithstanding these possible discrepancies, conference abstracts in
many fields seem to have more similarities than differences insofar as they share
generally the same rhetorical organization and textual format (Yakhontova, 2002).
Study the following example in the field of international law:

Truly Humanitarian Intervention
(1. Outlining the research field) In the standard, just war theory, use of this term,
"humanitarian intervention" refers to the use of military force by one nation or
group of nations to stop genocide or other gross human rights violations in another
sovereign nation.
(2. Justifying a particular study) Discussions have always been raised about the
following two problems. First, such purportedly humanitarian intervention, often
ends up killing innocent civilians, violating the principles of just war theory, and
making matters worse. In this sense the word "humanitarian" hardly seems
justified by the outcome, and the conditions that just war offers for such
intervention appear too lenient. Second, only the most horrible, massive, and
violent violations of human rights can justify the use of military force against a
sovereign nation, and therefore many serious evils go uncounted, unnoticed, and
unmitigated. Thus, the term as bounded by just war theory seems too constricted.
(3. Introducing the paper) To find a solution to these problems I begin with the
very basic questions: When are violations of human rights sufficient to require an
international response? What should that response be? These questions quite
plainly raise the danger of ethnocentric and nationalistic bias. Although less
noticed, they also risk androcentric or sexist bias. For example, does mass rape rise
to the level that would license international intervention? What about massive civil
rights violations aimed specifically at women?
(4. Summarizing the paper) The gendered nature of a part of this emerging
political philosophy, namely that portion that concerns intervention for
humanitarian ends was investigated. I argue that massive women's rights violations
can license intervention, but military intervention is often counter-productive to the
aim of achieving women's human rights.
(5. Highlighting conclusions) Thus, a range of responses to human rights
violations that includes military intervention as only one end of the continuum, and
to combine this with a greater understanding of the scope of human rights
violations that require international response should be suggested. The research has
shown a new conception of truly humanitarian treatment within and beyond
international borders, applicable to all kinds of human rights violations, not only
those of women, or of men, but of any or all human beings.
(minor editing)
Useful Phrases for Conference Abstract
Establishing the Importance of the Topic:

One of the most significant current discussions in (field) is ...
It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the …
X is the leading cause of …
X is an important component in … , and plays a key role in Y.
In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...
In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in .
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...
Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...
Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ...
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ...
Highlighting a Problem or Controversy in the Field of Study:

However, a major problem is ...
There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ...
This concept has recently been challenged by recent studies demonstrating ...
One of the most significant current discussions in (field) is ...
Questions have been raised about ...
The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field
of ...
The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ...
One major issue in early X research concerned ...
Highlighting a Knowledge Gap in the Field of Study:

So far, however, there has been little discussion about ...
However, far too little attention has been paid to ...
Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
In addition, no research has been found that .
So far this method has only been applied to …
The issue is rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...
Focus and Aim:

This paper will focus on/examine/give an account of ...
This paper seeks to address the following questions:
This essay/abstract critically examines/discusses/traces ...
The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into ...
This paper will review the research conducted on ...
In this paper I argue that ...
The aim of this paper is to determine/examine ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate and validate …
Outline of Structure:
The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c).
This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with …
This paper begins by .... It will then go on to ...
The first section of this paper will examine ...
Finally, ...
Describing Methods:
A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks.
Data were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during the 2007–
2008 academic year.
Case study approach was chosen to allow a ...
The X method is one of the more practical ways of ...
Highlighting the Outcome:

The paper has explained the central importance of ...
The paper has investigated ...
The paper will conclude by ….
The following conclusions can be drawn.
This study/research has shown that ...
An implication of this is the possibility that ...
Further research might explore/investigate ...
A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to ...
Exercise 1. Study the following conference abstracts in the field of law and
analyze them according to Yakhontova’s “ moves” or parts.
Abstract 1 Prevention of Organized Crime in Europe
The goal of this project is to present the phenomena of "organized crime" and to
suggest some answers to related questions often raised by the public. A significant
element of combating organized crime is prevention, therefore a special section of
this project is intended to finding out how to prevent organized crime and
corruption, its most dangerous aspects in the countries in transition, in particular.
Organized crime is a major problem in most European countries. It is
essential to systematically collect and analyze information and experiences of
organized crime. For this purpose we need to devise an appropriate policy to fight
it and arrive at its internationally recognized definition. What is common so far is
the understanding of the features that characterize the way in which organized
criminal groups operate.
Criminal activities in organized criminal organizations (e.g., drug
trafficking, illicit trafficking in firearms, money laundering, etc.) will be discussed,
offering a description of some of the most notorious criminal organizations ranging
from the "traditional" Mafia to new groups with growing influence in the world of
organized crime.
Due to the danger which organized crime represents to a democratic society,
special emphasis is given to the issues of national and public security. We stress
the importance of an effective criminal policy and law enforcement operations in
response to organized crime. Establishment of preventive measures is the most
important part of any criminal policy. Nowadays, organized crime is crossing
national borders and becoming an international problem, so international co-
operation in suppressing it within INTERPOL, EUROPOL, Schengen Accord, and
other international bilateral and multilateral agreements will be discussed.
Generally speaking, the real victim of corruption and organized crime is
society at large. Therefore, preventive measures are the first step in combating
this evil, particularly in the countries in transition.
(minor editing)
Abstract 2 Judicial Enforcement of Social and Economic Rights:

Why does the American Constitution Lack Social and Economic Rights?
It is well-known that civil and political rights and social and economic rights are
interdependent. The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights has been ratified by majority of countries in the world. Some constitutions
of these countries recognize social and economic rights. The Bill of Rights
proposed by Madison was the first ten amendments to the American Constitution.
The second Bill of Rights first proposed by FDR in 1944 includes some social and
economic rights, such as the right to a job, the right to a decent home, and the
right to a good education. But the second Bill of Rights has not been recognized
by the American Constitution. Why does the American Constitution lack Social
and Economic Rights?
Professor Cass Sunstein explored this question and considered four possible
answers in a new book. I am trying to resolve this question by assessing Sunstein's
four possible answers. I will contend that the answer lies in the judicial
interpretation to the Constitution.
The first explanation is chronologica1. The American Constitution is too old
to create social and economic rights. Sunstein questions this explanation: it faces a
problem that the American Constitution is not frozen. The key question is why the
exciting document has not been interpreted to include social and economic
guarantees. In my opinion, a constitution's meaning changes through textual
amendments and judicial interpretations. It is possible for the American
Constitution to be amended or interpreted to include social and economic rights.
But it didn't happen. So there is no direct relationship between a constitution and
its age.
The second explanation pays attention to the absence of a strong socialist
movement. Sunstein points the fact that nations that have a socialist movement
lack social and economic rights. And nations that lack a strong socialist movement
may include in their constitutions. It is true. FDR argued for social and economic
rights, but he was not a socialist.
The third explanation emphasizes the enforcement of rights. Judges cannot
enforce these rights. Then they are not a set of rights but goals. Sunstein argues
that courts can in fact enforce social and economic rights. I think there is no sharp
difference between economic rights and political rights. Both of them can be
enforced by courts.
The fourth is Sunstein’s own realistic explanation. He says the answer lies in
the 1968 election, as Nixson narrowly defeated Humphrey. Nixon appointed four
justices who insisted that the Constitution did not include social and economic
guarantees. Sunstein is willing to believe if Humphrey has won, he would have
appointed justices who would protect the social and economic rights.
It can be concluded that in Sunstein’s opinion the president is most
important to constitutional change. I contend the meaning of American
Constitution depends on the justices. It changes because of new interpretations. For
example, when the bill of rights was first ratified, it was not applicable to the
States. It is in a long process for the court to make new interpretations to hold that
the bill of rights is binding on the American states. The second bill did not become
part of the American Constitution through amendment but through interpretation.
In the 1960s, the Supreme Court came very close to ruling that the Constitution
protects important parts of the second bill of rights by interpreting the existing
constitution. The court in some cases protected the poor through interpreting
fourteenth amendment. But this trend was reversed by later justices. I insist that it
is not presidents but justices who play an important role in constitutional change.
Justices can enforce social and economic rights by interpreting the existing
constitution.
Exercise 2. Consider the abstract in the field of taxation and rewrite it using useful
phrases for conference abstract.
Taxes and Growth in Europe
The effect of taxes on aggregate economic activity is one of the least contested
areas in theoretical macroeconomics. Both neoclassical and Keynesian theoretical
models, for example, predict that higher taxes reduce economic activity, even
though there is less agreement on the exact mechanisms that generate this result.
The issue has not been pursued empirically with anything like the
dedication that has characterized the much more vigorously debated effects of
monetary policy. A recent important exception has been the study by Romer and
Romer (2007) who construct a novel measure of "exogenous" tax shocks and
estimate its short-run and long-run economic effects.
The present paper contributes to the empirical side of the question using a
panel methodology that analyzes annual data from the 1965 to 2003 period for 26
OECD economies. Our empirical findings show that higher taxes do indeed
result in a reduction of GDP per capita that is sizable and persistent. While the
exact size of the effect depends on how the "tax shock" is measured, our
estimates suggest that an increase in the total tax rate by 1 % of GDP will have a
long-run effect on GDP per capita of -0.5% to -1%. This is smaller than Romer
and Romer's (2007) rather large estimated effect (approximately -3%), but much
closer to the effects obtained by Karras (1999) for a smaller OECD sample, and
by Blanchard and Perotti (2002) and Romer and Bernstein (2009) for the U.S.
We also look at the effects of four of the largest types of taxes: taxes on
income, profits, and capital gains; taxes on property; social security contributions;
and taxes on goods and services. They all have negative effects on GDP per
capita, and that an increase in social security contributions or taxes on goods and
services has a larger negative effect on per capita output than an increase in
income tax.
Section 2 discusses the sources of the data and defines the variables to be used
in the estimation. Section 3 outlines the estimation methodology, derives the main
empirical results, and implements a number of robustness checks. Section 4
discusses the findings and some possible extensions, and offers a conclusion.
(minor editing)
Exercise 3. Compare your Ukrainian abstracts with the English ones. Are there
any similarities/differences in the rhetorical and textual organization of the texts?
Exercise 4. Write your own conference abstract of 200-300 words based on your
field of research.

1. What is a conference abstract?
2. What is the length of a conference paper?
3. How is a conference abstract organized?
4. Are there any differences between English conference abstracts and the
Ukrainian ones.
UNIT 9 WRITING TITLES
Titles are important components of academic and research writing
“responsible” for gaining readers’ attention and facilitating positive
perceptions of any kind of written research. John M. Swales and Christine B.
Feak, linguists and authors on academic writing textbooks, suggest the
following requirements for good academic titles:
1. The title should indicate the topic of the study.
2. The title should indicate the scope of the study (i.e., neither overstating nor
understating its significance).
2. The title should be self-explanatory to readers in the chosen area.
In English research writing, there is a tendency now to compose eye-catching
titles [. . . ], which aim at gaining readers’ attention (usually such titles appear
before conference abstracts and journal papers in certain fields). Writing such titles
requires, however, some experience and is not generally advised for beginning
writers.
Titles may have quite different syntactic structures. The main structural types
of English titles are as follows.
1. Nominative constructions, that is titles with one or more nouns as principal
elements.
[Inflation and Transition to a Market Economy]
2. “Colon”-titles consisting of two parts separated by a colon. One of the colon’s
typical functions is to separate ideas in such combinations as the following:
Before the Colon: After the Colon
Problem: Solution
General: Specific
Topic: Method
Major: Minor
[Legal Regulation of E-Commerce: World Trends and Ukrainian Reality]
3. Titles consisting of two parts (of different syntactic types) separated by a
punctuation mark other than the colon. These constructions are close in their
rhetorical features to “colon”- titles.
[Corruption – Transnational Aspects]
4. Verbal constructions, that is titles containing a non-finite form of a verb as a
principal element.
[Combating Economic Crimes in Developing Countries]
5. Titles in the form of complete sentences.
Language is not a Physical Object
There are also some other types of titles, which are, however, less widespread in
English academic discourse.
1. Titles beginning with the prepositions on, to, toward(s).
[On Some Legal Aspect of Alcohol and Tobacco Advertizing on TV]
2. Nominative titles with the conjunction as.
Writing as Language
The types and length of titles vary across fields. Hard and natural sciences
usually use long, detailed nominative titles.
Postoperative Chemotherapy and Delayed Radiation in Children Less than
Three Years of Age with Malignant Brain Tumors
Social sciences and humanities tend to use shorter but more diverse types of
titles, often with the preference for “colon” -titles. Such titles separate ideas in
the relation of “general-specific” with the first part indicating a research area and
the second one naming an object/aspect of the investigation. “Colon” -titles may
consist of the parts with quite different syntactic structures. For example, in the
title “The Stress Axis at Work: How the Body Copes with Life's Challenges” the
first part is a nominative construction, while the second one is a clause
(Yakhontova, 2002).
Although the title comes first in an RP [research paper], it may
sometimes be written last. Its final form may be long delayed and much
thought about and argued over. Authors know that titles are important, they
know that the RP will be known by its title, and they know that a successful
title will attract readers while an unsuccessful one will discourage readers
(Swales and Feak, 1994).
Rules for Capitalizing and Lowercasing Words in Titles and Subtitles

Titles and subtitles require certain words to be capitalized and others lowercased.
Below is a reference for the different situations of writing titles.
Basic Rules (According to The Chicago Manual Style)
 Always capitalize the first and last word.

 Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinate
conjunctions (as, because, although).
 Lowercase of all articles, coordinate conjunctions (and, or, nor), and
prepositions regardless of length, when they are other than the first or last
word.
 Lowercase the “to” in an infinitive.
 Capitalize hyphenated and open compounds. Capitalize the second word
attached by a hyphen to prefixes only if they are proper nouns or proper
adjectives.
 Never use periods.
Exercise 1. Characterize the following titles in terms of their syntactic
structures.
1. Tax “Worries” Regarding Investment
2. Bankruptcy Regulation in Ukraine
3. Technology as a Source of Economic Change
4. Pro-activity, Partnership and Prevention: the UK Contribution to Policing
Organized Crime in Europe
5. Cash is Dead: Think Again!
6. Cyber Viruses – How Business Can Win in a Battle that is not yet Won
7. Declaring Contracts Void: Tomorrow’s Possibilities and Problem Areas
8. Real and Potential Opportunities of Printed Mass Media
Exercise 2. Expand the following titles by adding the second part.

1. Legal Business:
2. Navigating Tax Audits in Ukraine:
3. What Women Do in Wartime:
4. Corruption in Ukraine:
5. Ukrainian Tax Police Management Education and Research:
6. The Changing Face of Digital CCTV:
Exercise 3. Choose the best title for the given text.

Virgin Mobile is a phone operator that provides a wide range of mobile
communication services to its customers in the UK. Competition between
mobile phone operators is strong and winning a large market share in the
student market is vital. Students use their mobile phones a lot – to call friends
and family, and also to get the information and play games. There are 2.5
million students in the UK, and 96% of them own a mobile phone. But it is
difficult to market to students because they are hard to reach and are cynical
about sales pitch. Virgin Mobile has decided that the best way to promote the
brand to students is to find insiders: student marketers who will work on
promotional campaigns in their own universities.
1. Marketing to Students.
2. Guerilla Marketing.
3. Students Like Mobile Phones.
Exercise 4. Read the texts and write the most appropriate titles for them.
1. The right of the entrepreneur to have a value added tax (VAT) credit is very
important as it allows the considerable amount of money to be saved. The
order for recording tax sums paid as a tax credit is clarified in clause 4 of the
Article 7 of the VAT Act of Ukraine. However, some provisions of this Act
allow the time of the beginning of a right to record sums as a tax credit to be
interpreted differently. This is why the courts usually consider a lot of claims
with regard to the mentioned issue.
2. Fifty years ago, when products were more individual, manufacturers had the
upper hand. They could charge a lot for successful items because they were made
in small quantities. As competition increased and became more global, there were
more products to choose from and they increasingly resembled each other. This
gave retailers the advantage because they could pick and choose which products to
sell, and demand the best prices from suppliers. Now the consumer is taking
command.
The arrival of the internet is one of the things responsible for the big shift in
power. The web makes it easy for people to discover who offers the best deal. This
could still be a retailer, but it could also be a manufacturer selling directly to
consumers, or a trader on eBay.
3. Working out where great ideas come from is one of the big puzzles of modern
management. Corporate research laboratories and in-house product development
groups are only part of the answer. Innovative products and processes can come
from start-ups, competitors, university campuses and ordinary employees.
Eric von Hippel, a professor of management of innovation at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has spent three decades studying the role
played by customers in shaping new products. The results are nicely summarised
in Democratizing Innovation, a useful book on what he calls “user-centered
innovation.”
4. Step aside, Apple and Microsoft. If MIT’s little Sixth Sense gadget sees the
commercial light of day, we can toss our multitouch devices out the window. Who
needs a Surface or an iPhone when the very idea of being able to access
information by turning any flat surface into a touch-screen display sounds far more
appealing? No surface available? Simply project a screen onto your hand, and
voila. The folks at MIT have christened their wearable prototype Wear Ur World
(WUW), a device cobbled together using everyday gizmos like a mobile projector,
Webcam, and mobile phone.
In the near future, WUW could become an indispensible digital wrist
companion to enhance your lifestyle. It could provide product and price
comparison information when shopping, retrieve flight information to let the
wearer know about delays, automatically pull up related information from the Web
when requested, and even snap pictures when you frame a subject with your
fingers.
1. Which requirements are suggested for writing good academic titles?
2. What are the main structural types of English titles?
3. What do the types and lengths of titles depend on?
4. Is it always necessary to write the title first?
5. When do we capitalize words in titles and subtitles?
UNIT 10 TRANSLITERATION
Transliteration is the practice of converting a text from one writing system

into another in a systematic way. From an information-theoretical point of view,
transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, word by
word, or ideally letter by letter. Transliteration attempts to use a one-to-one
correspondence and be exact, so that an informed reader should be able to
reconstruct the original spelling of unknown transliterated words. To achieve this
objective, transliteration may define complex conventions for dealing with letters
in a source script which do not correspond with letters in a goal script (Wikipedia).
On 19 April 1996, an official Ukrainian-English transliteration system was

adopted by the Ukrainian Legal Terminology Commission (Decision N 9)
 Use of the approved system is not mandatory for the transliteration of

foreign names into Ukrainian.
 Transliteration should be made directly between Ukrainian and English
without the use of any intermediary languages.
 Decision 9, in accordance with the Legal Terminology Commission’s
express authority, is binding only for the transliteration of Ukrainian names
in English in legislative and official acts.
 For brevity’s sake, the system routinely allows for names such as the city of
“Zaporizhzhia” to be given as “Zaporizhia,” “L’viv” as “Lviv,” etc. Also
included is a short list of official spellings for miscellaneous terms:
“Ukraine” (no use of the article ”the”), “Crimea” (as opposed to “Krym”),
“Black Sea,” and “Sea of Azov”. In certain cases, “traditional” forms may be
shown in parentheses after the official form: “Dnipro (Dnieper).”
 In addition, apostrophe marks and softening marks may be omitted upon
transliteration into English.
Ukrainian English
Note Example
letter letter
A A - Алушта - Alushta
Б B - Борщагівка - Borschahivka
В V - Вижгород - Vyshhorod
Г H, gh - Гадяч - Hadiach
Г´ G - Г´алаган - Galagan
Д D - Дон - Don
Е E - Рівне - Rivne
Ye - at the beginning of words, ia - in

Є Ye, ie Єнакієве - Yenakiieve
other positions
Ж Zh - Житомир - Zhytomyr
З Z - Закарпаття - Zakarpattia
И Y - Медвин - Medvyn
І I - Іршава - Irshava
Yi - at the beginning of words, ii - in Їжакевич - Yizhakevych; Кадіївка

Ї I
other positions - Kadiivka
Y - at the beginning of words, ³ - in other Йосипівка - Yosypivka; Стрий-

Й Y, i
positions Stryi
К K - Київ - Kyiv
Л L - Лебедин - Lebedyn
М M - Миколаїв - Mykolaiv
Н N - Ніжин - Nizhin
О O - Одеса - Odesa
П P - Полтава - Poltava
Р R - Ромни - Romny
С S - Суми - Sumy
Т T - Тетерів - Teteriv
У U - Ужгород - Uzhhorod
Ф F - Фастів - Fastiv
Х Kh - Харків - Kharkiv
Ц Ts - Біла Церква - Bila Tserkva
Ч Ch - Чернівці - Chernivtsi
Ш Sh - Шостка - Shostka
Щ Sch - Гоща -Hoscha
Ь ‘ (see commentary) Русь - Rus’; Львів - L’viv
Yu - at the beginning of words, iu - in Юрій – Yurii; Людмила -

Ю Yu, iu
other positions Liudmyla
Ya - at the beginning of words, ia - in

Я Ya, ia Яготин - Yahotyn; Ічня - Ichnia
other positions
‘ (apostrophe) “ (see commentary) Знам’янка - Znamianka

According to Karaban (2003), the following spellings are used to transliterate
some proper names:
1. ks: Ksenia, Oleksander
2. iya, ia: Nataliya, Lydia
3. At the end of the name - iy, i: Valeri, Yuriy, Anatoliy
4. ai: Maiboroda
5. At the end of the name - yi, y: Zadorozhny, Kaminsky, but also
Khmelnytskyi, Lisovyi.
Exercise 1. Transliterate the following proper names:

Богдан, Вінниця, Ірпінь, Житомир, Київ, Львів, Ярослав, В’ячеслав,
Ірина, Щербань, Ніжин, Алчевськ, Стрий, Шелест;
Олесь Гончар, Марко Вовчок, Панас Мирний, Григорій Сковорода, Іван
Котляревський, Михайло Коцюбинський, Леся Українка.
Exercise 2. Write in English the names of your classmates. Compare and

discuss your versions with a partner.
CRAMMAR TROUBLESPOTS
ARTICLES
Incorrect use of articles is probably the most common error made by non-native
speakers of English, no matter what their native language, because the usage rules
are quite complex. Incorrect use of these words can interfere with communication,
especially if the errors are pervasive, or at the very least, can mark your writing as
non-native.
Ukrainian does not have anything like English definite/indefinite articles. This fact
can cause a language problem that students have with English articles.
Using articles.
The indefinite article (a/an)
a) the object is mentioned for the first time:
e.g.: A book is on the table.
b) the object is mentioned in the meaning of “any member of the class:
e.g.: A dog is an animal.
c) in situations of classification or definition:
e.g.: Ann is a student.
d) the noun is used in “the meaning of one”:
e.g.: We have two English classes a week.
The definite article (the)

a) the object has already been mentioned:
e.g.: This is a book. The book is interesting.
b) the object is seen and pointed to at the moment of speech:
e.g.: Look at the blackboard.
c) the object is part of another object, which has already been mentioned:
e.g.: My flat is nice, but the kitchen is small.
d) the object has a specific, unique identity (the moon, the sun, the earth, the sky;
the University of London; the White House; the best advice; the first situation):
e.g.: Take me to the moon.
e) the whole class of people described by an adjective:
e.g.: The rich don’t understand the poor.
f) with any noun that is followed by an of phrase:
e.g.: The results of our study was impressive.
The zero article

a) non- count or plural nouns:
e.g.: Cats catch mice.
They were good musicians.
b) before noun+number (Platform 5, Room 12, page 51, Section A) :
e.g.: Have you got these shoes in size 42?
Articles with proper nouns

In general, don’t use an article...
a) with the name of a city, state, country or continent:
e.g.: Paris, California, Ukraine, Asia
b) with singular islands, lakes, and mountains:
e.g.: Bermuda, Baikal, Everest
c) with the names of languages:
e.g.: English, Russian
Use the…
a) with names of countries containing a plural noun like “States” or/and “of”:
e.g.: the United States of America, the People’s Republic of China
b) names in abbreviations:
e.g.: the USA, the FRG
c) with geographical locations (canals, deserts, forests, islands, oceans, rivers,
seas):
e.g.: the Panama Canal, the Amazon River, the Black Sea, the Pacific Ocean
Problems with articles

1. To use a/an correctly, know which nouns are non-count or count. Never use
a/an with non-count nouns.
e.g.: A recent research found an important information
concerning...(WRONG).
Recent research found important information concerning...(CORRECT).
Non-count nouns are grammatically singular. They include:
 food and drink: bread, beef, butter, candy, cheese, chicken, chocolate,
coffee, fish, fruit, ice cream, meat, milk, oil, rice salt, sugar, tea, water
 nonfood substances: air, coal, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain,
silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
 abstract concepts: advice, anger, evidence, fun, happiness, health,
information, knowledge, love, news, truth, work
 areas of study: architecture, literature, physics, science
 other: clothing, equipment, furniture, jewelry, luggage, mail, money,
news, pollution, research, traffic, transportation, weather, work
To express an approximate amount, use one of the following quantifiers with a

non-count noun: a great deal of, little (a little), any, more, much (a lot of), plenty of
some.
e.g.: any sugar, enough money, little time, more coffee, plenty of paper,
some tea
To express a more specific amount, use the following combinations:
e.g.: a bottle of water, a loaf of bread, a piece of meat, a slice of bread
In Ukrainian many non-count nouns like advice, news, fruit, jewelry are viewed as
countable. This feature can be transferred to equivalent English nouns, and this
results in two types of errors:
a) Plural ending are added to these non-count nouns:
e.g.: They provided him with useful advices.
b) Indefinite and definite articles are placed before the singular form of the
noun:
e.g.: It was easy to him to develop and incorporate a prior information into
his research.
2. Don't forget to use a/an with singular count nouns, even when they are preceded
by an adjective:
e.g.: Cat is independent creature (WRONG).
A cat is an independent creature (CORRECT).
3. Avoid the need for articles altogether by using plural count nouns, which are
usually preferred for general statements and do not require the use of a/an. Make
sure the nouns, verbs, and pronouns in the whole sentence are in numerical
agreement:
e.g.: Cats are independent creatures who retain much of the fierceness of
their wild cousins —lions, tigers, etc.
4. Omitting articles. Students whose native language does not have anything like
English articles (Ukrainian, Russian, Korean) often simply do not insert them
before count nouns when this is obligatory. Both indefinite and definite articles are
dropped, as examples show.
e.g.: The average debt rate of (the) 30 largest countries at the end of ’96 was
386.5 percentages.
Many countries in the world do not recognize the serious effect of
destroying (the) environment.
Exercise 1. Complete the following sentences by adding a, an, the, or ᴓ (no

article) when appropriate.
The Amistad
In 1997, ___ film was made about ___ true story of ___ group of
___Africans who were kidnapped in ___ Africa.
___ Africans were captured and transported across ___ Atlantic Ocean to
___ Cuba on ___ ship named ___ Tecoro. On ___ journey to ___ Cuba, about one-
third of ___ Africans died. They had shortages of ___ food and ___ water, so ___
sailors put about 50 Africans in ___ net weighted down with ___ heavy balls and
threw ___ Africans into ___ sea.
When ___ remaining Africans arrived in ___ Havana, they were sold as ___
slaves to two Spanish landowners. On ___ trip from ___ Havana to ___ owner’s
sugar fields, ___ slaves got free and killed ___ sailors. They forced ___ two
owners to sail ___ ship, called ___ Amistad, back to ___ Africa. However, ___
owners tricked ___ Africans. At night, they sailed back toward ___ Cuba.
Eventually, ___ Amistad ran aground near New York. ___ U.S. ship
captured ___ Africans and put them in ___ prison in ___ Connecticut. When ___
court case started, ___ few Americans who opposed ___ slavery spoke in favour of
___ Africans. ___ lawyer defended ___ Africans. ___ Africans won their first
court battle; however, ___ case was appealed to ___ U.S. Supreme Court.
In ___ end, ___ Africans won, and they were allowed to return home to ___
Africa.
Exercise 2. Insert the articles a, an, and the where English require them.
Moon Cannot Be Stolen
Ryokan, who was Zen master, lived simple life in little hut at foot of
mountain. One evening thief visited hut only to discover there was nothing in it to
steal.
Ryokan returned and caught him. “You may have come long way to visit
me,” he told prowler, “and you should not return empty-handed. Please take my
clothes as gift.” Thief was bewildered. He took Roykan’s clothes and slunk away.
Ryokan sat naked, watching moon. “Poor fellow,” he mused, “I wish I could give
him this beautiful moon.”
PASSIVE SENTENCES
Sentences in the Passive voice are an important part of English writing.
Forming Passive voice:

- Subject + Verb + Object – active voice.
e.g.: The researchers compared the behavior of two groups of children.
- Subject + Verb + Agent - passive voice.
e.g.: The behavior of two groups of children was compared by the
researchers.
- Passive voice without an agent phrase:
e.g.: The house was built two years ago.
The largest number of agentless passives is found in the academic writing. The
reason for this is that writers of academic prose are concerned about
generalizations, methods and results rather than individuals.
e.g.: Our grapes are usually harvested in late August./////////////////////////
Passive sentences appear far more frequently in written than in spoken English.
Converting a sentence in the active voice into one in the passive voice:
a). Move the subject to the end of the sentence and place by in front of it.
b). Move an object after the verb into subject position.
c). Change the verb to a past participle, put an appropriate form of be in

front of it.
Problems with Passive voice
1. Incomplete passivization: omitted Past Participle and/or the verb be.

e.g.: These ways can classify two types (WRONG).
These ways can be classified into two types (CORRECT).
2. Overpassivization of active sentences.

e.g.: According to the research survey by City University, 62% of the
surveyed companies were worried about internal security problems (WRONG).
According to the research survey by City University, 62% of the surveyed
companies worried about internal security problems (CORRECT).
3. Only verbs that are followed by an object can be used in the passive. It is not
possible to use verbs such as come, exist, happen, seem, and sleep (intransitive
verbs) in the passive.
e.g.: Something was happened (WRONG).
Something happened (CORRECT).
4. Verbs such as be born, be rumored, be reputed, only appear in passive

sentences; they do not have corresponding active sentences.
e.g.: He was born in 1993 (CORRECT).
Someone bore him in 1993 (WRONG).
5. Verbs in the Present Perfect Continuous sound extremely awkward in the

passive voice. Avoid passivizing active sentences with the Present Perfect
Continuous Tense.
e.g.: He has been winning this event for years(CORRECT).
This event has been being won by him for years (WRONG).
Exercise 1. Identify the errors in the sentences below.

1. Irrational emotions are bad but rational emotions must use for judging.
2. I am sure that my company can list in the biggest 100 companies in the world.
3. I was grown up in England, but now I live in Sweden.
4. The explosion at the factory was occurred on Thursday morning.
5. Corn is popped by Native Americans more than five hundred years ago.
6. The article has been being written by her for two days already.
Exercise 2. Choose the appropriate verb forms to complete the following

paragraph. Pay attention to the subject of the sentences to determine if the
sentences are active voice or passive voice sentences.
Many new measures (have established/have been established) in the United States
since the September 11, 2001, attacks. Police (have been intensified/have
intensified) their searches of people and their belongings as they (are entered/enter)
government buildings and other places. For example, security guards at popular
monuments like the Statue of Liberty (are being searched/are searching) visitors
more carefully. Visitors’ bags (are scanned/are scanning) by electronic devices.
Also, tours of the White House (have canceled/have been canceled) as a result of
security fears. Even the streets in front of government buildings like the
Independence Hall National Park in Philadelphia (have been closed/have closed) to
drivers. Across the country, police (are setting up/are being setting up) checkpoints
outside of airports. For instance, police (are inspected/inspect) vehicles at several
key points on highways leading to Bush International Airport in Houston, Taxes.
The police (are stopped/stop) drivers and (ask/are asked) them to open their car
trunks. Even visitors to Disneyland and Disney World (are stopped/stop) at the
entrance gates. Police (open/are opened) their bags and (are looked/look) through
them. All these security measures (are being taken/are taking) to prevent bombing
and other acts of violence. However, they (make/are made) life less convenient for
many Americans.
MULTI-WORD VERBS
English has a large number of verbs that consist of combination of a verb and a
preposition or an adverb. These multi-word verbs are called phrasal or
prepositional verbs.
In spite of the fact that phrasal and prepositional verbs are mostly used in speech,
fiction, and news reports such verbs as refer to, live on, be related to, lead to,
result in, contribute to, allow for etc. are used with greater frequency in academic
English than in conversation.
Problems with multi-word verbs

1) Omitting the appropriate English preposition.
When Ukrainian equivalent of English verb has no preposition, the latter can be
omitted.
e.g.: Кожен день я слухаю ˟ радіо.
Every day I listen the radio. (WRONG)
Every day I listen to the radio. (CORRECT)
Я закінчив університет у 2007.
I graduated the University at 2007. (WRONG)
I graduated from the University at 2007. (CORRECT)
Дати список дієслів з прийменниками, які мають і не мають

еквіваленти в укр. Мові.
2) Inserting the “unnecessary” preposition.
Ukrainian verb has a preposition but the appropriate English verb doesn’t. The
Ukrainian equivalent of English enter takes a preposition to before the object.
e.g..: Я вступив до університету у 2002 році.
I entered to the University at 2002. (WRONG)
I entered the University at 2002. (CORRECT)
Всі студенти відповідають на запитання.
All students are answering to the questions. (WRONG)
All students are answering the questions. (CORRECT)
3) Incorrect verb+preposition sequence.

In the example the verb look for (seek - шукати) has appeared instead of look after
(care for, tend - доглядяти).
e.g..: The women can accept changes like spending most of their time
looking for babies happily and willingly.
Exercise 1. Explain why the sentences below are ungrammatical.

1. When I look a work of art I can tell if it is good.
2. If students do not accept the culture of the country and persist their isolation
from it, they may miss a chance at experiencing something new and exiting.
3. I don’t think that his opinions fit with the goals of education.
4. On the exam all of the students are answering to the questions at their own
speed.
5. All the time I listen English and the teachers all talk in English.
Exercise 2. Complete each sentence using only one word.

1. Our neighbors apologized for making so much noise.
2. I feel lazy. I don’t feel like …… any work.
3. I wanted to go out alone but Joe insisted on …… with me.
4. I’m fed up with my job. I’m thinking of …… something else.
5. We have decided against …… a new car because we can’t really afford it.
6. I hope you write to me soon. I’m looking forward to …… from you.
7. The weather was extremely bad and this prevented us from …… out.
8. The man who has been arrested is suspected of …… a false passport.
9. I think you should apologize to Sue for …… so rude to her.
10. Some parents don’t approve of their children …… a lot of television.
11. I’m sorry I can’t come to your party but thank you very much for …… me.
APPENDIX 1
CONFUSED WORDS
English has many words with similar pronunciation and spelling. Be
sure that the word you use is the word you mean.
1. accept: take
except : leave out, to exclude
2. advise: give counsel
advice: counsel
3. air: atmosphere
err: make a mistake
4. affect: influence (verb)
affect: a particular psychological state (noun)
effect: impact and purpose (noun)
effect: bring about (verb)
5. a lot: many
allot: divide
6. altar: a platform upon which religious rites are perform
alter: change
7. allowed: given permission
aloud: out loud, verbally
8. all together: all at one time
altogether: completely
9. allude: refer to
elude: escape
10. already: previously
all ready: completely prepared
11. allusion: a reference to a well-known place, event, person work of art, or other
work of literature
illusion: a misleading appearance or a deception
12. among: three or more people, places, or things
between: two people, places, or things
13. amount: things that can’t be counted (example: amount of sunlight)
number: things that can be counted (example: number: of bricks)
14. arc: part of the circumference of a circle; curved line
ark: boat
15. are: plural verb
our: belonging to us
16. ascent: move up
assent: agree
17. bare: undressed
bare: unadorned, plain
bear: large wild animal
bear: carry, hold
18. base: the bottom part of an object; the plate in baseball; morally low
bass: the lowest male voice; a type of fish; a musical instrument
19. beau: sweetheart
bow: bend from the waist; a device used to propel arrows; loops of ribbon;
the forward end of a ship
20. berth: a sleeping area in a ship
birth: being born
21. board: a thin piece of wood; a group of directors
bored: not interested
22. born: native, brought forth by birth
borne: endured (past participle of “to bear")
23. bore: tiresome person
boar: male pig
24. brake: a device for slowing a vehicle
break: crack or destroy
25. bread: baked goods
bred: cause to be born
26. breadth: the side-to-side dimension
breath: inhalation and exhalation
27. bridal: pertaining to the bride or a wedding
bridle: part of a horse’s harness
28. buy: purchase
by: near or next to
29. capital: the city or town that is the official seat of government; highly
important; net worth of a business
Capitol: the building in Washington D.C. where the U.S. Congress meets
30. conscience: moral sense
conscious: awake
31. cell: a small room, as in a convent or prison
sell: trade
32. cent: a penny
scent: aroma
33. cheep: what a bird says
cheap: not expensive
34. deer: animal
dear: beloved
35. do: act or make (verb)
due: caused by (adjective)
36. draft: breeze
draft: sketch
37. dye: change color
died: ceased living
38. emigrate: move away from one's country
immigrate: move to another country
39. eminent: distinguished
imminent: expected momentarily
immanent: inborn, inherent
40. fare: price charged for transporting a passenger
fair: not biased; moderately large; moderately good
41. faze: stun
phase: a stage in someone's behavior
42. for: because
four: the number 4
43. gorilla: ape
guerrilla: soldier
44. grate: irritate, reduce to small pieces
great: big, wonderful
45. hair: the stuff on your head
heir: beneficiary of a deceased person’s estate
hare: rabbit like animal
46. here: in this place
hear: listen
47. hours: 60-minute period
ours: belonging to us
48. it's: contraction for "it is"
its: possessive pronoun
49. lay: to put down
lie: be flat
50. lead: conduct
lead: bluish-gray metal
led: past tense of "to lead"
51. loose: not tight, not fastened (noun)
loose: untighten or let go (verb)
lose: misplace (verb)
52. meat: animal flesh
meet: encounter; proper
53. peace: calm
piece: section
54. plain: not beautiful; obvious; also, a flat stretch of land
plane: airplane; in geometry, a two-dimensional surface
55. presence: company, closeness
presents: gifts
56. principal: main; head of a school
principle: rule
57. reed: plants
read: interpret the written word
58. right: correct
write: form letters
59. than: comparison
then: at that time
60. their: belonging to them
they’re: contraction for “they are”
there: place
APPENDIX 2
“FALSE FRIENDS OF A TRANSLATOR”
"False friends of a translator" are words that sound or look similar to words in
Ukrainian but have different meaning.
1. Accurate - правильний, точний

Акуратний - neat, punctual
2. Actual – фактичний
Актуальний – topical
3. Artist - художник
Артист - actor
4. Balloon – повітряна кулька

Балон - Bottle, bulb
5. Camera - фотоапарат
Камера – cell
6. Clay - глина
Клей - glue
7. Colon – двокрапка
Колона - column
8. Complexion – колір обличчя

Комплекція - physique
9. Compositor – складач, набирач

Композитор - composer
10. Corpse - труп

Військовий корпус - corps
11. Criminal - злочинець

Крімінал - crime
12. Data - дані

Дата – date
13. Direction - напрямок

Дирекція - management
14. Dutch – голандський

Датський – Danish
15. Extra – додатковий

Екстра - super
16. Fable - байка

Фабула – plot
17. Fabric- тканина

Фабрика - factory
18. Focus - увага

Фокус (трюк) – trick
19. Fraction - дріб

Фракція - faction
20. Intelligence - розум
Інтелігенція – clerisy
21. List- список

Лист - piece of paper
22. Mark – знак, позначка

Марка - stamp
23. Mayor - мер

Майор - major
24. Magazine - журнал

Магазин - store, shop
25. Novel - роман

Новелла - short story
26. Obligation- зобов’язання

Облігація – bond
27. Prospect - перспекитива

Проспект - avenue
28. Production- виробництво

Продукція - product
29. Physician – лікар-терапевт

Фізик - physicist
30. Protection - захист

Протекція - favour
31. Receipt – квитанція, чек

Recite - рецепт
32. Troops - війська

Трупи - corpses
APPENDIX 3
LATIN EXPRESSIONS
Even though Latin is considered a dead language (no country officially
speaks it), its influence upon other languages makes it still important. Latin words
and expressions are present in virtually all the languages around the world, as well
as on different scientific and academic fields.
Below is a list of the most used and important Latin words and expressions.
Daniel Scocco
1. A.D. (Anno Domini) - нашої ери (н.е.)
2. ad hoc – спеціальний, для даного випадку
3. ad infinitum – до безкінечності
4. Ad interim – тимчасовий
5. ad memorandum – для пам’яті
6. ad verbum – дослівно, буквально
7. a.m. (ante meridiem) – до полудня
8. appendix – додаток, доповнення
9. a priori - апріорі, до досвіду
10. B.C. (before Christ) – до нашої ери (до н.е.)
11. consensus – згода
12. consilium - нарада
13. coqito ergo sum – мислю, отже існую
14. corpus delicti – склад злочину
15. de facto – де факто, насправді, фактично
16. de jure – де юре, за правом, юридично
17. delictum - правопорушення
18. divide et impera – поділяй і володарюй
19. e.g. (exempli gratia) – наприклад
20. et al. (et alia) – і так далі і тому подібно
21. etc. (et cetera) – і так далі
22. ex lege – за законом
23. ex lex – поза законом
24. homo homini lupus est – людина людині – вовк
25. index – показчик, виписка
26. i. m. (in margine) – на полях
27. in persona – особисто
28. ius non scriptum – неписане право
29. l.s. (locus signi) – місце печатки
30. NB (nota bene) – нотабене, звернути особливу увагу (позначка)
31. non liquet (N.L.) – не зрозуміло
32. pax - мир
33. per capita – на душу населення
34. persona grata – особа бажана, дипломат
35. persona non grata – особа небажана
36. p.m. post meridiem – після полудня
37. post factum – після зробленого
38. P.S. post scriptum – постскриптум, приписка (до написаного)
39. P.P.S. post postscriptum – пост поскриптум, друга приписка
40. pro et contra – за і проти
41. status quo – статус-кво, існуючий стан (фактичний чи правовий)
42. terra incognita – невідома земля, щось невідоме, незрозуміле
43. veni vidi vici – прийшов, побачив, переміг
44. versus – проти, всупереч
45. via – через
46. vice versa - навпаки
APPENDIX 4
Правила Утворення Англійських Неправильних Дієслів
Всі три форми одинакові
Infinitive Past Ind. Past Perfect Translation
beat beat beat, beaten бити

cost cost cost коштувати
cut cut cut різати
hit hit hit бити; ударяти(ся)
let let let дозволяти
put put put класти
set set set ставити, установлювати
shut shut shut закривати(ся)
split split split розщеплювати(ся); розколювати(ся)
spread spread spread простягати(ся)
Друга і третя форми одинакові ( закінчуються на ought/aught [o:t])

bring brought brought приносити
buy bought bought купувати
catch caught caught ловити
fight fought fought битися
teach taught taught навчати
think thought thought думати
D в першій формі змінюється на t

build built built будувати
send sent sent посилати, надсилати
spend spent spent тратити (час; гроші)
До першої форми додається t в кінці

deal dealt dealt мати справу
dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed снитися; мріяти
learn learnt learnt вивчати
mean meant meant означати
smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt пахнути; нюхати
spoil spoiled, spoilt spoiled, spoilt псувати; балувати
feel felt felt відчувати

keep kept kept тримати, зберігати
leave left left покидати; залишити
sleep slept slept спати
Змінюється голосна в центрі

dig dug dug копати, рити
get got got отримувати; ставати
hang hung hung вішати; висіти
hold held held тримати
shine shone, shined shone, shined світити(ся)
sit sat sat сидіти
stink stank, stunk stunk смердіти
win won won вигравати, перемагати
Ee/ea в першій формі змінюється на e

feed fed fed годувати
lead led led вести (за собою), очолювати
meet met met зустрічати(ся)
Ay змінюється на aid
lay laid laid класти
pay paid paid платити
say said said говорити, казати
Ell змінюється на old

sell sold sold продавати
tell told told разповідати, говорити
Дієслова від stand

stand stood stood стояти
understand understood understood розуміти
Інші дієслова, у яких друга і третя форми одинакові

find found found знаходити
hear heard heard чути
light lit, lighted lit, lighted освітлювати(ся), запалювати
lose lost lost губити
make made made робити; змушувати
read read read читати
shoot shot shot стріляти
show showed shown, showed показувати
strike struck stricken, struck ударяти(ся); бити
wake(n) woke, waked woke(n), waked прокидатися
Перша і третя форми одинакові

become became become ставати
come came come приходити
run ran run бігти
Третя форма закінчується на en

beat beat beat, beaten бити
break broke broken ламати
choose chose chosen вибирати
drive drove driven вести (машину)
eat ate eaten їсти
fall fell fallen падати
forget forgot forgotten забувати
forgive forgave forgiven пробачати
freeze froze frozen замерзати; заморожувати
give gave given давати
hide hid hidden ховати(ся)
mistake mistook mistaken помилятися
shake shook shaken трясти
speak spoke spoken говорити
steal stole stolen красти
strike struck stricken, struck ударяти(ся); бити
take took taken брати
write wrote written писати
Третя форма закінчується на n/ne

bear bore borne нести; перевозити, переносити
blow blew blown дути
draw drew drawn малювати, креслити
fly flew flown літати
grow grew grown вирощувати
know knew known знати
lie lay lain лежати
rise rose risen підніматися, вставати
see saw seen бачити
tear tore torn рвати(ся), разривати(ся)
throw threw thrown кидати(ся)
wear wore worn носити (одяг і т. п.)
Форми, які відрізняються голосною в закритому складі

begin began begun починати
drink drank drunk пити
ring rang rung дзвонити
sing sang sung співати
swim swam swum плавати
stink stank, stunk stunk смердіти
Третя форма закінчується на ed

burn burnt burned горіти, палити
light lit, lighted lit, lighted освітлювати(ся), запалювати
show showed shown, showed показувати
Допоміжні та модальні дієслова, які мають особливі форми утворення

be (is, are, am) was, were been бути
can could -- могти, вміти
do did done робити
have had had мати
go went gone йти, ходити; їхати
may might -- дозвіл, можливість
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NATALIYA PUK
WRITING BASICS
A HANDBOOK FOR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

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What are the main sections covered in the handbook?

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What are some of the steps involved in the writing process?

What are some of the steps involved in the writing process?

ENGLISH WRITING

A HANDBOOK FOR UNIVERSITY STUDIES

НАВЧАЛЬНИЙ ПОСІБНИК З ОСНОВ АНГЛОМОВНОГО НАУКОВОГО

Unit 1. The Writing Process

Unit 2. Generating Ideas

5. Arranging Ideas into a Plan or Outlook

Unit 3. Developing Effective Paragraphs

1. Defining the Paragraph and the Topic Sentence

2. Developing Sentence Variety

Unit 4. Writing Essays

1. English Essay Structure

3. Useful Words and Phrases for Essay (Linking Words)

Unit 5. Types of Essay

Unit 7. Special Techniques in Writing

Unit 8. Writing Conference Abstract

Unit 9. Writing Titles

Unit 10. Transliteration

Appendix 1 Confused Words

Appendix 2 Latin expressions

Appendix 3 Irregular verbs

3. Writing your first draft

4. Revising to improve content and organization

5. Editing for language errors]

Additionally, according to research (Grabe and Kaplan, 1996), Russian,

Note: English writing is reader-oriented while Ukrainian writing is more writer-

- read what you have written;

2. BRAINSTORMING or listing means discussing a topic with a group of

Easy to learn Must have a partner

Good exercise Must find a tennis court

Doesn’t take much time Expensive

Make your Idea Bank!

1. Having several careers

3. Launching a new business

5. Computers in our life

3. CLUSTERING or mapping is a graphic organizer in which you write ideas

Using the Good

3. The city/village where I live

4. MAKING A CHART is another effective technique to generate ideas.

LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING

TV programs With native Instructions Resume

WRITING DIFFERENCES SIMILARITIES

Spelling and grammar

Formal and polite style

5. ARRANGING IDEAS INTO A PLAN OR OUTLOOK

Another way to organize a paragraph is to explain the major points that

Topic sentence + controlling idea

a. First, you must be motivated to learn and do well in your studies.

b. Secondly, you have to organize your time.

c. Finally, you must be disciplined to work hard.

These sentences show the outlook of ideas for a paragraph.

b). Second, they should schedule their time carefully.

1. There are two main reasons that I want a university degree.

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 2)

1. Which techniques are used to generate ideas?

1. ( _ ) Death is not the worst punishment. 2. ( ) Being in prison is