CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work, heat flow, and energy on a
system. It is the branch of science that deals with energy levels and the transfer of
energy between systems and between different states of matter. It comes from the
Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power).

2. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
A thermodynamic system is a certain quantity of matter or the space which is under
thermodynamic study or analysis.

SURROUNDINGS

THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEM BOUNDARY

Fig 1.1 Thermodynamic system

System – a collection of matter within prescribed and identifiable boundaries.
Boundary – a physical or imaginary surface enveloping the system and separating
it from the surroundings.
Surroundings – is usually restricted to those particles of matter external to the
system which may be affected by changes within the system and the
surroundings themselves may form another system
Three Main Types of System
1.) Open System is a system in which there is a transfer of both mass and energy
across its boundary as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a).
(e.g. an open container to which we can add water)

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 2.) Closed System is a system in which there is a transfer of energy but there is no
transfer of mass across its boundary as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b).
(e.g. cooling a closed water bottle inside the refrigerator)
3.) Isolated System is a system in which there is no transfer of both mass and
energy across its boundary as shown in Fig. 1.2 (c).
(e.g. a closed vacuum ‘thermos’ flask can be considered as isolated)

pp
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 1.2 Three Main Types of System

3. THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Property is any quantity whose changes are defined only by the end states and by the
process. Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general classes, intensive
and extensive properties.
 Intensive property is the property that does not depend on the mass of the
system or is any property that exist at a point in space. (temperature, pressure)
 Extensive property is any property that depends on the size of the. (mass,
volume)
State refers to the energy content of a given system. The state is defined by
specifying certain variables such as temperature, pressure, volume and
composition.

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4. PATH and PROCESS
Path is a locus of series of states through which a system passes between initial and
final states.
Process is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one thermodynamic
state to another.
Classification of Processes:
1.) Flow process is a process which takes place in a fluid in an open system.
2.) Non-flow process is a process which takes place in a fluid in a closed system.
3.) Quasi-static process is a process where the thermodynamic properties of a system
remains almost the same at all times.
4.) Reversible process is a process which can be reversed where the system can
restore its initial conditions without leaving any effect on the surroundings.
5.) Irreversible process is a process which cannot be reversed in the same path and
follows only one direction.
6.) Adiabatic process is a process which takes place where there is no exchange of
heat between the system and its surroundings.
Types of Processes:
1.) Isothermal process is a process where the temperature remains the same.
2.) Isobaric process is a process where the pressure remains the same.
3.) Isochoric/Isometric/Isovolumic process is a process where volume remains the
same.
4.) Isentropic process is a process where entropy remains the same.
5.) Isenthalpic process is a process where enthalpy remains the same.

5. CYCLE
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of processes that starts and ends at the same state
or a thermodynamic system that undergoes a series of processes where the initial
and the final states are the same.

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6. PRESSURE
Pressure (P) is the normal force exerted per unit area of the surface within the
system.

𝑭
P=
𝑨
For engineering work, pressures are often measured with respect to atmospheric
pressure rather than with respect to absolute vacuum.

Pabs = Patm + Pgage

Pabs = Patm − Pvacuum
Also,

P=𝜸h=ρgh
where:

𝜸 = specific weight
ρ = density
h = height
Specific weight of water at standard condition is

𝜸w = 9.81 kN/m3
= 62.4 lb/ft3

Fig. 1.3 Schematic Diagram Showing Gauge, Vacuum and Absolute Pressure

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The SI unit for Pressure is Pascal (Pa), which is Newton per square meter (N/m 2).
Atmospheric pressure is also called the barometric pressure.
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 1.01325 bar
= 1.033 kg/cm2
= 14.7 psi
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
= 29.92 in Hg
= 0 kPag
= 0 psig

Fluid Pressure
The pressure at any point below the free surface of liquid is equal to the product of
the specific weight of the liquid and its corresponding depth relative to the free
surface.
FREE SURFACE

p
Fig 1.4 Fluid Pressure

P=𝜸h=ρgh

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Pressure in Manometers Patm
FLUID F

P h

Fig 1.5 Pressure in Manometer

P = Patm + (𝜸G − 𝜸F) h

where:
P = the pressure inside the vessel at the point of connection
Patm = atmospheric pressure

𝜸G = specific weight of gage fluid

𝜸F = specific weight of fluid
Patm
Pi

hW
h
F

Fig 1.6 Principle of U-tube Manometer

Patm + 𝜸FhF = Pi + 𝜸WhW

where:
Pi = the pressure over water surface inside the vessel
𝜸W = specific weight of water
𝜸F = specific weight of liquid
hW = difference between water surface and lower surface of the liquid
hF = height of liquid in U-tube manometer

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 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is
the sum of the partial pressures of its components as shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

7. TEMPERATURE
Temperature (T) is a measure of the hotness or coldness of a substance with
reference to some standard value. Celsius, Fahrenheit, etc. are relative scales of
temperature and zero of these scales do not have a fundamental significance.
The absolute temperature scale that corresponds to the Celsius scale is called the
Kelvin scale. The absolute temperature scale that corresponds to the Fahrenheit scale
is called the Rankine scale.
Absolute Zero occurs when kinetic energy is removed from an object (0 K = −273° C).

Conversion of Temperature Scales

t℃ = 5 / 9 (t℉ − 32) t℉ = 9/5 (t℃) + 32

TK = t℃ + 273 T°R = t℉ + 460

Temperature Scales of Water

Scale Freezing Point of H2O Boiling Point of H2O
Celsius 0℃ 100 ℃
Fahrenheit 32 ℉ 212 ℉
Kelvin 273 K 373 K
Rankine 492 °R 672 °R

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 The Relation between Temperature Differences:

ΔTK = Δt℃ ΔT°R = Δt℉

Δt℃ = 5/9 (Δt℉) Δt℉ = 9/5 (Δt℃)

8. DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC WEIGHT and SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density (ρ) is a substance mass per unit volume.

ρ=m/V kg/m3

ρwater = 1 000 kg/m3

= 62.4 lb/ft3

ρair = 1.2 kg/m3

Specific volume (ν) is a substance volume divided by its mass or inverse of density.

ν=V/m m3/kg

Specific weight (𝜸) is a substance weight per unit volume.

𝜸 = W / V= m g / V
𝜸=ρg kN/m3

𝜸water = 9.81 kN/m3

= 62.4 lb/ft3
Specific gravity of a liquid (SGliquid) is the ratio of the density of liquid to the density of
water.

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
SGliquid =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Specific gravity of a gas (SGgas) is the ratio of the density of gas to the density of air.

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒔
SGgas =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓

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9. PROPERTIES of AIR
Specific Heat Capacity
System of Unit k R
Cp Cv
S.I Units 1.006 kJ/kg-K 0.7186 kJ/kg-K 1.4 0.287 kJ/kg-K

English System 0.24 Btu/lb-°R 0.1714 Btu/lb-°R 1.4 53.342 ft-lb/lb-°R

where:
k = Cp / Cv
R = Cp – Cv
Cv = R / (k – 1)
Cp = kR / (k – 1)

10. PROPERTIES of WATER

Cw = 4.187 kJ/kg-°C
= 1.0 Btu/lb-°F
Latent Heat of Fusion = 335 kJ/kg
= 144 Btu/lb
= 80 cal
Sensible Heat of Ice = 2.093 kJ/kg-°C
= 0.5 Btu/lb-°F
Latent Heat of Vaporization = 2257 kJ/kg
= 970.3 Btu/lb

11. DIMENSIONS AND CONVERSION OF UNITS

There are two systems of units most often used.
1.) International System (S.I. units)
2.) English System

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Base Units of Length, Mass, Time and Force
Unit S.I. English

Length meter (m) foot (ft)

Mass kilogram (kg) pound mass(lbm)

Time second (s) second (s)

Force Newton (N) pound (lb)

Units in the English System and S.I. units:

Unit S.I. English
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
Mass kilogram (kg) pound mass(lbm)
Time second (s) second (s)
Force Newton (N) pound (lb)
Temperature Kelvin (K) Rankine (°R)
Pressure Pascal (N/m2) psi (lb/in2)
Area m2 ft2
Volume m3 ft3
Acceleration m/s2 ft/s2
Density kg/m3 lb/ft3
Energy Joule (N-m or J) ft-lb
Power Watt (J/s) ft-lb/s
Heat Joule (N-m or J) ft-lb
Work Joule (N-m or J) ft-lb
Specific heat J/kg-K ft-lb/lb-°R

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Lists of Common Conversions:
1.) Linear 5.) Work and Energy
1 m = 3 .28 ft 1 J = 1 N-m
= 100 cm 1 kJ = 1000 J
= 1000 mm 1 cal = 4.187 J
1 yd = 3 ft 1 erg = 1 dyne-cm
1 fpt = 12 in = 10-7 J
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 Btu = 778.16 ft-lb
1 Statute mile = 5280 ft = 252 cal
1Nautical mile = 6080 ft = 1.055 kJ
1 Furlong = 220 yd 6.) Power
1 Fathom = 6 ft 1 hp = 746 W
1 mil = 0.001 in = 33000 ft-lb/min
2.) Area = 550 ft-lb/s
1 ha = 10000 sq.m = 10000 m2 = 42.4 Btu/min
1 acre = 0.4047 ha 1 kW = 1 kJ/s
3.) Volume = 1000 W
1 cu.m = 1 m3 = 1000 li = 3412 Btu/hr
1 gal = 3.785 li 1 W = 1 J/s
1 li = 1000 cu.cm =1000 cc
1 cu.ft = 1 ft3 = 7.48 gal
1 ml = 1 cc
4.) Mass and Weight
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 kip = 1000 lb
1 lb = 16 ounce

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12. SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Past ME Board Problem
Determine the force in Newton required to produce an acceleration of 0.30 m/s 2
on a 0.05 kg mass.
A. 0.018 N C. 0.015 N
B. 0.025 N D. 0.200 N
SOLUTION:
F = ma
= 0.05 kg (0.30 m/s2)
F = 0.015 N (ANS. C)

2. Past ME Board Problem

An oxygen cylinder of volume 2.3 ft3 has a pressure of 2200 psig and is at 70°F.
Determine the mass of oxygen in the cylinder.
A. 26.66 lbs C. 28.66 lbs
B. 26.86 lbs D. 28.88 lbs
SOLUTION:
PV = mRT
where:
P = 2200 + 14.7 = 2214.7 psi
T = 70 + 460 = 530°R
R = 48.291 ft-lb/lb-°R (oxygen)
Then:
(2214.7 lb/in2)(2.3 ft3)(12 in/1 ft)2 = m(48.291 ft-lb/lb-°R)( 530°R)
m = 28.66 lbs (ANS. C)

3. Past ME Board Problem

An air compressor delivers 0.20 m3 of air at a pressure of 850 kPa and 31°C into an
air reservoir. Taking the gas constant of air as 0.287 kJ/kg-K, calculate the mass of
air delivered.

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 A. 1.59 kg C. 5.91 kg
B. 1.95 kg D. 5.19 kg
SOLUTION:
PV = mRT
(850kN/m2)(0.20 m3) = m(0.287 kJ/kg-K)(31 +273)K
m = 1.95 kg (ANS. B)

4. Supplementary Problem
Find the pressure in kPa on a 0.20 m diameter piston with uniformly applied force
of 1500 N.
SOLUTION:
𝐹
P=
𝐴
1500 𝑁 1 𝑘𝑁
= ( )
𝜋(0.10 𝑚)2 10000 𝑁
P = 47.75 kPa (ANS)

5. Supplementary Problem
Convert the following temperature readings to absolute Fahrenheit.
a) 60 ℉
b) 32 ℃
c) 313 K
SOLUTION:
a) T°R = t℉ + 460
= 60 + 460
T°R = 520 °R (ANS)
b) T°R = [9/5 (t℃) + 32] + 460
= [9/5 (32) + 32] + 460
T°R = 549.6 °R (ANS)
c) T°R = [9/5 (t℃) + 32] + 460

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 = [9/5 (313 - 273) + 32] + 460
T°R = 564 °R (ANS)

6. Supplementary Problem
Convert the following pressure readings to kPa assuming that the barometric
pressure is equal to 14.7 psi.
a) 34 psia
b) 5 psig
c) 10 cm Hg vacuum
d) 1.2 m H2O gauge
e) 1.6 bar
SOLUTION:
34 𝑝𝑠𝑖
a) P = (101.325 kPa)
14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
P = 234.36 kPa (ANS)
(5 +14.7) 𝑝𝑠𝑖
b) P = (101.325 kPa)
14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
P = 135.79 kPa (ANS)
(760 − 100) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
c) P = (101.325 kPa)
760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
P = 87.99 kPa (ANS)
d) P = ρ g h = 1000 kg/m3(9.81 m/s2)(1.2 m)
P = 11.77 kPa (ANS)
1.6 𝑏𝑎𝑟
e) P = (101.325 kPa)
1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟
P = 160 kPa (ANS)

7. Supplementary Problem
5 m3 of water weighs 49,000 N at a location where g = 9.80 m/s2. Determine the
density and specific weight at a location where g = 9.60 m/s2.

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SOLUTION:
Solve for mass of water
𝑊 49000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 2
m= = = 5000 kg
𝑔 9.8𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 2
Solve for density
𝑚 5000 𝑘𝑔
ρ= =
𝑣 5𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 (ANS)

Solve for weight where g = 9.6 m/s2

W = mg = 5000 kg (9.6 m/s2) = 48000 N
Solve for specific weight
𝑊 48000 𝑁
𝜸= =
𝑣 5 𝑚3
𝜸 = 9600 N/m3 ( ANS)

8. Supplementary Problem
Determine the gauge pressure in kPa of a glass tube containing an oil to a depth of
130 cm. The specific gravity of oil is 0.80.
SOLUTION:
Solve for density oil
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
SGoil =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
ρoil = 0.80 (1000 kg/m3) = 800 kg/m3
Solve for pressure
P=ρgh
= 800 kg/m3(9.81 m/s2)(1.3 m)
P = 10.20 kPa (ANS)

9. Supplementary Problem
Find the temperature rise in ℉ when water enters the condenser at 28 ℃ and
leaves the condenser at 80 ℃.

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SOLUTION:
Δ t℉ = (9/5) (Δ t℃)
= (9/5) (80 – 32)
Δ t℉ = 86.4 ℉ (ANS)

10. What is the temperature reading in Fahrenheit scale if the Fahrenheit scale is 3
times the Celsius scale?
SOLUTION:
t℉ = 3 (t℃)
t℉ = 9/5 (t℃) + 32
3 (t℃) = 9/5 (t℃) + 32
t℃ = 26.667 ℃
∴ t℉ = 3 (26.667) = 80 ℉ (ANS)

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