THERMODYNAMICS

ENGR. ADEL SOCCORO IGNACIO-PARUNGAO

 THERMODYNAMICS
➢Is the study of energy, energy transformations and its
relation to matter
➢It is a science concerned with energy, particularly
“energy in transit” in the forms of heat and work and
those properties of systems that are related to energy.
➢Comes from the Greek words “therme” and “dynamo”
which mean “heat” and “power”.
TIMELINE OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thomas Newcomen Nicolas Sadi Carnot Rudolf Clausius
invented an improved published “Reflections on Formulated the Second
steam engine the motive power of fire” Law of Thermodynamics
1712 1824 1850

1798 1840s
Count Rumford began Mayer (1842), Joule (1847) and
canon-boring experiments Helmholtz (1847) independently
(dealing with conversion of arrived at the conservation of
work into heat) energy principle
 ENERGY
➢Is the capacity for doing work
➢Two types:
1. Potential Energy – energy of position or configuration
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑊ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2. Kinetic Energy – energy in motion
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
3. Internal (U) – the sum of all potential and kinetic energies
of constituents parts (atoms, molecules, etc.) of the system
TOTAL ENERGY (E)
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸
1
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
 KINDS OF TRANSFERRED ENERGY
HEAT (Q)
➢Is the energy transferred between system and
surroundings because of a temperature difference or
gradient
WORK (W)
➢Is the energy transferred between system and
surroundings because of a pressure difference or gradient.
 TEMPERATURE
Temperature
✓is a property which determines the direction of flow of heat
between it and its surroundings.
✓The numerical measure of “hotness”
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
✓If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third object,
then they are in equilibrium with each other.
 TEMPERATURE
Ice Point
▪ Is the temperature of a mixture of ice and liquid water that is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with air saturated with water vapor at
a pressure of 1 atm
Steam Point
▪ The temperature of a mixture of a liquid water and water vapor
in thermodynamic equilibrium at a pressure of 1 atm
Thermometric Property
▪ property that varies predictability with an increase or decrease in
heat energy
 Temperature Scales
 Celsius Scale, ( C)
 Anders Celsius
 SI Unit
o
 Freezing and Boiling points are
assigned to 0 and 100 0C,

respectively
 Temperature Scales
 Fahrenheit Scale, o( F)
 Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
 Freezing and Boiling points are
assigned to 32 and 212 0F
respectively

 Kelvin (K)
 Lord Kelvin / Sir William Thomson
 Absolute temperature scale
 Temperature Scales
 Rankine (R)
 William Macquorn Rankine

 CONVERSION FORMULAS
 COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
The fractional change (in length or volume) per degree change in
temperature. A.k.a. expansivity
∆𝑳 Change in length
➢Linear Expansion 𝑳𝒐 Initial length

∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳𝒐 ∆𝒕 𝜶 Linear coefficient of

expansion
➢Volume Expansion ∆𝑽 Change in volume
𝜷 Volume coefficient of
∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽𝒐 ∆𝒕 expansion
𝑽𝒐 Initial volume
∆𝒕 Change in temperature
 GAS LAWS
 Gas laws are a set of laws that describe
the relationship between
thermodynamic temperature, pressure
and volume of gases
 BOYLE’S LAW
 At constant temperature and number
moles, the volume of gas varies
inversely with the pressure
 GAS LAWS
 CHARLE’S LAW
 At constant pressure and number of
moles, the volume of an ideally
behaving gas is directly proportional
to the Kelvin temperature
 GAS LAWS
 GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
 The pressure of a fixed amount of gas
at a fixed volume is directly
proportional to its temperature in
Kelvin
 GAS LAWS
 COMBINED GAS LAW

 STANDARD CONDITIONS (STP)

 T = 273.15 K = 00 C
 p = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 1 atm
 Volume of 1 mole of gas = 22.4 L
 GAS LAWS
 IDEAL GAS LAW
 The absolute pressure P of n kilomoles of
gas contained in a volume V is related to
the absolute temperature T by
Where:
R = universal gas constant
P = absolute pressure
8.314 J/mol.K T = absolute temperature
1.986 BTU/mol-0R n = number of moles
1545 ft-lbf /mol-0 R = m/M
0.0821 atm-L/mol-K
 GAS LAWS
 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
 The total pressure of a mixture of
ideal, nonreactive gasses is the sum of
the partial pressures of the
component gases
 GAS LAWS
 AVOGADRO’S LAW
 At equal volume, under the same pressure
and temperature conditions, gases contain
the same number of molecules

Where:
m = mass
M = molecular weight
R = gas constant
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
 A thermodynamic system or
simply a system refers to a definite
quantity of matter most often
contained within some closed
surface chosen for study
BOUNDARY
SYSTEM

SURROUNDINGS
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
 CLOSED SYSTEM
also known as
Control Mass is a
system consisting of
a fixed amount of mass NO
mass, and no mass CLOSED

can cross its

SYSTEM

boundary. That is, energy YES

no mass can enter

or leave a closed
system. However,
energy in the form
of heat or work can
cross the boundary
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

 OPEN SYSTEM also

known as Control mass YES
Volume is a system OPEN
in which mass is SYSTEM

allowed to cross the energy YES

boundary
 KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

 ISOLATED SYSTEM is a system in

which neither mass nor energy is
allowed to mass
cross the boundary.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 A property is any quantity, which
serves to describe a system. It can
be divided into two general types

 Intensive property is one, which

does not depend on the mass of the
system

 Extensive property is one, which

depends on the mass of the system
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Mass Density of a material is
defined as the mass per unit
volume of the material

 Weight Density of a material is

defined as the weight per unit
volume of the material
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Specific Volume is the volume per unit
mass

 Specific Gravity or relative density of a

substance is the ratio of the density of
the substance to the density of some
standard substance. The standard is
usually water at 4 0C for liquids and
solids, while for gasses, it is usually air.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Pressure is defined as the force
per unit area Where:
P = Pressure
F = Force (N)
A = Area (m2)

Where:
P = Pressure
p = Density (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity
h = height (m)
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Absolute pressure is the total pressure exerted
on the system
 Gauge pressure is the amount by which the
absolute pressure exceeds atmospheric
pressure
 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure caused
by the weight of the atmosphere
 Vacuum pressure is a pressure, which is
significantly lower than atmospheric pressure
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

1 atm= 101325 Pa
= 1.013 bar
= 14.7 lb/in 2
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Pascal’s Principle
 The pressure applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure throughout by the
same amount
F1 F2
 PROCESSES
 A process is any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another

 A path refers to the series of states through which a

system passes during a process

 A reversible process is one that is performed in such a

way that at the end of the process, both the system
and the local surroundings can be restored to their
initial states. A process that does not meet these
requirements is said to be irreversible
 PROCESSES
 TYPES OF PROCESSES
 Isobaric process is a process by which the
state variable of a system is changed while
the pressure is held constant

 Isovolumic process also known as isometric

or isochoric process is a process carried out
at constant volume
 PROCESSES
 TYPES OF PROCESSES
 Adiabatic process is one which no heat or
other energy is transferred to or from the
system
 Isentropic process is an adiabatic
process in which there is no change in
the system entropy
 Throttling process is an adiabatic process
in which there is no change in the system
enthalpy but for which there is a
significant pressure drop
 PROCESSES
 TYPES OF PROCESSES
 Isothermal process is a process carried out
at constant temperature

 A Polytropic process is one that obeys the

polytropic equation of state

n = 0; Isobaric process
n = 1; Isothermal process
P = pressure n = k; Isentropic process
V = volume n =∞; Isometric process
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 HEAT (Q)
 Heat is a form of transferred energy that
arises from the random motion of molecules

 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
 Conduction in which heat transfer
takes place from molecule
to molecule through a
body or through bodies in
contact
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
 Convection in which the transfer is
due to the motion of
molecules of the
medium

 Radiation in which the heat

transfer takes place
without any intervening
medium
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 Latent Heat is the amount of heat necessary
to change the phase of the system without
changing its temperature

 Use (+) ---> if heat is absorbed by the substance

(substance melts)
 Use (-) ---> if heat is released by the substance
(substance freezes)
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 Latent Heat of Fusion is the heat
necessary to change a unit mass of a
substance from solid to liquid state or
from liquid to solid state at its melting
point
Hf = 80 cal/gm
= 144 BTU/lb
= 334 kJ/kg
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 Latent Heat of Vaporization is the heat
required to change a unit mass of a
substance from liquid to vapor state

Hv = 540 cal/gm
= 970 BTU/lb
= 2257 kJ/kg
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 Sensible Heat is the amount of heat
necessary to change the temperature of the
system without changing its phase

 Specific Heat is the amount of heat

required to raise the
temperature of 1gm of the
substance by 1 0C
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 The TOTAL HEAT entering a substance is
the sum of the heat that changes the
phase the substance (latent heat) and
the heat that changes the temperature
of the substance (sensible heat)
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 ENTROPY (S)
 Absolute entropy is a measure of the energy that is
no longer available to perform useful work within
the current environment. Other definition is that it is
the measure of “randomness” or “disorder” of the
system
Where:
S = entropy (J/K)
Q = heat (J)
T = temperature (K)
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 ENTROPY (S)
Change in Entropy Isobaric Process
Where:
∆S = change in entropy (J/K)
m = mass
Cp = specific heat constant
pressure
T1, T2 = temperature
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 ENTROPY (S)
Change in Entropy Isometric Process
Where:
∆S = change in entropy (J/K)
m = mass
Cv = specific heat constant
volume
T1, T2 = temperature
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 ENTROPY (S)
Change in Entropy Isothermal Process
Where:
∆S = change in entropy (J/K)
m = mass
R = ideal gas constant
T1, T2 = temperature
 HEAT AND ENTROPY
 ENTROPY (S)
Change in Entropy Adiabatic Process

Where:
∆S = change in entropy (J/K)
ENTHALPY AND INTERNAL ENERGY
 INTERNAL ENERGY (U)
The internal energy (U) of a system is
the total energy content of the
system. It is the sum of the kinetic,
potential, chemical, electrical,
nuclear, and all other forms of energy
possessed by the atoms and
molecules of the system
ENTHALPY AND INTERNAL ENERGY
 ENTHALPY
Enthalpy represents the total useful
energy of a substance. Useful energy
consists of two parts
 The internal energy, u
 Flow energy also known as flow work,
pV
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 A statement of the law of
conservation of energy. It states that:
“If an amount of heat flows into a
system, then this energy must appear
as increased internal energy for the
system and/or work done by the
system on its surroundings”
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Where:
∆Q = heat flow into a system
∆U = change in internal energy of the system
∆W = p ∆V (work done by the system)
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Isobaric Process

Where:
∆Q = heat flow into a system
∆U = change in internal energy of the system
∆W = p ∆V (work done by the system)
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Isovolumic Process

Where:
∆Q = heat flow into a system
∆U = change in internal energy of the system
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Isothermal Process

Where:
∆Q = heat flow into a system
∆W = work done by the system
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Adiabatic Process

Where:
∆Q = 0
∆U = change in internal energy of the system
∆W = work done by the system
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Heat energy flows spontaneously from hotter to a
colder object, but not vice versa

 No heat engine that cycle continuously can

change all its input energy to useful work

 If a system undergoes spontaneous change, it will

change in such a way that its entropy will increase
or, at best, remain constant
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The absolute entropy of a pure
substances approaches zero as the
absolute thermodynamic temperature
approaches zero
1. A pan of water is heated from 25°C to 80°C. What is the
change in temperature on the Kelvin Scale?
a. 550 K
b. 100 K
c. 55 K
d. 20 K
2. A certain scuba tank is design to hold 66 ft3 of air when it is at
atmospheric pressure at 22°C. When this volume of air is
compressed to an absolute pressure of 3000 lb/ in2 and stored in a
10L tank, the air becomes so hot that the tank must be allowed to
cool before it can be used. Before the air cools, what is its
temperature?
a. 333 K
b. 279 K
c. 345 K
d. 319 K
3. Which of the following is considered the best conductor of heat?
a. Gold
b. Diamond
c. Silver
d. Copper
4. The term thermodynamics was coined by __________.
a. William Thomson
b. Robert Brown
c. James Joule
d. Rudolf Claussius
5. A gas flask with a volume of 200 cm3 is filled to the brim with
mercury at 20°C. How much mercury overflows when the
temperature of the system is raised to 100°C? The coefficient of
volume expansion of te glass is 1.2 x 10-5/ °C.
a. 0.19 cu. cm
b. 2.9 cu. cm
c. 2.7 cu. cm
d. 1.2 cu. cm
6. Heat is applied to 100 h ice at 0°C until the ice melts and the
temperature rises to 20°C. How much heat is absorbed?
a. 41.8 kJ
b. 50.7 kJ
c. 23.0 kJ
d. 12.5 kJ
7. A Carnot engine takes 2000 J of heat from a reservoir at 500 K,
does some work, and discard some heat to a reservoir at 350 K.
What is the efficiency?
a. 0.3 %
b. 0.03 %
c. 30.0 %
d. 3.0 %
8. Dry Ice is made of _______
a. Carbon Dioxide
b. Helium
c. Hydrogen
d. Nitrogen
9. A condition called standard temperature and pressure for a gas
is defined to be a temperature of 0°C and a pressure of 1 atm =
1.013 x 105 Pa. If you want to keep a mole of an ideal gas at STP,
how big is the container?
a. 25.5 L
b. 20.0 L
c. 15.5 L
d. 22.4 L
10. The steady flow of a liquid can be described by ______ in the
statement that the sum of the pressure head, the elevation head and
the velocity head remains constant.
a. Clausius Theorem
b. Pauli’s theorem
c. Sagan Theorem
d. Bernoulli’s Theorem