Notes :-

Overview of PC Architecture 2 Hours

What is a computer, How computers operate, Types of computers, The computing
environment, The enterprise computer environment, Types of computers in the
enterprise, Where the PC fits in the enterprise environment, Computers and PC
hardware architectural components, CPUs, Chipsets, Memory, I/O, Component
interaction, PC software, CISC verses RISC computer models, Software, Assembly,
Interpreted and compile software, Mother board components, CPU, Chipsets, Interrupt
and DMA controllers and how they work, Memory, static and dynamic RAM and their
derivations BIOS, CMOS RAM, I/O subsystem, Embedded and add-in devices.

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Notes :-
Computer derives its name from the word Compute that means calculation. A
computer is an electronic device that processes or transforms data into useful
information by executing a series of predefined instructions. In today, a computer is
not only limited to computation, but also used for making phone calls, maintaining
databases, listening songs, viewing movies etc.
There are two principal characteristics of a computer –
1. It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
2. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions.

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Notes :-
 Input:- To perform computation Computer requires input of data from users. The
data is entered using an input device, such as a keyboard or mouse.
 Central Processing Unit: The Computer processes the data according to a set of
instructions called program. It is responsible for interpreting and executing most of
the commands from the computer’s hardware and software. It s often called the
“brain” of the computer.
 Output:- The Computer returns the processed information in a form that can be
used by the user. The information is printed, displayed, or reported using some type
of output device like printer or monitor.
 Memory:- Memory is the workspace for the computer’s processor. The computer
saves the data or instruction for future retrieval is called memory.

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Notes :-
 The program and the necessary data are entered into the computer system from an
input device, and are stored in main memory where they can be accessed as needed.

 Now, the CPU retrieves the instructions from the main memory, one by one, and
decodes each instruction to determine what operation to be performed.

 When required by instruction, the CPU also retrieves the necessary data from main
memory.

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Notes :-
 The CPU then performs the operation required by the instruction, which might be
arithmetic or logical operation. As each instruction is performed, the results are
either temporarily saved by the CPU or are stored in main memory.

 The processing cycle (retrieve instruction, decode and execute instruction, save
results) is repeated until all the program instructions have been carried out by the
CPU. The final results are then either stored in main memory, or are sent to an
output device such as a printer.

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Notes :-
Computers are classified in three types:-
1. Based on operational principle
2. Based on capacity, speed and reliability
3. Based on size

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Notes :-
 Analog - Analog computers solve problems by using continuously changing
data such as:
1. temperature
2. pressure
3. voltage
 Digital - The digital Computers work upon discontinuous or discrete data. They
convert the data into digital signal (binary digits 0 and 1) and all operations are
carried out on these digits at extremely fast rates.

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Notes :-
 Mainframe - Mainframe computers allow many simultaneous users industry,
research, and university computing centers typically huge databases, complex
mathematical operations, processing millions of transactions everyday.
 Minicomputers - Minicomputers mid-range servers supporting smaller number
of simultaneous users, typically 50 to 100 larger businesses accounting, billing,
and inventory records.
 Microcomputers - Microcomputers are personal or desktop computer designed
for general use by a single person home and all types of businesses
entertainment, communication, personal databases, and spreadsheets, word
processing, accounting, inventory control, research.

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Notes :-
 Desktop - A Personal Computer that is not designed for portability. The computer is set up
in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less
cost.
 Laptop - These are also called notebooks. Laptops are portable computers that integrate the
display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a
battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover book.
 Palmtop - More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). Palmtops are
tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage.
These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on touch screen technology for
user input. Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very lightweight with a
reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the palmtop is the handheld
computer.
 Workstation - A desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory
and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D Graphics or
game development.
 Server - A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a
network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives.
 Supercomputer- This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even
millions of dollars. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems, most are
comprised of multiple high performance computers working in parallel as a single system.
The best known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.
 Wearable- The latest trend in computing is wearable computers. Common computer
applications (e-mail, database, multimedia, calendar/scheduler) are integrated into watches,
cell phones, even clothing.

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Notes :-
 In the computer industry, an enterprise is an organization that uses computers. A
word was needed that would encompass corporations, small businesses, non-profit
institutions, government bodies, and possibly other kinds of organizations.
 A multinational company that has interconnected computer users located around
the world could be considered an enterprise. The network operating system that
they utilize can be referred to as an enterprise operating system. The database that
stores their global sales information is both an enterprise application and an
enterprise database.

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Notes :-
Enterprise Computer is seeking employees willing to provide a truly superior
customer service experience for our customers. All employees must have a
significantly above average technical proficiency and an ability to answer all technical
questions a customer may have in regard to the purchase and setup of computers and
high tech equipment. But more importantly, all employees must insure that the
customer is fully satisfied with each interaction with Enterprise Computer. In an
Industry segment that has a notoriously bad reputation for customer service;
Enterprise Computer stands alone in its full commitment to customer satisfaction. For
most home users, networking means a dial-up or DSL account. For a growing number
of users, however, the network is often an enterprise environment like the one shown
in Figure.

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Notes :-
A PC is made up of multiple physical components of computer hardware, upon which
can be installed an operating system and a multitude of software to perform the
operator's desired functions. It consists of the following parts :-
•Main Memory (RAM)
•Processor (CPU)
•Auxiliary storage (Disk Drives)
•Input and Output devices

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Notes :-
The CPU is capable of executing the instructions that are stored in memory, carrying
out arithmetic operations, and performing data transfers. Larger computers have
several processors (CPUs). It is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the
commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the "brains"
of the computer. The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is
responsible for all events inside the computer. It controls all internal and external
devices, performs arithmetic and logic operations. The operations a microprocessor
performs are called the instruction set of this processor. The instruction set is "hard
wired" in the CPU and determines the machine language for the CPU.

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Notes :-
Computer memory refers to devices that are used to store data or programs on a
temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer. Memory is the
workspace for the computer’s processor. It is a temporary storage are where the
programs and data being operated on by the processor must reside. Memory storage is
considered temporary because the data and programs remain there only as long as the
computer has electrical power or is not reset. Before being shut down or reset, any
data that has been changed should be saved to a more permanent storage device
(usually a hard disk) so it can be reloaded into memory in the future.

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Notes :-
There are two types of memory –
1. Volatile
2. Non volatile
 Volatile memory :- volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to
maintain the stored information. Current semiconductor volatile memory
technology is usually either static or dynamic RAM. Static RAM exhibits data
reminisce, but is still volatile, since all data is lost when memory is not powered.
Where as, dynamic RAM allows data to be leaked and disappear automatically
without a refreshing. Upcoming volatile memory technologies that hope to replace
or compete with SRAM and DRAM include Z-RAM,TTRAM and A-RAM.
 Non volatile :- Non volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the
stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory
include read-only memory, flash memory, most types of magnetic computer
storage devices (hard disks, floppy disks and magnetic tape), optical discs and
early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punch cards.

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Notes :-
The main memory of the computer is also known as RAM, standing for Random
Access Memory. RAM is the place in a computer where the operating system,
application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly
reached by the computer’s processor. RAM is much faster to read from and write to
than the other kinds of storage in a computer. However, the data in RAM stays there
only as long as computer is running. When turn computer on again, operating system
and other files are once again loaded into RAM. RAM is called “random access”
because any storage location can be accessed directly. RAM is organized and
controlled in a way that enables data to be stored and retrieved directly to specific
locations.

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Notes :-
 Static RAM :- In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory. A
static memory cell takes a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell
and it does require a refreshing circuit.
 Dynamic RAM :- A dynamic RAM is the most common type of memory in use
today. Inside a dynamic RAM chip, each memory cell holds one bit of information
and is made up of two parts: a transistor and a capacitor. It requires refreshing
circuits.
 CMOS RAM :- CMOS stands for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. In
PCs, CMOS is more specifically referred to as CMOS RAM. This is a tiny 64-byte
region of memory that, thanks to the battery power, retains data when the PC is
shut off. The information stored in CMOS is required by a computer´s BIOS.

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Notes :-
A storage device is a hardware device designed to store information. A storage device may hold
information, process information, or both. A device that only holds information is a recording medium.
Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may either access a separate portable
(removable) recording medium or a permanent component to store or retrieve information.
The two primary storage technologies are used:-
•Magnetic
•Optical.
 Magnetic Storage device :- Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a
magnetizable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile memory. The information is
accessed using one or more read/write heads. There are three types of magnetic storage device:-
•Floppy disks
•Hard disks
•Magnetic tape
 Optical Storage device :- An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that can be written
to and read using a low-powered laser beam. The first optical disc, created by James T. Russell in
late 1960. A laser read the dots, and the data was converted to an electrical signal, and finally to
audio or visual output. Optical disc offers a number of advantages over magnetic storage media. An
optical disc holds much more data. The greater control and focus possible with laser beams means
that more data can be written into a smaller space. Storage capacity increases with each new
generation of optical media. There are three types of optical storage device:-
•Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)
•Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM)
•CDRW

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Notes :-
The hierarchical arrangement of storage in current computer architectures is called the
memory hierarchy. It is designed to take advantage of memory locality in computer
programs. Each level of the hierarchy has the properties of higher bandwidth, smaller
size, and lower latency than lower levels.

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Notes :-
The term I/O is used to describe any program, operation or device that transfers data
to or from a computer and to or form a peripheral device. Every transfer is an output
from one device and an input into another. Devices such as keyboards and mouse are
input-only devices while devices such as printers are output-only. A writable CD-
ROM is both an input and an output device.

20
Notes :-
The primary goal of CISC architecture is to complete a task in as few lines of
assembly as possible. This is achieved by building processor hardware that is capable
of understanding and executing a series of operations. On the other hand, RISC
processors only use simple instructions that can be executed within one clock cycle.

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Notes :-
 An assembler consists of little more than a table look up routine, where each word
of the source language ( assembly language ) is looked up in a table for its
numerical equivalent, which is then output as part of the target language program.
 Assembly language generally gives the programmer precise and direct access to
every capability of the computer hardware.
 An interpreter must read its input program over and over to compute the results, but
a compiler translates it only once.
 Compilers take longer to get the output from the first time a computer program is
run, but subsequent runs are much faster because no additional translation is
needed.

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Notes :-
Motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in some complex electronic
systems, such as modern personal computers. The motherboard is sometimes
alternatively known as the main board, system board, or, on Apple computers, the
logic board. Motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by
which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane, it
also hosts the central processing unit, and other subsystems and devices.
Motherboards are also used in many other electronics devices such as mobile phones,
stop-watches, clocks, and other small electronic devices.

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Notes :-

1. Mouse and Keyboard connectors - Keyboard Connectors are two types basically.
All PCs have a Key board port connected directly to the motherboard. The oldest,
but still quite common type, is a special DIN, and most PCs until recently retained
this style connector. The AT-style keyboard connector is quickly disappearing,
being replaced by the smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard connector.

2. USB port - USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. A USB connector's
distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable. USB has a number of
features that makes it particularly popular on PCs.

3. Parallel port - Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel
port carries data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses
only one wire. Parallel ports use a 25-pin female DB connector. Parallel ports are
directly supported by the motherboard through a direct connection or through a
dangle.

4. CPU Chip - The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs
all the calculations that take place inside a pc. Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat
and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink. The cooling device (such as a cooling
fan) is removable, although some CPU manufactures sell the CPU with a fan
permanently attached.

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Notes :-

1. RAM slots - Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently
being used by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been
packaged in many different ways. The most current package is called a 168-pin
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory module).

2. Floppy controller - The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon
cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is
used to control the floppy drive.

3. IDE controller - Industry standards define two common types of hard drives:
EIDE and SCSI. Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in
high end PCs such as network servers or graphical workstations. The EIDE drive
connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable, which in turn
connects to the motherboard. IDE controller is responsible for controlling the hard
drive.

4. PCI slot – PCI stands peripheral component interconnect. The PCI bus is used to
connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the
computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.

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Notes :-

1. ISA slot – ISA stands Industry Standard Architecture. It is the standard

architecture of the Expansion bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect
ISA compatible cards.

2. CMOS Battery - To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned
off all motherboards comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the
motherboard in one of three ways: the obsolete external battery, the most common
onboard battery, and built-in battery.

3. AGP slot – In modern motherboard, a single connector that looks like a PCI slot,
but is slightly shorter and usually brown. In this slot, inserted a video card. This is
an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot.

4. Power supply plug in - The Power supply provides the necessary electrical power
to make the pc operate. The power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and
converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power. The power supply
connector has 20-pins, and the connector can go in only one direction.

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Notes :-
A chipsets is a collection of chips or circuits that perform interface and peripheral
function for the processor. A chipset s usually designed to work with a specific family
of microprocessors. Because it controls communication between the processor and
external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system performance.

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Notes :-
The function of chipset can be divided into two major functional groups –
1. Northbridge - The Northbridge subset of a motherboard’s chipset is the set of
circuitry or chips that performs one very important function: management of high
speed peripheral communication. It is responsible for communication with
integrated video using AGP, for instance, and processor to memory
communication. It also manage the communication between the Southbridge
chipset and the rest of the computer.
2. Southbridge - The Southbridge chipset is responsible for providing support to the
myriad onboard peripheral (PS/2, Parallel, IDE, and so on). It is also responsible
for managing communication with the other expansion busses, such as PCI, USB
and legacy busses.

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Notes :-
 An interrupt is an asynchronous signal indicating the need for attention or a
synchronous event in software indicating the need for a change in execution. An
interrupt is a line that links the peripheral to the processor. An interrupt is a
hardware interrupt when it is requested by one of the PC's hardware components.
For example, this is the case when a key is touched and the keyboard wants to get
the processor's attention for this event.
 Interrupt-controlled I/O reduces the severity of the two problems mentioned for
program-controlled I/O by allowing the I/O device itself to initiate the device
service routine in the processor. This is accomplished by having the I/O device
generate an interrupt signal which is tested directly by the hardware of the CPU.
When the interrupt input to the CPU is found to be active, the CPU itself initiates a
subprogram call to somewhere in the memory of the processor; the particular
address to which the processor branches on an interrupt depends on the interrupt
facilities available in the processor.

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Notes :-
Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of modern computing that allows certain
hardware subsystems within the computer to access system memory for reading
and/or writing independently of the CPU. Direct Memory Access (DMA) is one of
several methods for coordinating the timing of data transfers between an input/output
(I/O) device and the core processing unit or memory in a computer. An I/O device
often operates at a much slower speed than the core. DMA allows the I/O device to
access the memory directly, without using the core. DMA can lead to a significant
improvement in performance because data movement is one of the most common
operations performed in processing applications.

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Notes :-
 The DMAC supports single transfers as well as a block transfer.
• Single transfer consists of a read burst and a subsequent write burst.
• A block transfer consists of several successive single transfers.
 The data width of a transfer is programmable from 8 bits up to the data bus
width in steps of powers to the base of two (8 bits, 16 bits… 1024 bits).

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Notes :-
The I/O subsystem connects the system to its peripheral devices using the industry
standard 32-bit peripheral component interface (PCI) bus. A fully configured system
provides up to eight PCI buses, one for each EPAC. Each bus supports three
controllers for a maximum of 24 PCI controllers for the system.

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Notes :-
An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one
or a few dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is usually
embedded as part of a complete device including hardware and mechanical parts. It
ranges from portable devices such as digital watches and MP4 players, to large
stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling
nuclear power plants.

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