Object-oriented programming

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which
can contain data and code: data in the form of fields (often known as attributes or properties), and code, in the
form of procedures (often known as methods).

A feature of objects is that an object's own procedures can access and often modify the data fields of itself
(objects have a notion of this or self). In OOP, computer programs are designed by making them out of
objects that interact with one another.[1][2] OOP languages are diverse, but the most popular ones are class-
based, meaning that objects are instances of classes, which also determine their types.

Many of the most widely used programming languages (such as C++, Java, Python, etc.) are multi-paradigm
and they support object-oriented programming to a greater or lesser degree, typically in combination with
imperative, procedural programming. Significant object-oriented languages include: (list order based on
TIOBE index) Java, C++, C#, Python, R, PHP, Visual Basic.NET, JavaScript, Ruby, Perl, Object Pascal,
Objective-C, Dart, Swift, Scala, Kotlin, Common Lisp, MATLAB, and Smalltalk.

Contents
Features
Shared with non-OOP predecessor languages
Objects and classes
Class-based vs prototype-based
Dynamic dispatch/message passing
Encapsulation
Composition, inheritance, and delegation
Polymorphism
Open recursion
History
OOP languages
OOP in dynamic languages
OOP in a network protocol
Design patterns
Inheritance and behavioral subtyping
Gang of Four design patterns
Object-orientation and databases
Real-world modeling and relationships
OOP and control flow
Responsibility- vs. data-driven design
SOLID and GRASP guidelines
Criticism
Formal semantics
See also
Systems
Modeling languages
References
Further reading
External links

Features
Object-oriented programming uses objects, but not all of the associated techniques and structures are supported
directly in languages that claim to support OOP. The features listed below are common among languages
considered to be strongly class- and object-oriented (or multi-paradigm with OOP support), with notable
exceptions mentioned.[3][4][5][6]

Shared with non-OOP predecessor languages

Variables that can store information formatted in a small number of built-in data types like
integers and alphanumeric characters. This may include data structures like strings, lists, and
hash tables that are either built-in or result from combining variables using memory pointers.
Procedures – also known as functions, methods, routines, or subroutines – that take input,
generate output, and manipulate data. Modern languages include structured programming
constructs like loops and conditionals.

Modular programming support provides the ability to group procedures into files and modules for
organizational purposes. Modules are namespaced so identifiers in one module will not conflict with a
procedure or variable sharing the same name in another file or module.

Objects and classes

Languages that support object-oriented programming (OOP) typically use inheritance for code reuse and
extensibility in the form of either classes or prototypes. Those that use classes support two main concepts:

Classes – the definitions for the data format and available procedures for a given type or class
of object; may also contain data and procedures (known as class methods) themselves, i.e.
classes contain the data members and member functions
Objects – instances of classes

Objects sometimes correspond to things found in the real world. For example, a graphics program may have
objects such as "circle", "square", "menu". An online shopping system might have objects such as "shopping
cart", "customer", and "product".[7] Sometimes objects represent more abstract entities, like an object that
represents an open file, or an object that provides the service of translating measurements from U.S. customary
to metric.

Each object is said to be an instance of a particular

class (for example, an object with its name field set Object-oriented programming is more than just classes
to "Mary" might be an instance of class Employee). and objects; it's a whole programming paradigm based
Procedures in object-oriented programming are around [sic] objects (data structures) that contain data
fields and methods. It is essential to understand this;
known as methods; variables are also known as using classes to organize a bunch of unrelated methods
fields, members, attributes, or properties. This leads together is not object orientation.
to the following terms:
Junade Ali, Mastering PHP Design Patterns[8]
Class variables – belong to the class as a
whole; there is only one copy of each one
Instance variables or attributes – data that belongs to individual objects; every object has its
own copy of each one
Member variables – refers to both the class and instance variables that are defined by a
particular class
Class methods – belong to the class as a whole and have access only to class variables and
inputs from the procedure call
Instance methods – belong to individual objects, and have access to instance variables for the
specific object they are called on, inputs, and class variables

Objects are accessed somewhat like variables with complex internal structure, and in many languages are
effectively pointers, serving as actual references to a single instance of said object in memory within a heap or
stack. They provide a layer of abstraction which can be used to separate internal from external code. External
code can use an object by calling a specific instance method with a certain set of input parameters, read an
instance variable, or write to an instance variable. Objects are created by calling a special type of method in the
class known as a constructor. A program may create many instances of the same class as it runs, which operate
independently. This is an easy way for the same procedures to be used on different sets of data.

Object-oriented programming that uses classes is sometimes called class-based programming, while prototype-
based programming does not typically use classes. As a result, significantly different yet analogous
terminology is used to define the concepts of object and instance.

In some languages classes and objects can be composed using other concepts like traits and mixins.

Class-based vs prototype-based

In class-based languages the classes are defined beforehand and the objects are instantiated based on the
classes. If two objects apple and orange are instantiated from the class Fruit, they are inherently fruits and it is
guaranteed that you may handle them in the same way; e.g. a programmer can expect the existence of the same
attributes such as color or sugar_content or is_ripe.

In prototype-based languages the objects are the primary entities. No classes even exist. The prototype of an
object is just another object to which the object is linked. Every object has one prototype link (and only one).
New objects can be created based on already existing objects chosen as their prototype. You may call two
different objects apple and orange a fruit, if the object fruit exists, and both apple and orange have fruit as
their prototype. The idea of the fruit class doesn't exist explicitly, but as the equivalence class of the objects
sharing the same prototype. The attributes and methods of the prototype are delegated to all the objects of the
equivalence class defined by this prototype. The attributes and methods owned individually by the object may
not be shared by other objects of the same equivalence class; e.g. the attribute sugar_content may be
unexpectedly not present in apple. Only single inheritance can be implemented through the prototype.

Dynamic dispatch/message passing

It is the responsibility of the object, not any external code, to select the procedural code to execute in response
to a method call, typically by looking up the method at run time in a table associated with the object. This
feature is known as dynamic dispatch, and distinguishes an object from an abstract data type (or module),
which has a fixed (static) implementation of the operations for all instances. If the call variability relies on more
than the single type of the object on which it is called (i.e. at least one other parameter object is involved in the
method choice), one speaks of multiple dispatch.

A method call is also known as message passing. It is conceptualized as a message (the name of the method
and its input parameters) being passed to the object for dispatch.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is an object-oriented programming concept that binds together the data and functions that
manipulate the data, and that keeps both safe from outside interference and misuse. Data encapsulation led to
the important OOP concept of data hiding.

If a class does not allow calling code to access internal object data and permits access through methods only,
this is a strong form of abstraction or information hiding known as encapsulation. Some languages (Java, for
example) let classes enforce access restrictions explicitly, for example denoting internal data with the
private keyword and designating methods intended for use by code outside the class with the public
keyword. Methods may also be designed public, private, or intermediate levels such as protected (which
allows access from the same class and its subclasses, but not objects of a different class). In other languages
(like Python) this is enforced only by convention (for example, private methods may have names that start
with an underscore). Encapsulation prevents external code from being concerned with the internal workings of
an object. This facilitates code refactoring, for example allowing the author of the class to change how objects
of that class represent their data internally without changing any external code (as long as "public" method
calls work the same way). It also encourages programmers to put all the code that is concerned with a certain
set of data in the same class, which organizes it for easy comprehension by other programmers. Encapsulation
is a technique that encourages decoupling.

Composition, inheritance, and delegation

Objects can contain other objects in their instance variables; this is known as object composition. For example,
an object in the Employee class might contain (either directly or through a pointer) an object in the Address
class, in addition to its own instance variables like "first_name" and "position". Object composition is used to
represent "has-a" relationships: every employee has an address, so every Employee object has access to a
place to store an Address object (either directly embedded within itself, or at a separate location addressed via
a pointer).

Languages that support classes almost always support inheritance. This allows classes to be arranged in a
hierarchy that represents "is-a-type-of" relationships. For example, class Employee might inherit from class
Person. All the data and methods available to the parent class also appear in the child class with the same
names. For example, class Person might define variables "first_name" and "last_name" with method
"make_full_name()". These will also be available in class Employee, which might add the variables "position"
and "salary". This technique allows easy re-use of the same procedures and data definitions, in addition to
potentially mirroring real-world relationships in an intuitive way. Rather than utilizing database tables and
programming subroutines, the developer utilizes objects the user may be more familiar with: objects from their
application domain.[9]

Subclasses can override the methods defined by superclasses. Multiple inheritance is allowed in some
languages, though this can make resolving overrides complicated. Some languages have special support for
mixins, though in any language with multiple inheritance, a mixin is simply a class that does not represent an
is-a-type-of relationship. Mixins are typically used to add the same methods to multiple classes. For example,
class UnicodeConversionMixin might provide a method unicode_to_ascii() when included in class FileReader
and class WebPageScraper, which don't share a common parent.

Abstract classes cannot be instantiated into objects; they exist only for the purpose of inheritance into other
"concrete" classes which can be instantiated. In Java, the final keyword can be used to prevent a class from
being subclassed.

The doctrine of composition over inheritance advocates implementing has-a relationships using composition
instead of inheritance. For example, instead of inheriting from class Person, class Employee could give each
Employee object an internal Person object, which it then has the opportunity to hide from external code even if
class Person has many public attributes or methods. Some languages, like Go do not support inheritance at all.

The "open/closed principle" advocates that classes and functions "should be open for extension, but closed for
modification".

Delegation is another language feature that can be used as an alternative to inheritance.

Polymorphism

Subtyping – a form of polymorphism – is when calling code can be agnostic as to which class in the supported
hierarchy it is operating on – the parent class or one of its descendants. Meanwhile, the same operation name
among objects in an inheritance hierarchy may behave differently.

For example, objects of type Circle and Square are derived from a common class called Shape. The Draw
function for each type of Shape implements what is necessary to draw itself while calling code can remain
indifferent to the particular type of Shape being drawn.

This is another type of abstraction that simplifies code external to the class hierarchy and enables strong
separation of concerns.

Open recursion

In languages that support open recursion, object methods can call other methods on the same object (including
themselves), typically using a special variable or keyword called this or self. This variable is late-bound;
it allows a method defined in one class to invoke another method that is defined later, in some subclass thereof.

History
Terminology invoking "objects" and "oriented" in the modern sense of object-oriented programming made its
first appearance at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the environment of the artificial intelligence
group, as early as 1960, "object" could refer to identified items (LISP atoms) with properties
(attributes);[10][11] Alan Kay was later to cite a detailed understanding of LISP internals as a strong influence
on his thinking in 1966.[12]

Another early MIT example was Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland in 1960–61; in the glossary of the
1963 technical report based on his dissertation about Sketchpad, Sutherland defined notions of "object" and
"instance" (with the class concept covered by "master" or "definition"), albeit specialized to graphical
interaction.[13] Also, an MIT ALGOL version, AED-0, established a direct link between data structures
("plexes", in that dialect) and procedures, prefiguring what were later termed "messages", "methods", and
"member functions".[14][15]
In 1962, Kristen Nygaard initiated a project for a simulation language at the
Norwegian Computing Center, based on his previous use of the Monte Carlo
simulation and his work to conceptualise real-world systems. Ole-Johan Dahl
formally joined the project and the Simula programming language was
designed to run on the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) 1107.
Simula introduced important concepts that are today an essential part of object-
oriented programming, such as class and object, inheritance, and dynamic
binding.[16] Simula was also designed to take account of programming and
data security. For programming security purposes a detection process was
implemented so that through reference counts a last resort garbage collector
deleted unused objects in the random-access memory (RAM). But although the
idea of data objects had already been established by 1965, data encapsulation
UML notation for a class.
through levels of scope for variables, such as private (-) and public (+), were
This Button class has
not implemented in Simula because it would have required the accessing variables for data, and
procedures to be also hidden.[17] functions. Through
inheritance a subclass can
In the early stages Simula was supposed to be a procedure package for the be created as subset of
programming language ALGOL 60. Dissatisfied with the restrictions imposed the Button class. Objects
by ALGOL the researchers decided to develop Simula into a fully-fledged are instances of a class.
programming language, which used the UNIVAC ALGOL 60 compiler.
Simula was promoted by Dahl and Nygaard
throughout 1965 and 1966, leading to increasing
use of the programming language in Sweden, I thought of objects being like biological cells and/or
individual computers on a network, only able to
Germany and the Soviet Union. In 1968, the
communicate with messages (so messaging came at the
language became widely available through the very beginning – it took a while to see how to do
Burroughs B5500 computers, and was later also messaging in a programming language efficiently enough
implemented on the URAL-16 computer. In 1966, to be useful).
Dahl and Nygaard wrote a Simula compiler. They
became preoccupied with putting into practice Tony Alan Kay, [12]
Hoare's record class concept, which had been
implemented in the free-form, English-like general-
purpose simulation language SIMSCRIPT. They
settled for a generalised process concept with record class properties, and a second layer of prefixes. Through
prefixing a process could reference its predecessor and have additional properties. Simula thus introduced the
class and subclass hierarchy, and the possibility of generating objects from these classes.

A Simula 67 compiler was launched for the System/360 and System/370 IBM mainframe computers in
1972.[16] In the same year a Simula 67 compiler was launched free of charge for the French CII 10070 and
CII Iris 80 mainframe computers. By 1974, the Association of Simula Users had members in 23 different
countries. Early 1975 a Simula 67 compiler was released free of charge for the DECsystem-10 mainframe
family. By August the same year the DECsystem-10 Simula 67 compiler had been installed at 28 sites, 22 of
them in North America. The object-oriented Simula programming language was used mainly by researchers
involved with physical modelling, such as models to study and improve the movement of ships and their
content through cargo ports.[16]

In the 1970s, the first version of the Smalltalk programming language was developed at Xerox PARC by Alan
Kay, Dan Ingalls and Adele Goldberg. Smaltalk-72 included a programming environment and was
dynamically typed, and at first was interpreted, not compiled. Smalltalk became noted for its application of
object orientation at the language-level and its graphical development environment. Smalltalk went through
various versions and interest in the language grew.[18] While Smalltalk was influenced by the ideas introduced
in Simula 67 it was designed to be a fully dynamic system in which classes could be created and modified
dynamically.[19]
In the 1970s, Smalltalk influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object-based techniques that were
introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. Experimentation with various extensions to Lisp (such as
LOOPS and Flavors introducing multiple inheritance and mixins) eventually led to the Common Lisp Object
System, which integrates functional programming and object-oriented programming and allows extension via a
Meta-object protocol. In the 1980s, there were a few attempts to design processor architectures that included
hardware support for objects in memory but these were not successful. Examples include the Intel iAPX 432
and the Linn Smart Rekursiv.

In 1981, Goldberg edited the August 1981 issue of Byte Magazine, introducing Smalltalk and object-oriented
programming to a wider audience. In 1986, the Association for Computing Machinery organised the first
Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA), which was
unexpectedly attended by 1,000 people. In the mid-1980s Objective-C was developed by Brad Cox, who had
used Smalltalk at ITT Inc., and Bjarne Stroustrup, who had used Simula for his PhD thesis, eventually went to
create the object-oriented C++.[18] In 1985, Bertrand Meyer also produced the first design of the Eiffel
language. Focused on software quality, Eiffel is a purely object-oriented programming language and a notation
supporting the entire software lifecycle. Meyer described the Eiffel software development method, based on a
small number of key ideas from software engineering and computer science, in Object-Oriented Software
Construction. Essential to the quality focus of Eiffel is Meyer's reliability mechanism, Design by Contract,
which is an integral part of both the method and language.

In the early and mid-1990s object-oriented

programming developed as the dominant
programming paradigm when programming
languages supporting the techniques became
widely available. These included Visual FoxPro
3.0,[20][21][22] C++,[23] and Delphi. Its
dominance was further enhanced by the rising
popularity of graphical user interfaces, which rely
heavily upon object-oriented programming
techniques. An example of a closely related
dynamic GUI library and OOP language can be The TIOBE programming language popularity index graph
from 2002 to 2018. In the 2000s the object-oriented Java
found in the Cocoa frameworks on Mac OS X,
(blue) and the procedural C (black) competed for the top
written in Objective-C, an object-oriented,
position.
dynamic messaging extension to C based on
Smalltalk. OOP toolkits also enhanced the
popularity of event-driven programming
(although this concept is not limited to OOP).

At ETH Zürich, Niklaus Wirth and his colleagues had also been investigating such topics as data abstraction
and modular programming (although this had been in common use in the 1960s or earlier). Modula-2 (1978)
included both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation,
classes, and such.

Object-oriented features have been added to many previously existing languages, including Ada, BASIC,
Fortran, Pascal, and COBOL. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them
often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code.

More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented, but that are also
compatible with procedural methodology. Two such languages are Python and Ruby. Probably the most
commercially important recent object-oriented languages are Java, developed by Sun Microsystems, as well as
C# and Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET), both designed for Microsoft's .NET platform. Each of these two
frameworks shows, in its own way, the benefit of using OOP by creating an abstraction from implementation.
VB.NET and C# support cross-language inheritance, allowing classes defined in one language to subclass
classes defined in the other language.

OOP languages
Simula (1967) is generally accepted as being the first language with the primary features of an object-oriented
language. It was created for making simulation programs, in which what came to be called objects were the
most important information representation. Smalltalk (1972 to 1980) is another early example, and the one
with which much of the theory of OOP was developed. Concerning the degree of object orientation, the
following distinctions can be made:

Languages called "pure" OO languages, because everything in them is treated consistently as

an object, from primitives such as characters and punctuation, all the way up to whole classes,
prototypes, blocks, modules, etc. They were designed specifically to facilitate, even enforce,
OO methods. Examples: Ruby, Scala, Smalltalk, Eiffel, Emerald,[24] JADE, Self, Raku.
Languages designed mainly for OO programming, but with some procedural elements.
Examples: Java, Python, C++, C#, Delphi/Object Pascal, VB.NET.
Languages that are historically procedural languages, but have been extended with some OO
features. Examples: PHP, Perl, Visual Basic (derived from BASIC), MATLAB, COBOL 2002,
Fortran 2003, ABAP, Ada 95, Pascal.
Languages with most of the features of objects (classes, methods, inheritance), but in a
distinctly original form. Examples: Oberon (Oberon-1 or Oberon-2).
Languages with abstract data type support which may be used to resemble OO programming,
but without all features of object-orientation. This includes object-based and prototype-based
languages. Examples: JavaScript, Lua, Modula-2, CLU.
Chameleon languages that support multiple paradigms, including OO. Tcl stands out among
these for TclOO, a hybrid object system that supports both prototype-based programming and
class-based OO.

OOP in dynamic languages

In recent years, object-oriented programming has become especially popular in dynamic programming
languages. Python, PowerShell, Ruby and Groovy are dynamic languages built on OOP principles, while Perl
and PHP have been adding object-oriented features since Perl 5 and PHP 4, and ColdFusion since version 6.

The Document Object Model of HTML, XHTML, and XML documents on the Internet has bindings to the
popular JavaScript/ECMAScript language. JavaScript is perhaps the best known prototype-based
programming language, which employs cloning from prototypes rather than inheriting from a class (contrast to
class-based programming). Another scripting language that takes this approach is Lua.

OOP in a network protocol

The messages that flow between computers to request services in a client-server environment can be designed
as the linearizations of objects defined by class objects known to both the client and the server. For example, a
simple linearized object would consist of a length field, a code point identifying the class, and a data value. A
more complex example would be a command consisting of the length and code point of the command and
values consisting of linearized objects representing the command's parameters. Each such command must be
directed by the server to an object whose class (or superclass) recognizes the command and is able to provide
the requested service. Clients and servers are best modeled as complex object-oriented structures. Distributed
Data Management Architecture (DDM) took this approach and used class objects to define objects at four
levels of a formal hierarchy:

Fields defining the data values that form messages, such as their length, code point and data
values.
Objects and collections of objects similar to what would be found in a Smalltalk program for
messages and parameters.
Managers similar to AS/400 objects, such as a directory to files and files consisting of metadata
and records. Managers conceptually provide memory and processing resources for their
contained objects.
A client or server consisting of all the managers necessary to implement a full processing
environment, supporting such aspects as directory services, security and concurrency control.

The initial version of DDM defined distributed file services. It was later extended to be the foundation of
Distributed Relational Database Architecture (DRDA).

Design patterns
Challenges of object-oriented design are addressed by several approaches. Most common is known as the
design patterns codified by Gamma et al.. More broadly, the term "design patterns" can be used to refer to any
general, repeatable, solution pattern to a commonly occurring problem in software design. Some of these
commonly occurring problems have implications and solutions particular to object-oriented development.

Inheritance and behavioral subtyping

It is intuitive to assume that inheritance creates a semantic "is a" relationship, and thus to infer that objects
instantiated from subclasses can always be safely used instead of those instantiated from the superclass. This
intuition is unfortunately false in most OOP languages, in particular in all those that allow mutable objects.
Subtype polymorphism as enforced by the type checker in OOP languages (with mutable objects) cannot
guarantee behavioral subtyping in any context. Behavioral subtyping is undecidable in general, so it cannot be
implemented by a program (compiler). Class or object hierarchies must be carefully designed, considering
possible incorrect uses that cannot be detected syntactically. This issue is known as the Liskov substitution
principle.

Gang of Four design patterns

Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software is an influential book published in 1994 by
Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides, often referred to humorously as the "Gang
of Four". Along with exploring the capabilities and pitfalls of object-oriented programming, it describes 23
common programming problems and patterns for solving them. As of April 2007, the book was in its 36th
printing.

The book describes the following patterns:

Creational patterns (5): Factory method pattern, Abstract factory pattern, Singleton pattern,
Builder pattern, Prototype pattern
Structural patterns (7): Adapter pattern, Bridge pattern, Composite pattern, Decorator pattern,
Facade pattern, Flyweight pattern, Proxy pattern
 Behavioral patterns (11): Chain-of-responsibility pattern, Command pattern, Interpreter pattern,
Iterator pattern, Mediator pattern, Memento pattern, Observer pattern, State pattern, Strategy
pattern, Template method pattern, Visitor pattern

Object-orientation and databases

Both object-oriented programming and relational database management systems (RDBMSs) are extremely
common in software today. Since relational databases don't store objects directly (though some RDBMSs have
object-oriented features to approximate this), there is a general need to bridge the two worlds. The problem of
bridging object-oriented programming accesses and data patterns with relational databases is known as object-
relational impedance mismatch. There are a number of approaches to cope with this problem, but no general
solution without downsides.[25] One of the most common approaches is object-relational mapping, as found in
IDE languages such as Visual FoxPro and libraries such as Java Data Objects and Ruby on Rails'
ActiveRecord.

There are also object databases that can be used to replace RDBMSs, but these have not been as technically
and commercially successful as RDBMSs.

Real-world modeling and relationships

OOP can be used to associate real-world objects and processes with digital counterparts. However, not
everyone agrees that OOP facilitates direct real-world mapping (see Criticism section) or that real-world
mapping is even a worthy goal; Bertrand Meyer argues in Object-Oriented Software Construction[26] that a
program is not a model of the world but a model of some part of the world; "Reality is a cousin twice
removed". At the same time, some principal limitations of OOP have been noted.[27] For example, the circle-
ellipse problem is difficult to handle using OOP's concept of inheritance.

However, Niklaus Wirth (who popularized the adage now known as Wirth's law: "Software is getting slower
more rapidly than hardware becomes faster") said of OOP in his paper, "Good Ideas through the Looking
Glass", "This paradigm closely reflects the structure of systems 'in the real world', and it is therefore well
suited to model complex systems with complex behaviours"[28] (contrast KISS principle).

Steve Yegge and others noted that natural languages lack the OOP approach of strictly prioritizing things
(objects/nouns) before actions (methods/verbs).[29] This problem may cause OOP to suffer more convoluted
solutions than procedural programming.[30]

OOP and control flow

OOP was developed to increase the reusability and maintainability of source code.[31] Transparent
representation of the control flow had no priority and was meant to be handled by a compiler. With the
increasing relevance of parallel hardware and multithreaded coding, developing transparent control flow
becomes more important, something hard to achieve with OOP.[32][33][34][35]

Responsibility- vs. data-driven design

Responsibility-driven design defines classes in terms of a contract, that is, a class should be defined around a
responsibility and the information that it shares. This is contrasted by Wirfs-Brock and Wilkerson with data-
driven design, where classes are defined around the data-structures that must be held. The authors hold that
responsibility-driven design is preferable.
SOLID and GRASP guidelines

SOLID is a mnemonic invented by Michael Feathers that stands for and advocates five programming
practices:

Single responsibility principle

Open/closed principle
Liskov substitution principle
Interface segregation principle
Dependency inversion principle

GRASP (General Responsibility Assignment Software Patterns) is another set of guidelines advocated by
Craig Larman.

Criticism
The OOP paradigm has been criticised for a number of reasons, including not meeting its stated goals of
reusability and modularity,[36][37] and for overemphasizing one aspect of software design and modeling
(data/objects) at the expense of other important aspects (computation/algorithms).[38][39]

Luca Cardelli has claimed that OOP code is "intrinsically less efficient" than procedural code, that OOP can
take longer to compile, and that OOP languages have "extremely poor modularity properties with respect to
class extension and modification", and tend to be extremely complex.[36] The latter point is reiterated by Joe
Armstrong, the principal inventor of Erlang, who is quoted as saying:[37]

The problem with object-oriented languages is they've got all this implicit environment that they
carry around with them. You wanted a banana but what you got was a gorilla holding the banana
and the entire jungle.

A study by Potok et al. has shown no significant difference in productivity between OOP and procedural
approaches.[40]

Christopher J. Date stated that critical comparison of OOP to other technologies, relational in particular, is
difficult because of lack of an agreed-upon and rigorous definition of OOP;[41] however, Date and Darwen
have proposed a theoretical foundation on OOP that uses OOP as a kind of customizable type system to
support RDBMS.[42]

In an article Lawrence Krubner claimed that compared to other languages (LISP dialects, functional
languages, etc.) OOP languages have no unique strengths, and inflict a heavy burden of unneeded
complexity.[43]

Alexander Stepanov compares object orientation unfavourably to generic programming:[38]

I find OOP technically unsound. It attempts to decompose the world in terms of interfaces that
vary on a single type. To deal with the real problems you need multisorted algebras — families of
interfaces that span multiple types. I find OOP philosophically unsound. It claims that everything
is an object. Even if it is true it is not very interesting — saying that everything is an object is
saying nothing at all.
Paul Graham has suggested that OOP's popularity within large companies is due to "large (and frequently
changing) groups of mediocre programmers". According to Graham, the discipline imposed by OOP prevents
any one programmer from "doing too much damage".[44]

Leo Brodie has suggested a connection between the standalone nature of objects and a tendency to duplicate
code[45] in violation of the don't repeat yourself principle[46] of software development.

Steve Yegge noted that, as opposed to functional programming:[47]

Object Oriented Programming puts the Nouns first and foremost. Why would you go to such
lengths to put one part of speech on a pedestal? Why should one kind of concept take precedence
over another? It's not as if OOP has suddenly made verbs less important in the way we actually
think. It's a strangely skewed perspective.

Rich Hickey, creator of Clojure, described object systems as overly simplistic models of the real world. He
emphasized the inability of OOP to model time properly, which is getting increasingly problematic as software
systems become more concurrent.[39]

Eric S. Raymond, a Unix programmer and open-source software advocate, has been critical of claims that
present object-oriented programming as the "One True Solution", and has written that object-oriented
programming languages tend to encourage thickly layered programs that destroy transparency.[48] Raymond
compares this unfavourably to the approach taken with Unix and the C programming language.[48]

Rob Pike, a programmer involved in the creation of UTF-8 and Go, has called object-oriented programming
"the Roman numerals of computing"[49] and has said that OOP languages frequently shift the focus from data
structures and algorithms to types.[50] Furthermore, he cites an instance of a Java professor whose "idiomatic"
solution to a problem was to create six new classes, rather than to simply use a lookup table.[51]

Formal semantics
Objects are the run-time entities in an object-oriented system. They may represent a person, a place, a bank
account, a table of data, or any item that the program has to handle.

There have been several attempts at formalizing the concepts used in object-oriented programming. The
following concepts and constructs have been used as interpretations of OOP concepts:

co algebraic data types[52]

abstract data types (which have existential types) allow the definition of modules but these do
not support dynamic dispatch
recursive types
encapsulated state
inheritance
records are basis for understanding objects if function literals can be stored in fields (like in
functional-programming languages), but the actual calculi need be considerably more complex
to incorporate essential features of OOP. Several extensions of System F<: that deal with
mutable objects have been studied;[53] these allow both subtype polymorphism and parametric
polymorphism (generics)
Attempts to find a consensus definition or theory behind objects have not proven very successful (however,
see Abadi & Cardelli, A Theory of Objects (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=547964&dl=ACM&coll=port
al)[53] for formal definitions of many OOP concepts and constructs), and often diverge widely. For example,
some definitions focus on mental activities, and some on program structuring. One of the simpler definitions is
that OOP is the act of using "map" data structures or arrays that can contain functions and pointers to other
maps, all with some syntactic and scoping sugar on top. Inheritance can be performed by cloning the maps
(sometimes called "prototyping").

See also
Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)
Comparison of programming paradigms
Component-based software engineering
Design by contract
Object association
Object database
Object modeling language
Object-oriented analysis and design
Object-relational impedance mismatch (and The Third Manifesto)
Object-relational mapping

Systems
CADES
Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA)
Distributed Component Object Model
Distributed Data Management Architecture
Jeroo

Modeling languages
IDEF4
Interface description language
Lepus3
UML

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Further reading
Abadi, Martin; Luca Cardelli (1998). A Theory of Objects. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-
94775-4.
Abelson, Harold; Gerald Jay Sussman (1997). Structure and Interpretation of Computer
Programs (http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/). MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01153-2.
Armstrong, Deborah J. (February 2006). "The Quarks of Object-Oriented Development".
Communications of the ACM. 49 (2): 123–128. doi:10.1145/1113034.1113040 (https://doi.org/1
0.1145%2F1113034.1113040). ISSN 0001-0782 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782).
Booch, Grady (1997). Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications (https://archive.or
g/details/objectorientedan00booc). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-5340-2.
Eeles, Peter; Oliver Sims (1998). Building Business Objects (https://archive.org/details/building
business0000eele). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-19176-6.
Gamma, Erich; Richard Helm; Ralph Johnson; John Vlissides (1995). Design Patterns:
Elements of Reusable Object Oriented Software (https://archive.org/details/designpatternsel00
gamm). Addison-Wesley. Bibcode:1995dper.book.....G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995
dper.book.....G). ISBN 978-0-201-63361-0.
Harmon, Paul; William Morrissey (1996). The Object Technology Casebook – Lessons from
Award-Winning Business Applications (https://archive.org/details/objecttechnology00harm).
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-14717-6.
Jacobson, Ivar (1992). Object-Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case-Driven Approach.
Addison-Wesley. Bibcode:1992oose.book.....J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992oose.bo
ok.....J). ISBN 978-0-201-54435-0.
Kay, Alan. The Early History of Smalltalk (https://web.archive.org/web/20050404075821/http://g
agne.homedns.org/~tgagne/contrib/EarlyHistoryST.html#). Archived from the original (http://gag
ne.homedns.org/%7etgagne/contrib/EarlyHistoryST.html) on 4 April 2005. Retrieved 18 April
2005.
Meyer, Bertrand (1997). Object-Oriented Software Construction. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-
629155-8.
Pecinovsky, Rudolf (2013). OOP – Learn Object Oriented Thinking & Programming (http://pub.b
ruckner.cz/titles/oop). Bruckner Publishing. ISBN 978-80-904661-8-0.
Rumbaugh, James; Michael Blaha; William Premerlani; Frederick Eddy; William Lorensen
(1991). Object-Oriented Modeling and Design (https://archive.org/details/objectorientedmo00ru
mb). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629841-0.
Schach, Stephen (2006). Object-Oriented and Classical Software Engineering, Seventh
Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-319126-3.
Schreiner, Axel-Tobias (1993). Object oriented programming with ANSI-C. Hanser.
hdl:1850/8544 (https://hdl.handle.net/1850%2F8544). ISBN 978-3-446-17426-9.
Taylor, David A. (1992). Object-Oriented Information Systems – Planning and Implementation
(https://archive.org/details/objectorientedin00tayl). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-54364-
0.
Weisfeld, Matt (2009). The Object-Oriented Thought Process, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 978-0-672-33016-2.
West, David (2004). Object Thinking (Developer Reference). Microsoft Press. ISBN 978-
0735619654.
External links
Object-oriented programming (https://curlie.org/Computers/Programming/Methodologies/Object
-Oriented) at Curlie
Introduction to Object Oriented Programming Concepts (OOP) and More (http://www.codeproje
ct.com/Articles/22769/Introduction-to-Object-Oriented-Programming-Concep) by L.W.C. Nirosh
Discussion about the flaws of OOD (http://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2008/08/22/flaws-of-o
bject-oriented-modeling/)
OOP Concepts (Java Tutorials) (http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/java/concepts/index.ht
ml)
Science or Snake Oil: Empirical Software engineering (https://se9book.wordpress.com/2011/0
8/29/science-or-snake-oil-empirical-software-engineering/) Thoughts on software and systems
engineering, by Ian Sommerville (2011-8-29)

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