A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL

Incorporating user-specified confidence levels

Thomas M. Idzorek*

Thomas M. Idzorek, CFA

Senior Quantitative Researcher

Zephyr Associates, Inc.

PO Box 12368

312 Dorla Court, Ste. 204

Zephyr Cove, NV 89448

775.588.0654 Ext. 241

775.588.8426 Fax

[email protected]

Original Draft: January 1, 2002

This Draft: July 20, 2004

This paper is not intended for redistribution.

*
Senior Quantitative Researcher, Zephyr Associates, Inc., PO Box 12368, 312 Dorla Court Ste. 204,
Zephyr Cove, NV 89448, USA. Tel.: 1 775 588 0654; e-mail: [email protected].
 A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL

Incorporating user-specified confidence levels

ABSTRACT

The Black-Litterman model enables investors to combine their unique views

regarding the performance of various assets with the market equilibrium in a manner that

results in intuitive, diversified portfolios. This paper consolidates insights from the

relatively few works on the model and provides step-by-step instructions that enable the

reader to implement this complex model. A new method for controlling the tilts and the

final portfolio weights caused by views is introduced. The new method asserts that the

magnitude of the tilts should be controlled by the user-specified confidence level based

on an intuitive 0% to 100% confidence level. This is an intuitive technique for specifying

one of most abstract mathematical parameters of the Black-Litterman model.

 A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL

Incorporating user-specified confidence levels

Having attempted to decipher many of the articles about the Black-Litterman

model, none of the relatively few articles provide enough step-by-step instructions for the

average practitioner to derive the new vector of expected returns.1 This article touches

on the intuition of the Black-Litterman model, consolidate insights contained in the

various works on the Black-Litterman model, and focus on the details of actually

combining market equilibrium expected returns with “investor views” to generate a new

vector of expected returns. Finally, I make a new contribution to the model by presenting

a method for controlling the magnitude of the tilts caused by the views that is based on an

intuitive 0% to 100% confidence level, which should broaden the usability of the model

beyond quantitative managers.

Introduction

The Black-Litterman asset allocation model, created by Fischer Black and Robert

Litterman, is a sophisticated portfolio construction method that overcomes the problem of

unintuitive, highly-concentrated portfolios, input-sensitivity, and estimation error

maximization. These three related and well-documented problems with mean-variance

optimization are the most likely reasons that more practitioners do not use the Markowitz

paradigm, in which return is maximized for a given level of risk. The Black-Litterman

model uses a Bayesian approach to combine the subjective views of an investor regarding

the expected returns of one or more assets with the market equilibrium vector of expected

returns (the prior distribution) to form a new, mixed estimate of expected returns. The

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 1

resulting new vector of returns (the posterior distribution), leads to intuitive portfolios

with sensible portfolio weights. Unfortunately, the building of the required inputs is

complex and has not been thoroughly explained in the literature.

The Black-Litterman asset allocation model was introduced in Black and

Litterman (1990), expanded in Black and Litterman (1991, 1992), and discussed in

greater detail in Bevan and Winkelmann (1998), He and Litterman (1999), and Litterman

(2003).2 The Black Litterman model combines the CAPM (see Sharpe (1964)), reverse

optimization (see Sharpe (1974)), mixed estimation (see Theil (1971, 1978)), the

universal hedge ratio / Black’s global CAPM (see Black (1989a, 1989b) and Litterman

(2003)), and mean-variance optimization (see Markowitz (1952)).

Section 1 illustrates the sensitivity of mean-variance optimization and how

reverse optimization mitigates this problem. Section 2 presents the Black-Litterman

model and the process of building the required inputs. Section 3 develops an implied

confidence framework for the views. This framework leads to a new, intuitive method

for incorporating the level of confidence in investor views that helps investors control the

magnitude of the tilts caused by views.

1 Expected Returns

The Black-Litterman model creates stable, mean-variance efficient portfolios,

based on an investor’s unique insights, which overcome the problem of input-sensitivity.

According to Lee (2000), the Black-Litterman model also “largely mitigates” the problem

of estimation error-maximization (see Michaud (1989)) by spreading the errors

throughout the vector of expected returns.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 2

 The most important input in mean-variance optimization is the vector of expected

returns; however, Best and Grauer (1991) demonstrate that a small increase in the

expected return of one of the portfolio's assets can force half of the assets from the

portfolio. In a search for a reasonable starting point for expected returns, Black and

Litterman (1992), He and Litterman (1999), and Litterman (2003) explore several

alternative forecasts: historical returns, equal “mean” returns for all assets, and risk-

adjusted equal mean returns. They demonstrate that these alternative forecasts lead to

extreme portfolios – when unconstrained, portfolios with large long and short positions;

and, when subject to a long only constraint, portfolios that are concentrated in a relatively

small number of assets.

1.1 Reverse Optimization

The Black-Litterman model uses “equilibrium” returns as a neutral starting point.

Equilibrium returns are the set of returns that clear the market. The equilibrium returns

are derived using a reverse optimization method in which the vector of implied excess

equilibrium returns is extracted from known information using Formula 1:3

Π = λΣwmkt (1)

where

Π is the Implied Excess Equilibrium Return Vector (N x 1 column vector);

λ is the risk aversion coefficient;
Σ is the covariance matrix of excess returns (N x N matrix); and,
wmkt is the market capitalization weight (N x 1 column vector) of the assets.4

The risk-aversion coefficient ( λ ) characterizes the expected risk-return tradeoff.

It is the rate at which an investor will forego expected return for less variance. In the

reverse optimization process, the risk aversion coefficient acts as a scaling factor for the

reverse optimization estimate of excess returns; the weighted reverse optimized excess

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 3

returns equal the specified market risk premium. More excess return per unit of risk (a

larger lambda) increases the estimated excess returns.5

To illustrate the model, I present an eight asset example in addition to the general

model. To keep the scope of the paper manageable, I avoid discussing currencies.6

Table 1 presents four estimates of expected excess return for the eight assets – US

Bonds, International Bonds, US Large Growth, US Large Value, US Small Growth, US

Small Value, International Developed Equity, and International Emerging Equity. The

first CAPM excess return vector in Table 1 is calculated relative to the UBS Global

Securities Markets Index (GSMI), a global index and a good proxy for the world market

portfolio. The second CAPM excess return vector is calculated relative to the market

capitalization-weighted portfolio using implied betas and is identical to the Implied

Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ).7

Table 1 Expected Excess Return Vectors

Implied
Equilibrium
CAPM Return
Historical CAPM GSMI Portfolio Vector
Asset Class µ Hist µ GSMI µP Π
US Bonds 3.15% 0.02% 0.08% 0.08%
Int’l Bonds 1.75% 0.18% 0.67% 0.67%
US Large Growth -6.39% 5.57% 6.41% 6.41%
US Large Value -2.86% 3.39% 4.08% 4.08%
US Small Growth -6.75% 6.59% 7.43% 7.43%
US Small Value -0.54% 3.16% 3.70% 3.70%
Int’l Dev. Equity -6.75% 3.92% 4.80% 4.80%
Int’l Emerg. Equity -5.26% 5.60% 6.60% 6.60%

Weighted Average -1.97% 2.41% 3.00% 3.00%

Standard Deviation 3.73% 2.28% 2.53% 2.53%

High 3.15% 6.59% 7.43% 7.43%

Low -6.75% 0.02% 0.08% 0.08%
* All four estimates are based on 60 months of excess returns over the risk-free rate. The two CAPM
estimates are based on a risk premium of 3. Dividing the risk premium by the variance of the market (or
benchmark) excess returns ( σ 2 ) results in a risk-aversion coefficient ( λ ) of approximately 3.07.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 4

 The Historical Return Vector has a larger standard deviation and range than the

other vectors. The first CAPM Return Vector is quite similar to the Implied Equilibrium

Return Vector ( Π ) (the correlation coefficient is 99.8%).

Rearranging Formula 1 and substituting µ (representing any vector of excess return)

for Π (representing the vector of Implied Excess Equilibrium Returns) leads to Formula 2,

the solution to the unconstrained maximization problem: max w' µ − λw' Σw / 2 .

w

w = (λΣ ) µ
−1
(2)

If µ does not equal Π , w will not equal wmkt .

In Table 2, Formula 2 is used to find the optimum weights for three portfolios based

on the return vectors from Table 1. The market capitalization weights are presented in the

final column of Table 2.

Table 2 Recommended Portfolio Weights

Weight
Based on
Implied
Weight Weight Equilibrium Market
Based on Based on Return Capitalization
Historical CAPM GSMI Vector Weight
Asset Class w Hist wGSMI Π wmkt
US Bonds 1144.32% 21.33% 19.34% 19.34%
Int’l Bonds -104.59% 5.19% 26.13% 26.13%
US Large Growth 54.99% 10.80% 12.09% 12.09%
US Large Value -5.29% 10.82% 12.09% 12.09%
US Small Growth -60.52% 3.73% 1.34% 1.34%
US Small Value 81.47% -0.49% 1.34% 1.34%
Int’l Dev. Equity -104.36% 17.10% 24.18% 24.18%
Int’l Emerg. Equity 14.59% 2.14% 3.49% 3.49%

High 1144.32% 21.33% 26.13% 26.13%

Low -104.59% -0.49% 1.34% 1.34%

Not surprisingly, the Historical Return Vector produces an extreme portfolio.

Those not familiar with mean-variance optimization might expect two highly correlated

return vectors to lead to similarly correlated vectors of portfolio holdings. Nevertheless,

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 5

despite the similarity between the CAPM GSMI Return Vector and the Implied

Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ), the return vectors produce two rather distinct weight

vectors (the correlation coefficient is 66%). Most of the weights of the CAPM GSMI-

based portfolio are significantly different than the benchmark market capitalization-

weighted portfolio, especially the allocation to International Bonds. As one would expect

(since the process of extracting the Implied Equilibrium returns using the market

capitalization weights is reversed), the Implied Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ) leads

back to the market capitalization-weighted portfolio. In the absence of views that differ

from the Implied Equilibrium return, investors should hold the market portfolio. The

Implied Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ) is the market-neutral starting point for the

Black-Litterman model.

2 The Black-Litterman Model

2.1 The Black-Litterman Formula

Prior to advancing, it is important to introduce the Black-Litterman formula and

provide a brief description of each of its elements. Throughout this article, K is used to

represent the number of views and N is used to express the number of assets in the

formula. The formula for the new Combined Return Vector ( E[R] ) is

[
E[ R ] = (τΣ ) + P ' Ω −1 P
−1
] [(τΣ )
−1 −1
Π + P ' Ω −1Q ] (3)

where

E[R] is the new (posterior) Combined Return Vector (N x 1 column vector);

τ is a scalar;
Σ is the covariance matrix of excess returns (N x N matrix);
P is a matrix that identifies the assets involved in the views (K x N matrix or
1 x N row vector in the special case of 1 view);

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 6

 Ω is a diagonal covariance matrix of error terms from the expressed views
representing the uncertainty in each view (K x K matrix);
Π is the Implied Equilibrium Return Vector (N x 1 column vector); and,
Q is the View Vector (K x 1 column vector).

2.2 Investor Views

More often than not, investment managers have specific views regarding the

expected return of some of the assets in a portfolio, which differ from the Implied

Equilibrium return. The Black-Litterman model allows such views to be expressed in

either absolute or relative terms. Below are three sample views expressed using the

format of Black and Litterman (1990).

View 1: International Developed Equity will have an absolute excess return of

5.25% (Confidence of View = 25%).
View 2: International Bonds will outperform US Bonds by 25 basis points
(Confidence of View = 50%).
View 3: US Large Growth and US Small Growth will outperform US Large
Value and US Small Value by 2% (Confidence of View = 65%).

View 1 is an example of an absolute view. From the final column of Table 1, the

Implied Equilibrium return of International Developed Equity is 4.80%, which is 45 basis

points lower than the view of 5.25%.

Views 2 and 3 represent relative views. Relative views more closely approximate

the way investment managers feel about different assets. View 2 says that the return of

International Bonds will be 0.25% greater than the return of US Bonds. In order to gauge

whether View 2 will have a positive or negative effect on International Bonds relative to

US Bonds, it is necessary to evaluate the respective Implied Equilibrium returns of the

two assets in the view. From Table 1, the Implied Equilibrium returns for International

Bonds and US Bonds are 0.67% and 0.08%, respectively, for a difference of 0.59%. The

view of 0.25%, from View 2, is less than the 0.59% by which the return of International

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 7

Bonds exceeds the return of US Bonds; thus, one would expect the model to tilt the

portfolio away from International Bonds in favor of US Bonds. In general (and in the

absence of constraints and additional views), if the view is less than the difference

between the two Implied Equilibrium returns, the model tilts the portfolio toward the

underperforming asset, as illustrated by View 2. Likewise, if the view is greater than the

difference between the two Implied Equilibrium returns, the model tilts the portfolio

toward the outperforming asset.

View 3 demonstrates a view involving multiple assets and that the terms

“outperforming” and “underperforming” are relative. The number of outperforming

assets need not match the number of assets underperforming. The results of views that

involve multiple assets with a range of different Implied Equilibrium returns can be less

intuitive. The assets of the view form two separate mini-portfolios, a long portfolio and a

short portfolio. The relative weighting of each nominally outperforming asset is

proportional to that asset’s market capitalization divided by the sum of the market

capitalization of the other nominally outperforming assets of that particular view.

Likewise, the relative weighting of each nominally underperforming asset is proportional

to that asset’s market capitalization divided by the sum of the market capitalizations of

the other nominally underperforming assets. The net long positions less the net short

positions equal 0. The mini-portfolio that actually receives the positive view may not be

the nominally outperforming asset(s) from the expressed view. In general, if the view is

greater than the weighted average Implied Equilibrium return differential, the model will

tend to overweight the “outperforming” assets.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 8

 From View 3, the nominally “outperforming” assets are US Large Growth and US

Small Growth and the nominally “underperforming” assets are US Large Value and US

Small Value. From Table 3a, the weighted average Implied Equilibrium return of the

mini-portfolio formed from US Large Growth and US Small Growth is 6.52%. And,

from Table 3b, the weighted average Implied Equilibrium return of the mini-portfolio

formed from US Large Value and US Small Value is 4.04%. The weighted average

Implied Equilibrium return differential is 2.47%.

Table 3a View 3 – Nominally “Outperforming” Assets

Implied
Equilibrium
Market Return Weighted
Capitalization Relative Vector Excess
Asset Class (Billions) Weight Π Return
US Large Growth $5,174 90.00% 6.41% 5.77%
US Small Growth $575 10.00% 7.43% 0.74%
$5,749 100.00% Total 6.52%

Table 3b View 3 – Nominally “Underperforming” Assets

Implied
Equilibrium
Market Return Weighted
Capitalization Relative Vector Excess
Asset Class (Billions) Weight Π Return
US Large Value $5,174 90.00% 4.08% 3.67%
US Small Value $575 10.00% 3.70% 0.37%
$5,749 100.00% Total 4.04%

Because View 3 states that US Large Growth and US Small Growth will

outperform US Large Value and US Small Value by only 2% (a reduction from the

current weighted average Implied Equilibrium differential of 2.47%), the view appears to

actually represent a reduction in the performance of US Large Growth and US Small

Growth relative to US Large Value and US Small Value. This point is illustrated below

in the final column of Table 6, where the nominally outperforming assets of View 3 – US

Large Growth and US Small Growth – receive reductions in their allocations and the

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 9

nominally underperforming assets – US Large Value and US Small Value – receive

increases in their allocations.

2.3 Building the Inputs

One of the more confusing aspects of the model is moving from the stated views

to the inputs used in the Black-Litterman formula. First, the model does not require that

investors specify views on all assets. In the eight asset example, the number of views (k)

is 3; thus, the View Vector ( Q ) is a 3 x 1 column vector. The uncertainty of the views

results in a random, unknown, independent, normally-distributed Error Term Vector ( ε )

with a mean of 0 and covariance matrix Ω . Thus, a view has the form Q + ε .

General Case: Example: (4)

 Q1   ε1  5.25  ε1 
Q + ε =  M  +  M  Q + ε = 0.25 +  M 
Qk  ε k   2  ε k 

Except in the hypothetical case in which a clairvoyant investor is 100% confident

in the expressed view, the error term ( ε ) is a positive or negative value other than 0. The

Error Term Vector ( ε ) does not directly enter the Black-Litterman formula. However,

the variance of each error term ( ω ), which is the absolute difference from the error

term’s ( ε ) expected value of 0, does enter the formula. The variances of the error terms

( ω ) form Ω , where Ω is a diagonal covariance matrix with 0’s in all of the off-diagonal

positions. The off-diagonal elements of Ω are 0’s because the model assumes that the

views are independent of one another. The variances of the error terms ( ω ) represent the

uncertainty of the views. The larger the variance of the error term ( ω ), the greater the

uncertainty of the view.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 10

General Case: (5)

ω1 0 0 
Ω =  0 O 0 
 0 0 ω k 

Determining the individual variances of the error terms ( ω ) that constitute the

diagonal elements of Ω is one of the most complicated aspects of the model. It is

discussed in greater detail below and is the subject of Section 3.

The expressed views in column vector Q are matched to specific assets by Matrix

P. Each expressed view results in a 1 x N row vector. Thus, K views result in a K x N

matrix. In the three-view example presented in Section 2.2, in which there are 8 assets, P

is a 3 x 8 matrix.

Example (Based on
General Case: Satchell and Scowcroft (2000)): (6)

 p1,1 L p1,n   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
 
P= M O M  P = − 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 pk ,1 L pk ,n   0 0 .5 − .5 .5 − .5 0 0

The first row of Matrix P represents View 1, the absolute view. View 1 only

involves one asset: International Developed Equity. Sequentially, International

Developed Equity is the 7th asset in this eight asset example, which corresponds with the

“1” in the 7th column of Row 1. View 2 and View 3 are represented by Row 2 and Row

3, respectively. In the case of relative views, each row sums to 0. In Matrix P, the

nominally outperforming assets receive positive weightings, while the nominally

underperforming assets receive negative weightings.

Methods for specifying the values of Matrix P vary. Litterman (2003, p. 82)

assigns a percentage value to the asset(s) in question. Satchell and Scowcroft (2000) use

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 11

an equal weighting scheme, which is presented in Row 3 of Formula 6. Under this

system, the weightings are proportional to 1 divided by the number of respective assets

outperforming or underperforming. View 3 has two nominally underperforming assets,

each of which receives a -.5 weighting. View 3 also contains two nominally

outperforming assets, each receiving a +.5 weighting. This weighting scheme ignores the

market capitalization of the assets involved in the view. The market capitalizations of the

US Large Growth and US Large Value asset classes are nine times the market

capitalizations of US Small Growth and Small Value asset classes; yet, the Satchell and

Scowcroft method affects their respective weights equally, causing large changes in the

two smaller asset classes. This method may result in undesired and unnecessary tracking

error.

Contrasting with the Satchell and Scowcroft (2000) equal weighting scheme, I

prefer to use to use a market capitalization weighting scheme. More specifically, the

relative weighting of each individual asset is proportional to the asset’s market

capitalization divided by the total market capitalization of either the outperforming or

underperforming assets of that particular view. From the third column of Tables 3a and

3b, the relative market capitalization weights of the nominally outperforming assets are

0.9 for US Large Growth and 0.1 for US Small Growth, while the relative market

capitalization weights of the nominally underperforming assets are -.9 for US Large

Value and -.1 for US Small Value. These figures are used to create a new Matrix P,

which is used for all of the subsequent calculations.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 12

Matrix P (Market capitalization method): (7)

 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
P = − 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 0 .9 − .9 .1 − .1 0 0

Once Matrix P is defined, one can calculate the variance of each individual view

portfolio. The variance of an individual view portfolio is pk Σpk' , where pk is a single 1 x

N row vector from Matrix P that corresponds to the kth view and Σ is the covariance

matrix of excess returns. The variances of the individual view portfolios ( pk Σpk' ) are

presented in Table 4. The respective variance of each individual view portfolio is an

important source of information regarding the certainty, or lack thereof, of the level of

confidence that should be placed on a view. This information is used shortly to revisit

the variances of the error terms ( ω ) that form the diagonal elements of Ω .

Table 4 Variance of the View Portfolios

View Formula Variance
1 p1Σp '
1
2.836%

2 p2Σp '
2
0.563%

3 p3Σp '
3
3.462%

Conceptually, the Black-Litterman model is a complex, weighted average of the

Implied Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ) and the View Vector ( Q ), in which the relative

weightings are a function of the scalar ( τ ) and the uncertainty of the views ( Ω ).

Unfortunately, the scalar and the uncertainty in the views are the most abstract and

difficult to specify parameters of the model. The greater the level of confidence

(certainty) in the expressed views, the closer the new return vector will be to the views.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 13

If the investor is less confident in the expressed views, the new return vector should be

closer to the Implied Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ).

The scalar ( τ ) is more or less inversely proportional to the relative weight given

to the Implied Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ). Unfortunately, guidance in the literature

for setting the scalar’s value is scarce. Both Black and Litterman (1992) and Lee (2000)

address this issue: since the uncertainty in the mean is less than the uncertainty in the

return, the scalar ( τ ) is close to zero. One would expect the Equilibrium Returns to be

less volatile than the historical returns.8

Lee, who has considerable experience working with a variant of the Black-

Litterman model, typically sets the value of the scalar ( τ ) between 0.01 and 0.05, and

then calibrates the model based on a target level of tracking error.9 Conversely, Satchell

and Scowcroft (2000) say the value of the scalar ( τ ) is often set to 1.10 Finally, Blamont

and Firoozye (2003) interpret τΣ as the standard error of estimate of the Implied

Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ); thus, the scalar ( τ ) is approximately 1 divided by the

number of observations.

In the absence of constraints, the Black-Litterman model only recommends a

departure from an asset’s market capitalization weight if it is the subject of a view. For

assets that are the subject of a view, the magnitude of their departure from their market

capitalization weight is controlled by the ratio of the scalar ( τ ) to the variance of the

error term ( ω ) of the view in question. The variance of the error term ( ω ) of a view is

inversely related to the investor’s confidence in that particular view. Thus, a variance of

the error term ( ω ) of 0 represents 100% confidence (complete certainty) in the view.

The magnitude of the departure from the market capitalization weights is also affected by

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 14

other views. Additional views lead to a different Combined Return Vector ( E[ R] ),

which leads to a new vector of recommended weights.

The easiest way to calibrate the Black-Litterman model is to make an assumption

about the value of the scalar ( τ ). He and Litterman (1999) calibrate the confidence of a

view so that the ratio of ω τ is equal to the variance of the view portfolio ( pk Σpk' ).

Assuming τ = 0.025 and using the individual variances of the view portfolios ( pk Σpk' )

from Table 4, the covariance matrix of the error term ( Ω ) has the following form:

General Case: Example: (8)

( )
 p1Σp1' *τ 0 0  0.000709 0 0 
   
Ω= 0 O 0  Ω= 0 0.000141 0 

 0 0 ( '
)
pk Σpk *τ   0 0 0.000866

When the covariance matrix of the error term ( Ω ) is calculated using this method,

the actual value of the scalar ( τ ) becomes irrelevant because only the ratio ω / τ enters

the model. For example, changing the assumed value of the scalar ( τ ) from 0.025 to 15

dramatically changes the value of the diagonal elements of Ω , but the new Combined

Return Vector ( E[R] ) is unaffected.

2.4 Calculating the New Combined Return Vector

Having specified the scalar ( τ ) and the covariance matrix of the error term ( Ω ),

all of the inputs are then entered into the Black-Litterman formula and the New

Combined Return Vector ( E[R] ) is derived. The process of combining the two sources of

information is depicted in Figure 1. The New Recommended Weights ( ŵ ) are calculated

by solving the unconstrained maximization problem, Formula 2. The covariance matrix

of historical excess returns ( Σ ) is presented in Table 5.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 15

 Figure 1 Deriving the New Combined Return Vector ( E[R] )

Risk Aversion Market

Coefficient Covariance Capitalization Views Uncertainty of Views
λ = (E (r ) − r f ) σ (Q ) (Ω )
Matrix Weights
(Σ )
2
( wmkt )

Implied Equilibrium Return Vector

Π = λΣwmkt

Prior Equilibrium Distribution View Distribution

N ~ (Π, τΣ ) N ~ (Q, Ω )

New Combined Return Distribution

( [
N ~ E[ R], (τΣ ) + (P ' Ω −1 P )
−1
]
−1
)
* The variance of the New Combined Return Distribution is derived in Satchell and Scowcroft (2000).

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 16

Table 5 Covariance Matrix of Excess Returns ( Σ )
Int’l.
US Int’l US Large US Large US Small US Small Int’l Dev. Emerg.
Asset Class Bonds Bonds Growth Value Growth Value Equity Equity
US Bonds 0.001005 0.001328 -0.000579 -0.000675 0.000121 0.000128 -0.000445 -0.000437
Int’l Bonds 0.001328 0.007277 -0.001307 -0.000610 -0.002237 -0.000989 0.001442 -0.001535
US Large Growth -0.000579 -0.001307 0.059852 0.027588 0.063497 0.023036 0.032967 0.048039
US Large Value -0.000675 -0.000610 0.027588 0.029609 0.026572 0.021465 0.020697 0.029854
US Small Growth 0.000121 -0.002237 0.063497 0.026572 0.102488 0.042744 0.039943 0.065994
US Small Value 0.000128 -0.000989 0.023036 0.021465 0.042744 0.032056 0.019881 0.032235
Int’l Dev. Equity -0.000445 0.001442 0.032967 0.020697 0.039943 0.019881 0.028355 0.035064
Int’l Emerg. Equity -0.000437 -0.001535 0.048039 0.029854 0.065994 0.032235 0.035064 0.079958

Even though the expressed views only directly involved 7 of the 8 asset classes,

the individual returns of all the assets changed from their respective Implied Equilibrium

returns (see column 4 of Table 6). A single view causes the return of every asset in the

portfolio to change from its Implied Equilibrium return, since each individual return is

linked to the other returns via the covariance matrix of excess returns ( Σ ).

Table 6 Return Vectors and Resulting Portfolio Weights

New Implied
Combined Equilibrium Market
Return Return New Capitalization
Vector Vector Difference Weight Weight Difference
Asset Class E[ R] Π E[ R ] − Π ŵ wmkt wˆ − wmkt
US Bonds 0.07% 0.08% -0.02% 29.88% 19.34% 10.54%
Int’l Bonds 0.50% 0.67% -0.17% 15.59% 26.13% -10.54%
US Large Growth 6.50% 6.41% 0.08% 9.35% 12.09% -2.73%
US Large Value 4.32% 4.08% 0.24% 14.82% 12.09% 2.73%
US Small Growth 7.59% 7.43% 0.16% 1.04% 1.34% -0.30%
US Small Value 3.94% 3.70% 0.23% 1.65% 1.34% 0.30%
Int’l Dev. Equity 4.93% 4.80% 0.13% 27.81% 24.18% 3.63%
Int’l Emerg. Equity 6.84% 6.60% 0.24% 3.49% 3.49% 0.00%

Sum 103.63% 100.00% 3.63%

The New Weight Vector ( ŵ ) in column 5 of Table 6 is based on the New

Combined Return Vector ( E[R] ). One of the strongest features of the Black-Litterman

model is illustrated in the final column of Table 6. Only the weights of the 7 assets for

which views were expressed changed from their original market capitalization weights

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 17

and the directions of the changes are intuitive.11 No views were expressed on

International Emerging Equity and its weights are unchanged.

From a macro perspective, the new portfolio can be viewed as the sum of two

portfolios, where Portfolio 1 is the original market capitalization-weighted portfolio, and

Portfolio 2 is a series of long and short positions based on the views. As discussed

earlier, Portfolio 2 can be subdivided into mini-portfolios, each associated with a specific

view. The relative views result in mini-portfolios with offsetting long and short positions

that sum to 0. View 1, the absolute view, increases the weight of International Developed

Equity without an offsetting position, resulting in portfolio weights that no longer sum to

1.

The intuitiveness of the Black-Litterman model is less apparent with added

investment constraints, such as constraints on unity, risk, beta, and short selling. He and

Litterman (1999) and Litterman (2003) suggest that, in the presence of constraints, the

investor input the New Combined Return Vector ( E[R] ) into a mean-variance optimizer.

2.5 Fine Tuning the Model

One can fine tune the Black-Litterman model by studying the New Combined

Return Vector ( E[R] ), calculating the anticipated risk-return characteristics of the new

portfolio and then adjusting the scalar ( τ ) and the individual variances of the error term

( ω ) that form the diagonal elements of the covariance matrix of the error term ( Ω ).

Bevan and Winkelmann (1998) offer guidance in setting the weight given to the

View Vector ( Q ). After deriving an initial Combined Return Vector ( E[R] ) and the

subsequent optimum portfolio weights, they calculate the anticipated Information Ratio

of the new portfolio. They recommend a maximum anticipated Information Ratio of 2.0.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 18

If the Information Ratio is above 2.0, decrease the weight given to the views (decrease

the value of the scalar and leave the diagonal elements of Ω unchanged).

Table 8 compares the anticipated risk-return characteristics of the market

capitalization-weighted portfolio with the Black-Litterman portfolio (the new weights

produced by the New Combined Return Vector).12 Overall, the views have very little

effect on the expected risk return characteristics of the new portfolio. However, both the

Sharpe Ratio and the Information Ratio increased slightly. The ex ante Information Ratio

is well below the recommended maximum of 2.0.

Table 8 Portfolio Statistics

Market
Capitalization-
Weighted Black-Litterman
Portfolio Portfolio
wmkt ŵ
Excess Return 3.000% 3.101%
Variance 0.00979 0.01012
Standard Deviation 9.893% 10.058%
Beta 1 1.01256
Residual Return -- 0.063%
Residual Risk -- 0.904%
Active Return -- 0.101%
Active Risk -- 0.913%
Sharpe Ratio 0.3033 0.3083
Information Ratio -- 0.0699

Next, the results of the views should be evaluated to confirm that there are no

unintended results. For example, investors confined to unity may want to remove

absolute views, such as View 1.

Investors should evaluate their ex post Information Ratio for additional guidance

when setting the weight on the various views. An investment manager who receives

“views” from a variety of analysts, or sources, could set the level of confidence of a

particular view based in part on that particular analyst’s information coefficient.

According to Grinold and Kahn (1999), a manager’s information coefficient is the

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 19

correlation of forecasts with the actual results. This gives greater relative importance to

the more skillful analysts.

Most of the examples in the literature, including the eight asset example presented

here, use a simple covariance matrix of historical returns. However, investors should use

the best possible estimate of the covariance matrix of excess returns. Litterman and

Winkelmann (1998) and Litterman (2003) outline the methods they prefer for estimating

the covariance matrix of returns, as well as several alternative methods of estimation.

Qian and Gorman (2001) extends the Black-Litterman model, enabling investors to

express views on volatilities and correlations in order to derive a conditional estimate of

the covariance matrix of returns. They assert that the conditional covariance matrix

stabilizes the results of mean-variance optimization.

3 A New Method for Incorporating User-Specified Confidence Levels

As the discussion above illustrates, Ω is the most abstract mathematical

parameter of the Black-Litterman model. Unfortunately, according to Litterman (2003),

how to specify the diagonal elements of Ω , representing the uncertainty of the views, is a

common question without a “universal answer.” Regarding Ω , Herold (2003) says that

the major difficulty of the Black-Litterman model is that it forces the user to specify a

probability density function for each view, which makes the Black-Litterman model only

suitable for quantitative managers. This section presents a new method for determining

the implied confidence levels in the views and how an implied confidence level

framework can be coupled with an intuitive 0% to 100% user-specified confidence level

in each view to determine the values of Ω , which simultaneously removes the difficulty

of specifying a value for the scalar (τ ).

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 20

3.1 Implied Confidence Levels

Earlier, the individual variances of the error term ( ω ) that form the diagonal

elements of the covariance matrix of the error term ( Ω ) were based on the variances of

the view portfolios ( pk Σpk' ) multiplied by the scalar ( τ ). However, it is my opinion that

there may be other sources of information in addition to the variance of the view portfolio

( pk Σpk' ) that affect an investor’s confidence in a view. When each view was stated, an

intuitive level of confidence (0% to 100%) was assigned to each view. Presumably,

additional factors can affect an investor’s confidence in a view, such as the historical

accuracy or score of the model, screen, or analyst that produced the view, as well as the

difference between the view and the implied market equilibrium. These factors, and

perhaps others, should be combined with the variance of the view portfolio ( pk Σpk' ) to

produce the best possible estimates of the confidence levels in the views. Doing so will

enable the Black-Litterman model to maximize an investor’s information.

Setting all of the diagonal elements of Ω equal to zero is equivalent to specifying

100% confidence in all of the K views. Ceteris paribus, doing so will produce the largest

departure from the benchmark market capitalization weights for the assets named in the

views. When 100% confidence is specified for all of the views, the Black-Litterman

formula for the New Combined Return Vector under 100% certainty ( E[ R100% ] ) is

E[ R100% ] = Π + τΣP' (PτΣP')−1 (Q − PΠ ) (9)

To distinguish the result of this formula from the first Black-Litterman Formula (Formula

3) the subscript 100% is added. Substituting E[ R100% ] for µ in Formula 2 leads to w100% ,

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 21

the weight vector based on 100% confidence in the views. wmkt , ŵ , and w100% are

illustrated in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2 Portfolio Allocations Based on wmkt , ŵ , and w100%

Allocations

45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
wmkt
20%
ŵ
15%
10% w100 %
5%
0%
US Int'l US US US US Int'l Int'l
Bonds Bonds Large Large Small Small Dev. Emerg.
Growth Value Growth Value Equity Equity

When an asset is only named in one view, the vector of recommended portfolio

weights based on 100% confidence ( w100% ) enables one to calculate an intuitive 0% to

100% level of confidence for each view. In order to do so, one must solve the

unconstrained maximization problem twice: once using E[R ] and once using E[ R100% ] .

The New Combined Return Vector ( E[R ] ) based on the covariance matrix of the error

term ( Ω ) leads to vector ŵ , while the New Combined Return Vector ( E[ R100% ] ) based

on 100% confidence leads to vector w100% . The departures of these new weight vectors

from the vector of market capitalization weights ( wmkt ) are wˆ − wmkt and w100% − wmkt ,

respectively. It is then possible to determine the implied level of confidence in the views

by dividing each weight difference ( wˆ − wmkt ) by the corresponding maximum weight

difference ( w100% − wmkt ).

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 22

 The implied level of confidence in a view, based on the scaled variance of the

individual view portfolios derived in Table 4, is in the final column of Table 7. The

implied confidence levels of View 1, View 2, and View 3 in the example are 32.94%,

43.06%, and 33.02%, respectively. Only using the scaled variance of each individual

view portfolio to determine the diagonal elements of Ω ignores the stated confidence

levels of 25%, 50%, and 65%.

Table 7 Implied Confidence Level of Views

New
Weights Implied
Market (Based on Confidence
Capitalization New 100% Level
Weights Weight Difference Confidence) Difference wˆ − wmkt
Asset Class wmkt ŵ wˆ − wmkt ŵ100% wˆ 100% − wmkt wˆ 100% − wmkt
US Bonds 19.34% 29.88% 10.54% 43.82% 24.48% 43.06%
Int’l Bonds 26.13% 15.59% -10.54% 1.65% -24.48% 43.06%
US Large Growth 12.09% 9.35% -2.73% 3.81% -8.28% 33.02%
US Large Value 12.09% 14.82% 2.73% 20.37% 8.28% 33.02%
US Small Growth 1.34% 1.04% -0.30% 0.42% -0.92% 33.02%
US Small Value 1.34% 1.65% 0.30% 2.26% 0.92% 33.02%
Int’l Dev. Equity 24.18% 27.81% 3.63% 35.21% 11.03% 32.94%
Int’l Emerg. Equity 3.49% 3.49% -- 3.49% -- --

Given the discrepancy between the stated confidence levels and the implied

confidence levels, one could experiment with different ω ’s, and recalculate the New

Combined Return Vector ( E[R] ) and the new set of recommended portfolio weights. I

believe there is a better method.

3.2 The New Method – An Intuitive Approach

I propose that the diagonal elements of Ω be derived in a manner that is based on

the user-specified confidence levels and that results in portfolio tilts, which approximate

w100% − wmkt multiplied by the user-specified confidence level ( C ).

Tilt k ≈ (w100% − wmkt )* Ck (10)

where

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 23

 Tilt k is the approximate tilt caused by the kth view (N x 1 column vector); and,
Ck is the confidence in the kth view.

Furthermore, in the absence of other views, the approximate recommended weight vector

resulting from the view is:

wk ,% ≈ wmkt + Tilt k (11)

where

wk ,% is the target weight vector based on the tilt caused by the kth view (N x 1
column vector).

The steps of the procedure are as follows.

1. For each view (k), calculate the New Combined Return Vector ( E[ R100% ] ) using

the Black-Litterman formula under 100% certainty, treating each view as if it was

the only view.

(
E[ Rk ,100% ] = Π + τΣpk' pkτΣpk' ) (Q − p Π )
−1
k k (12)

where

E[ Rk ,100% ] is the Expected Return Vector based on 100% confidence in the

kth view (N x 1column vector);
pk identifies the assets involved in the kth view (1 x N row vector);
and,
Qk is the kth View (1 x 1).*

*Note: If the view in question is an absolute view and the view is specified as a
total return rather than an excess return, subtract the risk-free rate from Qk .

2. Calculate wk ,100% , the weight vector based on 100% confidence in the kth view,

using the unconstrained maximization formula.

wk ,100% = (λΣ ) E[ Rk ,100% ]

−1
(13)

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 24

 3. Calculate (pair-wise subtraction) the maximum departures from the market

capitalization weights caused by 100% confidence in the kth view.

Dk ,100% = wk ,100% − wmkt (14)

where

Dk ,100% is the departure from market capitalization weight based on 100%

confidence in kth view (N x 1 column vector).

Note: The asset classes of wk ,100% that are not part of the kth view retain their
original weight leading to a value of 0 for the elements of Dk ,100% that are not part
of the kth view.

4. Multiply (pair-wise multiplication) the N elements of Dk ,100% by the user-specified

confidence ( Ck ) in the kth view to estimate the desired tilt caused by the kth view.

Tilt k = Dk ,100% * Ck (15)

where

Tilt k is the desired tilt (active weights) caused by the kth view (N x 1
column vector); and,
Ck is an N x 1 column vector where the assets that are part of the view
receive the user-specified confidence level of the kth view and the
assets that are not part of the view are set to 0.

5. Estimate (pair-wise addition) the target weight vector ( wk ,% ) based on the tilt.

wk ,% = wmkt + Tilt k (16)

6. Find the value of ω k (the kth diagonal element of Ω ), representing the uncertainty

in the kth view, that minimizes the sum of the squared differences between

wk ,% and wk .

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 25

 2

min ∑ (wk ,% − wk ) (17)

subject to ω k > 0

where

[λΣ] [(τΣ) ] [(τΣ) Π + p'ω Q ]

−1
+ pk' ω k−1 pk
−1 −1 −1 −1
wk = k k k (18)

Note: If the view in question is an absolute view and the view is specified as a
total return rather than an excess return, subtract the risk-free rate from Qk .13

7. Repeat steps 1-6 for the K views, build a K x K diagonal Ω matrix in which the

diagonal elements of Ω are the ω k values calculated in step 6, and solve for the

New Combined Return Vector ( E[ R] ) using Formula 3, which is reproduced here

as Formula 19.

[
E[ R ] = (τΣ ) + P ' Ω −1 P
−1
] [(τΣ )
−1 −1
Π + P ' Ω −1Q ] (19)

Throughout this process, the value of scalar ( τ ) is held constant and does not

affect the new Combined Return Vector ( E[ R] ), which eliminates the difficulties

associated with specifying it. Despite the relative complexities of the steps for specifying

the diagonal elements of Ω , the key advantage of this new method is that it enables the

user to determine the values of Ω based on an intuitive 0% to 100% confidence scale.

Alternative methods for specifying the diagonal elements of Ω require one to specify

these abstract values directly.14 With this new method for specifying what was

previously a very abstract mathematical parameter, the Black-Litterman model should be

easier to use and more investors should be able to reap its benefits.

Conclusion

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 26

 This paper details the process of developing the inputs for the Black-Litterman

model, which enables investors to combine their unique views with the Implied

Equilibrium Return Vector to form a New Combined Return Vector. The New

Combined Return Vector leads to intuitive, well-diversified portfolios. The two

parameters of the Black-Litterman model that control the relative importance placed on

the equilibrium returns vs. the view returns, the scalar (τ ) and the uncertainty in the

views ( Ω ), are very difficult to specify. The Black-Litterman formula with 100%

certainty in the views enables one to determine the implied confidence in a view. Using

this implied confidence framework, a new method for controlling the tilts and the final

portfolio weights caused by the views is introduced. The method asserts that the

magnitude of the tilts should be controlled by the user-specified confidence level based

on an intuitive 0% to 100% confidence level. Overall, the Black-Litterman model

overcomes the most-often cited weaknesses of mean-variance optimization (unintuitive,

highly concentrated portfolios, input-sensitivity, and estimation error-maximization)

helping users to realize the benefits of the Markowitz paradigm. Likewise, the proposed

new method for incorporating user-specified confidence levels should increase the

intuitiveness and the usability of the Black-Litterman model.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Robert Litterman, Wai Lee, Ravi Jagannathan, Aldo Iacono, and

Marcus Wilhelm for helpful comments; to Steve Hardy, Campbell Harvey, Chip Castille,

and Barton Waring who made this article possible; and, to the many others who provided

me with helpful comments and assistance – especially my wife. Of course, all errors and

omissions are my responsibility.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 27

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Bevan, A., and Winkelmann, K. (1998). “Using the Black-Litterman Global Asset
Allocation Model: Three Years of Practical Experience.” Fixed Income Research,
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Black, F. (1989b). “Universal Hedging: Optimizing Currency Risk and Reward in

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Black, F. and Litterman, R. (1992). “Global Portfolio Optimization.” Financial Analysts

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Blamont, D. and Firoozy, N. (2003). “Asset Allocation Model.” Global Markets

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Christodoulakis, G.A. (2002). “Bayesian Optimal Portfolio Selection: the Black-

Litterman Approach.” Unpublished paper. November. Available online at
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Fusai, G. and Meucci, A. (2003). “Assessing Views.” Risk, March 2003, s18-s21.

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Grinold, R.C., and Kahn, R.N. (1999). Active Portfolio Management. 2nd ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Grinold, R.C. and Meese, R. (2000). “The Bias Against International Investing: Strategic
Asset Allocation and Currency Hedging.” Investment Insights, Barclays Global
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He, G. and Litterman, R. (1999). “The Intuition Behind Black-Litterman Model
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A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 29

Notes
1
The one possible exception to this is Robert Litterman’s book, Modern Investment
Management: An Equilibrium Approach published in July 2003 (the initial draft of this
paper was written in November 2001), although I believe most practitioners will find it
difficult to tease out enough information to implement the model. Chapter 6 of Litterman
(2003) details the calculation of global equilibrium expected returns, including
currencies; Chapter 7 presents a thorough discussion of the Black-Litterman Model; and,
Chapter 13 applies the Black-Litterman framework to optimum active risk budgeting.
2
Other important works on the model include Lee (2000), Satchell and Scowcroft (2000),
and, for the mathematically inclined, Christodoulakis (2002).
3
Many of the formulas in this paper require basic matrix algebra skills. A sample
spreadsheet is available from the author. Readers unfamiliar with matrix algebra will be
surprised at how easy it is to solve for an unknown vector using Excel’s matrix functions
(MMULT, TRANSPOSE, and MINVERSE). For a primer on Excel matrix procedures,
go to http://www.stanford.edu/~wfsharpe/mia/mat/mia_mat4.htm.
4
Possible alternatives to market capitalization weights include a presumed efficient
benchmark and float-adjusted capitalization weights.
5
The implied risk aversion coefficient ( λ ) for a portfolio can be estimated by dividing
the expected excess return by the variance of the portfolio (Grinold and Kahn (1999)):

E (r ) − r f
λ =
σ2
where

E (r ) is the expected market (or benchmark) total return;

rf is the risk-free rate; and,
σ 2 = wmkt
T
Σwmkt is the variance of the market (or benchmark) excess returns.

6
Those who are interested in currencies are referred to Litterman (2003), Black and
Litterman (1991, 1992), Black (1989a, 1989b), Grinold (1996), Meese and Crownover
(1999), and Grinold and Meese (2000).
7
Literature on the Black-Litterman Model often refers to the reverse-optimized Implied
Equilibrium Return Vector ( Π ) as the CAPM returns, which can be confusing. CAPM
returns based on regression-based betas can be significantly different from CAPM returns
based on implied betas. I use the procedure in Grinold and Kahn (1999) to calculate

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 30

implied betas. Just as one is able to use the market capitalization weights and the
covariance matrix to infer the Implied Equilibrium Return Vector, one can extract the
vector of implied betas. The implied betas are the betas of the N assets relative to the
market capitalization-weighted portfolio. As one would expect, the market
capitalization-weighted beta of the portfolio is 1.

Σwmkt Σwmkt
β= =
T
wmkt Σwmkt σ2

where

β is the vector of implied betas;

Σ is the covariance matrix of excess returns;
wmkt is the market capitalization weights; and,
1
σ 2 = wmkt
T
Σwmkt = T −1 is the variance of the market (or benchmark) excess returns.
β Σ β

The vector of CAPM returns is the same as the vector of reverse optimized returns when
the CAPM returns are based on implied betas relative to the market capitalization-
weighted portfolio.
8
The intuitiveness of this is illustrated by examining View 2, a relative view involving
two assets of equal size. View 2 states that p2 ⋅ E [R ] = Q2 + ε 2 , where
Q2 = E [RInt 'l .Bonds ] − E[RUSBonds ] . View 2 is N ~ (Q2 , ω 2 ) . In the absence of additional
information, one can assume that the uncertainty of the view is proportional to the
covariance matrix ( Σ ). However, since the view is describing the mean return
differential rather than a single return differential, the uncertainty of the view should be
considerably less than the uncertainty of a single return (or return differential)
represented by the covariance matrix ( Σ ). Therefore, the investor’s views are
represented by a distribution with a mean of Q and a covariance structure τΣ .
9
This information was provided by Dr. Wai Lee in an e-mail.
10
Satchell and Scowcroft (2000) include an advanced mathematical discussion of one
method for establishing a conditional value for the scalar ( τ ).
11
The fact that only the weights of the assets that are subjects of views change from the
original market capitalization weights is a criticism of the Black-Litterman Model.
Critics argue that the weight of assets that are highly (negatively or positively) correlated
with the asset(s) of the view should change. I believe that the factors which lead to one’s
view would also lead to a view for the other highly (negatively or positively) correlated
assets and that it is better to make these views explicit.

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 31

12
The data in Table 8 is based on the implied betas (see Note 7) derived from the
covariance matrix of historical excess returns and the mean-variance data of the market
capitalization-weighted benchmark portfolio. From Grinold and Kahn (1999):

Residual Return θ P = E[ RP ] − β P ∗ E[ RB ]
Residual Risk ω P = σ P2 − β P2 ∗ σ B2
Active Return E[ RPA ] = E[ RP ] − E[ RB ]
Active Risk ΨP = ω P2 + β PA
2
∗ σ B2
Active Portfolio Beta β PA = ( β P − 1 )

where

E[ RP ] is the expected return of the portfolio;

E[ RB ] is the expected return of the benchmark market capitalization-weighted portfolio
based on the New Combined Expected Return Vector ( E[R] );
σ B is the variance of the benchmark portfolio; and,
σ P is the variance of the portfolio.

13
Having just determined the weight vector associated with a specific view ( wk ) in Step
6, it may be useful to calculate the active risk associated with the specific view in
isolation.

Active Risk created from kth view = wTA Σw A

where

wA = wk − wmkt is the active portfolio weights;

[λΣ] [(τΣ) ] [(τΣ) Π + p'ω Q ] is the Weight Vector of the portfolio

−1
+ pk' ω k−1 pk
−1 −1 −1 −1
wk = k k k

based on the kth view and user-specified confidence level; and,

Σ is the covariance matrix of excess returns.
14
Alternative approaches are explained in Fusai and Meucci (2003), Litterman (2003),
and Zimmermann, Drobetz, and Oertmann (2002).

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE BLACK-LITTERMAN MODEL 32