MEL-451 Climate Change and

Biodiversity Management

Meyyappan Muthukaruppan
6th April, 2020
Unit - I
Climate change:​ It refers to permanent deviation from normal weather and that
change lasts for an extended period of time (Decades to millions of years). Significant
long term change on the average weather of a region over a significant period of time.
Change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long
periods of time regardless of cause.

The composition of the atmosphere has changed significantly in the last two centuries.
The world is warming, climate zones are shifting, glaciers are melting and sea level is
rising. Drought in Ethiopia in 1970, flood in Brazil and continuous receipt of less than
normal rainfall in India indicates climate changes in the world. The rate of change of
climate is alarming in the last century. Even 0.5​0​C increase in winter temperature
could reduce wheat yields by 0.45 t/ha.ie 17% decrease in productivity. Due to climate
change the farm productivity will decrease by 3 to16% in 2080 in India.

Causes for climate change

★ Dust from volcanoes

★ Changes in sea currents
★ I​ ncoming solar radiation
★ Greenhouse gases (GHG) ( 1/3 from USA)
★ Earth's tilt/ orbit around the sun
★ C
​ ontinental drift- the movement of earth plates tectonics @ few

cm/year
★ ​Increased human activities

★ Burning of fossil fuel produces oxidizing gases such as nitric oxide and
sulphur dioxide which will cause acidification and eutrophication
★ Creating mountains of waste
★ Increased emission of carbon monoxide from automobiles
★ Change in the land use pattern. If tropical forest is converted in to
grasslands or crops the atmospheric circulation pattern will change
which would cause global circulation as a whole
★ Burning of waste which produces aerosols which act as a nuclei for
condensation and affect local and regional rainfall. Besides, it directly
affects human health.
★ Changes in the composition of atmosphere

Greenhouse gases:​ The gases that absorb terrestrial radiation and contribute to
greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are Carbon dioxide, methane,
Nitrogen dioxide and Chlorofluorocarbon. The concentrations of gases are
increasing in the atmosphere due to increased human activities. These gases
 absorb and allow 70 to75% short waves to earth but allow only 5 % of the
upward moving long waves to escape to the atmosphere from ground. As a
result of entrapment of more solar radiation surface temperature is increasing
known as greenhouse heating.

During prehistoric period Co​2​ concentration is 280ppm, now it is 375 ppm and
it will be 480 ppm in 2050.This results in 1.8 to3​0​C increase in temperature
resulting in melting of polar ice caps, rising sea level and changes in ocean
currents. Global and India’s temperatures have increased up to 0.5 and 0.4​0​C in
the last centuries. 77 % of carbon dioxide comes from combustion of fossil
fuel, 22% from deforestation and 1% from cement, diesel and Aluminium
industries. Co​2​ is produced by animal respiration.

The methane concentration is 1.7 ppmv. Its concentration is increased due to

increased low land paddy cultivation and from domesticated animals Nitrogen
dioxide concentration is 310 ppmv. Its concentration is increased due to
burning of plant wastes, improper fertilizer and land use Chlorofluorocarbon
concentration is 11.26 ppmv and the sources are refrigerators and solvents.
Every year 25 times equivalent to Co​2​ of methane, 250 times equivalent to Co​2
of nitrogen dioxide and 25000 times equivalent to Co​2​ of CFC are emitted
from various sources.

Their impacts in India are:

★ Increase in torrential rain in Northwestern parts during monsoon in the

recent past
★ ​Quantity of rainfall received varies from year to year in north India
★ Decrease in the rainy days in the East coast
★ Occurrence of considerable drought in Eastern part
★ Intensity of cyclone was higher in Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea
resulting in loss of lives and property
★ Perennial rivers are gradually drying up
★ Aberrations in rain fall at regional level
★ Solar radiation power decreased
★ Temperature increased by 0.4​0​C. Due to this in 2030 sea level will be
increased up to 15 cm.
★ Ground water exploitation may be increased
★ Melting of glacier in Northwest Himalayas
★ Sea level may rise and its water may be intruded in Calcutta and
Bombay
★ Energy scarcity may occur
★ Health hazards due to heat waves, malaria and diarrheal infections
★ Water shortage
 ★ Migration (Humans and animals) and other conflicts

Effect in Agriculture

★ Increased Co​2​ concentration enhances the crop yields by 10%

★ C​3 plants
​ growth will be more than C​4​ plants
★ In cold temperate region lengthening of growing period and shortening
of ripening period
★ Carbon content in leaves increases and N content decreases
★ Vigorous growth of plants needs more nutrients
★ Excess rainfall results in soil erosion. Further, transport of nutrients,
carbon, and other substances in dissolved and particle form from lands
through runoff into coastal areas may cause impact on geomorphology
and biogeochemistry.
★ Increased incidence of pests and diseases
★ Invasion by migrant and exotic species
★ Northern and central European countries are benefited
★ Less amount of rainfall are expected in mid latitudes and mid
continental areas
★ Depletion of ozone due to CFC increases the risk of exposure to Uv
radiation which can damage plants and cause skin cancer
★ 2/3 of farm land suffer from soil degradation
★ Half of world wetland lost

Effect on Animals

★ In animal rearing temperature is more important than rainfall. As

temperature increases in the environment it is congenial for sheep/goat
and not for milch animals. Further, feed intake will decrease and water
intake will increase,
★ Extremes of hot/cold weather creates stress to any animal
★ In lactating cows, dry matter intake, time spent for rumination and feed
consumption begins to decline at mean environmental temperature of
25 to27​0​C
★ During thermal stress water intake increased by 0.2 to2 folds
★ When temperature rises above 24​0​C, milk yield begins to decrease
★ High ambient temperature results in long service periods, interference
in ovulation, age at puberty, oestrous cycle length, ova abnormalities,
embryonic mortality, gestation length, fetal length and fertility in
lactating cows.
★ Cold weather is not such a stress as hot humid weather
 ★ Increase in dry matter uptake during cold season
★ Young ones are more sensitive than adults
★ ​800 wildlife species have become extinct, 11000 more are threatened.
★ Out of 9964 known bird species 70% have declined in numbers

Effect on fishes

★ Breeding cycle in many fishes depends on water temperature. If

temperature increases which results in low survival, mortality,
migration and shift in species composition
★ Higher wind velocity increases the operational cost and the growth of
fishes may increase or decrease
★ Higher rainfall results in increased operational cost, changes in the
composition and reduced production
★ Drought results in migration, loss of wild and cultured stock, pollution
problem and social conflicts
★ If sea water intrudes it may breach water culture
★ In North America, 10 fish species went extinct
★ 1/5 of freshwater species become extinct

Effect in Forestry

★ Change in the forest types and extent

★ Impact on soil organic carbon
★ Wildfire risk
★ Extreme events
★ Invasive plants
★ Longer growing season
★ Shorter winter
★ Changes in suitable habitat
★ Shift in the forest species
★ Tree mortality
★ Potential for summer drought
★ 11 mha of forest were lost per year in tropics and it accounts 17% of
global carbon emission

Effect on Hydrology

★ In 2100 the predicted effects are 20​% ​drop in rainfall

★ Increase in Evapotranspiration up to 1 mm/day
★ Increase in sea level by 10 to 59 cm (salt water intrusion)
Effect on Water resources

★ Sedimentation of reservoirs
★ Soil erosion and flash flooding
★ Pollution of water resources
★ Water borne diseases
★ Highly seasonal hydrology
★ 40 % of world population faces chronic shortage of fresh water for
daily needs

Effect on Coastal and marine ecosystem

★ Precipitation may increase or decrease and altering the coastal

ecosystem
★ Species that may not able to compete with other species may face
extinction
★ Climate change affect the bio productivity and species interaction
★ CO​2​ changes carbonate chemistry in ocean which in turn affect marine
organisms

Mitigation of Climate change

Cutting down emission of GHG can reduce the extent of climate change. India
is the fastest growing major economy in the world, fourth largest GHG emitter
accounting for 5.8 % of global emissions. From 1990 to 2012 India's GHG
emission was increased to 67.1% and the projected value for 2030 is 85%.

S.N Sector Technologies

1. Methane In paddy cultivation modified water regimes like mid season

drainage, alternate flooding, modified residue management by
sequestration of straw, use of additives by phosphogypsum,
nitrification inhibitors, modified land management by direct
seeding, reduced tillage, site specific nutrient management by
placing the fertilizers in reduced zone of soil.

2. Energy supply Fuel switching from coal to gas, nuclear, solar and wind.
power advanced renewable energy including tidal and waves
energy.
 3. Transport More fuel efficient vehicles, second generation biofuels,
cleaner diesel vehicles, shift from road transport to rail, non
motorised transport like cycling, walking, higher efficiency
aircraft, advanced electric and hybrid vehicles with more
powerful and reliable batteries.

4. Buildings More efficient electrical ,heating and cooling devices,

improved insulation, alternative refrigeration fluids, recovery
and recycling of fluorinated gases.

5. Industry Heat and power recovery, material recycling and substitution,

control of non Co​2​ gas emissions, inert electrodes for
aluminium manufacture.

6. Waste Composting of organic waste, controlled waste water

treatment, biocovers and biofilters to optimise CH​4​ oxidation.

7. Agriculture Improved crop and land management to increase soil carbon

storage, restoration of degraded soils, cultivation of energy
crops.

8. Forestry Afforestation, reforestation, reduced deforestation,

improvement of biomass production and carbon sequestration.
A forest removes 5 to 11 t Co​2​/year/ha.

Climate Resilient Farming

A whole system approach to food, feed and fibre production that sustains the health
of soils, ecosystems and people. The National Initiative on Climate Resilient
Agriculture ( NICRA) was initiated by ICAR during February 2011. These
technologies would increase the farm production besides continuous management of
natural and man made resources. The four modules in NICRA e natural resource
management, improving soil health, crop production and livestock.

Objectives:

★ To enhance the production of crops, livestock and fisheries through

development of improved technologies.
 ★ Demonstrate the site specific technology for adoption to current climate risk.
★ To enhance the capacity of scientists and other stakeholders in CRA research
and its applications.

Key features:

★ Critical assessment of different crops/zones which are vulnerable to climate

stress and intra seasonal variability analysis of rainfall.
★ Installation of flux towers for measurement of GHG
★ Rapid and large scale screening of crop germplasms through phenomics
platforms for quick and early development and release of heat/drought tolerant
varieties.
★ Field evaluation of aerobic rice and SRI rice cultivation to reduce GHG
emissions and water saving.
★ Specific attention to livestock and fisheries sector by documentation of
adaptive traits in indigenous breeds
★ Study of emergence of new pests pathogens biotypes due to climate change.
★ Up scaling of the outputs through KVK's and national mission on sustainable
agriculture
★ Development of simulation models for research, development and policy
support
★ Strategic research is carried out by 21 institutes out of which 7 are core.
CRIDA, IARI, IIHR, NDRI, CMFRI, CIAEW, ICAR research complex for NE
region - shillong

Components:

Natural resources:​ Insitu moisture conservation, water harvesting, recycling for

supplemental irrigation, improved drainage, conservation tillage, artificial ground
water recharge and water saving methods.

Crop Production:​ Introduction of drought tolerant varieties, advancement of

planting dates of rabi crops to overcome terminal heat stress water saving paddy
cultivation like SRI, aerobic, direct seeding, frost management in horticulture through
fumigation, community nurseries for delayed monsoon, custom hiring centres for
timely planting, location specific intercropping system.

Livestock and fisheries:​ Use of community lands for fodder production during
droughts, improved fodder storage methods, preventive vaccination, improved shelters
to reduce heat stress, management of fish ponds during water scarcity and flood.

Institutional Interventions:​ Introduction of weather index based insurance and

climate literacy through village level weather stations. Introduction or strengthening
of seed bank, fodder bank, custom hiring centre, collective marketing and commodity
groups.

Expected output: ​selection of promising crop genotypes and livestock breeds with
greater tolerance to climate stress, existing best practices may be demonstrated in 100
vulnerable districts, strengthening the infrastructure in research institutes for climate
change, adequately train the scientific manpower to take up research and to empower
farmers to cope up with climate variability.

Climate Ready Crops

Climate ready crops are plants engineered with climate ready genes that can able to
withstand environmental stresses associated with climate change. So far 1663 claimed
patents, tolerance to drought, heat, cold and salinity mostly by private companies. The
public sector contribution is only 9 Per cent. These crops are cultivated in an area of
366 mha in 2010 around the world. The major countries are USA, Brazil, Argentina,
India, Canada and China. Genetically Engineered crops are banned in European union.
Global biodiversity trust in the world level and Navdanya biodiversity farm founded
by Dr. Vandana Shiva in India works on CRC. 93 % of soybean and 70% of corn in
the USA are GM crops.

Need:​ ​ Every year 80 million more people need to be fed and the world population will
reach 9 billion.

Merits:

★ In order to feed the ever growing population of the world this is a stable and
efficient way since yields are higher
★ GM crops requires less chemicals to thrive and hence the impact on
environment is lessened
★ Resistance to pests and diseases , needs lesser chemicals and hence prices for
farmers are low
★ Genes are altered to have better flavour and improved nutritional value
★ GM crop foods have longer shelf life stay fresh during transportation and
storage
★ The prices are much lower and affordable by everyone due to higher yields

Demerits:

★ Pollen grains from GM if cross pollinated with grass/ weeds could develop
super weeds that will have same resistance properties as the crops
★ Childhood food allergies has risen significantly
★ GM foods affect immune system and hence antibiotics are less effective
 ★ GE maize and soybean fed to mammals were found with liver and kidney
problems
★ GM crops seeds has to be purchased only from the companies and it will result
in socioeconomic problems

Biosecurity and climate change

A set of preventive measures designed to reduce the risk of transmission of infectious

diseases in crops, livestock, quarantine pests, invasive alien species and living
modified organisms. It is a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the
policy and regulatory frameworks that analyse and manage risks in the sectors of food
safety, animal life and health and plant life including associated environmental risk.
Agricultural biosecurity bill was introduced in Lok Sabha on 11​th​ March, 2013.

Objective:

A better quarantine and controlling pests and even exotic species

★ To cover four sectors of agricultural insecurity viz., plant health, animal health,
living aquatic resources and agriculturally important microorganisms.

It is to be established at Faridabad (UP) by proposed act headed by Director general

appointed by central government comprises experts in plant and animal pests and
diseases sand representatives of various ministries and organisations

Functions and Powers​:

★ Regulates the import and export of plants and animals and related products
★ Prevention of quarantine pests from outside India
★ Implementation of post entry quarantine measures
★ It can issue directions to importers and exporters dealing with this products
★ No person shall import any plant, animal and its products in contravention of
notifications or guidelines issued by the authority
★ Exceptions will be provided to those products with sanitary certificates issued
by respective authorities in the country of origin. This certificate is not
necessary if the country of destination does not require it.
★ The existing custom act 1962 shall also apply to pest , plants and animals
★ If any product was imported against the act, the officer may ask the holder to
remove within 30 days or he himself may seize the products from him and
destroy it
★ No person shall possess, ,grow, culture or breed any plant ,animal etc if the
product is carrying quarantine pest
★ A person shall be responsible for providing information when he becomes
aware of the existence of quarantine pest
 ★ If an area is infested with quarantine pests the authority can notify that area as
a controlled area and the same may be communicated to the concerned state
governments . If the state govt fails to take measures the authority can take
necessary steps to eradicate the pests and the state govt shall reimburse the cost
incurred
★ Based on the recommendation from the authority the central govt can declare
emergency in an area infested with pests and it will cease after 6 months or
revoked earlier
★ The bio security fund can also be raised . authority will also borrow funds
through bonds and debentures after getting prior permission from the central
govt.

Disaster Management

The word Disaster is derived from French word Desastre. Des means bad and aster
means star ( evil star). Hazard is also derived from French word Hasard means chance.
Earthquake, Tsunami, Volcanic eruptions, landslide, dam burst, mine fire are the
examples for geological hazard. Flood, drought, cyclone, tornado, hailstorm, heat and
cold wave are the examples for water and climatic hazard. Human ( COVID-19) or
animal epidemics, pest attack, food poisoning are the examples for biological hazards.

A sudden accident that causes great damage or loss of life. It is a serious disruption of
the functioning of a society involving widespread human, material, economic and
environmental loss and its impacts exceeds the ability of the affected community to
cope using its own resources. Types are (1). Natural disaster . It is due to the natural
processes of the earth.(2). Man made disasters caused by deliberate or negligence of
human action eg. wars, violent events, military, terrorist incidents, riots, massacres,
stampede, fires, amusement park accidents . All India Disaster Management institute(
AIDMI) was started at Gujarat during 1995. National Institute of Disaster
Management ( NIDM) is also there in India. National Disaster Management Authority
( NDMA) is located at Newdelhi.

Disaster management is the effort to reduce the loss of life and property by lessening
the impact of disaster. Disaster management cycle is the sum total of activities before,
during and after disaster in order to avoid, reduce its impact and to recover from its
losses. nearly 85 per cent of the geographical area of India is vulnerable to one or
more hazards. Out of 28 states and 7 union territories 22 are disaster prone. Out of the
total geographical area in India 59 % are susceptible to earthquakes, 5% to floods, 8%
to cyclones and 70 % to drought.
Drought

Drought is a moisture deficit condition. In India dryland agriculture contributes 40 %

of our food production and provides livelihood for nearly 70 % of our rural people. It
can be managed by growing drought resistant crops and varieties, seed hardening,
mulching, antitranspirants, foliar application on nutrients and water harvesting etc.
Government also implements Desert Development Programme ,Drought Prone Area
Programme (DPAP) , National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Area
( NWDPRA), Integrated Watershed Programme (IWDP), Watershed Development
programme for Shifting Cultivation (WDPSC) etc,

Earthquake

Sudden shaking of earth crust. In India 12% is susceptible to very severe, 18% is
severe and 25% is damageable to earthquakes. Major earthquakes occurred in India
during 2001 at Gujarat and in 2005 at Jammu and Kashmir states. Northeastern states ,
Bihar and Uttaranjal are also vulnerable. Before an earthquake, get experts advice to
repair cracks on walls, anchor overhead lighting, fasten shelves to walls, place heavy
objects on lower shelves, store breakable items like glass, bottled foods in low closed
cabinets with latches, secure water heaters and LPG cylinders by strapping them to
walls. Construct earthquake resistant buildings.

Flood

The inundation of fields with water. It may occur due to cyclones, heavy and
continuous downpour, poor drainage and in low lying areas. Out of 62 major rivers in
India 18 are flood prone and the crop loss is up to 40 to 55%. The major states
frequently affected by floods are Assam, Bihar, UP, TN, AP and WB. Floods can be
managed by avoiding construction in flood prone areas, elevate the basement of
building, seal the walls and basement with water proofing compounds, plug the drains
to prevent the entry of flood water in to the house, switch off the electrical and gas
appliances, avoid contact with flood water, avoid walking and driving in flood waters
15 cm moving water can make you to fall, walk with a stick to get firmness of the
ground, grow flood tolerant rice varieties, clean the drainage channels , create sea
walls, anti erosion structures in dams, reservoirs etc, In India every year due to flood
30 million peoples are affected, few hundred lost their life, millions are rendered
homeless and several thousand hectares of crops are damaged

Cyclones

It is the region of low pressure area surrounded by closed isobars and the wind
velocity is more than 61 km/hr. . In India on average 5 cyclones may occur and the
commonly affected states are Odisha, WB, AP and TN. Before the cyclone season
secure the loose tiles , repair the doors and windows, remove the dead branches of
trees close to the houses, demolish condemned buildings, provide suitable support for
outside doors, open the windows and doors opposite to the windward direction, switch
off the electrical mains, anchor the removable objects, construct cyclone resistant
buildings, cyclone shelters, construct cattle shed in raised areas, create fodder banks
etc.

Tsunami

This word is derived from Japanese word Tsu which means harbour and nami means
waves. It is tidal waves up to several meters. India was affected by Tsunami in 2004
December. It causes extensive damages to soil, water and crops. Sea water may
intrude into land areas. The risk due to this can be minimised by living in places that
are 30 m above MSL or 3 km away from sea, find out and practice the evacuation
route if it occurs, move immediately to higher grounds,

Landslide

It is the collapse of a mass of earth or rock from a mountain. The government has
mapped the LandSlide Hazardous zone in India. It may occur due to high rainfall,
wind etc. The precautionary measures are to keep the drains clean, afforestation etc.
Landslides can be expected if you notice muddy waters, listening to unusual sounds
such as breaking of trees, knocking of rocks etc. Mark the path of tracking and know
how to communicate by signs during emergency

Heat Wave

When the temperature of a region is 5 or 6​0​C more than the mean temperature of 40​0​C
of a region, heat waves may occur and cause physiological strain. The precautionary
measures are avoid going out of house from 12 to 3 pm, drink sufficient water, wear
loose, lightweight cotton cloths, wear hats, shoes ,avoid strenuous activities outside
the house, avoid drinking tea, coffee, stale foods, etc, use umbrella while walking out,
use ORS drinks like lemon water, lassi, buttermilk, tender coconut, rice water ,use
curtains, fans . In India during 2016, 1600 lost their lives due to heat ( ), flood ( 475),
cold ( 53), and lightning ( ). In Rajasthan 51​0​C was recorded in a place called Beladi

Cold wave; Sudden spell of abnormally cold weather. Cold wave will occur when the
temperature falls 5 or 6​0 ​C less than the normal minimum temperature of a place which
is usually less than 10​0​C
Unit - II

Constituents Dryland farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall (mm) <750 >750

Moisture Shortage Sufficient

Growing regions Arid & semiarid Humid and sub humid

Cropping system Single Inter cropping, double

constraints Land and water erosion Water erosion.

Arid: The word arid was derived from Latin word “Arere '' which means dry. It is an
extremely dry climate with an annual average precipitation usually less than 250mm.
Rainfall received is less than evapotranspiration. The crop growing period is less than
75 days. Occurrence of rainfall is sporadic with low intensity for short duration. In the
extremely acidic zone there has been no rain for more than a year.

Aridity is a permanent feature considering all climatic features. whereas drought is

temporary conditions caused by a deficit of rainfall.

5 major arid zones of the world are

1. North African – Sahara and Tar deserts

2. South African – Namibia

3. North American – Arizona in USA

4. South American – Peru

5. Australian desert – central Australia

Arid tropics is present in 31.7 mha in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Parts
of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Arid temperate zone is present in 7 mha in Jammu
and Kashmir. Arid zone accounts for 12 % of the country's total area. In Rajasthan,
Gujarat, AP & Tamilnadu and in Punjab and Haryana the arid zone accounts for
61%,20%, 10 % and 9 % respectively. In arid zone rainfall is erratic, unpredictable,
temperature ranges from -2 to 48 0​​ C, longer sunshine hours, high wind velocity 35 to
40 0 KMPH, more evaporation and 41 to 85 % of groundwater is saline. Livestock is
the major source of survival.

Semi – arid: Describes a land where the rainfall is greater than 750mm. The PET is
more than precipitation. The crop growing period is from 75 to 120 days and the
rainfall is received from 2.5 to 7 months / year.

Semi – arid tropics is located in 10 to 30​0​ North and South Latitudes. It is present in
4’A’ continents viz. Asia, Africa, America and Australia present in 48 countries. In
India semi – arid tropics is present in 95.7mha in Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, TN,
WB, MP, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. Semi- semi-arid zone accounts for
34 % of the country's total area. The Semi arid zone was expanded in the last decade
in the North and NorthWest Part of India. Tamilnadu semiarid zones account for 10 %
of the total area. In Rajasthan and Gujarat the semi arid zone accounts for 13% and
9% respectively

Dry semi – arid tropics is one in which the amount of rainfall received is from 2 to 4.5
months / year whereas, in wet semi – arid tropics it is from 4.5 to 7 months / year.

Semi – arid temperate zone is one in which temperature is the limiting factor and it is
present in Russia, North West China, USA and Canada. In India it is present at 1.4mha
in J and K.

Constraints in dry farming

1. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall.

2. Late onset and early cessation of rains.
3. Prolonged dry spell during cropping period.
4. Low moisture retention capacity of soils due to poor organic matter content.
5. Low fertility of soils.
6. Problem soils – salinity and alkalinity.
7. Lack of irrigation facility.
8. Sparsely populated and result in large size holding.
9. Low level of income
10. Low level of literacy
11. Inadequate infrastructure facilities
 12. High temperature
13. Low relative humidity
14. Dry and high wind velocity.
15. Eroded soils.

Significance: Out of the total cultivable area in India, nearly 70 % is dry farming areas
and it contributes nearly 40% of our food production. 90 % of coarse grains, 75 % of
pulses and oilseeds, 90% of groundnut, 2/3 of rice, rapeseed and mustard, 1/3 of wheat
and 74% of cotton are produced only from dry lands. States like Rajasthan, Gujarat,
MP, UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP and TN have a large area under dry farming.

Characteristics: PET is more than precipitation, More than 50% of rainfall is received
in 3 to 5 rainy days. Low in quantity, erratic distribution, poor reliability, high
torrential downpour within short period, High temperature, more evaporation and
transpiration, low relative humidity, hot dry winds, poor nutrient status, organic matter
content and problem soils, subsistence farming, occurrence of drought and crop failure
are frequent and socioeconomic constraints.

Drought In adequacy of soil moisture/ rainfall to meet the water requirement of the
crops during most of the years. Drought is a prolonged period without rainfall.
American meteorological society defined it as a period of abnormally dry weather
sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause a severe hydrological imbalance in
the area affected. Out of 143.8 Mha nearly 117 Mha is in dry farming areas (28
Mha –arid; 78 Mha semi – arid). In India dry farming areas are in Gujarat, Rajasthan,
UP, MP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP and TN.

According to IMD drought is said to have occurred in areas where the annual rainfall
is less than 75% of normal.

TYPES: When the amount of rainfall is less than 50% of normal it is a severe
drought. Drought year is one in which more than 29% of the total area of the country
is affected. Areas where drought occurred in 20% of the years are considered as
drought areas and where it had occurred in more than 40% of the years are called
chronic drought areas.

Soil drought is one where there is no moisture in the soil. Atmospheric drought is one
in which the temperature is very high.

Physiological drought - refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water
from soil due to high salt concentration. Agricultural drought/ soil drought is defined
as shortage of supply of water in soil to meet the crop demand or soil moisture and
rainfall in that growing season is inadequate to support healthy crop growth and
causes stress and wilting.
5 categories of drought

(a)​ ​Early season drought

Occurs in association with the delay in commencement of sowing rains. Sometimes it

is tempting the farmers to sow the crops followed by a long dry spell leading to
withering of seedings and poor crop stand establishment.

(b)​ ​Midseason drought

Occurs in association with long gaps between two successive rain events. If the
moisture stored in the soil falls short of use of the crop during the dry period. It is
associated with low and inadequate rainfall in the growing season.

(c)​ L
​ ate season drought

If the crop encounters moisture stress during the reproductive stage due to early
cessation of the rainy season, there may be rise in temperature hastening the process of
crop development to forced maturity.

(d)​ ​Apparent drought

When the rainfall in the region may be adequate for the one crop but may not be so for
others. It is encountered due to the mismatching of the cropping pattern in relation to
the rainfall or moisture availability pattern in some of the regions. ie what is drought
in red soil may not be drought is black soil.

(e)​ ​Permanent drought

Seasonal drought

Most of the arid and semi-arid zone comes in this category. Rainy season followed by
dry season. Duration of crop varieties and planting dates should be such that the
growing season should fall within the rainy season.

Contingent drought

Usually brief, irregular and generally affects only a small area in humid and sub
humid climates. It may be due to abnormal failure of rainfall.
Invisible drought

Usually occur in humid zones though there is frequent rain in that area. Rainfall is
inadequate to meet the ET losses. ie borderline water deficiency in soil resulting in
less than optimum yield.

Meteorological drought

Condition in which amount of precipitation is less than the normal.

Hydrological drought

Meteorological drought when prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion

of surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs. Tanks etc.

Effect of Drought on crop growth

Affect germination and establishment, cell division at reduced rate, cell enlargement is
affected, stunted growth, poor root formation, leaf enlargement is inhibited, reduced
source, stomata closed, affect nutrient uptake, abscission of leaves, fruits and seeds.
Reduce carbohydrate and protein metabolism, reduce grain yield and quality of the
produce (barley).

Respiration rate is reduced by about 10%, it reduces the rate of appearance of floral
primordial, spikelet number, dehydration of pollen grains, wilting of styles in maize,
decrease in the ratio of shoot to root growth.

Decrease in the proportion of lateral roots to total root length, decrease in the ratio of
leaf to stem.

Mulching

Mulch is a natural or artificially applied layer of plant residues or other materials on

the surface of the soil. Mulching checks evaporation, prevents the surface compaction
ie crust formation, controls weed growth, improve soil structure, prevent the direct
beating action of rains and thus erosion,

Artificial mulches

Jowar / Bajra stubbles, paddy straw, Husk, saw dust etc. pebbles collected from the
old River and mixed with sand and spread them on sloppy lands in a layer of 10-15cm.
This helps in absorption of rainwater and checks soil erosion. This method needs more
labour. Banana leaves used as mulch, polythene sheets increase the soil temperature
by 5-8​o​C .Cane mulch is most economical and efficient @ 15t/ha and results in better
microbial activity.
Antitranspirants: Any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces with the aim of
reducing water loss from the plant. Nearly 99 % of the water absorbed by roots are
transpired to the atmosphere through stomata pores in the leaves. Antitranspirants are
generally used in dry land crops to conserve moisture. Based on the mode of action
antitranspirants are classified in to

A. Stomata closing type; Most of the transpiration occurs through stomata. These type
of antitranspirants when applied induce the plants to close its stomata. Eg. Phenyl
mercuric acetate 0.1% ( PMA), Alkenyl succinic acid ( ASA), Abscisic acid (ABA),
Alachlor, Atrazine, 2,4-D

B. Film forming type: These materials form a thin film on the leaf surface which
retard the escape of water through stomata. Good material should form a thin and
continuous film. Higher alcohols (Hexadecanol, silicone), plastic and waxy materials
are used. Eg for thin film: Brassinolide, Resorsinol. Eg for Thick film Waxol,
mobileaf, folicot

C. Reflectant type: These are white materials which form a coating on the leaves and
increase the leaf reflectance ( albedo). Due to this leaf temperature is reduced to 3 to
4​0​C and transpiration by 22 to 28%. Eg. Kaolin 3 to 5 %, and lime

D. Growth retardant: These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth
and enable the plants to resist drought. eg. cycocel

Stomata are the pores through which Co​2​ enters into the plant system. Hence due to
anti transpirant spray photosynthetic rate will decrease. Antitranspirants are used in
nurseries, to save the crop from death, to overcome transplantation shock and in
perennial crops. Antitranspirants are ineffective when the plants produce new leaves
continuously, when the stomata are present on the lower surface and when the
atmosphere is dull and dark.

Contingent crop planning

In dry forming regions rainfall is highly erratic and the management decisions are to
be taken according to the crop growth stages and degree of deviation of rainfall
constitutes contingency crop planning. The important contingent crop planning are.

1)​ S
​ election of suitable season and cropping system

The normal season is from September to December. Late sowing is from October to
January and very late sowing is from November to February. Intercropping with
legumes should be encouraged.

2)​ S
​ election of suitable crops and variables
Select drought tolerant and short duration crop varieties.

3)​ R
​ ainfall abnormality and crop planning

If the monsoon is delayed for 1 to 2 weeks, instead of sorghum Co-19 (150 days) sow
Co-25 (110 days) and in redgram instead of local (180 days) sow Co-5 (130 days).

If monsoon is delayed for 3 to 4 weeks.

For South West monsoon For Northeast monsoon

Normal sowing – June–groundnut Normal –cotton / sorghum

Delay July –ragi / combu Delay –earlyNovember sunflower /cumbu

/ragi

Delay August –cowpea / samai Delay –late November – coriander/senna

If dry spell occurs after sowing

● Immediately after sowing – gap filling – resowing – mulching – stirring

the soil i.e. dust mulch.
● At vegetative phase – mulching – antitranspirant spray – thinning​.
● At flowering – – antitranspirant spray- ratooning
● At ripening – – antitranspirant spray – ratooning – harvesting at physiological
maturity.

4. Seed treatment

(a)​ ​Biofertilizer seed treatment

Symbiotic ‘N’ fixing Rhizobium is recommended for legumes and non-

symbiotic ‘N’ fixers like azospirillum and azotobacter is recommended for
cereals. Nutrient solubilizers like phosphobacteria can be also used. By using
biofertilizers we can save 25% of the N requirement of crops.

(b)​ ​Seed hardening

The management practices are to be taken during crop growth period to

mitigate or overcome the ill effect of dry spell is known as midseason or
midterm correction. Some of them are.
 (a)​ ​ Re sowing

Insufficient rainfall at the time of sowing may result in poor germination. If the
plant population is less than 20% of normal (optimum) plant population, gap
filling is taken up with subsequent rains. At the time of sowing seeds should be
mixed with a paste of 9 parts of red earth and 1 part of cow dung.

(b)​ ​ Thinning

When the amount of moisture present in the soil is not sufficient to meet the
water requirement of optimum plant population, 30-50% of plants are thinned
/removed randomly so that the soil moisture supports the remaining plant
population.

(c)​ ​ Ratooning

If prolonged dry spells occur at the time of flowering- the crop plants of
sorghum and cumbu are cut and used as green fodder. With subsequent rains,
the ratoon can be allowed for grain purposes.

(d)​ ​Use of anti – transpirants

(e)​ ​Foliar application of nutrients

(f)​ U
​ se of growth hormones.

Water stress results in reduced cytokines production in the roots and its supply
to shoots. This shortage of cytokines hastens the leaf senescence. Leaf
senescence can be postponed by cytokines application.

Soil and moisture conservation techniques

The number one limiting factor for crop production in rain fed agriculture is soil
moisture. The only source of water for these lands is rainfall and it is inadequate and
highly variable. On an average, out of the total rainfall, 10 - 40% is unutilised and
along with its nearly 8.4 mt of nutrients (NPK) were lost.

(A) Cultivation practices / mechanical methods

1. Contour cultivation / farming

Here ploughing is done along the contours which needs less draft energy as
compared to up and down cultivation. Further, run-off is arrested and excess
water during the rainy season moves along the contour and it takes a long time
before sufficient moisture percolates into the soil.
2. Land levelling

In a rolling topography due to high intensity rainfall soil erosion occurs along
with loss of nutrients. Hence the field should be levelled to remove the
undulations and be shaped by way of laying bunds or ditches at appropriate
spacing to intercept run-off and to store it in the soil.

3. Forming ridges and furrows

Ridges and furrows (30-45cm width and 15 -20cm height) are formed across
the slopes so that the run-off along the slopes can be effectively intercepted
and sub – soil moisture storage can be enhanced. This method is suitable for
widely spaced crops and not suitable for sandy and shallow soils.

4. Basin listing

Small depressions of 10-15cm depth and 10-15cm width at regular intervals

are formed with the help of basin lister. The small basins collect rainfall and
improve its storage. It is suitable for all soils and crops and can be formed
before sowing.

5. Broad Bed and Furrow (BBF)

This system was designed by ICRISAT and suitable for areas where the slope
is 1 to 3% and for vertisols. The beds are formed across the slope. The bed
width is 1.2m, furrow width 0.3m and depth of furrow is 0.15m. The length of
the furrow varies and it depends on infiltration rate and run-off rate. Crops can
be sown at both the sides of the ridge at specified intervals. Intercrops can also
be grown. BBF can be formed by bullock or tractor drawn bund former or Bed
former.

6. Compartmental bunding

This method was developed by CRIDA and suitable for red and black soils
with a slope of 0.5 to 1%. Smaller compartments of 1cent were formed by
forming small bundles of 15cm width and 15cm height in both along and
across the slopes. The bunds can be formed before sowing or after sowing with
wooden plough and highly suitable for broadcast sown crops.

7. Contour bunding

Bunds of 1m basal width, 0.5m top width and 0.5m height are formed along
the contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The
interbund surface is levelled and used for cropping. Contour bunds are
 permanent structures, require technical assistance , heavy investment and
suitable for deep red soils with less than 1% slope.

8. Graded / field bunding

It is suitable for medium deep to deep red soils. Bunds of 30-45cm basal
width, 15-20cm height are formed across the slope at suitable intervals of
20-30m depending on slope. The inter-bunded area is levelled and cropped.

9.​ ​Dead furrow

At the time of sowing or immediately after sowing deep furrows of 20cm

depth are formed at intervals of 6-8 rows of crops with wooden plough in
black and red soils. Sowing and furrowing are done across the slope.

B. Cultural / agronomic method

1. Addition of organic matter

Addition of organic matter improves soil physical properties and water holding
capacity and thus helps in soil moisture conservation.

2. Off season / summer ploughing

It is the foremost technology adopted in dry lands. Land is ploughed across the
slope during summer. Whenever rain occurs, the plough furrows hold water in
the depressions and thereby increases the infiltration. Since ploughing is done
across the slope the plough furrows check the run- off, reduce the velocity of
run-off water and improve storage.

3. Cover crops

Erosion from the land can be reduced if the land surface is fully covered with
foliage during the rainy season. Cover crops can be grown when the slope is
less than 2%.

Eg.

★ Blackgram- Co-5 ; Greengram Co-4,Co-5,

★ Ground nut
★ Fodder grasses like ​cenchrus, ciliaris, c. glaucus

4. Mixed cropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously without any distinct row spacing.
Mixed cropping helps in full coverage of the land area, reducing soil erosion.
 Eg. Groundnut and red gram in 6:1ratio.

5. Intercropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously with distinct row spacing. Inter
cropping reduces soil erosion, increases the in situ soil moisture conservation
and also gives extra income.

Eg. Maize+blackgram/greengram/cowpea :Cotton + blackgram

6. Mulching

Mulching means covering the soil surface with any material such as organic
wastes, polythene sheet etc. The commonly used organic wastes are coir pith,
crop stubbles, straw, groundnut shell, rice husk etc. These materials are applied
@ 5-10 t/ha with a thickness of 5-10cm. Mulching reduces the direct impact of
rain drops on soil and controls splash erosion, reduces the runoff and increases
the infiltration. Types of mulches

​(i) Vertical mulching

It is a technique in which trenches of 40cm wide, 15cm deep are dug at 2-4m
intervals across slope and are filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height
of 10cm above soil surface. By this run – off is checked, collected in shallow
trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers. This method is commonly
practiced in coffee estates.

​(ii) Live mulch

Covering the soil surface with plant canopy ie intercrops eg. Sorghum + fodder
cowpea.

​(iii) Dust mulch / soil mulch

If surface soil is loosened by ploughing, it acts as a mulch and reduces

evaporation.

​(iv) Stover mulch

Covering the soil surface with cumbu / sorghum stover as it reduces

evaporation and increases oil moisture.

​(v) Stubble mulch

 Crop residues like wheat straw or cotton stalks are left on the soil surface and
it acts as a mulch.

​(vi) Pebble mulch

Small pebbles / stones are placed around the fruit tree / soil surface to check
evaporation and to facilitate infiltration.

(7) Strip cropping

Growing erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting crops in alternate strips
of 2-3m width across the slope and along the contour. Generally tall growing
cereals are erosion permitting crops and short growing crops (pulses) are
erosion resistant crops.

(c) Agrostological methods

Agrostology means study of grasses, their classification and utilization.

Grasses with their close canopy cover soil surface and profuse root system
binds soil particles provi-de excellent protection against run-off and erosion.

​(i) Pastures/grass lands

This term pasture is applied to a grazed plant community usually composed of

several species often of diverse botanical type. Raising perennial grasses for
pasture on eroded, gravelly, degraded soils to reduce erosion, check run-off
and to improve soil moisture.

​(ii) Strip cropping

Alternate strips of grasses and annual field crops are grown across the slope to
check run-off and erosion.

​(iii) Lay farming

It is the practice of growing fodder grasses, legumes and annual crops in

rotation. Grasses and legumes (Cenchrus + stylo) are grown for 3-5 years
followed by annual crops like sorghum for 2 years. When the field is under
grasses or legumes, soil moisture is improved.

​(iv) Vegetative barriers / live bunds

Cenchrus / vetiver slips are planted across the slope at the 15-20cm (2 /hole)
spacing in ​zig – zag​ manner in the beginning of the rainy season. Vetiver
 adapted to drought and requires less care for maintenance. They check the
run-off and prevent the soil erosion. This method is suitable to black soil.

​(v) Alley cropping / hedgerow intercropping

It is an agroforestry system suitable for dry regions where food crops are
grown in valleys formed by fast growing leguminous rows of trees / shrubs.
During the rainy season hedgerows are pruned to about 1 metre.

Leucaena leucocephala​ is the best suitable tree. Hedge rows on contour serve
as vegetative barriers to control run-off and soil loss.

Water harvesting The rainfall received in arid and semi – arid regions are to be
stored either on the soil or in the soil. Soil resources are improved or
developed by Understanding the soil by proper grouping or classification,
Rectifying the defects of the soil either by levelling, application of
amendments etc. and Increasing storage capacity of soil.

Collecting and storing water on the surface of the soil for subsequent use is known as
water harvesting. Water harvesting is done both in arid and semi- arid regions. In the
arid region the collecting or catchment area is large compared to the command area.
Actually the run-off is induced by clearing away the rocks, vegetations and
compacting the soil surface (land alterations) or treating the soil with chemicals that
fill pores or make the soil to repel water. Sodium salt of silicon/latexes/wax/asphalt –
chemical treatment. In semi- arid regions run-off is not induced in the catchment area;
only the excess rainfall is collected.

Inducing run-off

Rain water harvesting is possible even in areas with as little as 50 to 80mm of average
annual rainfall. Ancient desert dwellers harvested rain by redirecting the water
running down the slopes into fields or cisterns ( tanks). This small amount of runoff
collected over a large area may be useful for supplying water to small villages,
households, cattle etc. For collection of higher amounts of rainfall, runoff is induced
by.

(a) Land alterations: Clearing away rocks and vegetation and compacting the soil
surface can increase runoff. However land alteration may lead to soil erosion except
where slope is reduced. When erosion is not excessive and low cost hillside land is
available, land alteration can be a very economical way to harvest rainwater in arid
lands.
(b) Chemical treatment: A promising method for harvesting rain water is to treat the
soils with chemicals such as sodium salts of silicon, latexes, asphalt and wax that fill
pores or make soil repellent to water.

Watershed Management

A watershed is an area from which run-off resulting from precipitation flows past a
single point into a large stream, river, lake or pond. Each watershed is an independent
hydrological unit.

Integrated watershed management refers to the development and management of the

resources in the watershed to achieve higher sustainable production without
deterioration in the resource base and any ecological imbalances. It eliminates
unscientific land use, inappropriate cropping patterns and soil erosion and thereby
improving the productivity of resources leading to higher income and living standards
for the inhabitants of the watershed area.

Watershed is an integrated approach of greening for a better environment. The

approach is exploration, evaluation and exploitation of air, land, water and energy
resources of a watershed for managing a productive ecosystem. Watershed may
extend over a few acres or may cover thousands of acres. Watershed development
aims at developing cultivated and uncultivated areas.

Need and advantages

★ It is an acceptable basic hydrological unit of planning for optimum use

and conservation of soil and water resources
★ Development starts from the highest point ( Ridge line -tree culture) to
the lowermost point (agroforestry pasture)
★ Comprehensive development of all resources (soil, water, crops, trees,
livestock etc).
★ Involvement of farmers in planning, execution and monitoring the
development.
★ Multidisciplinary approach involving scientists from agronomy,
engineering, horticulture, Forestry, soil science, extension, economics
etc.
★ Sometimes resource conservation measures have to be carried out
across field boundaries like vegetative barriers, shelters belts etc for
which watershed is more ideal.
Components

★ Water resources improvement.

★ Soil and moisture conservation in cultivated lands.
★ Land treatment in non arable land.
★ Improved cropping.
★ Alternate land use system.

Principles

★ Utilising the land based on the capacity

★ Protecting fertile topsoil
★ Minimising the silting up of tanks, reservoirs and lower fertile lands.
★ Protecting vegetative cover throughout the year.
★ In Situ conservation of rain water.
★ Safe diversion of surface run-off to storage structures through grassed
waterways.
★ Stabilization of gullies and construction of check dams for increasing
ground water recharge.
★ Increasing cropping intensity through inter and sequential cropping.
★ Alternate land use systems for efficient use of marginal lands.
★ Water harvesting for supplemental irrigation.
★ Ensuring sustainability of the ecosystem.
★ Maximizing returns through allied activities viz, dairy, poultry, sheep
and goat rearing.
★ Improving infrastructural facilities for storage, transport and agriculture
marketing.
★ Setting up of small scale agro – industries.
★ Improving social economic status of farmers.

Steps

★ Identification and selection of watershed. ie boundary has to be marked

by field survey ie from lowest point to ridge line ranging from
100-10000 ha.
★ Description or basic information has to be collected like location, area,
shape, climate, soil, hydrology, geology, physical , chemical and
biological properties, erosion level, vegetation, cropping pattern,
farming system, manpower resources, soil economic data,
infrastructural and institutional facilities.
★ Analysis the problems and identification of available solutions.
★ Designing the technology components.
 ★ Preparation of base maps for each part of the watershed i.e. proposed
development measures.
★ Cost benefit analysis to indicate the estimated cost of each component
and expected benefits.
★ Fixing the time frame to show time of start, duration of project. time
frame for completion of each component's activity.

Monitoring and evaluation to access the progress of the project and to suggest
modification if any.

On-farm research to identity solutions for site-specific problems. Development of

agriculture, allied activities, effective utilization of all resources, maximize returns,
better standard of living with social equality.

Watershed management; It is the natural framework for resource development in

relation to crop production. It is a geo-hydrological unit with a common drainage
outlet. ie land surface bounded by a divide which contributes run off to a common
drainage point. The planned use of watershed lands in accordance with predetermined
objectives. Such as control of erosion, stream flow, sedimentation, improvement of
vegetative cover and other related resources.

Aims at conserving as much precipitation as possible either in soil profile or through

run-off collection and storage and to minimise unproductive losses via evaporation.

Ridge line - tree culture

Marginal lands - agroforestry pasture

Mini/micro watershed Individual farmer land should be treated for soil and
moisture conservation measures in order to prevent further degradation and to
improve the establishment of the crops i.e. watershed at field level.

Technological options for watershed

★ Flat lands systems: Like mini-watersheds, BBF, off – season tillage,

dry seeding can be adopted on a whole village basis by community
participation. Double cropping becomes possible in most years by
utilizing water stored in small reservoirs.
★ Foothills systems:Like organic mulching. Insitu water harvesting,
contour farming and bench terracing can be adopted to reduce erosion.
Horticultural and silvopastoral systems are recommended.
★ Steep slopes: Contour bunding or bench terracing or combination of
both can be adopted. A live hedge planted just above the bench acts as
 a soil filter preventing soil erosion and with time makes the terrace bed
less sloppy.

Mini watershed - 1 to 100 ha , micro watershed- 100 to 1000 ha, milli

watershed 1000 to 10000 ha, sub watershed - 10000 to 50000 ha and
macro watershed - more than 50000 ha.

Unit - III
The word forest is derived from the Latin word for which means outside the village
boundary or away from the habituated land. Generally forest refers to an area
occupied by different kinds of trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses and maintained as such.
According to FAO, lands can be classified into forests which bear vegetative
associations dominated by trees of any size, exploited or not, capable of producing
wood or other forest products or exerting an influence on the climate or water regime
or providing shelter for livestock and wildlife.

Role of forest: Forest plays a significant role in the economic prosperity and
ecological stability of any country. There are four major roles. They are

A. ​Productive functions of forests

★ Wood production Forest products contribute about 1.7% of world

gross domestic product (GDP). Timber and other forest products
turnover valued as more than US$ 200 billion per year. The demand for
timber is ever increasing. Timber is as strong as iron and 5 to 6 times
stronger than cement concrete. Timber is the major forest produce and
it is extensively used in India for construction of houses (beams, doors,
window frames etc), agricultural implements, bridges, sleepers, ships
etc. In India timber is commercially exploited from more than 1500
species of trees and the total timber produced from our forest is 12
million m​3​. The major timber yielding trees are​, Azadirachta indica,
Artocarpus sp, Albizia lebbeck, Mangifera indica, Tectona grandis,
Terminalia sp
★ Fuel source Wood is used as fuel for thousands of years and it remains
as the major source of domestic fuel in India (175 m m​3​). Even today
more than half of the total world consumption of wood is for fuel
wood. The following are the important fuel wood tree species​. Acacia
sp, Prosophis sp, Azadirachta indica, Casuarina equisetifolia,
Leucaena leucocephala
★ Raw material for industries Forest provide raw materials to large
number of industries
 S.NO Industry Suitable
Species

1. Pulp and paper Bamboo,

Eucalyptus and
casuarinas

2. Plywood Teak,
Terminalia,rose
wood

3. Packing cases Silver oak,

Ailanthus
excelsa, Pinus sp

4. Match stick Ailanthus,

Simaruba
glauca, bombax
ceiba

5. Toys Rose wood, Red

sanders, Adina

★ Minor forest products

Also called as Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) or Non wood forest products
(NWFP) or minor forest products. They are products obtained from forest without
harvesting trees. Some of the commercial products are

★ Fibers Fibers can be obtained from stems and barks. Strong fibers can
be used for making ropes and silky fibers for textiles eg. From
Hardwickia binata​ fiber can be obtained from young branches, red in
colour, fairly strong used for cordage and rope making. ​Acacia
leucophloea​ bark yields fiber which is used for fishing nets and coarse
cordage. ​Ficus religiosa​ gives short and strong fibers used for making
ropes. ​Calotropis gigantea​ is a shrub in which fiber is white, fine, silky,
very strong and durable under fresh and saltwater. In ​Agave s​ p Fiber
can be obtained from leaves which is strong, coarse and used for
making ropes and cordage
 ★ Flosses Several trees produce silky flosses in their fruits. They are
Ceiba pentandra​ Known as silk cotton and extensively used for stuffing
pillows and weaving. ​Bombax ceiba K ​ nown as kapok. Silky cotton is
present inside the capsule which is soft and strong. Green capsules can
be collected because if the capsule is opened floss loses its resilience.
★ Coir Obtained from the thick husk of ​Cocos nucifera​. It is coarse, stiff,
buoyant and elastic and suitable for manufacture for ship ropes
★ Waxes Obtained from ​Sapium sebiferum
★ Tannins Obtained from Neem,jamun, kathi savukku
★ Dyes Obtained from ​Artocarpus​ sp (yellow), ​Lawsonia​ sp
★ Gums Obtained from Poovarasu, Neem,​Acacia arabica
★ Canes Obtained from ​Calamus acanthospathus
★ Wood oil Obtained from ​Santalum album
★ Leafy oil Obtained from ​Eucalyptus globules
★ Camphor oil Obtained from ​Cinnamomum camphora
★ Medicines Obtained from ​Aegle marmelos, Alstonia scolaris
★ Grasses Obtained from​ Saccharum spontaneum, Vetivera zizanioides

B.​ Protective and ameliorative (improve) function

★ Maintain co​2​ balance in the atmosphere Human lungs absorb co​2​ from
the blood and infuse it with o​2​. During the process of photosynthesis
tree leaves use sunlight and co​2​ gives off pure oxygen for breathing.
Hence, forest is often referred to as earth/world lungs. 20% of planet
oxygen is produced by rainforests. But more oxygen is produced by
microorganisms in the world oceans. About 77% of carbon dioxide
comes from combustion of fossil fuel and 22% from deforestation and
1% from cement, steel and aluminum industries. Co​2​ is also produced
by animal respiration. During the preindustrial period co​2​ concentration
was 280 ppm, now it is 375 ppm and it will be 480 ppm in 2050. This
results in 1.8 to 3 c increase in temperature resulting in melting of polar
ice caps, rising sea level and changes in ocean currents. Forest trees
have the greatest capacity to store c in their tissues and are known as
carbon sinkers.
★ Favour precipitation Forest increase local precipitation by about 5 to 10
% due to their aerographic and microclimatic effect and create
conditions favourable for the condensation of clouds.
★ Reduce temperature and increase humidity Tree leaves absorb and filter
the sun's radiant energy, keeping things cool in summer. In forest areas
temperature is 3 to 8 0​​ C less than in adjoining open areas.
 ★ Reduces wind velocity Forest influences the wind speed and direction
and provides warmth besides it prevents the direct beating action of rain
drops, sleet and hail.
★ Maintain the productivity of the soil In forest areas large quantity of
organic matter is added through litter fall and recycling of nutrients
occurs
★ Checks erosion In bare soil without vegetation heavy rains or winds
wearing away the soil particles and cause landslides and flooding.
Forest canopy intercepts and redistributes precipitation through its
stem, branches and leaves and minimizes the soil erosion and flooding.
Tree roots also binds the soil particles
★ Check floods and conserve soil and water Forest areas increases the
water holding capacity, reduces soil erosion and check the rapid
siltation of various reservoirs thereby regulate the stream flow, store
more water in tanks and minimizes flood
★ Storehouse of genetic diversity, Forest provides habitat for a wide
variety of plants and animals. In India due to deforestation about 5000
species of plants are on the verge of extinction.
★ Pollution control Forests clean the environment by muffling (suppress)
noises, buffering strong winds and stopping dust and gases i.e.
purifying the air.

C.​ Recreational and educational function

★ Provide recreational facilities Many trees, shrubs, birds and animals

present in the forest attract a large number of people towards them.
★ Education Forest provides a site for ecological studies. It provides an
experimental area and laboratory for college and university students.
★ Healing effect Forest have a natural healing effect for a number of
diseases eg. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
symptoms in children reduces when they are allowed to play in green
environment

D.​ Developmental functions

★ Employment opportunity All forest activities are labour intensive and

provide considerable employment to a large number of people
★ Improve socio economic condition of people Various forest activities
help tribal’s to improve their socioeconomic condition through
collection, processing and marketing of various forest products and by
providing gainful employment
 ★ Revenue source Forest provides good revenue to the government which
is used for various developmental works.

Global forest scenario

International year of forest was celebrated in 2011.World forestry day was celebrated
every year on March 21 st​​ . There are 195 countries in the world. Global forest resource
Assessment (FRA) is conducted by FAO once in 5 to 10 years from 1946 based on
the data provided by the countries to FAO (Questionnaire). Recent report was
published in 2015. The first report was focused on wood supply in response to fear of
wood supply after World War II.

★ The world forest area is 3999m ha (4bha) which is 30.6 % of the world land
area. There are 10 countries which accounts for 66% of the total world forestry
area.

Country Area m ha Country Area m ha

Russian federation 809 Australia 164

Brazil 478 Democratic republic 134

of Congo

Canada 310 Indonesia 88

USA 303 Peru 69

China 197 India 70.68

The per capita availability of forest area in 1990 was 0.8 ha and in 2015 it was 0.6 ha

★ 64 countries have forest area less than 10% of total land area
★ 45 countries have more than 50% forest area out of their total land area
★ Africa and America have the largest forest area
★ 7 countries/territories have no forest at all. eg. Kuwait, Qatar, Morocco,
San Mario, Greenland
★ The annual loss of forest is approximately equal to the size of Costa
Rica
★ In every decade in world level 1.3 billion square kilometer forest area
shrinked
 ★ The world net loss of forest area during 1990 to 2000 was 8.9 m
ha/year, it was 5.2 m ha /year during 2000 to 2010 and during 2010 to
2015 it was 7.7 mha.
★ During 2010 to 2015 the forest area gain was 4.3 mha.
★ Five countries with largest volume of wood removals are USA
-18%,Brazil-10%, Canada-7%,Russian federation-6%,
China-4%,others-55%

Forest Characteristics
Primary forest-36.4
Modified natural forest-52.7
Semi-natural forest -7.1%

Indian forest Scenario

India occupies only 2.5% of the world land area. In 1925 our forestry area was more
than 65% of the total geographical area. During British rule it was exploited much and
shrunk to 40% during 1950. In 2005 our forestry area was 22.77%, in 2010 it was
23%. In 2015 our area was 70.68 mha (21.34%). In 2017 and 2019 the forest area was
21.54% and 21.67 % respectively. Out of this very dense forest – canopy coverage
more than 70%( 2.61%), moderately dense forest – canopy coverage is 40 to 70 %(
9.59%), open forest – Canopy coverage is 10 to 40 %( 9.14%) and scrub – canopy
coverage is less than 10 %( 1.26%). In India 98.4% of the forestry area owned by
public and private owned only 1.6%. In India tropical and subtropical forest accounts
95% and 5% respectively. The stocking and productivity of forest in India is 74m​3​/ha
(standing volume) against the world average of 126 m​3​/ha. The tree cover ( Small
patches of trees less than 1 ha area in roads, canals etc. ) in India during 2017 and
2019 was 2.85 and 2.89 % respectively. In India Arunachal Pradesh state ranks first in
terms of trees, shrubs and herbs followed by Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Forest survey of India (FSI) was created on 1 st​​ June 1981 and it has 4 regional centers
at Bangalore, Nagpur, Simla and Calcutta. Satellite survey is done once in 2 years
from 1987. Sir Dietrich Brandis is called the Father of Indian Forestry. India is one of
the 12 mega diverse countries in the world. Imperial forest service was established in
1867.Our forest neutralizes 11% of India’s GHG emissions and provides a livelihood
for more than 200 million people. India is having advanced technology for forestry
and tree cover mapping. Our human population crosses 950 million and cattle
population is 450 million.ie the country has to meet the needs of 16% of the world
population and 19% of the world cattle population from <1% of the world forest
resources. In India 87 National parks (4.06),485 wildlife sanctuaries(11.54mha) are
there i.e. totally 15.6 mha and occupies 4.75% of total geographical area. Forest area
annually affected in India due to fire is 5.48%, Diseases 12.43% and Insects 1.48%.
State wise area in percentage:

In India 15 states and union territories have more than 33 % under forest out of their
geographical area. In India forest cover was increased up to 3775 km​2​ from 2013 to
2015. ( 14 survey). The area increased in forest and tree cover compared to 2017 is
5188km​2​.The increased area in Tamilnadu ( 2501 km​2​), J&K ( 450km​2​), UP ( 112
km​2​), Kerala ( 1317km​2​), Karnataka ( 289km​2​).

The area under forest was decreased in Mizoram ( 306km​2​), Telangana ( 168km​2​),
Uttarakhand (268km​2​), Nagaland (78km​2​), Arunachal Pradesh ( 73km​2​)

FSI uses Resourcesat-series 2 with Liss III sensor to collect the data. The best time to
get the data is from October to December. North Eastern states account for 7.98 % of
the country's area but accounts for 25 % of India’s forest area.

India accounts for 3% in world mangrove forest. Out of this 50 % is in Sundarban in

WB. In Tamilnadu and Pondicherry the mangrove cover is 45 and 2 km​2​ respectively.
The Mangrove cover in India is 4975Km​2 ​. Mangrove cover was increased by 54 km​2
compared to 2017. Out of all the states in India the forest area is highest in Mizoram (
85.41%) compared to its own geographical area.

Tree cover in India is 92572 Km​2 ​( 2.82%).

The per capita availability of forest in India is 0.62ha

Madhya Pradesh -11.3% Jharkhand 3.34%

Arunachal Pradesh -9.5% Tamilnadu -3.75%

Orissa – 7.2% NE states – 25.7%

Maharashtra – 7.2% Chattisgarh - 7.9%

Punjab- 0.25%, Haryana -

0.23%

Types of forest

Reserved forest - 55%

Protected forest - 29%

Unclassified forest - 16%

Tamilnadu forest scenario

Tamilnadu forest Department was established as the Madras forest department in 1885
by Dr.Hugh Francis Cleghom called as father of scientific forestry in India. The per
capita availability of forest and tree cover in Tamilnadu is 0.04 ha. The forestry area in
Tamilnadu is ​20.27​%. out of its geographical area. Tamilnadu accounts for 3.75% of
India’s forestry. In Tamilnadu 5 National parks and 20 wildlife sanctuaries are present
in 0.29 m ha which is 2.24% out of total geographical area. Among the districts
Nilgiris is having the highest forest area -81.25%,followed by
Kanyakumari-31.77%.The forest area in cuddalore district is 11.68% and it is very
low in Thiruvarur district – 0.96%.In Tamilnadu mangrove forest area is 36 km​2​ and
out of which cuddalore district is having 9 km2

Types of forest

Reserved forest - 86.12%

Protected forest - 11.117%

Unclassified forest - 2.71%

Forest area​ Areas should be more than 1 ha with tree canopy density
of more than 10% is notified as forest

Classification of forests

1) Based on age

a) ​Even aged / regular forest​: It is a man made forest wherein all the trees are
approximately in the same age. If the rotation is more than 100 years, a difference of
25% is permitted.

b) ​Uneven aged / irregular forest​: It is a forest in which wide variation occurs in the
age of trees. It may be due to natural regeneration, variation is more than 25% and
20% in the case of long and short rotation, respectively.

2) Based on composition

a) ​Pure forest​: It is a forest almost composed of one species usually not less than 80
per cent.

b)​ Mixed forest​: It is a forest composed of two or more species. The canopy of one
species must be more than 20%. The species in the mixture are distinguished into
(i) Principal species: It is the first in order in the mixture based on frequency, volume
or silvicultural value.

(ii) Accessory species: It is useful but less valuable than the principal species.

(iii) Auxiliary species: It is less important or inferior in quality or size than the
principal species.

3) Based on management

a) ​Protection forest​: These forests are maintained mainly to reduce CO​2

concentration, amelioration climate, to improve soil fertility, to check flood and soil
erosion.

b) ​Production forest​: Forest which are maintained primarily for wood, fuel wood,
NTFP, etc.

c) ​Social forest​: Forestry which provides goods and benefits to the nearby society.

d)​ Recreational forest​: Forestry which attracts people due to the presence of
flowering trees, birds, animals, boating etc.

4) Based on regeneration

a)​ Natural forest​: Regeneration is obtained naturally.

b)​ Man made forest​: Regeneration is obtained artificially.

c) ​High forest​: Regeneration is obtained from seed.

d) ​Coppice forest​: Regeneration is obtained through coppice or vegetative method.

5) Based on legal matters

a) ​Reserved forest​: A reserved forest is an area with complete protection according to

the forest act / laws.

b) ​Protected forest​: A protected forest is an area with limited degree of protection.

6) Based on growing stock

a) ​Normal forest​: It is one which is normal with regard to growing stock, age class
distribution and increment. The periodic removal is equivalent to increment.

b) ​Abnormal forest​: It is one which is not normal with regard to growing stock, age
class distribution, increment, etc. It gives irregular yield.

7) Based on ownership

a) State forest b) Private forest, c) Community forest, d) Panchayat forest

​National forest policy

The first policy was issued in 1952 (to provide raw materials to wood industries) and
the neat policy was promulgated on 7 th​ ​December 1988 by the secretary, ministry of
Environment and Forest. The objectives are,

1.​ ​Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and

restoration of disturbed forest

2.​ ​Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the

remaining fauna and flora

3.​ C
​ hecking soil erosion, silting up of tanks and sand dunes

4.​ ​Increasing the sustainability of the forest in the country through

massive Afforestation and social forestry programmes

5.​ ​Meeting the requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minor forest

products and small timber of rural and urban population

6.​ I​ ncreasing the productivity of the forest s

7.​ ​Efficient utilization of forest produce and maximize the

substitution for wood

8. ​ ​Creating a massive peoples movement with the involvement of

women for achieving these objectives

9. Checking the extension of sand dunes in the desert areas of

Rajasthan and along the coastal lands

Latest policy in march 2018 , the objectives are,

 a. Bring 1/3 geographical area of India under forest by scientific
interventions and enforcing strict rules to protect the forest

b. Focus on International policy on climate change

c. Propose public-private participation for afforestation, reforestation in

degraded forest, area available with forest department and outside
forest area

d. To address human -animal conflict , propose quick response,

dedicated teams with well equipped and trained personnel, mobility,
veterinary services, rescue centres, speedy assessment of damage and
quick payment of relief to victims.

e. Monitoring and management of wildlife populations within and

outside the forest on a long term basis.

f. Safeguard forest land by exercising strict restraint on diversion for

non forest purposes

Forest mensuration​: It is the branch of forestry that deals with the determination of
dimensions (diameter, height, volume, etc.), form, age and increment of single trees,
stands on whole forests either standing or after felling. It concerns measurements of
area, volume, weight of wood, bark, fruits, etc.

Objectives​:
I. Basis for value estimation for sale of forest produces.
II. Basis of management
III. Basis for research – in experiments measurement of woods are
essential to identify the best treatment
IV. Basis for planning – forest mensuration supplies essential basic
statistical data.

Scope​: Forest mensuration involves all people starting from cutting of wood, its
conservation, sale and use and concerned with foresters, contractors, forest labourers
and different wood users. It deals with both standing trees and felled timber. Further,
it concerns wildlife management, watershed management, insect and disease
incidence, recreation, tourism and other aspects of forestry.

Factors that affect accuracy

a) Characteristics of trees, b) Varying methods and conditions of felling and

conversion,
c) Instruments and conditions in which they are used, d) Personal bias of the
estimator,

e) Biological character of the forest, f) Purpose of mensuration and g) Cost

Unit of measurement

Parameters Units

a) Height Metre with first decimal

b) Diameter Centimetre with odd decimal

c) Girth Metre and centimeter

d) Area Square metre per centimeter

e) Volume Cubic metre

Measurement of individual trees

a) Diameter measurement

In logs, the diameters are measured at thick end, thin end and at the middle of the logs.
The average value is considered as a diameter of log. The girth of log is measured in
the middle. In case of standing trees, the diameter or girth can be measured at breast
height. Breast height (BH) is defined as the universally adopted standard height for
measuring girth, diameter and basal area of standing trees. In India, USA, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Africa, it is taken as 1.37 m (4 ft 6 inch) above ground level while it is 1.3
m (4 ft 3 inch) in Europe, UK, FAO.

Reasons for adoption of breast height​:

1) It is a convenient height and uniform point that avoids complications
and standardizes the diameter measurement.
2) The measurement at the base is difficult due to swelling and presence
of grasses and thorny shrubs.
3) It is more useful than measurement at stump height because stumps are
never cut at uniform height.

Standard rules
 I. BH is marked by using a measuring stick at 1.37 m above ground level
by marking vertical and horizontal lines of 12 cm with white paint.
II. On sloping ground, the BH is marked on the uphill side and on lean
side on flat ground.
III. In leaning trees, BH is measured along the tree stem and not vertical.
IV. If the tree is forked above the BH, it is considered a single tree. If the
forking is below BH, each stem is considered as an individual tree.
V. Mosses, creepers, lichens on the tree should be removed before
measuring lbh.

Instruments used​: The choice of instruments depends on whether the tree is standing
or felled, the conditions in which the logs are lying and degree of accuracy required.
The most commonly used instruments are wooden scale, calipers, tape, Biltmore stick,
sector fork, pentaprism barr and stroud dendrometer, wedge prism and tele relaskop.
The ratio between the diameter and girth of a circle is 0.3182.

Bark thickness

The thickness of the bark varies with species to species and tree to tree. The bark
thickness varies with the age of tree and base to top of the tree. The thickness of the
bark is measured by Swedish bark gauge. This chisel form of instrument is provided
with a curved arm fitted with a graduated (cm & mm) moving tube. This is pushed
into the bark. Afterwards, the instrument is removed and the thickness of the bark is
read off on the scale.

Height measurement

Tree height is the straight line distance from the tip of the leading shoot (highest point
of the crown) to the ground level. The height of the felled tree is measured from the
top to the base in a straight line without any allowance for curvature of the stem.
Height of the tree indirectly gives the idea about the productive capacity of site or site
quality. Tree height is one of the components for calculating tree volume. Tree height
is required for computing volume table yield.

Crown point is the position of the first crown either it is living or dead one. Bole
height is the distance between ground level and crown point. Commercial bole height
is the height of the bole that is usually fit for utilization as timber. Standard timber
bole height is the height of the bole from the ground level upto the point where
diameter over bark is 20 cm.

Stump is a stem, which is left on the ground after falling. Crown length is the vertical
measurement of the crown of a tree from tip to the point halfway between the lowest
green branches forming green crown. Crown width is the maximum spread of the
crown along its widest diameter.
Methods of measurement
1)​ ​Ocular estimate​: In this method, the height of the tree is assessed by
visual judgement. For this purpose, initially few trees are measured using
instruments. Thereafter, the estimator can judge the height of the trees
exactly by comparison. A pole of 3 m length may be placed against the
tree and then the tree is imagined to be divided in 3 m sections for
calculating tree height. This method is not very accurate and the result
varies with the experience of the forester.
2)​ ​Non-instrumental method​: This method assumes the tree is in a vertical
line. Hence, the calculated height is slightly differing from the actual one.
3)​ ​Shadow method​: This method is possible only on sunny days and mostly
in the morning or evening. It is not suitable for congested stands where
shadow is difficult to obtain. In this method, a pole of definite length is
fixed in the ground. The shadow caused by the pole and tree are measured.
From the observed value, the tree height is calculated using the following
formula
AB =

Where AB is the tree, ab is the pole, BD is the length of the shadow of

the tree and bd is the shadow of the pole.

Single pole method

In this, the observer holds a pole (1.5 cm length) vertically at arm’s length in hand in
such a way that the portion of the pole above the hand is equal in length to the
distance of the pole from the eye. Without changing position, the observer moves
slowly forward and backward till the line of sight to the tip of the tree passes through
the point where the pole is held by hand. Now the height of the tree is equal to the
distance of the observer's eye from the base of the tree based on a similar triangle
principle.

Let AB be the tree and ac is the pole of about 1.5 m long held at b vertically so that
distance from observers eye E to b is equal to ab

AB = AB = EB (since ab: Eb)

Instrumental method

These instruments are based on triangle principle or trigonometric principles

a) Brandis hypsometer
b) Brandis table
c) Abneys’ level
d) Topographical abney’s level
 e) Haga altimeter
f) Relaskop
g) Christen hypsometer

Measurement of volume of trees

In felled trees, volume of stem wood, branch wood and root volume may be
calculated. The tree is cut into logs according to the tapper. The length of log
depends on the taper, utility of wood and transport facility available. The basal
portion of a tree corresponds to a frustum of neloid, the middle portion to a frustum of
paraboloid and the top portion to a cone. In India and Britain, the formula widely
used is (G/4)​2​x 1. The volume derived by this formula is lesser (78.5%) than true
volume. Timber calculators or timber measurement tables are the specially prepared
table available for volume calculation of logs. This gives a volume of round timber
from 1 to 25 m and girths upto 300 cm.
Except for thick branches most of the branches are converted into firewood. It is
essential to assess its volume. Billet is the stack of fuel wood that is laid in the form
of rectangular parallel episodes. This cubical volume is taken as a fuel wood volume.
Stacked volume is not the actual volume of solid volume of fuel stacks. The solid
volume can be assessed by xylometric method and by specific gravity method. . If
the wood is uneven in size then the formula is
(G​1​ + G​2​ / 2 / 4)​2​ x L

Here G​1​​ and G​2​ denotes girth at two places.

​Forest Management

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative,

economic, legal, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as
silviculture, protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for
aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban values, water, wilderness, wildlife, wood products,
forest genetic resources, and other forest resources values. Management can be based
on conservation, economics, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber
extraction, planning and replanting of various species, cutting roads and pathways
through forest, and preventing fire. The actions of humans in forests constitute forest
management. Some forests have been and are managed to obtain traditional forest
products such as firewood, fiber for paper, and timber, management of forests for
multiple use is becoming more common.

Many tools like GIS and photogrammetric modelling have been developed to improve
forest inventory and management planning. Since 1953, the volume of standing trees
in the United States have increased by 90% due to sustainable forest management.
Management consists in planning and implementing activities meant to ensure the
conservation and utilization of a forest, according to objectives to be achieved (among
which, wood production) under a given physical, and socio-economic context.
Foresters must consider forests not just as a growing stock, but also as a complex
ecological system which should be sustainably managed.

Over extraction of wood resources, coupled with cleaning for agricultural purposes,
unrestricted burning and sometimes overgrazing creates disorder, in order to
re-establish a proper sustainable balance between resources and use, it is essential to
take action in full knowledge of th

e facts (causes and effects). As early as 1952, following independence in 1947, India
introduced a new forestry policy: “The role of forests is to provide raw materials for
the timber industries.

Technical requirements

The theoretical implementation of forest management involves four states:

★ Gathering information on and describing the present situation.

★ Defining objectives, tools and resources.
★ Negotiating and drafting a management plan, and
★ implementing the plan, monitoring and supervision.

Tending:​ All operations from seedling stage to maturity. It involves A.

Wedding - Maintain the field as weed free for 3 years from planting. B.
Cleaning - Shrubs and herbs should be removed in order to increase the
light availability and also to avoid root competition. C. Thinning - Felling
is made in an immature tree stand to increase growth, production, early
returns, hygienic conditions D. - Improvement felling - Removal of less
value trees like badly shaped trees in valuable forest E. Gridling-
Removing the bark of a tree . It is an economic method of killing inferior
trees. F. Pruning - Removal of live (green pruning) and dead ( dry pruning)
branches.G. - Climber control - Climbers around the trees should be
removed periodically

UNIT-IV
Social forestry

Forestry practices which aim at providing goods and benefits to a nearby society are
referred to as social forestry. Prasad 1985 defined forestry outside the conventional
forests which primarily aims at providing continuous flow of goods and services for
the benefit of people. From the mid seventies it was initiated in India. From 1980 the
forest department created a separate wing to implement this programme. The word
social forestry was coined by Westoby.

The term social forestry was first used in the 9 t​ h ​commonwealth forestry congress in
1968. In India it is first used in 1976 by the National Commission on Agriculture

Concept

The idea of social forestry aims at production of forest goods such as fuel, fodder etc
to meet the needs of the local people particularly underprivileged section.

Objectives

1. Fuel supply to the rural areas and replacement of cow dung

2. Small timber supply
3. Fodder supply
4. Protection of agricultural fields against wind and for recreational needs
5. To establish plantations wherever possible which on maturity will meet the
wood requirements of the villages
6. To shift gradually the responsibility for establishment, maintenance, protection
and harvesting of wood lots raised outside forest lands from the forest
department to village panchayats
7. To help economically weaker sections to raise plantations in their land
holdings which are unsuitable for agriculture

Components

The components of social forestry are, 1. Farm forestry 2.Extension forestry

3.Reforestration of degraded forests and 4.Recreation forestry

Farm forestry

It is defined as practice of forestry in all its aspects in and around the farms or village
lands integrated with other farm operations. It promotes commercial tree growing by
farmers on their own land

Objectives

1. To supplement the production of fuel wood and small timber to meet the
increasing requirements of local people.
2. To replace cow dung as manure
3. To increase the production of leaf fodder
4. To create a diverse ecosystem by having trees along with crops
It was started in the seventies in which free ​Eucalyptus​ seedlings were given to
farmers to plant in their unused or marginal lands of their own farm. Farm forestry
accounts for 70 to 91% in west Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Kerala and
Andhra Pradesh. In Tamilnadu two farm forestry schemes were being operated. For
large farmers seedlings were distributed at cost price. For poor farmers upto500
seedlings were given at free of cost and a small cash incentive was paid based on the
number of plants surviving at the end of 1 and 2 year. IFFCO initiated a project in 10
states by taking up 5000ha of wastelands.

Extension forestry /urban forestry

It is the practice of forestry in areas devoid of tree growth and other vegetation in
places away from the conventional forest areas with the object of increasing the area
under tree growth. It is classified into

a. Mixed forestry

It is the practice of forestry for raising fodder grass with scattered fodder trees, fruit
trees and fuel wood trees on suitable waste lands, panchayat lands and village
common lands. The income from the mixed forestry should be divided equally
between the panchayats and state governments.

b​. Shelterbelts

It is defined as a belt of trees and or shrubs maintained for the purpose of shelter from
wind, sun, snow, etc.

c. Linear strip plantations

These are plantations of fast growing trees on linear strips of lands on the sides of
public roads, canals and railway lines .It generate wood and other products to meet the
basic requirements of the local people

d. Reforestation of degraded lands

In Bihar, West Bengal and Tamilnadu the reforestation of degraded forest lands
started in early fifties. It needs immediate attention for ecological restoration and for
meeting socioeconomic needs of the communities living in and around such areas. In
Tamilnadu efforts were made in the fuel wood forests of tropical dry evergreen and
tropical dry deciduous forests. The objectives are,

1. To grow short duration fuel and timber species for meeting the requirements
2. To organize fuel wood supplies at reasonable rates which would prevent
pilferage from neighboring commercial forests
 3. To tie up degraded forest areas with nearby rural and semi urban centres for
their requirements of fuel wood
4. To provide employment
5. To rehabilitate the degraded forests

D. Recreation forestry/Aesthetic forestry

It is the practice of forestry with the object of raising flowering trees and shrubs
mainly to serve as recreation.ie developing a forest of high scenic value. It aims at
preservation of forests in compact blocks or development of small blocks of man
made forests of miscellaneous trees offering shade and shelter , creating recreational
facilities viz, picnic corners, zoos, riding , boating etc and establishment of natural
history museums

Social forestry projects in Tamilnadu

In social forestry projects trees are being planted in and around agricultural fields,
along railway lines, road sides, river banks, canal banks, village common lands,
government waste lands and panchayat lands. Tamilnadu is the pioneer state in
implementing afforestation programmes. In 1956 itself teak seedlings were planted on
river and canal banks of Cauvery irrigation system in Trichy and Tanjore districts. In
1960 farm forestry was implemented. In the 1970's Extension forestry, mixed
plantations and village forests were implemented on poramboke lands to engage local
communities and individual farmers for their benefits. From 1960 to 1980 1.33 lakh ha
of land outside the reserved forests were planted and it provides 10 lt of fuel wood
annually. Impressed by the results of the above project, it was decided to intensify the
social forestry activities in Tamilnadu. A massive social forestry project was launched
with the aid from the Swedish International Development Authority {SIDA} in the
year 1981 to 82

Social forestry project Phase -1

It was launched during 1981 for 5 years from 1981 to 1986 and further extended up to
1987 to 88 with a project assistance {70%} of 591.38 million from SIDA

Objectives

1. To increase supply of fuel wood in rural areas and to provide poles , bamboo,
small timber, fodder, grass, fruit, oilseeds and other minor forest products
2. To establish plantations to meet the wood requirements of the villagers and
generating employment through establishing, maintaining and feeling of
plantations
 3. To help economically weaker sections to raise plantations in their landholdings
which are unsuitable for agriculture

Components, targets and achievements of Phase –1

S.No Components Targets

1. Tree cultivation intensive Distribution of 12.6 m

programme{TCIP} seedlings to 1 lakh families

2. TCEP Distribution of 37.5 m

seedlings at cost price to
private farmers

3. Plantations on tank foreshores 132000 ha

4. Plantations on poramboke plains 14700 ha

5. Plantations on poramboke hills 24500 ha

6. Strip plantations {Road and canal sides} 6075 km

7. Fodder plantations 5200 ha

Social forestry programme Phase –II

Phase –II was implemented during 1988 -89 to 1992-93 with a financial outlay of
Rs.854 million

Objectives
1. Interface forestry programme
2. Seedling production and Extension programme
3. Research and Development programme
4. Supporting activities such as monitoring, publicity, training,
cooperation with outside agencies
5. Tree patta scheme for landless women on promboke and revenue lands
S.No Components Targets Achievements

1. TCIP 34.56 m 52.76 m seedlings

seedlings

2. TCEP 90.65 m 127.83 m seedlings

seedlings

3. Block plantations 145910 ha 128188 ha

 4. Strip plantations 7445 km 8165 km

5. Recreational forestry 4.8 m seedlings 0.79 m seedlings

Joint Forest Management (JFM)

JFM originated in West Bengal in 1971 and later adopted in Haryana to prevent soil
erosion and deforestation. In Tamilnadu it was adopted in 1988.In India, out of total
geographical area of 329 m ha 23 % constitutes forestry area. Out of 1 billion
populations in India, 360 m live in and around forest areas, exerting tremendous
pressure on limited forest resources. Out of 360 million, more than 68 million are
tribal’s. Out of total forest area 40% is degraded with a crown density of 0.4. This is
due to rigid state control and displacement of indigenous tribal and hill communities.
Hence, the government of India in 1988 shifted its policy and switched over to JFM. It
is the management of forests by the state forest department and local communities. In
JFM, there is no transfer of ownership over forest, instead restructure the formal
system of access, decision making and sharing of benefits for the needs of local
communities. It is a transparent and participatory process. Due to state control in the
past, most of the forest was cleared for agriculture. The remaining forest in India is
now concentrated in rough,uneven and inaccessible areas and which reduce the
potential to harvest and manage the forest for production purposes. So, most of the
states have two options. 1. Increasing the involvement of neighboring communities in
the management and utilization of the forests 2. Creating alternative sources of
employment to reduce the pressure on forest

In Tamilnadu during 1988 two pilot projects were taken up at Ariyalur and Allikulli
with the financial assistance from SIDA. But after the project period, the forest
dependents resumed wood cutting and goat grazing which brought the area to original
degraded condition. During the project period they got wages in planting and soil
conservation works which restrained them from goat grazing and illicit removal.
Therefore the permanent and viable way of tackling the problem is having a
multipronged approach for promotion of sustainable livelihoods so that the people
dependence on forests is permanently reduced.

Tamilnadu Afforestation project (TAP)

TAP is funded by Japan bank for international cooperation with a financial outlay of
500 crores. JFM was implemented in Tamilnadu from 1997-98 for meeting the
requirements of the local people with respect to wood and non –wood forest produce.
TAP phase II was implemented from 2005-06 to 2012-13 with an outlay of Rs. 567.42
crores. Tamilnadu Biodiversity conservation and Greening Project ( TBGP) was
implemented in Tamilnadu from 2011-12 to 2018-19 with an outlay of 686 crores.
Specific objectives

1. Improving the productivity of forests by creating heterogeneity of tree species

and through intensive soil conservation and water harvesting measures
2. Preserve area rich in biodiversity
3. Utilize the land on scientific basis and provide employment opportunities in
rural areas

The project period is 5 years and each year 200 villages should be covered. In each
village 500 ha of degraded lands are selected and it is divided into 3 zones

a.​ ​Lower zone or utility zone​ In this zone 500 seedlings were planted per ha to
meet the immediate needs of the village and also on long term basis.450 seedlings
should be Navel, sitha, Nelli, cashew, Mango, Neem Aachal, Kapok usil, perumaram
etc. out of the 50 remaining seedlings, plant 25 good quality tamarind seedlings and
25 vegetative propagated cuttings. In addition to seedlings planting, adopt soil and
moisture conservation measures like gully plugging.

b.​ ​Middle zone or Asset creation zone​ 300 seedlings per ha were planted to meet
the long term needs along with soil and moisture conservation measures like check
dams, contour trenches and vegetative barriers.250 seedlings should of Bamboo,
Illupai, Vagai, Nelli , poovarasu etc.25 good quality tamarind seedlings and 25
vegetative cuttings are to be planted.

c.​ ​Upper zone or Eco Restoration zone​ Existing natural growth is protected and
biodiversity can be enhanced by planting pioneering species.100 seedlings per ha is
planted along with all soil and moisture conservation measures

In each unit the people representative body called “village forest council’ is formed
which fully involved in planning and execution of works , protection, harvesting and
benefit sharing .one male and one female willing member are enrolled as members

VFC meets as and when necessary or once in 3 months. VFC forms an executive
committee (EC) in which at least 2 members are elected for each hamlet. The
executive committee has a minimum of 5 and maximum of 15 members. The
panchayat members are co-opted as ex officio members of the EC. The members will
elect president of EC. The forest ranger concerned is the member secretary of the EC
who facilitates the election process of the members and president of EC.T he EC is
responsible for day to day activities of VFC and meets at least once in a month. A
memorandum of understanding is signed in the beginning between the district forest
officer and VFC president. This gives details of rules and responsibilities of the forest
department and VFC – the partners in JFM. All VFC are registered under societies
Registration act 1975.

TAP sustainable livelihood promotion

A. Assets

Improvement, enhancement and up gradation of the assets are given below:

1. Land​: In 250 ha, NTFP tree seedlings of 75000 were planted. In addition
25000 saplings are distributed to villagers for growing in their own land.VFC
members are given the right to collect NTFP and a share in the final harvest.
Assuming that 50 % of survival 38500 plants are there in the forest area whose
products can be sell directly or after processing or after value addition

2. Water​: water harvesting structures like percolation ponds and check dams are
made which help in raising the water table and recharging of bore wells in the
adjoining agricultural lands . In most areas cropping intensity is increased.

3. ​Cattle​: The individual’s grants were built up into a corpus fund and extended
loans to the forest dependents to buy high quality milk cattle’s.

B. Social​ :​ VFC provided a forum to the people for coming together and
exchanging views not only for JFM but also for village welfare

C. Economical/Financial:​ o​ ut of total money spent 50 % goes as wage for

planting or civil structures by the local people. This wage is a financial boost.
Income from the NTFP goes to the VFC fund

D. Political:​ The entire planning, execution and monitoring of the programme is

done by VFC, whose day-to-day affairs are looked after by its Ec headed by an
elected president .The VFC president and range officer jointly sign all the
accounts and fund applications. VFC presidents are ex officio members of the
district level joint forest management committee which is headed by district
collector. This imparts more prestige and glamour to the post of president.
Women empowerment is also given due emphasis and 1/3 rd​​ of EC members
are necessarily women only. In each village one SHG is formed and is
encouraged to undertake economic activities individually or jointly by
 providing credit from the buffer zone fund. VFC and SHG increased their
collective bargaining power for assembly and parliament elections also

E. Human
1​. Literacy​: This project motivated its members to admit their children to
the schools. Where ever schools are not available, the same can be opened
through education department or charitable organizations
2.​Health :​ Multispecialty health and sidda camps were conducted for a
cluster of TAP villages
3​. Skill upgradation :​ From buffer zone funds village youths are imparted
free training to enable them to become carpenters, blacksmiths, drivers,
electricians, TV mechanism etc. Ladies are trained in rope making,
tailoring, embroidering, bidi making etc to get steady income and not to go
in for wood cutting for their livelihoods.

F. Physical
Government has instructed all departments to dovetail their developmental and
infrastructure activities in TAP villages on priority basis .There is a committee at
state level headed by chief secretary and at district level by collector to guide,
monitor, steer and oversee the coordination by all other departments. This resulted
in substantial improvement in road, electricity, water, school etc in most of the
TAP villages.

Agroforestry :​ Agro forestry is relatively a new name for a set of old practices. Nair
1979 defined agro forestry is a land use system that integrates trees, crops and animals
in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically desirable, practically feasible and
socially acceptable to the farmers. Agro forestry is any sustainable land use system
that maintains or increases total yields by combining food crops with tree crops and or
livestock on the same unit of land either alternatively or at the same time, using
management practices that suit the social and cultural characteristics of the local
people and the economic and ecological conditions of the area.

The definition implies

1. Agro forestry normally involves two or more species of plants out of which
one is woody perennial
2. It has always two or more outputs
3. The cycle of agroforestry is more than one year
4. Even simple agroforestry system is more complex

Concept​ : It is the practice of raising food crops, trees and animals together. It
combines production of multiple outlets with production of resource base. It
emphasizes the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs. It is practically suitable
for low input conditions and fragile environments. It involves the interplay of socio
cultural values more than in most other land use systems. It is structurally and
functionally more complex

Benefits

1. ​Environmental benefits

➔ Reduction of pressure on forest

➔ More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees
➔ Better production of ecological systems
➔ Forest trees and crops reduce surface runoff, soil erosion and nutrient leaching
➔ Improvement of microclimate by lowering the soil temperature and reduction
of evaporation by mulching and shading
➔ Increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter fall
➔ Improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter
from decomposed litter
➔ Utilize waste and degraded lands

2​. Economic benefits

➔ Increase in levels of farm income due to improved productivity

➔ Reduction in incidence of total crop failure
➔ Increase in the productivity of food, fuel wood, fodder, fertilizer and timber

​3​. Social benefits

➔ Improvement in the standard of living due to increased employment

opportunities and income. Employment is generated at secondary and tertiary
level eg. Saw mills, sports goods, furniture, paper etc. The following are the
man days needed for various operations

Nursery and planting operations 200 to 500 man days/ha

Maintenance 50 to 75 man days/ha/year

Harvesting 10 to 15 man days/m​3

➔ Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of

foods
 ➔ Eliminates the need of farm communities to shift from the site of farm activity

Constraints

1.​ E
​ nvironmental constraints

a. Possible competition of trees with food crops for space,

sunlight, moisture and nutrients which may reduce food crop
yields
b. Damage of food crops during tree harvest
c. Trees serve as a potential host for insect pests that are harmful
to food crops
d. Rapid regeneration of some trees may occupy the entire fields
by displacing the food crops
e. Increased damage to the crops by birds which are attracted by
the trees
f. Allelopathic effect of trees on crops.eg. Aqueous extract of bark
and leaf of ​Acacia nilotica​ have inhibitory effect on sorghum,
cotton, sunflower etc.​Ficus bengalensis and Leucaena
leucocephala ​inhibit the germination of rice

2.​ S
​ ocio-economic constraints

a. Requirement of more labours which may cause scarcity at times

in farm activities
b. Competition between tree and food crops and the aggregate
yield is lower than the single crop yield
c. Longer period is needed for trees to grow to maturity and
acquire an economic value
d. Resistance by farmers to grow food crops with trees if the land
is scarce
e. Agro forestry is more complex compared to single crop farms

Criteria for selection of tree species for Agroforestry

I. It should have drought tolerant mechanism like deep rooted system,

leaf shedding in summer, water binding, wax coating, hairiness, sunken
and covered stomata on leaves
II. Tolerant to saline water and soil salinity and alkalinity
III. Tolerant to water logged condition
IV. Trees should have narrow and thin crown and deciduous in nature
which facilitates more sunlight to the crops grown under
V. It should be fast growing and multipurpose tree
VI. It should establish easily and needs little care
 VII. It should adapt to poor, eroded, degraded and sloppy soils
VIII. It should capable of improving microclimatic condition
IX. It should capable to resprout after pruning, coppicing or pollarding
X. It should have desirable qualities like N fixing, rapid growth, coppicing
ability, high calorific value, without toxic fumes and sparks
XI. It should have deep root system and few shallow lateral roots
XII. It should have better value and higher demand
XIII. It should be easy to propagate
XIV. It should be prolific seed producers

Role of Agroforestry in soil and water conservation

Water

a. Trees improve the soil structure and microclimate thereby improve the soil
moisture retention in rain fed cropping system and pastures
b. Irrigation works can be protected by hedge rows of trees
c. Improvement of drainage from water logged or saline soils by phreatophytic
trees
d. Increased biomass storage of water for animal consumption (Higher water
content of tree fodder in dry season)
e. Improvement in the interception and storage of rainfall thereby reduce the
runoff and flood hazard

Soil

a. Improve the soil organic matter content through litter fall

b. Improve the soil physical properties viz., WHC, structure, porosity,
permeability and drainage etc.
c. Addition of more root biomass and more microbial association
d. Reduction in soil and nutrient loss through reduction in runoff
e. Addition of carbon and its transformations through leaves and twigs
f. Addition of N by nitrogen fixing trees
g. Release and recycling of nutrients
h. Moderating the effect on extreme conditions of soil acidity and alkalinity
i. Creating more favorable microclimate by wind breaks and shelter belts
j. Lowering the effect of water table in areas where water table is high

Agrisilviculture system​; Use of land for the concurrent production of agricultural

crops and forest crops either simultaneously or alternatively. Based on the nature of
components this system can be grouped into

a.​ ​Shifting cultivation​: It is a pattern of land use and system of production of

crops under which plots of lands are cleared using a axe and fire, cultivated for
 a short period for raising one or two or three crops, after which the land is
allowed to rest (fallow) longer than the period of cultivation.

It is the primitive form of cultivation. Production is subsistence without capital

investment, requiring primarily manual labour . When the forest areas were
large and the population was small people grow the crops for a few years after
clearing the forest and abandon the old areas and shift to new areas. They
move from place to place until it has regained its productivity. It is called as
jhumming farming in NE hills and podu in AP and Odessa. Cereals, pulses,
oilseeds, cotton, vegetables, fruits, spices, tobacco etc are grown as mixed
crops

b. ​Taungya cultivation​: Taungya is a Burmese word coined in 1850.Taung means

–Hill and ya –means cultivation. It was introduced in 1890 and first practiced in 1896
in north Bengal. It is now practiced in Kerala, West Bengal, UP, AP, Odessa,
Karnataka, NE hills and parts of Tamilnadu with an assured rainfall of 1200 to 1500
mm. In south India the system is called kumari. It is a method of establishing forest in
temporary association with agricultural crops.

This system begins with harvesting of the existing forest. The harvested area is cleared
and burnt. Some fruit or shade trees are retained. For one family 1to 2 ha of deep,
fertile soil is allotted. Farmers are permitted to grow agricultural crops for 1 to 2 years
before forest plantation to get higher yields in the fertile soil. With the benefits of
intensive cultivation in agricultural crops trees are planted in 2 or 3 year. When forest
plantations are established, the farmers have to leave that area.

The Taungya cultivators have to sign an agreement regarding the area to be cultivated,
crops to be grown, period of cultivation. Usually seeds were sown after the onset of
monsoon or transplant the seedlings during the monsoon. In Tamilnadu, ​Tectona
grandis, Ceiba pentandra, Acacia nilotica, Tamarindus indica, Santanum album​,
rubber, bamboo and cashew are grown with wide variety of pulses, cotton, tapioca,
groundnut, millets, potato etc. In Nilgiris Eucalyptus globules are raised with potatoes.
In Kerala, Hill rice, chilies, cotton, ginger, tapioca are grown with teak. Types of
Taungya system are,

★ Departmental Taungya: Agricultural crops and plantations are raised by forest

department by employing labourers on daily wage basis
★ Leased Taungya: Forest land is given on lease to a person who offers the
highest money for raising crops for a periods and ensure care of tree
plantations
 ★ Village Taungya: Out of three types this is the most successful system. People
settled down in a village inside the forest to raise the crops. Each family is
allotted 0.8 to 1.7 ha of land to raise trees and cultivate crops for 3 to 4 years.

Advantages:

★ Low cost method of establishing artificial forest

★ Food crops can be obtained from forest land
★ Weed and climber growth is less
★ Maximum utilization of site
★ Problems of unemployment is solved
★ Highly remunerative to the forest department

Disadvantages

★ Loss of soil fertility and susceptible to erosion

★ Legal problems created
★ Danger of epidemics

Based on the success, farmers are given concessions like free grazing for animals, free
timber for house construction and agricultural implements, schooling facility for
children, loan at nominal interest, water supply through excavation of wells and
construction of pond

c. Multispecies tree gardens

In this system miscellaneous kinds of tree species are grown together with the aim of
production of food, fodder and wood products for home consumption and sale for
cash.Major woody species grown in this system are ​Acacia catechu,Phoenix
dactylifera, Artocarpus spp, Cocos nucifera, Mangifera indica,Syzygium sp

d. Alley cropping (Hedgerow intercropping)

It is a farming system in which arable crops are grown in alleys (The inter row spacing
between two tree rows are known as alleys). The position and spacing of trees and
crops in alley cropping depends on the nature of trees, climate, slope, soil conditions
and the space required for the movement of people and tillage implements.In humid
zone closer spacing is adopted and wider spacing is recommended for sub humid and
arid regions. Usually the spacing between the tree rows varies from 4 to 8 m and
within the row it varies from 25 cm to 2 m. In sloppy areas the hedges should be on
contour. The purpose of alley cropping is to restore the soil fertility, enhance or
maintain the productivity of crops and to control erosion in sloped areas. Selection of
right trees with right spacing and management may avoid competition between trees
and crops. Trees are pruned at particular height and the pruned twigs and leaves are
placed on the alleys in order to increase the soil organic matter content, nutrients,
weed suppression and to reduce evaporation. Eg: In between two tree rows of subabul
groundnut/sorghum can be grown. The following points are to be considered while
selecting the trees

I. It should be nitrogen fixing tree

II. It should be able to grow under drought, flood, heavy winds,
saline and acid soils and other hazards
III. In addition to N fixation it can be capable of producing wood,
fodder ,food ,medicine or other products
IV. It should have deep tap root system with shallow lateral roots
V. It should resprout after pruning/lopping/pollarding
VI. It should have sparse and small crown to permit more sunlight
VII. The litter fall should decompose at a faster rate to release
nutrients

e. Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands

In this system various multipurpose trees are planted on bunds or field boundaries in
agricultural lands with a view to get products from trees or other functions like
fencing/field demarcation. The major tree species used in this system are ​Leucaena
leucocephala, Casuarina equisetifolia, Azadirachta indica, cocos nucifera etc.

f.​ Crop combinations with plantation crops

​

It is also known as multi storey or multi tier cropping. It is the system of growing
together crops of different heights at the same time on the same piece of land and thus
using land, water and space most effectively. It is practiced in orchards and in
plantation crops. Eg Coconut+pepper+cocoa+pineapple

g. Woodlots

In order to solve the problem of pilferage and illicit removal from the forest woodlot
plantations are started. Cultivation of trees in small fields exclusively for production
of fire wood and timber is referred to as woodlots. Where the land is scarce trees are
planted in and around the agricultural lands. ​Casuarina equisetifolia​ is extensively
grown in AP, TN, Karnataka on lands which are poor and unsuitable for profitable
agriculture. ​Eucalyptus tereticornis​ is planted at 1x1 m spacing and within 3 years it
will give 4.5 t ha. ​Acacia nilotica​ will give 21.2t ha and ​Cassia siamia​ will give 22.8 t
ha

h. Shelterbelts
These are belts or blocks consisting of several rows of trees established at right angles
to the prevailing wind. The purposes are, To deflect air currents, To reduce velocity of
prevailing winds, To protect the leeward areas from soil erosion, To protect the
leeward areas from hot winds and To provide fodder, food, timber etc

The main characteristics of shelter belts

I. Shape and composition: Shelter belts usually having triangular shape

and this can be brought by planting tall trees in the centre
II. Density and width: Shelter belts up to 50 m width are considered ideal.
A certain amount of penetration by wind is needed
III. Height and Width: The ratio between height and width should be
roughly 1:10.
IV. Orientation: it depends on the direction and velocity of the prevailing
winds. It may be raised in quadrangles if the wind direction change
very often
V. Length: The minimum length of a shelter belt is about 25 times of its
height
VI. Choice of species: Grasses- ​Saccharum spontaneum, Cenchrus sp,
Panicum antidotale: Shrubs- Calotropis procera, Cassia auriculata;
Trees​- Acacia leucophloea,Prosophis juliflora, Eucalyptus
sp,Dalbergia sissoo

i. Windbreaks

Windbreaks are strips of trees or shrubs planted to protected fields, homes, canals or
other areas from wind and blowing soil. The main objectives of wind break are

★ To protect the livestock s from cold wind

★ To protect the crops from hot dry winds
★ To reduce soil erosion
★ provide habitat for wildlife
★ To check evaporation
★ To improve the microclimate for growing crops and to shelter people and
livestock

Wind breaks should be designed as follows

Permeability: Wind breaks should filter and reduce the velocity of wind to an
extent of 25 to 75 % and should permit some wind to pass through. This can be
achieved by selecting certain species like Casuarina, Eucalyptus. However a
dense wind break allows no wind and results in turbulence both upward and
downward.
 Orientation: Plant windbreaks at right angles to the wind from which
protection is needed. Windbreaks planted North south are good than East west
and provide better shading of adjacent crops and pastures

Height: The windbreak height determines the size of the sheltered area . If the
wind break is taller, it protects the larger area. A wind break will reduce the
speed of the wind for about 25 times than the height of the tree in the
downward side and 5 times on the upward side

Length: Windbreaks are more effective when its length exceeds 12 times than
the mature height of the trees

Number of rows: In valuable lands single row windbreak is recommended with

species which can retain their lower branches. The disadvantage in a single
row system is if one tree is lost, a gap is created , which reduces the efficiency.
Windbreaks of 3 to 5 rows are more effective and are less affected by gaps
caused by missing trees. Tall trees should be planted in the centre and smaller
trees in the outer rows.

Tree spacing: Distance between the trees depends on the purpose of wind
break. To protect the valuable crops it should be as tall as possible. If it is
maintained for timber wider spacing is recommended. Closer spacing is
recommended for fuelwood and fodder trees.

Gaps: gaps are required for gates and trucks to reduce the effect of funneling.
On either side of the gap shrubs can be planted. A short windbreak is planted
in front of the gate. It forms a 45 degree angled wind break.

Species: Fast growing, narrow and vertical growth are ideal.

Casuarina,Eucalyptus, Cassia, Prosophis,​ ​Grevillea, Syzygium​ etc

j. ​Soil conservation hedges​: In sloppy areas multipurpose tree species are

planted to stabilize the soil structure and to get some products by productive use
of the land. The suitable trees are ​Leucaena leucocephala, Prosophis juliflora​,
Grevillea robusta​ etc.

ii. Silvopasture system: The concurrent use of the land for woody plants
with pasture is known as silvopasture system. In this system trees and
shrubs are primarily grown to produce fodder for livestock or for timber,
fuel wood, fruit or to improve soil. This system is classified into three
categories

a. Protein bank: Various multipurpose trees rich in protein are planted

in and around farmlands and rangelands to meet the fodder requirement
 of livestock .​Leucaena leucocephala, Albizia lebbeck, Sesbania
grandiflora,Azadirachta indica​ etc are the suitable species.

​ ive fence of fodder trees and fences: In this system various fodder
b.L
trees and hedges are planted as live fences to protect the property from
stray animals or other biotic influences. Suitable species are ​Erythrina
sp, Sesbania grandiflora, Gliricidia sepium, Prosophis juliflora etc

c. ​Trees and shrubs on pastures: In this system various trees and shrubs
are scatteredly planted to supplement fodder production. The suitable
species ​Acacia leucophloea, Tamarindus indica, Acacia nilotica,
Azadirachta indica etc.

Agrosilvopastoral system​: The concurrent use of the land for the production
of trees,crops and pastures is known as agrosilvopastoral system. It is
classified in to two types

a. Home gardens: It is the land use system involving deliberate management

of multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and
perennial agricultural crops and livestock within the compound of an
individual house. The whole tree, crop and animal unit is managed by family
labour. It is a functional and self sustaining farm unit which consists of
collection of crops and multipurpose trees with or without animals owned
and primarily managed by the dwelling farm family with the objective of
satisfying the basic family needs and producing marketable surplus for the
purchase of non productive items. This oldest agroforestry system is
extensively found in south and southeast asia. It is extensively practiced in
Kerala and Tamilnadu with humid tropical climate where coconut is the
main crop. Wherever the land holdings are small, subdivision and
fragmentation prevails and utilization of land for non agricultural purposes
people are concentrating in and around the house for agricultural production.
Many trees, shrubs, vegetables and herbaceous plants are grown in dense and
in random or spatial and temporal arrangements. Home gardens also support
a variety of animals (Cows, buffalo’s, bullock, goat, sheep), birds (ducks,
chicken). Fodder crops and legumes are grown to meet the fodder
requirement of cattle. Home gardens epitomize the qualities of an
agroforestry system. They are highly productive, extremely sustainable and
very practicable. The waste from the crops and homes are used as fodder for
animals/birds and barn wastes are used as manure for crops. The home
gardens represent 3 to 4 vertical strata. The lower most layers are up to 1 m
in height dominated by vegetables. The second layer is 1 to 3 m in height
comprising fruit crops viz., banana, papaya etc. The upper layer is divided
into two, consisting of emergent, full grown timber and fruit trees occupying
 the upper most layer of 25 m and medium size trees of 10 to 20 m occupying
the next lower layer. The intermediate layer of 5 to 10 m height is dominated
by various fruit trees. Jack, Cashew, Lemon, Mango, Guava, Coconut, Neem
are the suitable tree species and bhebdi, Onion, Beans, cabbage, Pumpkin,
Sweet potato, Banana etc are the ideal herbaceous species. Based on the
dominant crop/livestock home gardens are classified into Coconut, Arecanut,
Spice, Rubber, Coffee and livestock based farms.

b.​ W
​ oody hedgerows for browse,mulch,green manure and soil conservation

In this system various fast growing and coppicing trees and shrubs are planted
for the purpose of browse, mulching, green manure, soil conservation etc. The
following species are suitable ​Erythrina sp, Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania
grandiflora etc.

Other systems

a. Apiculture with trees: In this various honey producing trees that are
frequently visited by honey bees are planted on the boundaries of the
agricultural lands eg. ​Azadirachta indica, Syzygium cumini, Gliricidia
sepium
b. Aqua forestry: The main objective of the system is fish production and
bund stabilization around the fish ponds. In this system various trees
and shrubs preferred by fish are planted on the boundary and around
fish ponds. Tree leaves are used as forage for fish eg. ​Leucaena
leucocephala, Morus alba​ etc.
c. Mixed wood lots: In this system location specific multipurpose trees
are grown together for various purposes like wood, fodder, soil
conservation, soil reclamation etc.

​ ilviculture​: This word is coined from Latin word silva which means forest and
S
culture means growing. It is care and cultivation of forest trees. It is a branch of
forestry that is concerned with the cultivation of trees. It is the practice of controlling
the establishment, growth, composition, health and quality of forests to meet diverse
needs and values.

Objectives
1. To derive environmental benefits
2. Raising trees of more economic value.
3. Production of high quality timber species.
4. Production of more volume per unit area.
5. Reduction of rotation period
6. Afforestation of blank areas
 7. Creation of plantation
8. Introduction of exotics
9. Employment potentials
10. Increased production of fodder, fuel
11. Studies on NTFP.

Managing forest for wildlife, water, recreation, aesthetics or any combination of these
or other forest uses.

Silvicultural system is defined as the set of silviculture procedures worked out in

accordance with an accepted set of silvicultural principles by which crop constituting
forests are tended, harvested and replaced by new crops of distinctive form. It acts as
a tool for achieving the objectives of forest management.

Tending​: Tending is an operation carried out at any stage from seedling to maturity
for the benefit of forest crop. It includes wedding, cleaning, thinning, improvement
felling, pruning, climber cutting and gridling.

Need

It directs planned treatment of crops to get maximum yield in a sustained manner.

Gives precaution against wrong use.

It systematizes the knowledge on regeneration and feeling under various forest

conditions.

Classification

High forest system​: are those silvicultural systems in which the regeneration is of
seedling origin either natural or artificial and where the rotation is generally long. It is
classified as

a. Systems of concentrated regeneration​: are those silvicultural systems

in which the regeneration feelings are concentrated on a part of the
forest at a time.
b. Systems of diffused regeneration​ are those silvicultural systems in
which the regeneration feelings are distributed over the whole forest
resulting in the production of irregular forests.
c. Accessory systems​ are those high forest systems which originate from
other even aged systems through slight modification that result in an
irregular or two storeyed high forest.
 d. Coppice forest systems​ are those silvicultural systems in which
regeneration is of coppice origin and where the rotation of coppice is
short.

A) System of concentrated regeneration

1a) Clear felling system

Clear felling system​ ​is a silvicultural system in which equal or equi productive areas
of mature crops were clear felled in single operation. This is to be regenerated by
either natural or artificial means. If the total area of the forest is ‘A’ and rotation for
this forest is ‘r’ years, then the area to be clear felled each year is A/r. This principle is
applicable if all the areas have equal productivity. If there is variation, least felling is
adopted in good fertile soil and heavy feeling in poor fertile soils to get equal produce
from the forest.

1b) Clear strip system

It is a silvicultural system in which clear felling is done in the form of strips which
progress successfully in one direction against the direction of wind. It is also referred
to as progressive clear felling strip system or progressive strip system. In this felling
strips are separated from unfelled strips of sufficient width. The width may be equal
or multiple of the width of the felled strip if the feeling time of the successive area is 3
years, then the felling area is divided into 3 cutting sections ​viz​., 1, 2, 3. In this
system, the regeneration is obtained mostly by natural means.

1c) Alternative strip system

It is a silvicultural system in which clear felling is done in the form of strips where the
clear felled strip is alternated with unfelled strips of similar width.

2) Shelterwood system

2a) Uniform system

It is also known as the compartment system or shelterwood compartment system. It is

a kind of shelterwood system aiming at concentrated regeneration in which the canopy
is uniformly opened up over the whole area of a compartment to obtain uniform
regeneration. Method of regeneration is mostly by nature.

2b) Group system

It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration feelings are carried out in a scattered

group due to the presence of advance growth.
2c) The shelterwood strip system

It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration fells are done in the form of strips
arranged successively from one side of the compartment to another usually against the
direction of wind.

2d) Wagner's blender samschlag

It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration felling are carried out in narrow strips
extending in east west direction and advancing from north to south direction. The
strip width should be half the height of standing trees. It provides the sideward
protection to the regeneration from the sun. Hence, suitable for subtropical and tundra
regions.

2e) The strip and group system

It is a silvicultural system in which felling is done in strips which advances against the
direction of wind.

2f) Wedge system

This system is suitable for wind prone areas. It is a silvicultural system in which the
feeling strip is located in the middle of the cutting section. The length of the cutting
section should be along the direction of wind. The strips are 2 to 5 m wide at an
interval of 80 m. When the regeneration comes up, it is widened more towards the
leeward side and less towards the windward side. This gives a wedge shape to strips.

2g) Irregular shelterwood system

It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration feelings are done in the pattern of the
group system but the regeneration period is long which results in irregular crop. It is
applicable to tropical rainforests.

2h) Indian irregular shelterwood system

It is a silvicultural system in which crops to be regenerated are opened up irregularly

and the resultant crop is uneven aged.

​B) Systems of diffused regeneration

1) Selection system​:​ ​It​ ​is a silvicultural system in which felling and regeneration are
distributed over the whole area and the resultant crop is unevenly aged. It is suitable
for steep topography and regeneration is obtained naturally.
2) Group selection system​: In this system, trees are felled in groups instead of being
scattered single trees. The size of the group depends on light requirements. Crop
obtained is irregular but within the groups all trees are similar in age.

C) Accessory systems

It is a high forest system which originates from other even aged systems through slight
modifications.

1) Two storeyed high forest system​: It is an accessory silvicultural system in which

tree canopy occurs in two strata ​viz​., upper and lower. The dominant species in each
canopy is different but the crop in each canopy is even aged. The top canopy is of
seedling origin and the lower canopy is obtained from natural regeneration.

2) High forest with reserves system​: It is an accessory silvicultural system in which

selected crops are retained for part or whole of the second rotation to obtain a larger
sized timber.

3) Improvement felling​: It is a method of treatment involving the removal of inferior

growing stock like dead, drying, diseased, badly shaped, congested poles and trees.

II) Coppice forest systems

Coppice system refers to the silvicultural system in which the new crop originates
mainly from coppice and where the rotation of crop is shorter.

1) Simple coppice system​: Fixed area of old crop is clear felled in a sloppy manner
before the start of spring. The stump height should not be too low or too higher and
the optimum height is 15 to 25 cm. Tending operation is carried out from second year
onwards and the crop obtained is even aged. Copping produces only small timber.
This system is suitable for social forestry systems, private lands and in areas of
regional constraints.

2) Coppice of two rotation system​: In this system, at the end of first rotation of
coppice a few selected poles are left over for second rotation to obtain bigger sized
timber.

3) Shelterwood coppice system​: During first clear felling 125 to 150 trees are
retained per ha till the coppices are established securely. Thereafter shelter is removed
gradually 60 to 75 after 5​th​ year and completely in 10th year. This system is suitable
for good locality, frost areas, species can take a long time for establishment and
regions where large and small sized timber is required.
4) The coppices with standard system​: It is a silvicultural system in which seedling
origin of standard species is kept over coppices for varying periods. The period of
retaining standard may be multiples of coppice rotation or a permanent one. Standards
are uniformly distributed over the whole area. The objectives are to supply large sized
timber, protection against frost, to enrich the coppice crops, to maintain the vigour of
the coppice seedlings and to increase the revenue from unit area. The standard species
should not be the same as that of coppice one. Number of standards retained varies
with the object of management.

5) Coppice with a reserve system​: It is a silvicultural system in which certain

individual desired trees are reserved first after that the rest of the crop is felled (Mostly
immature trees). Regeneration is obtained from coppice or from the seeds. It is the
modification of the simple coppice system. Reservation is done based on area, species
and based on girth/diameter of a tree.

6) Coppice selection system​ is a silvicultural system in which feelings are carried out
on the principle of selection based on need or demand. Regeneration is obtained from
coppices and the crop obtained is unevenly aged.

7) The pollard system​: It​ ​refers to the cutting off of a tree stem usually above the
browsing height to obtain a flush of shoots. Pollard system is applicable for obtaining
maximum fodder from the tree. Hence, this is applicable to ​Hardwickia hinata​ and
mixed dry deciduous forest.

UNIT-V
Biodiversity

The term biodiversity was coined by E.O. Wilson in 1985. Biodiversity may be
defined as the variety and variability of living organisms and the ecological complexes
in which they exist. It deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. The
variety of life on earth.

Uses of Biodiversity:

I. It provides food of all types.

II. It provides fibers, sources for the preparation of clothes.
III. It provides different types of oil seeds for the preparation of oils.
IV. ​It provides new varieties of rice, potato etc. through the process of

hybridization.
 V. It provides different drugs and medicines which are based on different
plant products.
VI. It is very essential for natural pest control, maintenance of population
of various species, pollination by insects and birds, nutrient cycling,
conservation and purification of water, formation of soil etc. All these
services together are valued 16.54 trillion dollars per year.

Importance of Biodiversity:

1. Productive values: ​Biodiversity produces a number of products harvested

from nature and sold in commercial markets. It includes timber, NTFP and
industrial products

2. Consumptive value: ​The consumptive value can be assigned to goods such as

fuel woods, leaves, forest products etc. which may be consumed locally and do not
figure in national and international markets. Forest dwellers know the qualities and
different uses of wood from different trees, collect a large number of local fruits,
roots and plant materials for food, medicine and construction.

3. Social value: ​Directly influences ecosystem functions. This could be easily

understood by observing detrimental effects of global warming. The man rapidly
depleted the resources even to irrecoverable loss due to extinction of several
species.

4. Aesthetic value: ​Aesthetic values such as refreshing fragrance of the flowers,

taste of berries, softness of moss, melodious songs of birds, etc. compel the human
beings to preserve them. The earth's natural beauty with its colour, thick forest has
inspired man to take necessary steps for its maintenance.

5. Legal values: ​Since earth is the homeland of all living organisms, all have equal
right to coexist on the surface of earth with all benefits. Unless some legal value is
attached to biodiversity, it is not possible to protect the rapid extinction of species

6. Ethical value: ​Man is the most intelligent amongst the living organisms and it
is his responsibility and moral obligation to preserve and conserve other organisms
which will directly or indirectly favour the existence of the man.

7. Ecological value: ​Biodiversity holds great ecological value because it is

indispensable to maintain the ecological balance. Any disturbance in the delicately
fabricated ecological balance maintained by different organisms, will lead to severe
problems, which may threaten the survival of human beings.

8. Economic value: ​Biodiversity has great economic value because economic

development depends upon efficient and economic management of biotic
 resources. Human beings are maintaining their lifestyle at the sacrifice of
surrounding species which cause struggling animals for their existence.

9. Option value: ​Keeping the biodiversity for the benefit of future generations

1. Types of Biodiversity:

1. Genetic diversity: ​It describes the variation in the number and types of genes as
well as chromosomes present in different species. The magnitude of variation in genes
of a species increases with increase in size and environmental parameters of the
habitat.The genetic variation arises by gene and chromosome mutation.

Genetic diversity has the following importance:

I. It helps in speciation or evolution of new species;

II. It is useful in adaptation to changes in environmental conditions;
III. It is important for agricultural productivity and development.

2. Species diversity: ​The species richness may be defined as the number of species
per unit area. The number of individuals of different species with in a region
represents species evenness. The product of species richness and species evenness
give species diversity of a region.

3. Ecosystem diversity: ​It relates varieties of habitats, biotic communities, ecological

processes in the biosphere.

(i)α-Diversity:

It tells the species diversity in a given community.It depends upon species richness
and evenness.

(ii) β-Diversity:

It describes a range of communities due to replacement of species which arises due to

the presence of different microhabitats, niches and environmental conditions.

(iii) γ -Diversity:

It describes diversity of habitat over a total land escape or geographical area.

Biogeographic classification of India

It is the division of ​India​ according to ​biogeographic​ characteristics. Biogeography is

the study of the distribution of ​species​ (​biology​), ​organisms​, and ​ecosystems​ in
geographic ​space​ and through ​geological time​. There are ten biogeographic zones in
India.
 1. Trans Himalayan zone.
2. Himalayan zone
3. Desert zone.
4. Semi Arid zone.
5. Western ghat zone.
6. Deccan plateau zone.
7. Gangetic plain zone.
8. North east zone.
9. Coastal zone.
10. Islands present near the shore line.

1. Trans – Himalayan Region: ​The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the

Great Himalayan range are called the Trans- Himalayas. The Trans-Himalayan region
with its sparse vegetation has the richest wild sheep and goat community in the world.
Marco polo sheep, Alpine steppe, bare rock and glaciers are present. It accounts for
5.7 % of the country’s land mass. The snow leopard and migratory black-necked crane
is found here

2. Himalayas​ They are the Northern boundaries of India. The forests are very dense
with extensive growth of grass and evergreen tall trees. Alpine forest and orchids are
there. It accounts for 7.2% of the country's land mass. Oak, chestnut, conifer, ash,
pine, deodar are abundant in the Himalayas. There is no vegetation above the
snowline. Several interesting animals live in the Himalayan ranges. Chief species
include wild sheep, mountain goats, ibex, shrew, and tapir. Panda and snow leopard
are also found here.

3. Semi – Arid Areas ​Adjoining the desert are the semi-arid areas, a transitional zone
between the desert and the denser forests of the Western Ghats. The natural vegetation
is thorn forest. This region is characterized by discontinuous vegetation cover with
open areas of bare soil and soil-water deficit throughout the year. Thorny shrubs,
grasses and some bamboo are present in some regions. A few species of xerophytic
herbs and some ephemeral herbs are found in this semi-arid tract. Birds, jackals,
leopards, eagles, snakes, foxes, buffaloes are found in this region. It accounts for
15.6% of the country's land mass.

4. Western Ghats ​The mountains along the west coast of peninsular India are the
Western Ghats, which constitute one of the unique biological regions of the world.
The Western Ghats extend from the southern tip of the peninsula (8°N) northwards
about 1600 km to the mouth of the river Tapti (21°N). The mountains rise to average
altitudes between 900 and 1500 m above sea level, intercepting monsoon winds from
the southwest and creating a rain shadow in the region to their East. The varied
climate and diverse topography create a wide array of habitats that support unique sets
of plant and animal species. Apart from biological diversity, the region boasts of high
levels of cultural diversity, as many indigenous people inhabit its forests.

The Western Ghats are amongst the 25 biodiversity hot-spots recognized globally.
These hills are known for their high levels of endemism expressed at both higher and
lower taxonomic levels. Most of the Western Ghat endemic plants are associated with
evergreen forests. The higher altitude forests were, if at all, sparsely populated with
tribal people. Rice cultivation in the fertile valley preceded gardens of early
commercial crops like areca nut and pepper. The Western Ghats are well known for
harboring 14 endemic species of caecilians (i.e., legless amphibians) out of 15
recorded from the region so far. It accounts for 5.8% of land mass in India.

5. North – West Desert Regions ​ It occupies 6.9% of the country's land mass. It
includes cold desert in J and K and deserts in Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region
consists of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and parts of Gujarat. The climate is
characterised by very hot and dry summers and cold winters. The plants are mostly
xerophytic. Babul, Kikar, wild palm grows in areas of moderate rainfall. Indian
Bustard, a highly endangered bird is found here. Camels, wild asses, foxes, and snakes
are found in hot and arid deserts.

6. Deccan Plateau ​It covers 4.3% of the country’s land mass. The highlands of the
plateau are covered with different types of forests, which provide a large variety of
forest products. The Deccan plateau includes the region lying south of the Satpura
range it extends up to the southern tip of peninsular India.Anaimudi is the highest
peak of this region.The Deccan plateau is surrounded by the western and the eastern
ghats.These Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills. Many rivers such as Mahanadi,
Godavari, krishna, and kaveri originates from western ghats and flow toward the
east.The eastern ghats are broken into small hill ranges by river coming from the
western ghats.Most of these rivers fall into the Bay of Bengal. The Godavari is the
longest river in the Deccan plateau the Narmada and the Tapi flow westwards and fall
into the Arabian sea.

7. Gangetic Plain ​It covers 11% of the country's land mass. In the North is the
Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan foothills. This is the largest unit of the
Great Plain of India. Ganga is the main river after whose name this plain is named.
The aggradational Great Plains cover about 72.4mha area with the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra forming the main drainage axes in the major portion. The physiographic
scenery varies greatly from arid and semi-arid landscapes of the Rajasthan Plains to
the humid and per-humid landscapes of the Delta and Assam valley in the east. The
trees belonging to these forests are teak, sal, shisham, mahua, khair etc.

8. North – East India ​It covers around 5.2% of the country's land mass.
North-east India is one of the richest flora regions in the country. It has several species
of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants. Here the wild relatives of cultivated
plants such as banana, mango, citrus and pepper can be grownIslands

9. Islands​ The two groups of islands, i.e., the Arabian Sea islands and Bay Islands
differ significantly in origin and physical characteristics. Forests of Lakshadweep in
the Arabian Sea have some of the best-preserved evergreen forests of India. Some of
the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick forests
and some are highly dissected. It occupies 0.03% of the country's landmass.

10. Coasts​ India has a coastline extending over 5,500 km. The Indian coasts vary in
their characteristics and structures. The west coast is narrow. The backwaters are the
characteristic features of this coast. The east coast plains, in contrast, are broader due
to depositional activities of the east-flowing rivers owing to the change in their base
levels. Extensive deltas of the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are the characteristic
features of this coast. Mangrove vegetation is characteristic of estuarine tracts along
the coast for instance, at Ratnagiri in Maharashtra. Larger parts of the coastal plains
are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are grown. Rice is the main crop
of these areas. Coconut trees grow all along the coast.

Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels

Out of an estimated 30 million species on earth, only one-sixth has been identified and
authenticated in the past 200 years. There are at present 1.8 million species known and
documented by scientists in the world.An estimated biodiversity covers 400,000
higher plants. Most of the world’s bio-rich nations are in the South, which are the
developing nations. In contrast, the majority of the countries capable of exploiting
biodiversity are Northern nations, in the economically developed world.Biodiversity
of 89 countries with diversities higher than India are located in South America such as
Brazil, and South East Asian countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia.

International agreements such as the World Heritage Convention attempt to protect

and support such areas. These include Manas on the border between Bhutan and India,
Kaziranga in Assam, Bharatpur in U.P., Nandadevi in the Himalayas, and the
Sunderbans in the Ganges delta in West Bengal. India has also signed the Convention
in the Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) which is intended to reduce the
utilization of endangered plants and animals by controlling trade in their products and
in the pet trade.

Biologically, tropical rain forests are the centres of the world much of flora and fauna
originated in the humid tropics. For millions of years, tropical rain forests have been
factories of evolutionary diversity from which plants and animals, capable of adapting
to more difficult environments, have gone forth to populate the subtropical and
temperate regions.
The reasons are as follows

1. Warm temperate and high humidity provide favourable conditions for many
species.
2. Tropical communities are more productive because these areas receive more
solar energy.
3. Over geographical times the tropics have had a more stable climate. In tropics,
therefore, local species continued to live there itself.
4. Among plants, the rate of outcrossing appears to be higher in tropics.

The developing countries, located in subtropical/tropical belt are far richer in

biodiversity than the industrial countries in the temperate region. The Vavilovian
Centres of diversity of crops and domesticated animals are also located in the
developing countries. It is important to preserve the numerous varieties of plants and
animals that belong to one species. The diversity of genes within a species increases
its capacity to adapt to pollution disease and other changes in the environment.

Commonly used modern drugs derived from plant sources:

Drug Plant sources Use

Bromelain Pineapple Controls tissue inflammation due to

infection.

Caffeine Tea. Coffee Stimulant of the central nervous

system.

Cocaine Cocoa Analgesic and local anesthetic:

reduces pain and prevents pain during
surgery.

Morphine Opium poppy Analgesic: controls pain.

Indicine N-cscide heliotropiumindicum Anticancer agent.

Menthol Mint Rubefacient: increases local blood

supply and reduces pain on local
application.

Monocrotaline Cotolariasessiliflora Anticancer agent.

 Dissolves excess protein and mucus,
Papain Papaya during digestion.

Penicillin Penicillium fungi General antibiotic, kills bacteria and

controls infection by various
microorganisms.

Quinine Yellow cinchona Antimalarial.

It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants are endemic to the country and found
nowhere else in the world. Among amphibians found in India. 62% are unique to this
country. Among lizards, of the 153 species recorded. 50% are endemic. High
endemism has also been re​corded for various groups of insects, marine worms,
centipedes, mayflies and freshwater sponges.

Species India's World Ranking Number of species in

India

Mammals 8th 350

Birds 8th 1200

Reptiles 5th 453

Amphibia 15th 182

Angiosperms 15th-20th 14,500

The traditional cultivars included 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice and a number of
cereals, vegetables and fruit. The highest diversity of cultivars is con​centrated in the
high rainfall areas of the West​ern Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas and the
North-Eastern hills. Gene-banks have collected over 34,000 cereals and 22,000 pulses
grown in India. India has 27 indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds
of goats and 8 breeds of buffaloes.
Global species diversity

Group No. of Described Species

Corals and Jellyfish 9,000

Roundworms and earthworms 24,000

Insects 751,000

Fishes (Teleosts) 19,056

Amphibians 4,184

Reptiles 6,300

Birds 9,198 (Clements. 1981)

Mammals 4.170 (Honacki et al„ 1982)

Total: 1,435.662 SPECIES

Biodiversity of India:

As per available data, the varieties of species living on the earth are 1753739. Out of
the above species, 134781 are residing in India although the surface area of India is
2% of the earth’s surface.

India is one of the twelve mega diversity nations of the world due to the following
reasons:

I. It has 7.3% of the global fauna and 10.88% of global flora as per the
data collected by the Ministry of Environment and forest.
 II. It has 350 different mammals, 1200 species of birds- 453 different
​

reptiles, 182 amphibians and 45,000 plant spices.

III. It has 50,000 known species of insects which include 13,000 butterflies
and moths.
IV. ​It has 10 different biogeographical regions and 25 biotic provinces

having varieties of lands and species.

V. In addition to geographical distribution, geological events in the land
mass provide a high level of biological diversity.
VI. Several crops arose in the country and spread throughout the world.
VII. There is a wide variety of domestic animals like cows, buffaloes, goats,
sheep, pigs, horses etc.
VIII. The marine biota includes sea weeds, fishes, crustaceans, molluscs,
corals, reptiles etc.
IX. There are a number of hotspots (namely Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats,
North Eastern hills etc.).

Hot Spots: ​Hot spots are the areas with high density of biodiversity or mega diversity
which are most threatened at present. There are 25 hotspots in the world, out of which
two are located in India namely North-East Himalayas and Western Ghats.

Biodiversity hotspots: ​A region with high biodiversity with most of species being
endemic (endemism). A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a
significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans. To qualify as a
biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet
two strict criteria:

It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics

and It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats are a chain of hills that run along the western edge of peninsular
India. Their proximity to the ocean and through orographic effect, they receive high
rainfall. These regions have moist deciduous forest and rainforest. The region shows
high species diversity as well as high levels of endemism. Nearly 77% of the
amphibians and 62% of the reptile species found here are found nowhere else.

The region shows biogeographical affinities to the Malayan region. This region also
shows some faunal similarities with the Madagascan region especially in the reptiles
and amphibians. Examples include the Sibynophis snakes, the Purple Frog and Sri
Lankan lizard genus Nessia which appears similar to the Madagascan genus Acontias.
Numerous floral links to the Madagascan region also exist.
There are over 6000 vascular plants belonging to over 2500 genera in this hotspot, of
which over 3000 are endemic. Much of the world’s spices such as black pepper and
cardamom have their origins in the Western Ghats. The highest concentration of
species in the Western Ghats is believed to be the Agasthyamalai Hills in the extreme
south. The region also harbors over 450 bird species, about 140 mammalian species,
260 reptiles and 175 amphibians. Over 60% of the reptiles and amphibians are
completely endemic to the hotspot, Remarkable as this diversity is, it is severely
threatened today. The vegetation in this hotspot originally extended over 190,000
square kms. Today, it's been reduced to just 43,000 sq. km.

The Eastern Himalayas

The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhutan, north-eastern India, and
southern, central, and eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and shows high
altitudinal variation. Together, the Himalayan mountain system is the world’s highest,
and home to the world’s highest peaks, which include Mount Everest and K2. The
Himalayan system includes over 100 mountains exceeding 7200 metres. Some of the
world’s major river systems arise in the Himalayas, and their combined drainage basin
is home to some 3 billion people (almost half of Earth’s population) in 18 countries.
The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan
peaks are sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism.

Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate
travelling northward at 15cm per year to impact the Eurasian continent, about 40-50
million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted since the lighter rock
of the seabeds of that time were easily uplifted into mountains. An often-cited fact
used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine
limestone. The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has nearly 163 globally threatened species
including the One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), the Wild Asian Water
buffalo (Bubalusbubalis (Arnee) and in all 45 mammals, 50 bird, 17 reptiles, 12
amphibians, 3 invertebrate and 36 plant species.

The region is also home to the Himalayan Newt (Tylototriton verrucosus). There are
an estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalayas, of which one-third are
endemic and found nowhere else in the world. Five families–Tetracentraceae,
Hamamelidaceae, Circa Asteraceae. There are an estimated 10,000 species of plants in
the ​Himalayas​, of which one-third are ​endemic​ and found nowhere else in the world.
Five families - Tetracentraceae, Hamamelidaceae, Circa Asteraceae, Butomaceae and
Stachyuraceae - are completely endemic to this region. Many plant species are found
even in the highest reaches of the Himalayan mountains. For example, a plant species
Ermaniahimalayensis​ was found at an altitude of 6300 metres in northwestern
Himalayas. A few threatened endemic bird species such as the ​Himalayan Quail​,
Cheer pheasant​, ​Western tragopan​ are found here, along with some of Asia's largest
and most endangered birds such as the ​Himalayan vulture​ and ​White-bellied
[27]​
heron​ .

The Himalayas are home to over 300 species of mammals, a dozen of which are
endemic. Mammals like the ​Golden langur​, ​The Himalayan tahr​, ​the pygmy hog​,
Langurs​, ​Asiatic wild dogs​, ​sloth bears​, ​Gaurs​, ​Muntjac​, ​Sambar​, ​Snow leopard​, ​Black
bear​, Blue sheep, ​Takin​, the ​Gangetic dolphin​, ​wild water buffalo​, ​swamp deer​ call the
Himalayan ranged their home. The only endemic genus in the hotspot is the
Namadapha flying squirrel​ which is critically endangered and is described only from a
single specimen from Namdapha National Park.

Threats to Biodiversity:

Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources to be used for the manufacture of food,

medicine, industrial products, etc. But with an increased demand of rapid population
growth and biodiversity is gradually depleting.

The different factors responsible for causing threat to biodiversity are as follows:

1. Habitat destruction:

The primary cause of loss of biodiversity is habitat loss or destruction which is

resulted due to the large industrial and commercial activities associated with
agriculture, irrigation, construction of dams, mining, fishing etc.

2. Habitat fragmentation:

With increased population, the habitats are fragmented into pieces by roads, fields,
canals, power lines, towns etc. The isolated fragment of habitats restricts the potential
of species for dispersal and colonization. In addition, the habitat fragmentation also
brings about microclimatic changes in light, temperature, wind etc.

3. Pollution:

The most dreaded factor inducing loss of biodiversity is environmental pollution

which include air pollution, Water pollution, industrial pollution, pollution due to
chemical Pastes, pesticides, radioactive materials etc.

4. Over exploitation:
The natural resources are over exploited to meet growing rural poverty, intensive
technological growth and globalization of the economy. All these factors together may
be responsible for the extinction of a number of species.

5. Introduction of exotic species:

The introduction of exotic species are due to:

I. Horticulture
II. Agriculture
III. European colonisation and
IV. Accidental transport

It is seen that some exotic species may kill or eat the native species thereby causing its
extinction.

6. Diseases:

Since the animals are more vulnerable to infection, the anthropological activities may
increase the incidence of diseases in wild species, leading to their extinction.

7. Shifting or Jhum cultivation:

The shifting or Jhum cultivation by poor tribal people greatly affects the forest
structure which is a storehouse of biodiversity.

8. Poaching of wildlife:

A number of wildlife species are becoming extinct due to poaching and hunting.

9. Climate change

Human -Wildlife conflict: ​It refers to the interaction between wild animals and
people and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources or wild animals
or their habitat. It occurred throughout the recorded history of man. Eg. predation of
man by saw toothed cats, leopards etc.

Results​: Crop damage, loss of human life, injuries to people, damages to buildings,
injuries to wildlife, animal deaths and livestock depredation (robbery)

Reasons​: Deforestation, loss of habitat, decline in prey, growing human population,

drought, injured animal and old animal

Solutions:​ Electrical fencing, land use planning, avoid stepping out after dark,
compensation, ecotourism, community based natural resource management(
CBNRM), wildlife friendly products, behavioural modifications and other field
solutions.

Conservation of Biodiversity:

Conservation of biodiversity is protection, upliftment and scientific management of

biodiversity so as to maintain it at its threshold level and derive sustainable benefits
for the present and future generation.

Mainly the conservation of biodiversity has three basic objectives:

a. To maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting systems.

b. To preserve the diversity of species.
c. To make sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems.

Strategies for Conservation of Biodiversity:

The following strategies should be undertaken in order to con​serve biodiversity:

1. All the possible varieties (old or new) of food, forage and timber
plants, livestock, agriculture animals and microbes should be
conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms in protected areas should be
identified and conserved.
3. Critical habitats for each species should be identified and safeguarded.
4. Priority should be given to preserve unique ecosystems.
5. There should be sustainable utilisation of resources.
6. International trade in wild life should be highly regulated.
7. The poaching and hunting of wildlife should be prevented as far as
practicable.
8. Care should be taken for the development of reserves and protected
areas.
9. Efforts should be made to reduce the level of pollutants in the
environment.
10. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity and its
importance for the living organisms.
11. Priority should be given in wildlife conservation programmes to
endangered species over vulnerable species and to vulnerable species
over rare species.
12. The habitats of migratory birds should be protected by bilateral and
multilateral agreement.
13. The over exploitation of useful products of wild life should be
prevented.
 14. The useful animals, plants and their wild relatives should be protected
both in their natural habitat (in-situ) and in zoological botanical
gardens (ex-situ)
15. Efforts should be made for setting up of National parks and wildlife
sanctuaries to safeguard the genetic diversity and their continuing
evolution.
16. Environmental laws should be strictly followed.

Different mechanisms involved in the conservation of biodiversity is shown in Fig.

Conservation Methods:

There are two types of conservation methods namely in-situ and ex-situ conservations.

(a) In situ conservation:

The conservation of species in their natural habitat or natural ecosystem is known as

in situ conservation. In the process, the natural surrounding or ecosystem is protected
and maintained so that all the constituent species (known or unknown) are conserved
and benefited.

The different advantages of in situ conservation are as follows:

a. If it is a cheap and convenient way of conserving biological diversity.

b. It offers a way to preserve a large number of organisms simultaneously,
known or unknown to us.
 c. The existence in the natural ecosystem provides opportunity to the
living organisms to adjust to different environmental conditions and to
evolve into a better life form.

The only disadvantage of in situ conservation is that it requires large space of earth
which is often difficult.

1. Protected areas:

The protected areas are biogeographical areas where biological diversity along with
natural and cultural resources are protected, maintained and managed through legal
and administrative measures. In these areas, hunting, firewood collection, timber
harvesting etc. are prohibited so that the wild plants and animals can grow and
multiply freely without any hindrance. Some protected areas are: Cold desert (Ladakh
and Spiti), Hot desert (Thar), Saline Swampy area (Sunderban and Rann of Kutch).
There are 37,000 protected areas throughout the world. As per World Conservation
Monitoring Centre, India has 581 protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries.

2. National parks:

These are the small reserves meant for the protection of wildlife and their natural
habitats. These are maintained by the government. The activities like grazing forestry,
cultivation and habitat manipulation are not permitted in these areas. There are about
89 national parks in India.

Some important national Parks of India are:

1. Bandipur national park, Karnataka.

2. Keibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur

3. Sanctuaries:

These are the areas where only wild animals (fauna) are present. The activities like
harvesting of timbers, collection of forest products, cultivation of lands etc. are
permitted as long as these do not interfere with the project.

Some important sanctuaries of Orissa are as follows:

a. Simlipal Tiger Reserve

b. Chilika (Nalaban) Sanctuary

4. Biosphere reserves:

Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose protected areas with

boundaries circumscribed by legislation. The main aim of biosphere reserve is to
preserve genetic diversity in representative ecosystems by protecting wild animals,
traditional lifestyle of inhabitant and domesticated plant/ animal genetic resources.
These are scientifically managed and linked through a global network allowing only
the tourists to visit.

Some importance of biosphere reserves are as follows:

a. These help in the restoration of a degraded ecosystem.

b. The main role of these reserves is to preserve genetic resources,
species, ecosystems, and habitats without disturbing the habitants.
c. These maintain cultural, social and ecologically sustainable economic
developments.
d. These support education and research in various ecological aspects,
The biosphere reserve network was intro​duced by UNESCO 1971.

Ex-situ conservation:

Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plants and

animals under partial or wholly control​led conditions in specific areas like zoo’s,
garden’s, nurseries etc. That is, the conservation of selected plants and animals in
se​lected areas outside their natural habitat is known as ex-situ con​servation.

Some important areas under these conservation are:

I. Seed gene bank

II. Field gene bank
III. Botanical gardens​;
IV. Zoos.

The strategies for ex-situ conservations are:

I. Identification of species to be conserved.

II. Adoption of Different ex-situ methods of conservation.
III. ​Long-term captive breeding and propagation for the species which

have lost their habitats permanently.

IV. Short-term propagation and release of the animals in their natural
habitat
V. Animal translocation
VI. Animal reintroduction
VII. Advanced technology in the service of endangered species.

The different advantages of ex-situ conservation are:

a. It gives longer life time and breeding activity to animals.

b. Genetic techniques can be utilised in the process.
 c. Captivity breed species can again be reintroduced in the wild.

Some disadvantages of this method are:

a. The favourable conditions may not be maintained always.

b. New life forms cannot evolve.
c. This technique involves only a few species.

S.No Category Enlisted species Highly Endangered

species

1 Higher plants 15,000 135

2 Mammals 372 69

3 Reptiles and amphibians 580 22

4 Birds 1175 40

5 Fishes 1693 —