Growth and Change

Vol. 32 (Winter 2001), pp. 110-134

Evolutionary Economic Theories of Sustainable

Development
PETER MULDER AND JEROEN C.J.M. VAN DEN BERGH

ABSTRACT Sustainable development has become the dominant concept in the

study of interactions between the economy and the biophysical environment, as well
as a generally accepted goal of environmental policy. So far, economists have
predominantly applied standard or neo-classical theory to environmental economic
problems. In this article it will be argued that to fully understand a transformation of
the economic system towards sustainability, standard environmental economics needs
to be complemented by an evolutionary approach, that focuses the attention on
irreversible, path-dependent change and long-run mutual selection of environmental
and economic processes and systems. The article provides an overview of the main
existing evolutionary contributions to environmental economics. Furthermore, a
number of research directions of an evolutionary approach in environmental
economics are discussed. It is suggested that such an approach should go beyond
evolutionary theories of technical change, which dominate evolutionary economics so
far, by including co-evolution of economy and environment, sustainable
consumption, endogenous preference change, and climate change modeling.

Introduction
he last decades have shown an increasing and world-wide interest in the
T goal of sustainable development. This can be interpreted as economic
development that is consistent with long-term stable environmental quality and
resource availability. The attention devoted by economists to the interaction
between the economy and the biophysical environment can be traced back to the
th
18 century. In focusing on the availability of agricultural products and
agricultural land, Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo formulated for the first
time a concept of ‘limits to growth’. In line with this, John Stuart Mill
introduced the concept of a ‘stationary state economy’, referring to an economic
development without (physical) growth. In post-classical economics the
biophysical world moved to the background, although it did not disappear
completely. The natural environment was analyzed from the perspective of

Peter Mulder is a doctoral student in economics at the Institute for

Environmental Studies, and Jeroen C.J.M. van den Bergh is a professor of
environmental economics, at the Free University of Amsterdam, The
Netherlands.

Submitted Sep. 1999, revised Mar. 2000.

© 2001 Gatton College of Business and Economics, University of Kentucky.
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 350 Main Street, Malden MA 02148 US,
and 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF, UK.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 111

optimal depletion of natural resource stocks (Hotelling 1931) and optimal policy
in the context of externalities caused by urban pollution (Pigou 1920).
A growing awareness of the extent and potential implications of
environmental pollution and degradation during the sixties stimulated the
development of new areas of research, including environmental science and
environmental economics. The classic article ‘The Economics of the Coming
Spaceship Earth’ by Kenneth Boulding (1966) was one of the first
manifestations of such an awareness in economics. The report ‘Limits to
Growth’ to the Club of Rome (Meadows et al. 1972), in which the echo of
Malthus could be heard, acted as a catalyst for environmental awareness in
society as a whole and the scientific community in particular.
Since it was launched by the World Commission on Environment and
Development (1987) sustainable development has over a quite short period of
time become the dominant concept in the study of interactions between the
economy and the biophysical environment, as well as a generally accepted goal
of environmental policy. Although there has been, and still is, debate on the
precise definition of the concept of sustainable development (see van den Bergh
and Hofkes 1998) a broad consensus exists that it means that economic activities
should be consistent with: sustainable use of renewable natural resources,
protection of ecosystem features and functions, preservation of biological
diversity, a level of harmful emissions remaining below critical (assimilative)
thresholds, and avoidance of irreversible damage to the environment and nature
(see Daly 1990). Non-renewable resources pose some difficulties in the context
of sustainable development. One can choose to reduce their use as much as
possible, oriented towards a long-run goal of being completely independent of
them. This can be based on investments in renewable alternatives (depending on
the potential uses, e.g., supplying energy or materials) and technological
progress in general (materials and energy efficiency increases in production and
consumption).
It has been argued that a transformation of the present economic system
towards a sustainable economic system requires new policies, institutions, and
mechanisms (Opschoor 1992). It can be argued that major shifts in economic
structure involve uncertain and irreversible changes, selection of existing
alternatives, learning, errors in decision-making, and a persistent economic
disequilibrium. So far, economists have predominantly applied standard or neo-
classical theory to environmental economic problems. This includes externality
or welfare theory, with an emphasis on optimal choice of policy instruments
(Baumol and Oates 1988), and (exogenous or endogenous) growth theory, with
an emphasis on deterministic dynamic optimization models with reversible
processes and continuous equilibrium (e.g. Hartwick 1977; Pezzey 1989; Gradus
and Smulders 1993; Toman et al. 1995).
112 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

In this article it will be argued that to understand fully a transformation of

the economic system towards sustainability, standard environmental economics
needs to be complemented by an evolutionary approach, that focuses the
attention on irreversible, path-dependent change, and long-run mutual selection
of environmental and economic processes and systems. Understanding of the
latter is essential to study sustainable (and unsustainable) development. It
requires that the time horizon of the analyses is extended beyond decades and
even centuries. It will be suggested that such an approach should go beyond
evolutionary theories of technical change, which dominate evolutionary
economics so far. The attention should be broadened to include, among others,
management of environmental systems that are subject to (natural) selection and
evolution, co-evolution of economic and environmental systems, changing
economic structure and self-organization, and endogenous change of
preferences. Only then is it possible to address real dynamic features of long-run
sustainable development.
Neo-classical Environmental Economics and Sustainable
Development
In mainstream environmental economic analysis the emphasis is on relative
scarcity, allocation of scarce resources, and optimal welfare. The neo-classical
interpretation of environmental degradation as an allocation problem has
dominated environmental economics for over two decades now. It is reflected in
an emphasis on optimal welfare and externalities, optimal (intertemporal)
allocation of natural resources, and optimal growth as a mix of intertemporal
resource allocation and investment in capital. This means that environmental
1
problems are mainly studied in the context of externalities and market
equilibrium. Much attention is devoted to the question how a social optimum
can be realized in a market economy with externalities. Neo-classical
(environmental) economics, however, seems to be not always the most well
equipped approach to address the study of development paths towards a
sustainable economy. The main reason is that it focuses the attention on
comparing different equilibria, usually in a comparative static framework. Neo-
classical equilibrium analysis is generally weak in providing significant
information about transition paths, i.e. feasible changes from one equilibrium to
another. But such transition paths are essential to the study of sustainable
development, given that the present economy is far from a sustainable state. It
should also be noted that a focus on optimal externalities in environmental
economics is not necessarily in agreement with sustainable development. This
depends especially on whether externalities include also impacts of present
decisions on future generations.
Much effort has been put in the study of instruments for environmental
policy. Also here the comparative static approach has dominated. The main
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 113

distinction is between command-and-control measures on the one hand and

market-based instruments on the other hand (Baumol and Oates 1988; Opschoor
et al. 1994; Sterner 1994). The first refers to a direct intervention by the
government into the economic process, for example, through the implementation
of (uniform) standards on technology, emissions, or inputs, or via quota on
outputs. Market-based instruments include policy approaches in which the costs
and benefits of individual agents are directly influenced, such as via charges,
taxes, subsidies, or tradable permits.
The use of market-based instruments like charges and taxes requires
information about the monetary value of externalities in order to provide a rough
measure of environmental charge and tax levels. Ideally, the optimal levels are
calculated from the hypothetical optimal equilibrium. This requires (partial or
general) equilibrium analysis. Monetary valuation is one of the cornerstones of
environmental economics. It includes two main approaches (Freeman 1993;
Hanley and Spash 1993). The first is based on the notion of revealed
preferences. Here the value of an environmental good or service (e.g. air quality)
is derived from the impact it has on the prices of goods that are traded on
markets (e.g. houses). The other approach is based on stated preferences, and
uses questionnaires to elicit individual willingness to pay (or accept
compensation) for certain environmental changes. Contingent valuation is a
well-known example of the latter approach. Although it has both received
extensive criticism it has given rise to many applications of economic valuation.
Since its early development, environmental economics has paid a great deal
of attention to the environment-growth debate (van den Bergh and de Mooij
1999). Although this debate is still unresolved, the concept of sustainable
development seems to have eased the frictions between growth optimists and
pessimists. In neo-classical growth theory sustainable development has quickly
been equated to ‘sustainable growth’. A central feature of the (long-run) growth
models that are used to identify sustainable growth paths is the possibility of
substitution between natural and human capital. Already in the seventies growth
theory was applied to resource and pollution issues (Kamien and Schwarz 1982).
In addition to ‘old’ growth theory, a recent wave of ‘new’ or endogenous growth
theory has occurred (after Lucas 1988; Romer 1986, 1990) in which the
innovation and diffusion of technological change is explicitly modeled as a
driving force for economic growth. With respect to sustainable development,
endogenous growth theory focuses on the contribution of technological
innovation to the conditions under which economic growth can be sustained by
resources and the environment (see e.g. Aghion and Howitt 1998:Ch5; Smulders
1995). A dominant insight about sustainable growth goes back to Hartwick
(1977) who showed that under certain conditions investment of the net proceeds
of resource extraction in economic capital can result in a constant level of
consumption over time (see also Solow 1986). Such a scenario can be realized
114 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

by taxing the profits of resource extraction and using the tax revenues for
investment purposes. This depends on a strong belief in substitutability of
natural by economic capital, which is often referred to as “weak sustainability”.
This is opposed to “strong sustainability,” under which natural capital cannot be
substituted but has to be maintained independently.
Neo-classical growth theory has recently been ‘applied’ in the economic
analysis of climate change. This is part of a broader field that is known as
‘integrated assessment,’ where integration of different sciences and models is a
central issue of research (Bruce et al. 1996; Parry and Carter 1998; Rotmans and
Dowlatabadi 1998). The emphasis in integrated environmental assessment
studies lies on scenario-building and modeling exercises. The purist’s economic
view within integrated assessment is based on neo-classical economics, in
particular growth theory (Nordhaus 1994). The basic idea is to include both
costs and benefits from climate change into an intertemporal social utility
function. Much attention is devoted to analyzing optimal policy paths to reduce
the emission of greenhouse gases (Nordhaus 1991; Tol 1998; Wigley et al.
1996). Among the main features of these models are constant returns to scale,
the relatively minor attention devoted to irreversibility in climate change and
exogenously determined development of population size and technology.

The Relevance of an Evolutionary Approach for Environ-

mental Economics
The reason for adopting an evolutionary approach in environmental
economics stems basically from some key elements of the concept “sustainable
development.” It is generally agreed upon that sustainable development is a
process of change that includes not only quantitative but also qualitative aspects
of change, a long-term horizon, and a mutual dependence of environmental
quality and resource availability on the one hand and economic development on
the other hand. Furthermore, it is evident that technological development and
institutional aspects play a major role in the process of transforming the
economic system towards sustainability (see World Commission on Economics
and Development 1987). These are exactly the elements that can be considered
as the building blocks of evolutionary economics (Dosi et al. 1988; Hodgson
1993; Nelson and Winter 1982; Nelson 1995).
The conceptual affinity between evolutionary and environmental economics
(see also Erdmann 1993) comes forward in the most elementary definition of
evolution as ‘change’ (Faber and Proops 1990), resulting in the elementary
definition of evolutionary economics as a theory of economic change (Nelson
and Winter 1982). If ecological sustainability in the long run is taken as a
criterion for equilibrium (steady state) in the relationship between the
environment and the economic system (Ayres 1994), environmental economics
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 115

ideally should be characterized by studying the disequilibrium process of

transition to such a steady state. At a more fundamental level it can be argued
that, compared with neo-classical economics, the evolutionary paradigm pays
more attention to long run economic developments (Faber and Proops 1990).
Moreover, evolutionary economists pretend to include explicitly qualitative
aspects of change in the analysis (Hodgson 1993: 23), whereas in the neo-
classical tradition the emphasis is on quantitative (marginal) changes.
Concerning the mutual dependence of the economic system and the
environment, it can be argued that whereas in mainstream economics the
economic system traditionally is depicted as a closed system (‘circular flow’), in
the evolutionary tradition the economic system is considered as an open system,
relying upon trade of matter and energy with the rest of the (economic and
natural) world (Georgescu-Roegen 1971), and changing via a process of co-
evolution with the environment (Norgaard 1984). Intuitively, this provides a
better starting point for studying the mutual dependence between economic and
ecological processes oriented towards long-run sustainable development than the
(static or dynamic) neo-classical equilibrium framework. In addition,
institutional aspects of economic processes and economic aspects of
technological change can be studied in the context of sustainable development
using insights from the evolutionary economic tradition (see Nelson 1995).
To be more specific, integrating sustainable development into environmental
economics requires that the latter has to address ‘irreversibility’, ‘uncertainty’,
and (non-linear) ‘dynamic feedback processes’, because these are key
characteristics of the interaction between economic and ecological processes. It
will be argued below that this asks for integrating insights from evolutionary and
self-organization theory into environmental economics.
Obviously, irreversibility is at the heart of environmental economics:
economic activities have caused irreversible environmental damage like the
world-wide depletion of natural resources and the loss of biodiversity. It can be
argued that a mechanical (‘Newtonian’) methodology, designed to analyze
reversible mechanisms, runs up to its limits when applied to these issues
(Georgescu-Roegen 1971, Faber and Proops 1990). An evolutionary framework
in which history matters is needed to deal with certain aspects of sustainable
development.
There exists, in general, no such thing as perfect foresight about the future
relationship between the economy and the environment. Uncertainty prevails
especially with regard to the existence and size of future generations, changing
preferences, technological change, and environmental processes. Uncertain or
unforeseeable changes include: the impact of economic activities on (global)
environmental change; the ecological impacts of environmental changes
(climate change, biodiversity loss); the impact of (global) environmental change
on economic activities, societies, and human health; and ways and means of
116 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

people and societies to mitigate and adapt to (global) environmental change.

These various uncertainties invite a broader approach than the neo-classical one
to study sustainable development.
By defining environmental damage in terms of externalities, traditional
welfare theory needs a marginal value of environmental ‘assets’. However,
uncertainty prevents us from adequately measuring the marginal value of many
environmental components. For instance, the value of a species is a tricky
concept, as the effect of removing a species on the ecosystem and the economic
system depends, among others, on the (cyclical) state of both systems and
unique conditions at the particular time of extinction (Gowdy 1997, van den
Bergh and Gowdy 1998). Often there is no complete or right information
available about these states or conditions. For example, a unique condition may
refer to the existence of a critical or threshold level of environmental quality
(‘carrying capacity’). Below such a level the ecosystem ‘runs down’. Marginal
changes, say harvesting another species, can therefore have non-marginal effects
when exceeding the critical level (Bishop 1978). This makes theoretically
correct marginal valuation impossible. In general it can be argued that the neo-
classical externality approach tends to underestimate the marginal value of
environmental stock by not taking into account unknown threshold effects and
losses (costs) due to decreasing evolutionary potential (biological diversity) and
(unforeseen) changes of complex ecosystem dynamics. Some authors have for
this reason stated that proper pricing of the environment is an illusion and a poor
way to move society towards sustainability (Ayres 1991; Gustafsson 1998;
McDaniel and Gowdy 1998).
The vast uncertainties and the consequent controversies surrounding the
impact of the enhanced greenhouse effect (see e.g. Nordhaus 1994; Wigley et al.
1996) illustrate the importance of coming to grips with uncertainty. Important
questions that can be raised here from an evolutionary perspective refer to the
very possibility of defining optimal policy paths and whether uncertainty can be
2
reduced to stochastic variability (as in Kolstad 1994, 1996) . An evolutionary
framework which attempts to deal with uncertainty, not only in terms of
stochastic variability, but also in terms of non-linearity, self-organization,
emerging novelty, and bounded rationality, can thus provide a valuable
contribution to the economic analysis of sustainable development.
The complex character of environmental change (Holling 1987) calls
attention to the importance of understanding the dynamic feedback processes
between the economic system and its biophysical environment. Integrating
sustainable development in economics requires that economic and ecosystems
are studied neither in isolation nor solely in terms of equilibrium. Although
economic development has long been studied as independent of the biophysical
environment—resulting in depicting the economic system as a ‘circular flow’—
the mutual dependence between economic and ecological processes is broadly
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 117

recognized in neo-classical economics (van den Bergh and Nijkamp 1994;

Hofkes 1996). Nevertheless, the dependence is mainly interpreted and modeled
in a linear, deterministic, and reversible setting. Recently it has been noted that
the interaction between environmental and economic systems can also give rise
to historical, irreversible patterns of change (Gowdy 1994). Furthermore, the
interaction between economic and ecological processes often can be better
characterized by non-linear processes (Allen 1998; Bennett and Chorley 1978).
Within the evolutionary tradition the concept of co-evolution can serve as a
framework to study the interaction between economic and ecological processes,
because of its emphasis on the dynamic feature of the mutual dependence
between economic and ecological processes. Co-evolution has been introduced
into biology as an evolutionary process based on reciprocal responses between two
closely interacting species (Ehrlich and Raven 1964; Baker and Hurd 1968). As a
result, co-evolutionary theories paved the way for a closer connection between two
separate research fields of biology, namely evolutionary biology and ecology (the
study of the relationship between living organisms and their biotic and abiotic
environment). Evolutionary biology in turn became one source of inspiration for
evolutionary economics. Within economics, co-evolution has been introduced in
the sustainability debate by Norgaard (1984, 1985, 1989, 1994).
It should be noted that co-evolution has mainly received attention so far by
economists working within the emerging field of Ecological Economics.
Ecological Economics can be described as the research field that aims to address
the relationship between ecosystems and economic systems, based on a mix of
economic and ecological theories and models (Costanza 1989; Costanza et al.
1997a,b; van den Bergh 1996). “In ecological economics, development is
viewed as an evolutionary process with continuous feedbacks between a
changing economy and the environment” (Klaassen and Opschoor 1991).
Furthermore, Ecological Economics can be characterized by the attention paid to
(non-linear) ecological-economic systems and its emphasis on the irreversible
nature of environmental transformation and degradation, in particular through
the existence of threshold effects and the relevance of the entropy-law to
environment-economy interaction. Moreover, Ecological Economics seems open
to bounded rationality models of individual behavior (van den Bergh et al.
2000). All these features suggest that a stronger link between evolutionary
economics and environmental economics can successfully be established within
the context of Ecological Economics, although, of course, evolutionary
economics bears relevance for the whole field of environmental economics.
By way of summary a schematic illustration of the main interactions
between biology, economics, physics, and their respectively sub-fields is given
in Figure 1. It should be noted that the interactions involve not just use of
analogies but also transferring of methodologies.
118 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

B io lo g y E c o n o m ics P h y sics

m eth o d o lo g y
e co lo g y n e o -c la ssic al n e w to n ian p h y sics,
e co n o m ics a n alo g y m e ch a n ic s

e n v iro n m en tal
m eth o d o lo g y
e co n o m ics
m eth o d o lo g y
c o -e v o lu tio n e co lo g ica l th e rm o d y n am ics
a n alo g y a n alo g y
e co n o m ics

e v o lu tio n a ry m eth o d o lo g y e v o lu tio n a ry m eth o d o lo g y se lf-o rg a n isatio n ,

b io lo g y a n alo g y e co n o m ics a n alo g y d issip ativ e stru c tu res

FIGURE 1. LINKING EVOLUTIONARY ECONOMICS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS: THE MAIN

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE RELEVANT (SUB-) DISCIPLINES

From this figure it is clear that the use of analogies is of cognitive value:
applying a concept in a different scientific discipline than it originally comes
from can be inspiring, it can generate new insights and it can help to structure
scientific results or ideas in a fruitful way (see Hodgson 1993). Of course, a
justified use of analogy-driven concepts is not a matter of just copying but
requires that they meet the particular character of the discipline to which they
are applied. This can be referred to as qualified recapturing.
Of course, the idea of linking evolutionary concepts to environmental
problems is not entirely new. In the next section an overview is given of existing
evolutionary approaches within environmental economics, and their significance
for the study of sustainable development.

Evolutionary Approaches in Environmental Economics:

A Survey
Introduction. The basic idea of an evolutionary approach in environmental
economics is to study economy-environment interactions based on the view that
both economic development and environmental change should be seen as
evolutionary processes (Ayres 1991, 1994; Clark et al. 1995; Faber and Proops
1990; Gowdy 1994; Norgaard 1994). As has been mentioned, this implies that
irreversibility, uncertainty, learning, selection, bounded rationality, errors in
decision-making, and complex system dynamics will be taken into account.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 119

Below some light is cast on the way this has been done so far by providing an
overview of the main existing evolutionary contributions to environmental
economics. These contributions will be discussed along the lines of a
classification reflecting the main fields to which evolutionary approaches have
been applied so far. The distinguished fields overlap somewhat. For this reason
some contributions will be mentioned under different fields.
Integrating the physical environment. The economic system is not isolated
from the physical environment, but is subject to a physical flow or ‘throughput’
(Daly 1992) of materials and energy: from extraction (natural resources) to
restitution (waste). It is here that thermodynamics obviously has some relevance
to environmental economics: the first law of thermodynamics, approximated by
the mass balance concept, can be seen as the theoretical foundation for studying
the physical components involved with economic processes. Originally, mass
balance was studied in the context of a general equilibrium framework (Ayres
and Kneese 1969). Recently the concepts ‘Industrial Metabolism’ (Ayres and
Simonis 1994) and ‘Industrial Ecology’ (Graedel and Allenby 1995; Socolow et
al. 1994) have gained attention as useful frameworks to operationalize mass
balance in applied studies of economic processes.
Although the latter concepts, derived in analogy with ecology, may be
regarded as weakly related to an evolutionary approach (Allen 1994),
thermodynamics did invoke a fundamental evolutionary view on economic
processes through the second law of thermodynamics. The second or entropy
law, which roughly states that physical processes are characterized by an
irreversible loss of useful or concentrated energy, has been introduced in
economic science by Georgescu-Roegen (1966, 1971) and is put to use by
economists in two ways. In the first, primarily identified with the work of
Georgescu-Roegen and Daly, the entropy law exemplifies environmental
degradation. From this point of view environmental degradation is basically an
increase of the stock of high entropy energy and materials resulting from
economically motivated transformations of low entropy materials energy into
high entropy materials and energy. In the second way, the entropy law is taken
to understand the behavior of thermodynamic structures or systems, which are
open to their environment in terms of matter and energy. One can argue that the
economic system is such an open (‘dissipative’) thermodynamic system.
Fundamental insights that have been raised from studying these open structures
or systems is that they are to be found in a situation far from thermodynamic
equilibrium and that they are capable of generating and maintaining a certain
degree of internal order. Therefore, this can be referred to as the theory of self-
organization (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977; Prigogine and Stengers 1984).
The relevance of the second law for environmental economics has been
discussed in, among others, Ayres (1991, 1994, 1998b); Binswanger (1993);
Faber and Proops (1990); Ruth (1995, 1996); and O’Connor (1991). From this
120 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

body of literature it can be concluded that the relevance of the entropy law for
economics in general and environmental economics in particular is
methodologically intertwined with evolutionary and self-organization theory
because the entropy law is a fundamental evolutionary law (Georgescu-Roegen
1966: 67).
Furthermore, the entropy law has, mainly through the work of Georgescu-
Roegen and Daly, been applied to the environment-growth debate. The debate
focused on the question whether or not the entropy law defines absolute limits to
economic growth (for an overview of the central issues in the debate see
Ecological Economics 1997).
Another application of thermodynamics in the field of environmental
economics is given by O’Connor (1993). He provides a production function
model based on the irreversibility implication of the entropy law. Based on an
input-output approach, rather similar to that of Perrings (1987), he models
economy-environment interdependencies focusing on the link between the
material basis of production processes and technological change.
The most concrete contribution to environmental economics based on the
above mentioned issues derived from evolutionary and self-organization theory
is presented in Ayres and Martinas (1995) and Ayres (1998b). They have
developed an exergy-indicator to measure and compare resource inputs and
outputs, including wastes and losses. Exergy is, in fact, the ‘useful’ part of
energy or, to be more precise, the amount of available low-entropy energy. In
other words it is what most people mean when they use the word energy
somewhat carelessly . An exergy indicator calculates the amount of ‘useful’
energy involved with economic processes and may thus be seen as a physical
indicator for the degree of sustainability of economic activities and even as a
factor of production like labor and capital.
Co-evolution of economy and environment. Economic evolution has been
mostly considered as independent of the natural environment, as an autonomous
process. However, recently it has been noted that the interaction between
evolving environmental and economic systems can also give rise to historical,
irreversible patterns of change. This has been coined “co-evolution” (Norgaard
1994; Gowdy 1994). Co-evolution may take the form of economies responding
to resource scarcity, environmental degradation, and environmental regulation.
It emphasizes that technological innovations within the economic system can be
stimulated by environmental and resource characteristics, in time and space.
Even the industrial revolution has been explained from a co-evolutionary
perspective (Wilkinson 1973). The concept of sustainable development can be
immediately linked to this concept of co-evolution, as it describes long-run
development of economies that are restricted in terms of land use, resource use,
pollution, and other types of environmental disturbance.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 121

Co-evolution has become widely accepted in biology, and can be considered

the result of merging (community and population) ecology and evolution.
Interestingly from the perspective of environmental economics, resource
scarcity limits and feedbacks are central elements of both population ecology
and evolutionary biology. Ehrlich and Raven (1964) used the term first,
referring to the evolution of butterflies and plants. In a way, all evolution can be
considered as co-evolution whereby selection pressure does not only result from
the abiotic environment but is also exerted by other living species.
Several authors have argued in favor of applying co-evolution to study
economic systems and their relation to the environment, notably resource based
activities like agriculture (Gowdy 1994; Norgaard 1994:Ch.4), rainforest use
(Norgaard 1994:Ch10) and fisheries (Allen and McGlade 1987). Co-evolution
has also been proposed as a framework for understanding interaction between
management of, and evolution in biological systems (Norgaard 1994:Ch3).
Munro (1997) has developed an economic model on pest control in view of the
spread of resistance as an unintended impact of human activity upon biological
evolution that has economic implications as well. Finally, co-evolution can also
involve the policy or regulatory reactions to environmental change (Hinterberger
1994; Norgaard, 1994). This calls into attention the relevance of different levels
and types of co-evolution, in terms of management of semi-natural systems,
sector developments in relation to natural environments, and structural and
technological innovation in the face of resource scarcity and environmental
degradation. For example, Clark et al. (1995) have developed a spatial model
based on interregional input-output analysis which takes into account a co-
evolutionary relationship between regions, economic sectors, and the
environment. This is done by modeling feedback mechanisms as a function of
the relative attractiveness of different regions in terms of economic activities
and environmental quality.
On the basis of the literature on co-evolutionary theory and history several
policy lessons can be drawn: experimentation should be undertaken cautiously
on a small scale with as much monitoring as possible; experiments with very
long time commitments should be very carefully evaluated; diversity is good,
without it co-evolution may stagnate; additional components to existing
economic systems, such as technologies, institutions, or regulation, may when
favorably selected, exert a large influence in the long run; time delays of effects
of processes may be significant, illustrated by the impact of the industrial
revolution on current CO2 concentration in the atmosphere; and finally, highly
complex networks of locked in interactive subsystems may gradually evolve
over long periods of time, but when additional pressures or selection forces
“unlock” such systems, evolution may be rapid (see Norgaard 1994).
Technological change, resource use, and pollution. Technological
development plays an important role in the context of sustainable development:
122 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

the way in which energy and material are transformed in the economic process
(‘throughput’) depends mainly on the state of technological knowledge. This
implies that technological innovation can change the composition of the material
basis of economic processes
Benhaïm and Schembri (1996), Faber and Proops (1990), Faucheux (1997),
Freeman (1996), Kemp and Soete (1992) and Kemp (1997) have argued that
evolutionary and self-organization theories of technological change are
beneficial to processes of environmental technological change. Their main
argument is that in evolutionary and self-organization models technological and
behavioral diversity, uncertainty, path-dependency, and irreversibility are
elaborated in a more sophisticated and explicit way as is the case in neo-
classical growth models. On the basis of neo-Austrian capital theory Faber and
Proops (1990) have developed an economy-environment model which allows
for endogenous innovation and technical progress. Driven by resource scarcity,
technical change occurs by way of a so-called rolling myopic plan approach,
that is a series of overlapping finite time-horizon plans. This approach is
supposed to reflect limited knowledge about the future and bounded rationality.
Kemp (1997) and Faucheux (1997) have, among others, argued the policy
relevance of developing an evolutionary framework for understanding change in
complex environmental technology systems. Such a framework is thought to be
in line with the literature on technological paradigms, technological regime
(-shifts), technological trajectories or innovation avenues, lock-in and complex
technological systems dynamics (see Arthur 1989; Dosi 1982; Dosi et al. 1988;
Sahal 1985; Saviotti and Metcalfe 1993). It should be noted that these
theoretical notions within the evolutionary tradition may need an additional
interpretation, when applied to theorizing on environmental technological
change. For example, it can be argued that the well-known notion of ‘lock-in’
needs an additional interpretation to the traditional one, when applied in the
context of environmental economics. When talking about environmental
technological change, often the challenge is faced of escaping technological
lock-in to environmentally unsustainable practices and triggering a ‘lock-out’
away from unsustainable systems (see, e.g., Islas 1997; Cowan and Hulten
1996). In other words, the relevant competition processes refer not so much to
(two) similar introduced technologies (as in the Arthur 1989 model) but more to
the relation between an existing (dominant) polluting technology and an
introduced clean technology.
In addition, in Kemp (1996, 1997) and Rip and Kemp (1998) it has been
argued that an evolutionary theoretical framework for understanding
environmental technological change should build upon the idea that ecological
modernization, defined as the replacement of existing trajectories of
consumption and production by more sustainable ones, goes beyond the control
of particular pollutants and eco-efficiency. It requires the development of new
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 123

technology systems (for example in transport, chemical industry, agriculture)

offering substantial environmental improvements. This implies that fruitful
theorizing includes, among others, the notion of technological niche
development and management, sustainable technological regime-shifts, and the
evolution of large technological systems and innovative networks (see Kemp et
al. 1997).
A non-linear model of technological change, based on some elements from
the theory of self-organization, has been formulated in Edenhofer and Jaeger
(1998). Their model is a modified version of the Goodwin-Silverberg model on
growth cycles and ‘creative destruction’ (Silverberg 1984) and employs so-
called replicator equations to derive a selection process in which techniques
expand or contract due to their superior profitability. The basic idea of replicator
3
equations stems from biology where they have been introduced by Fisher
(1930). They can be seen as a formalization of the evolutionary idea of fitness
because they describe the evolution of a population (here: technique) in such a
way that species (here: techniques) with above-average fitness (here:
profitability) will expand in relative importance, those with below-average
fitness will decrease, while the average fitness changes with the relative
population weights. As a result of this evolutionary process long-run
fluctuations in prices, wages, and patterns of output are produced within the
model, basically driven by sustainable technological innovations. These
innovations are triggered by rising energy prices, due to environmental policies
(taxes, energy cap). The model shows that these environmental policies are able
to establish the conditions under which the new (energy efficient) technology is
evolutionary superior.
Economics of climate change. In the economics of climate change
evolutionary contributions are remarkably rare. An example of an approach to
model climate change that is close to the evolutionary tradition is presented in
Janssen (1998) and Janssen and de Vries (1998). These authors use a multi-
agent modeling approach to address the issue of adaptive responses of agents to
climate change in view of different perspectives among the agents on
technological progress, climate sensitivity, the expected damage costs and the
expected mitigation costs. Three such perspectives or worldviews are
considered, namely an individualist, hierarchist, and egalitarian one. The first of
these can be regarded as very optimistic about sustainable growth and the latter
as the most pessimistic. A dynamic economy-energy-climate model is used to
calculate the impacts of decisions by agents who are uniquely linked to their
worldview. It is then possible to see what will happen under the condition that
there is no learning when the worldview is in accordance with reality (“utopia”)
or not (“dystopia”). One step further, the impacts are assessed when there is
(stochastic) adaptive behavior. This is modeled via a genetic algorithm that
changes the distribution of perspectives among the population. Finally, the
124 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

impact of surprises is also examined. It is argued that the results are useful to
understand the role of ignorance, imperfect information, and social dynamics
that determine perspectives on particular environmental policies.
Preferences, consumption, life-styles, and the environment. Changes in
consumption that reduce environmental pressure have so far received relatively
little attention within environmental economics in general and evolutionary
environmental economics in particular. Only a few authors have taken up the
issue of sustainable consumption from an evolutionary perspective. Whereas
within the neo-classical tradition, preferences are in general treated as
4
exogenous or given —and as a result, shifts at the demand side are assumed to
be solely determined by shifts in prices—Norton et al. (1998) criticize the
implicit assumption of consumer sovereignty in the context of sustainable
development. Since the latter needs a long-term perspective it makes no sense to
talk about fixed and given tastes and preferences. Their contribution is a
conceptual one, proposing to develop an evolutionary framework for explaining
5
preference formation, including cultural, social, and psychological factors .
Stern (1997) puts forward the issue of changing preferences for sustainability in
the context of substitution. He argues that complementary to the (limits of)
substitution of production factors sustainable development requires the very
possibility of substitutability in consumption. An important notion here is
‘lexicographic preferences’, which embody a degree of irreversibility as they
reflect that a minimum endowment of environmental goods is necessary to
realize a positive level of utility (Spash and Hanley 1995). It has to be noted that
Stern draws a parallel with the production function literature, suggesting to
endogenize preferences analogous to the endogenization of technology.
Nevertheless, he does not extend this argument in favor of an evolutionary
approach to changing preferences. A broader discussion on behavior and
preferences in the context of environmental policy analysis is provided by van
den Bergh et al. (2000).

Evolutionary Economics, Environmental Economics, and

Sustainable Development: Research Directions
There are a number of issues in the realm of environmental economics that
can be elaborated with the help of theories and models in evolutionary
economics. A few of these will be discussed here with a focus on sustainable
development.
The growth debate. Since the 1960s the relationship between economic
growth and preservation of environmental quality is subject to much
controversy. According to one view, economic growth is a requirement for
preserving environmental quality. The opposite view argues that economic
growth will increase the pressure on the environment and therefore, preserving
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 125

environmental quality requires zero or even negative growth rates. The debate is
concentrated on the following questions (van den Bergh and de Mooij 1999): Is
economic growth desirable? Is economic growth possible? Can economic
growth be controlled or stimulated? Evolutionary economics can contribute to
further understanding of the positions in the growth debate.
It needs no argument that a growing economy has to undergo structural
changes if it wants to meet the conditions for sustainability. An evolutionary
perspective may shed new light on the relationship between sectoral dynamics
and environmental pressure. In line with evolutionary population models in
which evolution is considered simultaneously in the short term (seasonal
fluctuations) and in the long term (structural change) economic models may be
developed that take into account a simultaneous consideration of short and long-
term development (evolution) in the production structure. In such an approach
the question of which sectors or activities will ‘survive’ in view of the need for
sustainability is a matter of long-term evolution.
An important argument supporting the view that economic growth does, in
the long term, not conflict with preserving environmental quality, is the
hypothesis that the relationship between economic growth and environmental
pressure can be characterized in terms of ‘decoupling’ (or ‘delinking’). The
argument stems from empirical research suggesting that environmental quality
declines during early stages of economic development but improves in later
stages (Selden and Song 1994; Shafik and Bandyopadhyay 1992; Panayatou
1993). In other words, the relationship between economic growth and
environmental pressure follows an inverted-U pattern and is therefore called the
Environmental Kuznets-curve (EKC) after the relationship Kuznets (1955)
suggested to exist between income inequality and income per capita. Among the
explanations offered for the existence of the EKC are the hypotheses that
increasing welfare leads to increasing valuation of environmental quality as well
as to increasing availability of environmental beneficial technologies. After the
initial evidence supporting the EKC, recent studies have called the EKC into
serious question (Arrow et al. 1995; de Bruyn and Opschoor 1997; de Bruyn
1999). The latter two studies even argue that the relationship between economic
growth and environmental pressure is not so much characterized by a U-curve
but follows a N-shape pattern, suggesting a ‘re-linking’ of economic growth and
environmental pressure.
The EKC hypothesis motivates further research from an evolutionary
perspective for at least two issues. The first one refers to the argument that
technological development will facilitate a decoupling of economic growth from
environmental pressure. This is the production side of the referred growth
debate. The theoretical concepts from the evolutionary literature on
(environmental) technological change, as discussed in the section on
technological change, resource use, and pollution (p.121) could be developed by
126 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

conducting case studies and developing analytical or simulation models. The

second issue refers to the hypothesis that increasing welfare will shift
preferences in a more ecological sustainable direction, i.e. giving higher value to
the preservation (or restoration) of environmental quality.
Sustainable consumption. Changing current consumption patterns into a
more ecological sustainable direction is not only a matter of developing the right
concepts, but also of asking the right questions. Important questions in view of
the debate on growth versus environment, refer to future consumption patterns
of commodities, food, water, energy, and so on. Will material consumption
continue to grow with increasing levels of income? To answer this question we
need to know more about the development of a ‘consumption culture’ in
developing countries, the way in which additional income will be distributed
among a variety of products and sectors and the existence of ‘rebound’ effects
6
that might compensate for the gains obtained from increasing eco-efficiency.
Furthermore, changing current consumption patterns asks for understanding the
determinants of consumption. This requires going beyond economic instruments
and technological solutions by taking into account social-cultural and
psychological factors as well (Wilhite and Shove 1998). Attention should be
given to the evolution of needs, preferences, and lifestyles when trying to
understand the determinants of consumption behavior (Duchin and Lange 1994;
National Resource Council 1997).
Of course, this is an agenda for multidisciplinary research. However, it also
motivates a potentially fruitful broadening of the existing economic theoretical
framework. Pioneering steps in this direction have been taken by Georgescu-
Roegen (1966), with his work on lexicographic preferences, and Scitovsky
(1976). They have each made an attempt to integrate sociological and (cognitive
and social) psychological concepts into economic theory. It is suggested that
evolutionary economics should build on this work.
Climate change modeling. From an evolutionary point of view, the
interaction between economic processes and climate change seems a perfectly
suitable topic to be studied in terms of two (co-)evolving systems. Such an
approach should be able to integrate uncertainty, irreversibility, and thus path-
dependency into the analysis. These elements are overlooked by many
traditional economic analyses of climate change policy although it has to be
noted that recently attempts have been made to include uncertainty,
irreversibility, and learning in integrated assessment models (Kolstad 1994,
1996; Lempert et al. 1996; Zapert et al. 1998).
In short, it is expected that an evolutionary contribution to this field can be
fruitful through modeling long-run non-linear feedback mechanisms between
economic processes and climate change, uncertainty and lock-in phenomena. The
latter implies the recognition of a possible divergence between rational optimizing
behavior at the micro-level and sub-optimal outcomes at the macro-level.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 127

Policies for sustainable development. One of the most important insights of

evolutionary thinking for policy is that current systems are not necessarily
optimal from an efficiency perspective, even if prices are ‘correct’ from a neo-
classical point of view (i.e. reflect externalities, are based on perfect
competition, etc.). The reason is that systems can be locked-in, that is to say that
they are the (unsustainable) result of unique, historical, path-dependent
processes. From this perspective the problems faced by environmental policy-
making are enormous. Historical developments have created a system that
depends on fossil fuel use, transport over long distances, use of toxic materials,
passenger transport dominated by private car use, etc. Policy suggestions based
on economic equilibrium analysis tend to focus on efficiency, and do not worry
about how to move away (’lock-out’) from a locked-in system. Evolutionary
thinking may add to the understanding of this transition process. This is essential
for environmental economics as the desired changes, in the face of potential
climate change risks, are quite extreme.
A second insight of evolutionary thinking that is directly relevant for
environmental policy-making follows from the non-marginal structure of desired
changes, which makes equilibrium analysis miss out on certain effects of these
changes. For instance, the potential double dividend of environmental tax
revisions—shifting the tax burden from labor to material and energy resource
inputs in production—can be systematically underestimated with equilibrium
analysis. Present inefficient technologies may be locked-in as a result of network
externalities and sunk costs. Well-known examples are systems which require a
significant amount of private and public investment and network support such as
transport and infrastructure, energy generation and provision, and traditional
materials-product connections like metals-cars. Evolutionary thinking may shed
more light on the potential size of the various benefits in terms of extra
employment, less environmental pressure, and more tax revenues of
environmentally motivated tax revisions (Ayres 1998a). This may lead to more
support for such policies.
A third issue that evolutionary economics may address is the long-run
effectiveness and stability of environmental policies. The question here is which
policies, including property rights, standards, taxes, tradable permits, and
voluntary agreements, are least sensitive to various kinds of social, economic,
and environmental change? Changes may cause instruments to become less
effective, less efficient, to have unanticipated effects, etc. In this context a
number of effects need to be considered, such as changing economic sector
structure, changing technology, product innovation, and changing life-styles (see
Ring 1997).
128 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

Conclusions
Although the traditional neo-classical economics approach in environmental
economics has generated many useful insights about environmental policy it
does not offer a complete perspective on needed policy and strategies to realize
a sustainable development. The most simple explanation is that the traditional
insights are essentially static, in the sense that they focus on hypothetical
optimal equilibria without noting transition problems relating to barriers created
by historical lock-in of present systems and technologies. Furthermore, the long-
term impact of proposed “optimal policies” is incomplete as well, since selection
of products, behavior, and production techniques is not addressed. Essentially,
long-term projections are based on models that are usually deterministic, a-
historical, and that lack variation of actors, products, technologies, etc.
Consequently, these models can address neither uncertainty at various
aggregation levels, nor path-dependence and lock-in of systems and
technologies. It has been argued here that a serious interest in studying
sustainable development from an economic perspective requires more than a
neo-classical approach. Evolutionary and co-evolutionary processes at various
levels need to be taken into account.
There are only a few applications of evolutionary thinking and models in
environmental economics. Moreover, there does not seem to be consistency
among different applications. This paper has tried to create some framework for
addressing crucial issues in environmental economics from an evolutionary
perspective. Subsequently, both theoretical modeling and applied modeling are
required.

NOTES
1. Negative externalities or external costs are usually defined as negative - undeliberated
and uncompensated - physical impacts of one economic agent’s actions upon another
agent’s utility or production (costs or benefits). Uncompensated means that they are
outside the realm of the market (see e.g. Baumol and Oates 1988).
2. For a (classical) methodological treatment of this issue see Knight (1921).
3. Sometimes referred to as mathematical predator-prey relations.
4. A notable exception is given in the work of Earl (1983) on endogenizing preferences in
a social context.
5. Although they pretend to give an explanation in their article, in fact they only argue in
favor of such an explanation.
6. Rebound-effects are counter productive effects on the macro, meso, and micro level
due to adaptive behavior on the demand side when new resource-saving technologies
and/or behavioral options are introduced (Hinterberger et al. 1997).
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 129

REFERENCES
Aghion, P., and P. Howitt. 1998. Endogenous growth theory. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Allen, P.M. 1988. Evolution, innovation and economics. In Technical change and
economic theory, edited by G. Dosi et al., 95-119. London and New York: Pinter
Publishers.
———. 1998. Evolutionary complex systems and sustainable development. In Theory
and implementation of economic models for sustainable development, edited by
J.C.J.M. van den Bergh and M.W. Hofkes, 67-99. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Allen, P.M., and J. McGlade. 1987. Modelling complex human systems: A fisheries
example, European Journal of Operational Research 30: 147-167
Arrow, K., B. Bolin, R. Costanza, P. Dasgupta, C. Folke, C.S. Holling, B. Jansson, S.
Levin, K. Maler, C. Perrings, and D. Pimentel. 1995. Economic growth, carrying
capacity, and the environment, Ecological Economics 15: 91-95.
Arthur, W.B. 1989. Competing technologies, increasing returns, and lock-in by
historical events, Economic Journal 99: 116-131.
Ayres, R.U. 1991. Evolutionary economics and environmental imperatives, Structural
Change and Economic Dynamics 2: 255-273.
———. 1994. Information, entropy, and progress. New York: American Institute of
Physics.
———. 1998a. Towards a disequilibrium theory of endogenous economic growth,
Ecological Economics 11: 289-300.
———. 1998b. Eco-thermodynamics: Economics and the second law, Ecological
Economics 26: 189-209.
Ayres, R.U., and A.V. Kneese. 1969. Production, consumption and externalities,
American Economic Review LIX: 282-297.
Ayres, R.U., and K. Martinás. 1995. Waste potential entropy: The ultimate ecotoxic?
Economie Appliquée XLVIII: 95-120.
Ayres, R.U., and U.E. Simonis. 1994. Industrial metabolism. Tokyo: United Nations
University Press.
Baker, H.G. and P.D. Hurd. 1968. Intrafloral ecology, Annual Review of Entomology 13:
385-414.
Baumol, W.J., and W.E. Oates. 1988. The theory of environmental policy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Benhaïm, J., and P. Schembri. 1996. Technical change: An essential variable in the
choice of a sustainable development trajectory. In Models of sustainable
development, edited by S. Faucheux, D. Pearce, and J. Proops, 123-150. Cheltenham,
Brookfield: Edward Elgar.
Bennet, R.J., and R.J. Chorley. 1978. Environmental systems. London: Methuen & Co.
Binswanger, M. 1993. From microscopic to macroscopic theories: Entropic aspects of
ecological and economic processes, Ecological Economics 8: 209-234.
Bishop, R.C. 1978. Endangered species and uncertainty: The economics of a safe
minimum standard, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 60: 10-18.
Boulding, K.E. 1966. The economics of the coming spaceship earth. In Environmental
quality in a growing economy, edited by H. Jarret, 3-14. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Bruce, J.P., H. Lee and E.F. Haites. (Eds.) 1996. Climate change 1995: Economic and
social dimensions of climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Clark, N., F. Perez-Trejo and P. Allen. 1995. Evolutionary dynamics and sustainable
development: A systems approach. Aldershot, UK/ Brookfield, US: Edward Elgar.
130 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

Costanza, R. 1989. What is ecological economics? Ecological Economics 1: 1-7.

Costanza, R, J. Cumberland, H.E. Daly, R. Goodland, and R.B. Norgaard. 1997. An
introduction to ecological economics. Washington DC: Island Press.
Costanza, R, C. Perrings, and C.J. Cleveland. (Editors) 1997. The development of
ecological economics. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Cowan, R. and S. Hulten. 1996. Escaping lock-in: The case of the electric vehicle,
Technological Forecasting and Social change 53: 61-79.
Daly, H.E. 1990. Towards some operational principles of sustainable development,
Ecological Economics 2: 1-6.
———. 1992. Steady-state economics. London: Earthscan.
de Bruyn, S.M. 1999. Economic growth and the environment. An empirical analysis.
Amsterdam: Thela Thesis.
de Bruyn, S.M., and J.B. Opschoor. 1997. Developments in the throughput-income
relationship: Theoretical and empirical observations, Ecological Economics 20: 255-
268.
Dosi, G. 1982. Technological paradigms and technological trajectories, Research Policy
11: 147-162.
Dosi, G., C. Freeman, R. Nelson, G. Silverberg, and L. Soete (eds.). 1988. Technical
change and economic theory. London: Pinter Publishers.
Duchin, F. and G.M. Lange. 1994. The future of the environment. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Earl, P. 1983. The consumer in his/her social setting - a subjectivist view. In Beyond
positive economics? edited by J. Wiseman, 176-191. London/Basingstoke: The
MacMillan Press.
Ecological Economics. 1997. The contribution of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen,
Ecological Economics 22: 261-306.
Edenhofer, O. and C.C. Jaeger. 1998. Power shifts: The dynamics of energy efficiency,
Energy Economics 20: 513-537.
Ehrlich, P.R., and P.H. Raven. 1964. Butterflies and plants: A study of co-evolution,
Evolution 18: 586-608.
Erdmann, G. 1993. Evolutionary economics as an approach to environmental problems.
In Economic progress and environmental concerns, edited by H. Giersch, 65-96.
Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.
Faber, M., and J.L.R. Proops. 1990. Evolution, time, production and the environment.
Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.
Faucheux, S. 1997. Technological change, ecological sustainability and industrial
competitiveness. In Sustainability and global environmental policy: New
perspectives, edited by A.K. Dragun and K.M. Jacobsson, 131-148. Cheltenham UK,
Brookfield US: Edward Elgar.
Fisher, R.A. 1930. The genetic theory of natural selection. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Freeman, A.M. 1993. The measurement of environmental and resource values: Theory
and methods. Baltimore: Resources for the Future.
Freeman, C. 1996. The greening of technology and models of innovation, Technological
Forecasting and Social change 53: 27-39.
Georgescu-Roegen, N. 1966. Analytical economics. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press.
———. 1971. The entropy law and the economic process. Cambridge MA: Harvard
University Press.
Gowdy, J. 1994. Coevolutionary economics: the economy, society and the environment.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 131

———. 1997. The value of biodiversity: Markets, society and ecosystems, Land
Economics 73: 25-41.
Gradus, R., and S. Smulders. 1993. The trade-off between environmental care and long-
term growth: pollution in three proto-type growth models, Journal of Economics 58:
25-51.
Graedel, T.E., and B.R. Allenby. 1995. Industrial ecology. Englewood Cliffs NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Gustafsson, B. 1998. Scope and limits of the market mechanism in environmental
management, Ecological Economics 24: 259-274.
Hanley, H., and C.L. Spash. 1993. Cost-benefit analysis and the environment.
Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
Hartwick, J.M. 1977. Intergenerational equity and the investing of rents from
exhaustible resources, American Economic Review, 67: 972-974.
Hinterberger, F. 1994. Biological, cultural, and economic evolution and the economy/
ecology relationship. In Toward sustainable development: concepts, methods, and
policy, edited by J.C.J.M. van den Bergh and J. van der Straaten: 57-81. Washington
DC: Island Press.
Hinterberger, F., F. Luks, and F. Schmidt-Bleek. 1997. Material flows vs. ‘natural
capital’. What makes an economy sustainable? Ecological Economics 23: 1-14.
Hodgson, G. 1993. Economics and evolution. Cambridge UK: Polity Press.
Hofkes, M.W. 1996. Modelling sustainable development: An economy-ecology
integrated model, Economic Modelling 13: 333-353.
Holling, C.S. 1987. Simplifying the complex: the paradigms of ecological function and
structure, European Journal of Operational Research 30: 139-146.
Hotelling, H. 1931. The economics of exhaustible resources, Journal of Political
Economy 39: 137-175.
Islas, J. 1997. Getting round the lock-in in electricity generating systems: The example
of the gas turbine, Research Policy 26: 49-66.
Janssen, M. 1998. Modelling global change: The art of integrated assessment modelling.
Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Janssen, M., and B. de Vries. 1998. The battle of perspectives: A multi-agent model
with adaptive responses to climate change, Ecological Economics 26: 66
Kamien, M.I. and N.L. Schwartz. 1982. The role of common property resources in
optimal planning models with exhaustible resources. In Explorations in natural
resource economics, edited by V.K. Smith and J.V. Krutilla. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Kemp, R. 1996. The transition from hydrocarbons: The issues for policy. In Models of
sustainable development, edited by S. Faucheux, D. Pearce and J. Proops, 151-175.
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
———. 1997. Environmental policy and technical change. Cheltenham UK: Edward
Elgar.
Kemp, R., and L. Soete. 1992. The greening of technological progress: An evolutionary
perspective, Futures 24: 437-457.
Kemp, R., J. Schot, and R. Hoogma. 1997. Regime shifts to sustainability through
processes of niche formation. The approach of strategic niche management,
Technology Analysis and Strategic Niche Management 10: 175-195.
Klaassen, G.A.J., and J.B. Opschoor. 1991. Economics of sustainability or the
sustainability of economics: Different paradigms, Ecological Economics 4: 93-115.
Knight, F.H. 1921. Risk, uncertainty and profit. Boston: Houghton.
132 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

Kolstad, C.D. 1996. Learning and stock effects in environmental regulation: The case of
greenhouse gas emissions, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
31: 1-18.
———. 1994. George Bush versus Al Gore. Irreversibilities in greenhouse gas
accumulation and emission control investment, Energy Policy 22: 771-778.
Kuznets, S. 1955. Economic growth and income inequality, American Economic Review
49: 1-28.
Lempert, R.J., M.E. Schelsinger and S.C. Bankes. 1996. When we don’t know the costs
or the benefits: Adaptive strategies for abating climate change, Climate Change 33:
235-274.
Lucas, R.E. 1988. On the mechanics of economic development, Journal of Monetary
Economics 22: 3-42.
McDaniel, C.N., and J.M. Gowdy. 1998. Markets and biodiversity loss: Some case
studies and policy considerations, International Journal of Social Economics 25:
1454-1465.
Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W.W. Behrens. 1972. The limits to
growth: A report for the Club of Rome’s project on the predicament of mankind.
London: Earth Island.
Munro, A. 1997. Economics and biological evolution, Environmental and Resource
Economics 9: 429-449.
National Resource Council. 1997. Environmental significant consumption. Washington
DC: National Academy Press.
Nelson, R.R. 1995. Recent evolutionary theorizing about economic change, Journal of
Economic Literature XXXIII: 48-90.
Nelson, R.R., and S.G. Winter. 1982. An evolutionary theory of economic change.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Nicolis, G., and I. Prigogine. 1977. Self-organization in non-equilibrium systems. New
York: Wiley-Interscience.
Nordhaus, W.D. 1991. To slow or not to slow: The economics of the greenhouse effect,
Economic Journal 101: 920-937.
———. 1994. Managing the global commons: The economics of climate change.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
Norgaard, R.B. 1984. Coevolutionary development potential, Land Economics 60: 160-
173.
———. 1985. Environmental economics: An evolutionary critique and a plea for
pluralism, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 12: 382-394.
———. 1989. The case for methodological pluralism, Ecological Economics 1: 37-57.
———. 1994. Development betrayed, the end of progress and a coevolutionary
revisioning of the future. London and New York: Routledge.
Norton, B., R. Costanza, and R.C. Bishop. 1998. The evolution of preferences. Why
‘sovereign’ preferences may not lead to sustainable policies and what to do about it,
Ecological Economics 24: 193-211.
O’Connor, M. 1991. Entropy, structure and organisational change, Ecological
Economics 3: 95-122.
———. 1993. Entropic irreversibility and uncontrolled technological change in
economy and environment, Journal of Evolutionary Economics 3: 285-315.
Opschoor, J.B. 1992. Sustainable development, the economic process and economic
analysis. In Environment, economy and sustainable development, edited by J.B.
Opschoor, 25-52. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 133

Opschoor, J.B., A.F. de Savornin Lohman, and J.B. Vos. 1994. Managing the
environment: The role of economic instruments. Paris: OECD.
Panayotou, T. 1993. Empirical tests and policy analysis of environmental degradation
at different stages of economic development. World Employment Programme
Research Working Paper 1, International Labour Office, Geneva.
Parry, M., and T. Carter. 1998. Climate impact and adaptation assessment . London:
Earthscan.
Perrings, C. 1987. Economy and the environment: A theoretical essay on the
interdependence of economic and environmental systems. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Pezzey, J. 1989. Economic analysis of sustainable growth and sustainable development.
Environmental Department Working Paper No. 15, World Bank, Washington DC.
Pigou, A.C. 1920. The economics of welfare. London: MacMillan.
Prigogine, I., and I. Stengers. 1984. Order out of chaos. New York: Bantam Books.
Ring, I. 1997. Evolutionary strategies in environmental policy, Ecological Economics
23: 237-249.
Rip, A., and R. Kemp. 1998. Technological change. In Human choice and climate
change, Vol 2, resources and technology, edited by S. Rayner and E.L. Malone, 327-
400. Washington DC: Batelle Press.
Romer, P.M. 1986. Increasing returns and long-run growth, Journal of Political
Economy 94: 1002-1037.
———. 1990. Endogenous technological change, Journal of Political Economy 98:
S71-S102
Rotmans, J., and H. Dowlatabadi. 1998. Integrated assessment of climate change:
evaluation of models and other methods. In Human choice and climate change: An
international social science assessment, edited by S. Rayner and E. Malone.
Washington DC: Batelle Press.
Ruth, M. 1995. Thermodynamic constraints on optimal depletion of copper and
aluminum in the United States: A dynamic model of substitution and technical
change, Ecological Economics 15: 197-213.
———. 1996. Evolutionary economics at the crossroads of biology and physics,
Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems 19: 125-144.
Sahal, D. 1985. Technological guideposts and innovation avenues, Research Policy 14:
61-82.
Saviotti, P., and S. Metcalfe. 1993. Evolutionary theories of economic and technological
change. Reading: Harwood Academic Publishers.
Scitovsky, T. 1976. The joyless economy: The psychology of human satisfaction. New
York: Oxford.
Selden, T.M., and D. Song. 1994. Environmental quality and development: Is there a
Kuznets curve for air pollution emissions?, Journal of Environmental Economics and
Management 147-162.
Shafik, N., and S. Bandyopadhyay. 1992. Economic growth and environmental quality:
Time series and cross-country evidence. Background paper to the World
Development Report 1992. Washington DC: The World Bank.
Silverberg, G. 1984. Embodied technical progress in a dynamic economic model: The
self-organization paradigm. In Nonlinear models of fluctuating growth, edited by
R.M. Goodwin, M. Krüger and A. Vercelli, 192-208. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Smulders, S. 1995. Environmental policy and sustainable economic growth. An
endogenous growth perspective, De Economist 143: 163-195.
134 GROWTH AND CHANGE, WINTER 2001

Socolow, R., C. Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas. 1994. Industrial ecology and
global change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Solow, R.M. 1986. On the intergenerational allocation of natural resources,
Scandinavian Journal of Economics 88: 141-149.
Spash, C.L., and N.D. Hanley. 1995. Preferences, information, and biodiversity
preservation, Ecological Economics 12: 191-208.
Stern, D.I. 1997. Limits to substitution and irreversibility in production and
consumption: A neoclassical interpretation of ecological economics, Ecological
Economics 21: 197-215.
Sterner, T. (Editor) 1994. Economic policies for sustainable development. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tol, R.S.J. 1998. Economic aspects of global environmental models. In Theory and
implementation of economic models for sustainable development, edited by J.C.J.M.
van den Bergh and M.W. Hofkes, 277-286. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Toman, M.A., J. Pezzey, and J. Krautkraemer. 1995. Neoclassical economic growth
theory and “sustainability”. In Handbook of environmental economics, edited by
D.W. Bromley, 139-165. Oxford: Blackwell.
van den Bergh, J.C.J.M. 1996. Ecological economics and sustainable development.
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., and R.A. de Mooij. 1999. An assessment of the growth debate.
In Handbook of environmental and resource economics, edited by J.C.J.M. van den
Bergh, 643-655. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., A. Ferrer-I-Carbonell, and G. Munda. 2000. Alternative
models of individual behaviour and implications for environmental policy,
Ecological Economics 32: 43-61.
van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., and J.M. Gowdy. 2000. Evolutionary theories in
environmental and resource economics: Approaches and applications. Environmental
and Resource Economics 17: 37-57.
van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., and M.W. Hofkes. 1998. A survey of economic modelling of
sustainable development. In Theory and implementation of economic models for
sustainable development, edited by J.C.J.M. van den Bergh and M.W. Hofkes, 11-38.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., and P. Nijkamp. 1994. Dynamic macro modelling and
materials balance: Economic-environmental integration for sustainable development,
Economic Modelling 11: 283-307.
World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our common future.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wigley, T.M.L., R.G. Richels, and J.A. Edmonds. 1996. Economic and environmental
choices in the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 concentration, Nature 379: 240-243.
Wilhite, H., and E. Shove. 1998. Understanding energy consumption: Beyond
technology and economics. Paper presented to the 2nd International Conference of
the European Society for Ecological Economics, Switzerland, March 4-6.
Wilkinson, R. 1973. Poverty and progress. London: Methuen & Co.
Zapert, R., P.S. Gaertner, and J.A. Filar. 1998. Uncertainty propagation within an
integrated model of climate change, Energy Economics 20: 571-598.